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Design of Piping Systems

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 Design of Piping Systems

Pullman Power Products

A Wheelabrator-Frye Company

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Revised Second Edition

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A WILEY-INTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION

JOHN WILEY & SONS

New York Chichester Brisbane Toronto
 Copyr;ght@) 1941, 1956

by

The M. W. Kellogg Company

AU Rights Reserved

Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond

that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States
Copyright Act without the p_ermission of the copyright owner
is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information
should be addressed to the Permissions Oepartment, John
Wiley & Sons, lnc.

Revised Second Edition

20 19 18 17 16 15 14

Nothing contained in Design of Piping Systems is to be construed

as granting a.ny right of manufacture, sale or use in connection
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with any method, apparatus or product covered by Letters
Patent, nor as insuring anyone against liability for infringement
of Letters Patent.

ISBN O 4 71 46795 2

Library of Congress Catalog Card ~umber: 56-5573

Printed in the United States of America

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 Preface

A volume bearing the title Design of Piping Systems, devoted solely to the study
of expansion stresses and reactions in piping systems, was privately published by
The M. W. Kellogg Company early in 1941. It made available for the first time
an adequately organized, comprehensive analytical method for evaluating the
stresses, reactions, and deflections in an irregular piping system in space, unlimited
as to the character, Iocation, or number of concentrated loadings or restraints.
It was the culmination of an intensive, widespread effort to meet the recoguized
need for refined analysis capable of general application to the increasing number
of critica! piping services required by tecbnological progress, and to the increasingly
severe problems which they posed. The timely availability of this reliable and
versatile approach, now widely known as the Kellogg General Analytical Method,
made it possible to provide satisfactory desigu for the avalanche of critica] and
pioneering piping requirements associated with World War II plant desigu, and
proved to be a major step in accelerating acquaintance 'with accurate thermal
'
expansion analysis and appreciation of its potentialities for more extensive applica-
tion.
Since the war, tecbnological progress and the trend to larger scale, more complex
units has continued unabated, while the attendant increased pressures, tempera-
tures, and structural complexities have resulted in larger pipe sizes, heavier wall
thicknesses, and a marked increase in alloy construction. Concurrently, the
wartime-fostered universal acceptance of adequate piping flexibility analysis for
critica! service has paved the way for more searching examination of the over-all
economics of erected piping by relating potential fabrication, materials, and
operating savings to increased engineering costs. Earlier concepts, which regarded
piping as trivial and expendable, are fast disappearing in view of the rising costs
. ' of field corrections and Ioss of plant operation - and also with the recognition
that piping represents an increasing percentage of initial plant expenditnre.
The importance of sound piping design is now well recognized not only by
.. designers and users, but also by authorities concerned with public safety. The
Code for Pressure Piping Committee (ASA B31.1) has increased its membership
and activity over the past severa] years and a Conference Committee has been
organized, composed of the chief enforcement authorities of each State or Province
that has adopted a portian or al! of the Code. Significant improvements in the
rules have already resulted in the revised mnimum (and now mandatory) require-
ments for piping flexibility. With this trend, the ASA Code is now rapidly assuming
the status of a mandatory Safety Code, whereas previously it had served designers
and users primarily as a recommended design practice guide.
The critica! shortage of engineering personnel during W orld War II prevented
the completion of sections on other aspects of piping design that had been planned
for inclusion in the original edition of Design of Piping Systems. AY, the shortage
persisted, considerable time elapsed before resumption of work could be considered.
Meanwhile, many requests for extension and suggestions for improvement were
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vi PREFACE

received from readers of the text already published. Review of these and other
developments in light of extended experience led to the conclusion that a new
edition was warranted. As the work got under way, it was soon evident that
broadening of the subject matter would have to be limited to treatment of the
structural phase of piping design; coverage of the entire field, including fluid flow,
system design and layout, valve design, piping fabrication and erection, etc., would
require much more than the desired single volume.
It is the objective of this Second Edition to supplement Code rules and other
readily available information with specific mechanical design approaches for entire
piping systems as well as their individual components and to provide background
information which will engender understanding, competent application of analytical
results, and the exercise of good judgment in handling the many special situations
which must be faced on critica! piping. In line with this objective, the opening
chapter presents a condensed treatise on the physics of materials. It is followed
by a comprehensive study of the capacity of piping to carry various prescrihed
loadings. The utilization of materials is then considenod, not only in relation to
fundamental knowledge but also on thebs.sis of conventionally accepted practices.
The present edition also includes a greatly augmented treatment of local flexibility
and stress intensification, anda chapter on simplified methods of flexibility analysis
contains severa! newly developed approaches which should prove helpful for general
assessment of average piping, or in the planning stage of the design of critica! piping.
The Kellogg General Analytical Method, now extended to include al! forms of
loading, has been improved in presentation by the use of numerous sample calcula-
tions to illustrate application procedures, and by placing the derivations of the
formulas in an appendix. Included in this edition are chapters on expansion joints
and on pipe supports that offer, it is believed, the first broad treatment of these
items with regard to critica! pipiug. The rising significance of vibration, both
structural and fluid, is recognized in the final chapter, which was also prepared
especially for this edition. For ready accessibility of information, the charts and
tables most frequently needed for reference have been grouped at the end of the
text, and a detailed subject index has been provided.

THE M. w. KELLOGG COMPANY '1.

1
The M. W. Kellogg Company became a subsidiary ofPullman Incorporated in 1944,
and in 1975 was re-named Pullman Kellogg. In 1977, the Power Piping, Chimney
and Mechanical Construction Operations of Pullman Kellogg became the Pullman
Power Products division of Pullman Incorporated.
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Acknowledgments
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This, volume is based on the broad experience, background, and mechanical

engineering accomplishment of The M. W. Kellogg Company in the field of piping
design. It reflecta the numerous achievements and contributions of the Company
to effective piping design for high temperature and pressure service. As with the
First Edition, the preparation of this book has been sponsored by the Fabricated
Products Division of which Waldo McC. McKee is Sales Manager. This work
could be brought to realization only through the cooperation of the entire engineer-
ing staff of the Company and, in particular, of the Piping Division.
Certain individal contributions deserve specific acknowledgment. H. Wallstrom
provided the major original contributions to the Kellogg General Analytical Method
and its extensions (Chapter 5 and Appendix A). He was ably assisted in this work
by Mrs. Catherine R. Gardiner.
Professor E. Orowan of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, retained
consultant of The M. W. Kellogg Company, is responsible for the contenta of
Chapter l.
J. J. Murphy and N. A. Weil collaborated in composing Chapters 2 and 3 and
assisted in the preparation of Chapters 1 and 7. Chapter 4 is the result of a coopera-
'r-<
- J. tive effort between H. Wallstrom and N. A. Weil; L. C. Andrews is credited with the
writing of Chapter 6.
Credit for the most significant contributions to Chapters 7 and 8 is due to
'.1
E. F. Sheaffer. M. Yachter, assisted by S. Meerbaum, prepared Chapter 9 and
Appendix B.
In addition to credits for Chapters, the following special contributions are
acknowledged. J. J. Rush and M. Hartstein developed The Guided Cantilever
. j;
Method of Chapter 4. L. Morrison contributed to the general phases of piping
design. Valuable suggestions were supplied by M. G. Schar on Chapter 8 and by
S. Chesler on Chapter 9. Credit is dueto J. T. McKeon for his notable comments
and assistance in reviewing and proof-reading this volume. L. Mylander is to be
commended for co-ordinating portions of this work.
The task of assembling and editing the Second Edition was carried out by
E. F. Sheaffer. N. A. Weil performed the review and inserted corrections for the
second printing of this Edition. The entire project has been under the direction of
D. B. Rossheim, who has guided the design principies and philosophies embodied
in this work.
As is the case with most advances in the engineering art, the First Edition and
this significantly extended Second Edition of Design of Piping Systems have greatly
benefited from the research and contributions of other investigators. Their many
valuable contributions are covered in the lists of references at the ends of the varions
chapters and in the "Historical Review of Bibliography" of Appendix A.

R. B. SMrrn
V ice-Preside:nt, Engineering
The M. W. Kelkgg C<n~~pany
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 In Memory of
DAVID B. ROSSHE!llf
In all of his career, Mr. Rossheim's abiJity,
dedication S.nd friendliness were an inspiration
to his associates and won for him everyone's
affection and respect.

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 Contents

Nomenclat:ure xi 2.4 Stress Evaluation 43

a. Interna.l Pressure up to 3000 psi Maximum,
43; b. Internal Pressure over 3000 psi, 44;
c. Externa} Preseures, 46; d. Expansion, 47
Chapter 1 e. Other Loa.ding, 47.
Strength and FaHure o Materials 1 2.5 Combination of Stress: Stress Intenaification tmd
1.1 Stable and Unstable Deformationa 1 F!exibility Factors 47
1.2 Plasticity 2 2.6 Evaluation of Deflections and Reactions 48
A. Plastic Deformation under Uniaxial Stress, 2.7 Design Signicance of lnspection and Tests 50
2; B.-Tria.xial Stress: Yield Conditions; 3;
C. Plastic Stress-strain Relationships for Tri-
_j
axial Stress, 4.
1.3 Failure by P!astic Instability 5 Chapter 3
A. Instability of Plastic Extension: the illti-
mate Tensile Strength, 5; B. Instability of the Local Components 52
Plastic Expansion of Tubes, VesselB, and 3.1 PipeBenda:Structura!Loading(StaticandCyclic) 52
Platee, 6; C. illtimate Stress and Working 3.2 Pipe Bends: Interna} Pressure 60
Stress, 7.
3.3 Miter Bends 60
1.4 Creep 8
A. The Andrade Analysis of the Creep Curve, 3.4 Benda and Miters: Summary 61
8; B. Traruent Creep, 9; C. Viscous Creep, 3.5 Branch Connections: Static Pressure Loading 62
10; D. CreepunderTriaxia!Stress,ll; E. The 3.6 Branch Connectons: Repeated Loading 66
Mech.a.n.ism of Creep, 11; F. Evalu.ation and
Engineering Use of Creep Tests, 12; G. Creep 3.7 Branch Connections: Comparison 'With Code Re-
Fracture, 13. quirements 67

1.5 Types of Fracture; Molecular Cohesion; the 3.8 Branch Connections: Pra.ctical Considerations and
Griflitb Theory 13 Summary 69
1.6 Ductile Fractures 15 3.9 Corrugated Pipe 70
1.7 The Brittle Fracture of Steel ("Notch Brittle- 3.10 Bolted Flanged Connections: Genera! Background 74
ness") 16 3.11 Bolted Flanged Connections: Practiea.l Consider~
1.8 Fatigue 20 tions 77
A. General Features, 20; B. The Mecha-nis.m 3.!2 :JoinU. Between Dissimilar Materials 79
of Fatigue, 22; C. Infiuence of a Superposed 3.13 Other Componente 81
Steady Stress, 23; D. Infiuence of a. Com-
pound State of Stress, 25; E. Influence of 3.14 Piping and Equipment Intereffecu. 83
Notches and of Surfa.ce Flaws, 25; F. Fatigue
Tests on Specimens vs. Fatigue Tests on Struc-
tural Parta, 26; G. Periodically Varying
Thennal Stresses, 26; H. Thermal Fatigue, 27; Chapter 4
J. Damage by Overstress, 27; K. Corrosion
Fatigue, 28. Simplified Method for F1exibility Analysis 90
4.1 Scope and Merita of Approximate Methods 90
4.2 Therma.l Expansion 91
4.3 Preliminary Segregation of Lines with Adequate
Chapter 2 Flexibility: Code Rules 92
DeeigD Assumptions, Stress Evaluation, 4.4 Selected Chart-form Solutions 94
and Design Limits 30 4.5 Approxima.te Solutions 97
2.1 Codes and Standarde 30 4.6 The Simplified General Jl!ethod for Square-comer
2.2 Design Consideratiolll!: Loadings 32 Systetlll! 102
2.3 Desigo Limita, Allowable Stresses, and Allowa.ble 4.7 Approximating tbe Ef!ect of Curved Pipe and
Stres.s Ranges 34 Otber ComponenU! 107
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CONTENTS
Chapter 5 Chapter 8
Flexibility Analysis by the General Supporting, Restraining, and Bracing
Analytical Method 115 the Piping System 231
5.1 Scope and Field of Application of the General 8.1 Terminology and Basic Functions 231
Analytical Method 115 8.2 Layout Considerations to Facilitate Support 233
5.2 Calculating Aids 116 8.3 The Elements of the Supporting System: Their
5.3 General Outline of Operations 117 Selection and Location 236
5.4 The Solution of Simul~neous Equations 117 8.4 Fixtures 243
5.5 Single Plane Calculations 119 8.5 Pipe Attachments 248
5.6 Inclined Members and Changes in Stiffness 120 8.6 Structures and Structural Connections 251
5.7 Circular Members 123 8.7 Erection and Maintenance of the Supporting, Re-
straining, and Brscing System 254
5.8 General Shape Coefficients 125
5.9 The Secondary Term 125
5.10 Etfects of Direct and Shear Forces 127
Chapter 9
5.11 Working Planes and Cyclic Pem;mtation 127 257
Vibration: Prevention and Control
5.12 ~1ultiplane Pipe Lines with Two Fixed Ends 128
9.1 Introduction 257
5.13 Hinged Joints and Partially Constrained Ends 129 258
9.2 Fundamental Considerat.ions in Piping Vibration
5.14 Skewed Members 134 a. Definitions, 258; b. Types of Vibration, 258;
5.15 Branched Systems 145 c. Sources of Periodic Excitation, 259; d. Vi-
5.16 Intermed.iate Restraints 146 bration Prevention and Control, 259.
5.17 Calculation of Deformations at any Point 153 9.3 Structural Natural Frequency Calculations 260
a. The Spring-Mass Model, 260; b. Frequency
5.18 Symmetrical Pipe Lines 157 and Mass Effectiveness Factors for Different
5.19 Inversion Procedures 157 End Constraints, 261; c. Variable Stiffness and
5.20 Cold Springing 166 Variable Mass, 263; d. Combined Bending-
Torsion, 264; e. Approximate Natural Fre-
5.21 Weight Loading 170 quencies of Pipe Bends with Two Members
5.22 Wind Loading 185 (Vibration Perpendicular to Plane of Bend),
265; f. Plates and Radial Mode in Pipe, 266.
9.4 Structural Resonance and Magnification Factors 267

6.1
Chapter 6
Flexibility Analysis by ~'lodel Test
Tbe Experimental Approach 198
198
9.5

9.6
Dampmg of Structural Vibrations
a. Hydraulic Snubbers, 270; b. Elastic Foun-
dations for Rotating Machinery, 271.
Acoustic Natural Frequency Calculations
270

273
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6.2
6.3
6.4
The Routinized Model Test
The Kellogg :\fodel Test
The Kellogg Model Test Laboratory and Equip-
198
200
a. The Organ Pipe and Resonators, 273;
b. Special Cases of .Multiple Resonator Formu-
las, 274; c. Piping Systems with Bra.nches and
Enlargements, 276.
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ment 201
6.5 Typical Model Tests 202 9.7 Acoustic Resonance and Magnification Factors 277
9.8 Flow Pulsation Smoothing 279
a. Tuned Resonators, 279; b. Surge Tanks,
279; c. Gas Pulsation Dampener Principies,
Chapler 7
280; d. Acoustic Expansion Tank, 281; e. Com-
.-\pproacbes for Reducing Expansion Effeets: parison of Gas Pulsation Smoothing Devices,
Expansion Joints 210 282; f. Hydraulic Hammer, 283; g. Magni.:.
7.1 Introduction 210 tude and Direction of Forces on Piping Bends,
285.
7.2 Sources of Excessive Expansion Effects 210
9.9 lllustration of Vibration Analysis of a Simple
7.3 Approaches for Reducing Expansion Effects 210 Piping System 285
7.4 Packed Type Expansion Joints 212 a. General Data and Estimates, 285; b. Esti-
7.5 Bellov.-s Type Expansion Joints 214 mates of Structural ~atural Frequencies of
a. Discussion, 214; b. Bellows Details, 214; Piping System, 285; c. Estmate of Lower
c. Support and Protection of Bellows, 216; Bounds of Structural Natural Frequencies, 286;
d. Fabrica.tion of Bellows Joints, 217; e. Estab- d. Effect of Elasticity of Machine Foundation,
lishing Purchasing Requirements for Bellows 286; e. Estimate of Hydraulic Snubber Force
'Joints, 219; f. Materials and Deterioration, and Damping Requirement for Reduction of
220; g. Fatigue Basis for Predicting Bellows Amplitude of Vibration, 287; f. Resonance
Life, 220; h. Testing and Quality Control of Effect dueto Wind Velocity, 287; g. Estmate
Bellows Joints, 222. of Acoustic Natural Frequencies, 287; h. Esti-
ma te of Acoustic Frequency of the System
7.6 Expansion Joints with Built--In Constraints 223 Corresponding to ita First Harmonic (2nd
7.7 Establishing Expansion Joint Movement De- Mode), 288; i. Estimates of Sorne Possible
manda 226 Resonator Frequencies, 288; j. Eatimate of

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 CONTENTS xi
Volume u.nd Pressure Drop H.equirement of C- 6 Moments and !<'orces, Tw~Member System, Hoth
Hydraulic Fillers (fiottles) in thc Compressor Ends Fixed, Thermal Expansion in Plane of
Discharge Linea, 290: k. Tuned Resonator Members 345
Geometry, 290. C. 7 Length of Leg Required, Two-Member System,
\l. lO Piping Vibration "Trouble Shooting" 291 Both Ends Fixed, One Support Displa<'.ed in the
a. Background, 291; b. Vibration Mea.sure- Direction of Adjoining Member 346
ment, 292; c. "Trouhle Shooting" Procedure,
293. C- 8 Moments and Forces, Tw~Member System, Both
Ends Fixed, One Support Displaced in the Direc-
tion of the Adjoining Member 347
C- 9 Length of Leg Requi!ed, Tw~member System,
Append.ix !t- Both Ends Fixed, One Support Displaced Normal
to Plane of Members 348
History and Oerivation of Piping
C-10 Moments and Foreea, Tw~Member System, Hoth
Flexibility Analysis 295 Ends Fixed, One Support Displaced Normal to
- j .\.1 History of Piping FlexibilftY a.nd Stress Analyais 295 Plane of Members 349
A.2 Bibliography oo Piping Flexibility and Streas C-11 Required Height, Symmetrical Expansion Loop 350
Analysis 297 C-12 Moments and Forces, Symmetrical Expansion
A.3 Derivation of the General Analytical Method 299 l<>op 351
C-13 Guided Cantilever Chart 352
C-14 Correction Factor/, Guided Cantilever Method 353
Appendix B C-15 Design Data: Trip;onometric Constante for Circu-
Derivation of Acoustic Vibration Formulas 328 lar Members 354
C-16 Span vs. Stress, Horizontal Pipe Linea, Uniform
B.l Multiple Resonator of nth Order 328 Load 356
.' 8.2 General Chara.cteristic Equation for a Branched C-17 Span vs. Natural Frequency and vs. Deflection,
' Piping Syatem 329
Horizontal Pipe Linea, Uniorm Load 357
B.3 Tuned Resonator Relations 331 C-18 Correction Factors for (fse with Charts C-16 and
8.4 Simplified Surge Filter Analysis 333 C-17 358

Appendix C Appendix D
- ; Charla and Tablea 336
A Matrix Method of Piping Analysis
C- 1 Properties and Weighte: of Pipe 336 and The Use of Digital Computers 359
C- 2 Thermal Expansion, Carbon and Alloy Steels 341 SA-l Introduction 361
C- 3 Modulus of Ela.sticity, Carbon and Alloy Steell.~ 342 5A-2 Derivation of the Shape Coefficient Matrix 362.
C- 4 Chart for Criterion in Par. 620(a) in Code for Pres- 5A-3 A Matrix Method of Piping Analysis 369
sure Piping ASA B31.1 343
5A-4 An Example 372
C- 5 Length of Leg Required, Tw~Member System,
Both Ende Fixed, Thermal Expansion in Plane of 5A-S Selected Bibliography 378
Members 344 lndex 379
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Nomenclature:
Definitions of Principal Symbols

Symbol , Meaning Symbol Meaning

a.------- Horizontal ooo~din.ate to m.idpoint of member A.~ . . . ..... Area.; activation energy; free end.
in working pla.ne. A.F......... Attenuation factor.
b ......... . Vertical coordina.te to midpoint of member in B. . . . . . . . . . Material constant.
working plane. C. . . . . . . . . . Cold spring factor; velocity of sound; constant.
e . -- ...... . Distance o the working plane from the origin; D. . . . . . . . . . Diameter.
viseous da.mping coefficient.
E. . . . . . . . . . Young's modulua <>f ela.stieity; joint effieiency.
c 0 ,Caa1 etc .... Trigonometric constants.
Ce Critica} damping coefficient. E e _ . . . Young's modulus of elastieitY at ambient
temperature.
n d .......... Diameter; inside diameter.
E 11 Young's modulus of elasticity at operating
! 6 - U nit linear thermal expansion for a tempera.-
ture difference aT; base of Napierian

temperature.
logari thms. F.......... Force.
f ......... . Frequency; factor. Force componcnt in the direction of axis
fn Natural frequency. indicated by subscript. Second subscript,
g ......... Gravitational constant. used, refers to the souree of the force.
h .......... Bend characteristic (=tR-!rm 2 ); pitch of ha.lf G ......... Shear modulus, diameter of : the effectiVe
eorrugation of an expansion bellows; gra- gasket rea.ction on a flange.
dient of pipe suppo~. l .......... . Moment of inertia.
h. .... Offset range of an expansin joint.
J ......,... . Polar moment of inertia.
i .......... . Imaginary u_nit ( ~ V-!). K ........ . Constant.
k .......... Flexibility factor of pipe in bending; spring
constant.
L ......... . Length. ~-.
f
M ......... . Moment. !t
l. ......... . Length, span of pipe btween supports.
m ......... MaBS. M.F....... . Magnification factor. '
l~. . .
n .. ....... . Mateal eonstant, exponent in fatigue equa- .L\{b ~t.- .. . Bending moment in the plane c~)-~~e_._llle~ber.
tion. ~ll'b- .. .L .. . Bending moment transverae t;::-~he plane of
p ......... . Pressure (load per unit area.). the member. ~
q .......... . Plastic constraint factor; shape eocfficient M, .....: .... Torsional moment. ~-
known as the secondary term. M:,M11 ,!rf. Moment component referred :1#
orlgin and
r .......... . Radius. about axis indicated by su~pt. Second
r. .. Inside radius. subscript, if used, refers to%:the source of
rm ......... . Mean radius. the moment. {;;-
ro ......... Outside radius.
M' Zl ltl'"' M'. Moment component ahout ~ indicated by
8 ...... Sbape eoefficent; stea.dy stress component. eubscript. Seeond subscripq: used, refera
8a1 8o.a1 s'et, etc. Shape coefficients. to the source of the momentJ'
t. ......... . Time, thickness. Ms ... .'... . Any bending moment. ' li
u:, Uo, u'o, etc.
u,Vo, r/ oo1 etc.
Shape eoefficients.
Shape coefficients. N ..... ' ... . Number of cycles, rpm. t:
w ........ Width, unit weight load. 0 ......... Origin. !"
Unit loada in the z-, y-, and z-directions o'.- ...... . Fixed end.
respective!y. P ......... . Point, concentrated load.
z, y,z ...... . Coordina.te axes, coordinates of a point. Q ......... . Quotient, stiffness ratio, fiow rate.
xi

J
J. - - --
 n
xiv NOMENCLA TURE
d

Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning n
R .... : .... Centerline radius of torus or eurved member a .. Surface energy (work for creating new surfa.c1: j
(pipe bend or elbow); ratio. per unit a.rea.); a.ngle; coefficient of linelL l
ti ... ... . Universal gas constant. expa.nsion. . . v:i
S ...... . Fatigue strength; stress, a.mplitude of alter- Longitudinal stress intensifiea.tion faetor_i]
na.ting tensile stress eomponent; sha.pe angle. .
coefficient; Strouhn.l number. ")' ..... . Sbea.r strain, transverse stress intensifieatio__ '
s..........
s'b ....
Bending stress in the plane of the member.
Bending stress tra.nsverse to the plane of the
member.
o...
E .
factor, ratio of specific heats.
Translatory displacement; deflection.
Normal (tensile or compressive) strain. 1
.
1]
Sr:. .... Allowable stress for a material a.t ambient

...
E* .
Logarithmic strain. n 'ri'
tempera.ture. Principal Btrai_ns. )
S,.. . . . . . . . . Allowable stress for a. material at opera.ting Viscous damping coeflicient (da.mping ratio)_~.
temperature. Coefficient of viscosity. }
s, ...
SA ..
Torsional stress.
Allowa.ble stress ra.nge.
'1 .. ; .... .
. 8 .. . : ... ..
~
Angle.
.......... . Wave length.
)
l

Ss ..... . Resulta.nt bending stress. p. . . . . . . . . Aeoustic conductivity. y.._:]_
SE Computed maximum stress range. P Poisson's ratio. j
st, ...... . illtima.te tensile strength (eonventiona.l p .......... Density. ~, '
stress). u ....... .. Normal (tensile or eompressive) true stress.ll
T ......... . Te'mpera.ture, a.mplitude of a.lternating shear d', 0"2. 0"3
Principal stresses (true). tr;jl.
Shear stress. ,;
u ....... .
V ......... .
stress; perlad of vibration.
Velocity, energy; shape coeffieient.
Volume; sha.pe coeflicient.
..., .......
1" .

..
...... ..
Angle.
Angle.
:

w .......... . Total uniform load. w .. .. Angular frequency. ~1

Y ......... . Yield stress in uniaxial tension; resultant .:!. ........ . Restrained linear thermal expansioD.. .J..
expansion. ~ ........ .. Angle. ~
z ......... . Section modulus.
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Strength and Failure of Materials*
I
N the simplest cases, the failure of a structural
part occurs when a certain function of the stress
or strain componente reaches a critica! value.
The designer must know, then: (a) how the stresses
and strains can be calculated from the applied load;
(b) what are the critica! combinations of stress and
strain at which failure occurs.
The first question belongs to the field of applied
mechanics (elasticity, mathematical theory of the
plastic field, and mathematical rheology). In rela-
tion to piping systems, it will be treated in detail in
subsequent chapters of this book.
The second question is concerned with the me-
chanical properties of so!ids, which is a chapter of
~.. the physics of solids. It is a relatively new field of
science; until about 30 years .ago, the mechanisms
l.
of fracture and of plastic deformation were almost
unknown. Since Hi2o, however, the progress in this
.\
field has been rapid; at the same time, the demands
on the designer's u~derstanding of the mechanical
behavior of materials have gone far beyond what is
generally available in the traditional textbooks.
Hence, it is appropriate to introduce the treatment
of piping system design in this book 'vith a brief but
up-to-date sketch of the mechanical properties of
solids.
Failure of a structural part can occur by
(a) excessive elastic deformation,
(b) excessive non-elastic (plastic or viscous) defor-
mation, or
(e) fracture.
The calculation of elastic deformations and of the
conditions of elastic instability is the main subject
of books dealing with applied elasticity (tradition-
1 Prepared by Dr. Egon Orowa.n, George Westinghouse
Professor of Moohanical Engineering, Massachusetts Insti-
i tute of Technologj".
1
1
!
CHAPTER
ally, though inappropriately, entitled "Strength of
.Materials"). In the present chapter, only the condi-
. tions of fai!ure by non-elastic defonnation or fracture
will be considered in detail. Failure by excessive de-
formation will be discussed in thefirstfoursections, and
failure by fracture in subsequent parts of the chapter.
1.1 Stable and Unstable Deformations
A structure ceases to be serviceable if it suffers
excessive deformation. The deformations leading
to its failure may be elastic (i.e., deformations that
disappear when the stress is removed), or non-
elastic; the latter may be plastic (i.e., depending only
on the deforming stress but not on the duration of
its action), or they may represent a creep (i.e., they
may increase or decrease with time at constant
stress).
Moderate defonnations (elastic or non-elastic)
may be beneficia! in that they can redistribute the
stress in a strutural part or between severa! struc-
tural parts and so prevent its rise to levels at which
fracture can occur.
In many cases, the deformation leads to changes
of the shape of the body that cause an increase of
the stresses produced by a given load. The simplest
examples of this are elastic buckling, and the plastic
extension of a rod in the course of which its cross
section diminishes and the stress for a given load in-
creases; if this increase is not counterbalanced by
strain hardening, it leads to accelerated disruption.
Such phenomena represent an elastic instability if
the deformation is elastic, and a plastic instability
if it is essentially plastic. Plastic instabilities are of
great importance in the design of tubes and pressure
vessels.
In what follows, failure by plastic instability will
be treated separately, after the section dealing with
2 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
FIG. 1.1 Yield stress-strain curve of copper in compression.
After Cook and Larke {1).
plastic failure without instability. Subsequently,
failure by creep will be considered.
1.2 Plas ticity
A. Plastic Deformation under Uniaxial
Stress. AJ3 mentioned above, pure plasticity is de-
fined as a non-elastic type of deformation without
time influence. In uniaxial deformation, the plastic
strain is determined by the value of the stress u at
which the deformation takes place
(f = f() (1.1)
Elastic deformations also obey a law of this forro
however, they are reversible, while in plastic defor-'
mation the relationship (eq. 1.1) is valid only for
increasing stress. When the stress is reduced, the
plastic strain remains approximately unaltered.
By its definition, pure plasticity means the ab-
sence of creep. N o material satisfying this require-
ment is known; however, the behavior of ductile
metals and other crystalline materials at not too
high temperatures (compared with their melting
point) can be described approximately as plastic.
The stress required for plastic deformation (often
denoted by Y) is the yield str.ess.' Its dependence
(eq. 1.1) upon the preceding plastic strain is repre-
sented graphically by the "stress-strain curve" (more
accurately, it would be called the yield stress-strain
curve). The stress-strain curves of metals cannot be
represented by a simple mathe'matical expression.
For strains that are neither too small nor too large,
they can often be approximated by a parabola
cr = constant X En
At smal! plastic strains, as well as at very large ones,
however, the stress-strain curve is usually quite dif-
ferent from the parabola representing it for moderate
strains. In addition, the stress-strain curves of
different metals are, as a rule, different in character.
1
In the treatment of plasticity, the term "yield stress"
means the stress required for (initiating cr continuing) plastic
deformation owing to the presence of strain hardening, it
changes with the plastic strain.
(f
n
Fm. 1.2 Stress-strain curve of the 11 ideally plastic:" material.
A familiar type, the stress-strain curve of copper, is
shown in Fig. l. L
For the calculation of the distribution of stress
and strain in plastically deformed bodies, drastically
simplified types of stress,strain curve must be used.
Except in a few of the simplest cases, it is usually
assumed for this purpose that yielding starts sud-
denly when a critica! stress value is reached, and
that it progresses thereafter at a constant stress-in
. other w9rds, that there is no strain hardening.
Figure 1.2 shows the corresponding stress-strain
curve of the "ideally plastic" material. It must be
kept in mind that such a curve representa a sensible,
though rough, approximation only if the plastic
strain is large compared with the elastic strain. In
the initialpart of the stress-strain curve of a typical
metal (compare Fig. 1.1), the deviation from the
e!astic line increases gradually and the idealized
curve (Fig. l. 2) does not representan approximation.
A few materials (notably, low-carbon steels) show
the so-called "yield phenomenorr": plastic deform~>
tion starts suddenly when the stress reaches the
value of the "yield point." After its start, the stress
required for further deformation may remain con-
stant for a time, or drop immediately toa lower value
(the "lower yield point"), as shown in Fig. 1.3. If
such a stress drop occurs, the initial yield point is
called the "upper yield point."
Of particular interest to the designer is the stress
at which the plastic strain (or the total strain)
f1
u
(f
ll.
.
ll
.
o
ll
FIG. 1.3 Yield stress-strain curve o[ an annealed
low-ca.rbon stcel.
u
'U
-.,;
d.,
. ._lu.
.
 1
~ 1

; .~ STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS 3

reaches the maximum permissible value. If the o

stress-strain curve is of the character shown in f
Fig. L 1, the value of the yield stress at which the
strain reaches sorne specified permissible amount
(e.g., 0."2% or{).02%) is called the 0.2% (or 0.02%)
"yield strength" or "proof stress., Since the word
"strength" is reserved in scientific usage for the
fracture stress, the term "proof stress" will be used
in the present chapter. If the yielding _is discon-
tinuous, as in Fig. 1.3, the entire range of commonly
permissible strains, up to 1% or even 3%, lies on the E
horizontal part of the curve; in this case, the lower
yield point takes the place of the proof stress. The
upper yield point is a capricious quantity which can
be obliterated by relatively small stress concentra-
tions or small plastic deformations, so that the
designer- cannot rely on it.
Naturally, .the proof stress is altered by preceding
plastic deformation ("cold work"). -. Let OBD be
G
the stress-strain curve of an annealed metal and OE
FrG. 1.4 Increase of the proof .stress by cold work; the
the elastic line (Fig. 1.4); A is the point at which a Bauschinger effect.
critica! strain of, say, 0.2% is reached. Mter strain-
ing in tension to B and removing the load (point C), conditions" suggested, only two have been found
a material is obtained of which the stress-strain compatible with observations and at the same time
curve in tension is CFD. The point F at which the simple enough for practica! use: the Tresca (maxi-
permissible strain of 0.2% is reached is now higher mum shear stress) condition, and the von Mises
than A, owing to the preceding strain hardening. (maximum octahedral stress) condit;;on.
On the other hand, if the same material, prestrained The Tresca yield condition [2) assumes that
in tension to B, is subjected to compression, the yielding occurs when the maximum shear stress,
microscopic residual stresses remaining in it give equal to one-half of the difference between the
rise to perceptible plastic deformation even at very algebraically greatest and smallest principal stresses,
low compressive stresses, and the stress-strain curve reaches a critica! value. It is expressed by
in compression CG deviates from the elastic line <T -y " = (1.2)
strongly from the beginning. This softening of the
where Y is the yield stress in uniaxial tension or com-
material to reverse deformation is called the "Bau-
pression. With the Tresca condition, the nter
schinger effect." The hysteresis loop BCF observed
mediate principal stress has no effect on yielding.
when the stress is removed and then applied again is
The Mises yield condition [3) assmnes that yieJd.
essentially the same phenomenon, due to directional
ing occurs when the "effective" shear stress2
microscopic residual stresses in a plastically strained
materiaL 1 ./ 2 ( 2 2
Te{= _-;;V (<T-<T2) + 0'2-<TS) +(<Tg-<T) (1.3)
A mild heating (stress-relieving) after the deforma- 2v2
tion removes the residual stresses responsible for
reaches the critica! value of the yield stress in pure
the Bauschinger effect and restares the proof stress
shear, i.e., one-half of the yield stress Y in tension
for reverse deformation more or less to the increased
Expressed in terms of the uniaxial yield stress Y, it
leve! of the proof stress for deformation continuing
can be written as
in the initial direction.
B. Triaxial Stress: Yield Conditions. So far,
only uniaxial stres8ing has been considered. If a
general (triaxial) state of stress is present, with 2The "octahedral" shear stress differs from the right-hand
principal stresses .,-1 2: .,-2 2: o-3 , yielding in a mate- aide of eq.l.3 by having the factor}, insteadof 1/2V2, bcfore
rial without a sharp yield point occurs when a certain the squa.re root. The factor 112V2 has the convenien-:e that it
mathematical expression containing the principal ma.kes the right-hand side of eq. 1.3 equa.l to the maximum
stresses reaches a critica! value. Of severa! "yield shea.r stress in the case of a. uniaxia.lstress, i.e., for a- 2 = a- a = O.

l
 4 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
The Mises condition is often called the "shear strain
energy condition," since, in an isotropic material,
the right-hand side of eq. 1.3 or 1.4 is proportional
to that portian of the total energy which corresponds
to the shear deformations. For anisotropic materials,
however, the shear strain energy depends in general
upon the hydrostatic component Cpressure or ten-
sion) of the state of stress [4]. The attainment of a
critica! value of the shear strain energy, therefore,
cannot be a condition of plastic yielding, which,
except at extreme pressures, is not influenced by the
hydrostatic component of the stress.
A characteristic feature of the Mises condtion is
that the intermediate princip~l stress has an influence
on the occurrence of yielding. Only if .,.2 is equal to
the highest or lowest principal stress does eq. 1.4
coincide with the Tresca condition Ceq. 1.2). The
greatest divergence between the two conditions is
present when the intermediate principal stress " is
the mean value of the extreme ones
" = !C.,., + <Ta)
In this case, eq. 1.4 becomes
2 increment is to be added to the plastic strains
Vs Y = .,., - " "' 1.15Y CL5)
That is to say, the maximum principal stress differ-
ence at yielding is about 15% higher according to
the Mises condition than that given by the Tresca
condition.
Experimente indicate that the behavior of metals
with no sharp yield point, as a rule, is intermediate
between the Tresca and the Mises yield conditions,
usually somewhat closer to the latter. For mathe-
matical investigations of stress and strain distribu-
tion in plastically deformed bodies, the Mises condi-
tion is often simpler to handle.
For materials with an upper anda lower yield point
there is no reliable criterion for the onset of yielding
at the upper yield point, since this quantity is
E'xtremely sensitive to slight non-uniformities of
stress distribution and to the size of the specimen [5].
As mentioned, however, the upper yield point is of
little importance to the designer, since the allowable
stress must be based on the lower yield point, which
is the stress required for the first Lders' bands to
widen. From this it follows at once that the yield
condition in this case cannot be the Mises condition.
Since the Lders' bands are sheared layers embedded
between still rigid blocks of the material, only the
shear stress acting in their plane can cause them to
become thicker, and the intermediate principal
stress which is parallel to the Lders' !ayer and
perpendicular to the direction of shear in the !ayer
must be ineffective. Consequently, the appropriate
yield condition in this case must be closer to the
Tresca condition.
C. Plastic Stress-strain Relationships for
Triaxial Stress. In the preceding sec~ion, the con-
ditions of plastic yielding were considered. If they
are satisfied and yielding occurs, the question of
importance t 0 the designer is how the resulting
strains are determined by the applied state of stress.
The difficulties of this problem become evident if one
considera the facts that the resulting deformation
dependa on the sequence in "'hich the stress com-
ponente are applied, and that, owing to the Bau-
schinger effect, the slightest deformation destroys the
initial isotropy of the material and makes reverse
deformation easier than continued deformation. A
plausible solution has been given only for the simple
case of an ideally plastic isotropic material Cstrain
hardening and the Bauschinger effect being ignored).
According to this solution, a given triad of principal
stresses u, u21 cr3 is related to the increment of
plastic strain arising during its application; this
created by preceding actions of stresses. Aecording
to Lvy and Mises,
E1 = A(<TI - !C<T2 + <T3)].
-. = X[" - !C"a + .,.,)]
<a = X["a - !C"' + ")) CL6)
where E, E 2 , E3 are s~multaneous increments of the
principal strains, and X is a parameter determining
the extent of the deformation. The Lvy-Mises
equations determine only the ratios of the principal
strain incremente; the absolute amounte depend on
how long the straining is continued at the constant
principal stresses u, a2, ua. -1].
ij
..
i
In the literature, occasionally the stress-strain
relationship
i']
'1
<1 = X[<TI - hu2 + ua))
= x.,.. - !c.,..+ .,.,)J
+ "2)1
<a = X[ua - !(.,.,
is used. If the principal stresses remain invariant
CL7)
i'].
.
during the deformation, these equations represent
simply the integrated form of the Lvy-Mises equa- ']L1 ...
tions; if not, they are incorrect. These equations are
sometimes referred toas the "deformation theory,"
as contrasted with the Lvy-Mises "incremental
theory." i
']
:~
For strain-hardening materials, severa! authors
 STRENGTH. AND. FAILURE OF MATERIALS
have suggested the generalizad stress-strain rela-
tionship
(1.8)
where Tef! is the effective shear stress defined by
eq. 1.3, and 'Yefl the effective shear strain defined by
the analogous equation
'l'efl= ~ V(,-.) 2 2
+(.-s) +(s-<t)
2
(1.9)
Equation 1.8 has not yet received sufficient experi-
mental verification; it can be a satisfactory approxi-
mation only if the anisotropy due to preceding
plastic deformation can be neglected.
1.3 Failure by Plastic lnstability
A. lnstability of Plastic Extension: the U!ti-
mate Tensile Strength. Like elastic, so plastic or
viscous deformation may also lead to buckling, e.g.,
of a compressed column, or of a thin-walled tube
under externa! pressure. The treatment of such
cases is analogous to that of elastic buckling, but the
literature of plasti and viscous buckling is relatively
stnall. For details, reference should be made .to the
published literature [6].
A case of plastic instability of great historical and
practica! importance is that occurring in the tensile
test. Initially, the extension is uniform; unless
fracture intervenes, however, the tensile load reaches
a maximum in the course .of the test, and at the same
time a neck begins to develop. Further extension is
then concentrated in the neck and ceases everywhere
else in the specimen. The mximum load, divided
by the initial cross-sectional area, is called the
"ultimate tensile strength" or "ultimate tensile
stress"; its significance for engineering design will
b discussed in detail in Part C of the present section.
Let u = u() be the equation of the (true) yield
stress-strain curve of a purely plastic material in
uniaxial tension; the strain used is the linear strain
defined as
' = (! - lol/lo (1.10)
where l is the current length of the tensile specimen
and lo its initiallength. Since the volume V does not
change significantly during plastic deformation, the
product of length l and cross-sectional area A in the
.j range of uniform extension remains constant:
lA=loAo=V (1.11)
The load F = u A reaches a maximum when
dF=udA+Adu=O (1.12)
or
du/u = -dA/A (1.13)
5
o
+1
Fl:G. 1.5 Considere's geometrical construction of the ma.xi-
mum load point and o the ultimate tensile stress.
Differentiation of eq. 1.11 gives
dlfl = -dA/A
Combination of this equation with eq. 1.13 leads to
du/u = dljl (1.14)
Equation 1.10 can be written as
l = lo(1 + ) (LlOa)
from which
dl = lod
From the last two equations
dl/l = d</(1 + )
Introduced into eq. 1.14, this results in
du/d< = u/(1 + ) (1.15)
Equation 1.15, representing the condition for the
load to reach a maximum during the tensile test,
has a simple geometrieal meaning. Let the stress-
strain curve u() be plotted in Fig. 1.5, and Jet the
point Pon the negative strain axis have the distance
1 from the origin; i.e., the same distance as the
point Q on the positive strain axis representing
, = 1 = 100% extension. For any point of the
stress-strain curve, du1a. is the gradient of the
tangent line, and u/(1 + )
the gradient of the line
connecting the point (u, ) with the point P. The
condition for the load maximum is equality of these
gradients; i.e., the maximum occurs at the point M
in which a line drawn from Pis tangent to the stress-
strain curve. The ordinate AM of the point of
contact is the (true) stress at maximum load; OA is
the tensile strain '" at maximum load. This theory
of the maximum load point was given by Considere
in 1885 [7].
The ultimate stress, 3 defined as the maximum load
divided by the initial cross-sectional area,
(1.16)
Su= Fmax/Ao
3Since in the scientific treatment of this field the word
"strength" ought to be reserved to a fracture stress, the ulti~
mate strength will he-neeforth be ealled 11Ultimate stress."
6 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
due to the decrease of the Joad-carrying cross
section occurs also when a tube or a hollow sphere is
subjected to interna! pressure [8, 9]. It is remark-
able that the instability condition in these cases is
not identical with that for the rod under tension, and
the maximum pressure withstood by the tube or the
p spherical shell cannot be derived from the knowl-
-~o~..JA ,. edge of the ultimate tensile stress. In view of the
practica! importance of these cases, their charac-
Fm. 1.6 Determination of the instability stress on the true teristic features should be pointed out. .
stress logaritbmic strain curve in tension. For a hollow sphere of radius r and (small) wall
thickness i, under an interna! pressure p, the tensile
is not identical with the true stress at maximum load stress " is given by
Um = Fmax/A (1.17) pr2 ,.. = 2..rtcr (1.21)

The relation between them is The volume of the shell is

S./crm = A/Ao
V= 4..r't (1.22)
hence
which can be written as T = -vT4,rl (1.23)
s."m = lo/l Substituting eq. 1.23 into eq. 1.21 and observing that
in view of eq. 1.11. According to eq. 1.10a, the volume remains constant during plastic de-
formation,
lo/l = 1/(1 + )
Consequently,
p = 4v:;jV t*cr = c,tJ'" (1.24)

1 For a thin-walled closed tube,

S.= crm-- (1.18)
1 +<u 2rp = 2tcr (1.25)
where is the "uniform strain" at the moment of
Eu
V = icrt per uit of Jength
the load maximum. In Fig. 1.5, PO = 1; and
+
P A = 1 <, and AM = crm; from the simi!arity
of the triangles PMA and PUO it follows, there-
fore, that the intercept OU of the ordinate axis
(1.26)
For a square pUzte of edge length l and thickness t,
extended uniformly in all directions in its plane by
nJ
between the origin and the tangent P M drawn from
P to the stress-strain curve is the ultimate stress.
A similar graphical construction can be obtained
if the logarithmic strain is used instead of the linear
tensile forces F acting upon its edges,

and
F = Ucr (1.27) n !
!

strain. The relationship between logarithmic strain

e* and linear strain E is hence,
v= l2t
r]
L
(1.28)
* = log, (1 + ) (1.19)
Hence,
dt* = _i::_
For the tensile specimen under uniaxial tension,
already considered, the corresponding relationship
would be
u
1 +E (1.29)
Substitution of this in eq. 1.15 gives
dcr/d* = cr (1.20)
where t is the thickness of the (round) rod.
It is seen that the pressure p or the force F as a

Figure 1.6 shows the corresponding graphical
determination of the maximum load point from the
logarithmic stress-strain curve: the subtangent P A
function of the thickness of the specimen is given in
all cases by an expression of the type
p (or F) = Ct'cr (1.30)
o
at the maximum load point is unity.
B. Instability of the Plastic Expansion of
Tubes, Vessels, and Plates. Plnstic instability
where n = 2 for the tensile rod and the thin-walled
tube, -! for the thin-walled ho!low sphere, and ~ for
the uniform-biaxially extended plate.
o
o

l j'
L
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
The maximum load or maximum pressure at whlch
the extension becomes unstable is obtained from
dp (ordF) =O
In view of eq. 1.30, thls means
nt-l tT dt + t do- = o
or
n(dt/t) = -do-/u
For the hollow sphere, the tube, and the plate,
dtft = -d*, where * is the logarithmic strain per-
pendicular to the wall or the plate. Thus, the con-
.dition of instability is
du/d* =no- (1.31)
For the sphere, thls is.
du/d* = (3/2).,-
for the tube
du/d~ = 2u
and for the plate
du/d* = (1/2)o-
For the tensile rod, dtft is the increment of the
transverse logarithmic strain; since the volume is
constant, thls is - (1/2)d.*, where dE* is the incre-
ment of the longitudinallogarithmic strain. Thus,
du/d* = u
as befare (cf. eq. 1.20).
Figure l. 7 shows the corresponding graphical
construction, quite analogous to that in Fig. 1.6,
carried out for the four cases. It shows that the
instability point on the stress-strain curve (true
maximum stress vs. greatest logarithmic strain)
is different for each.
Particularly interesting is the practically im-
portant case of the thlck-walled cylinder under
interna! pressure. The solution of this problem has
first been published by Manning [10]; see als0
MacGregor, Coffin, and Fisher [11]. The relatively
simple calculation shows that here, too, the pressure
reaches a maximum as the tube expanda plastically,
and then drops. The maximum pressure (often
called "bursting pressure") can be calculated
successfully from the stress-strain curve of the
material. It is remarkable, however, that it cannot
be derived from a single point of the curve and the
corresponding tangent. In the thick-walled tube,
the strain depends on the distance from the axis;
at any moment during plastic deformation, states
of stress and strab:i extending over a more or less
wide regan of the stress-strain curve are present.
As a consequence, the maximum pressure cannot be
7
Yicld Slres$ <1
-~
<-;;~
----:::::--::
------ ;
_...-- .----:::- / '
v,
o Logarithmic
Strain
thin-walled fub
21,
(Thin-walled hollow 1phere
1
{Rod under unioxial tltnSion)
2
1
Piafe undet two equal mllfually perpendcular feMION
FIG. 1.7 Graphical construction of maximum load or maxi~
mum pressure in various cases of tensile loading.
calculated without the knowledge of the entire stress-
strain curve, or at least a substaotial part of it.
In other words, the maximum pressure withstood
by the thick-walled tube cannot be derived from
ali.y single "working stress."
C. Ultimate Stress and Working Stress. The
ultimate tensile stress has served in the past gener-
ally, and still serves io many cases, "" a basis for
deriving desigu (working) stresses; for this purpose,
it is divided by a so-called safety factor. HM this
conventional procedure arealistic basis? From the
preceding considerations, the answer can be easily
recognized.
There are two types of failure by plastic de-
formation. In the first, the structure becomes
unserviceable by suffering an inadmissible amount of
distortion; in the second, it is destroyed by plastic
disruption. In many practica! cases, the second
possibility either cannot occur (e.g., if the Ioading is
flexura! or compressive), or is of minor importance
because the consequences of failure by excessive
distortion are not significantly aggravated by sub-
sequent disruption. In the design of pipes and pres-
sure vessels, on the other hand, a moderate plastic
deformation may be no more than a nuisance;
the danger that must be excluded is disruption
(bursting).
If the practically important type of failure is due
to distortion, the desigu must be based on the stress
at whlch plastic deformation reaches the maximum
permissible value, i.e., on the "yield strength" or
"proof stress." As is seen from the Considere
construction of the maximum load and of the
ultimate strength (Figs. 1.5 and 1.6), there is no
general relationship between the ultimate strength
and the proof stress (or, in the case of the annealed
-----~---------
8 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
---
-1
Fm. 1.8 Uniform extension (atrain outside region of neck)
for different types of materials.
low-carbon steels, the lower yield point) ; the old
practice of deriving the working stress from the
ultimate strength by means of a fictitious safety
factor has then no justification. 'A certain exception
to this. is the case in which different batches of the
same type of material are compared (e.g., different
deliveries of a low-carbon steel) ; the proof stress, or
the lower yield point, may (but need not) be then
approximately proportional to the ultimate strength.
If the only practically important type of failure
is pl.stic disruption (bur&ting), the working stress
should be derived, as a rnle, from the load or pressure
at which plastic instability leading to rupture sets in
(the possibility of brittle or fatigue fracture should
be disregarded in this sectin; it will be treated
further below ). The structure is then dimensioned
so that the design load or design pressure is a
certain fraction of the rupture load or bursting
pressure. For a rod under uniaxial tension, the
corresponding working stress is the ultimate tensile
strenrth divided by an appropriate safety factor
(which, in this case, is nota fictitious one).
It is to be kept in mind that the maximum load is
given by the ultimate tensile stress only in the case
of a structural part under uniaxial tension. For a
tube, or a pressure vessel, the maximum pressure
occurs ata (conventional or true) stress that may be
very different from the ultimate stress, as will be
discussed in more detail in Chapter 2. In exacting
cases, therefore, the maximum load or maxmum
pressure cannot be derived from the ultimate
tensile stress but must be obtained by accurate
calculation based on the stress-strain curve, or from
a model experiment. Often, however, this is not
necessary. If the ultimate stresses for tension and
for the plastic expansion of a tube differ by only
10% to 20%, and the safety factor may be anything
between 3 and 6 according to tradition or code
regulations, it may not be worth .carrying out an
accurate design stress determination for a structural
part of subordinate importance.
The Considere construction "hows that the
ultimate stress is fundamentally unrelated not only
to the bebavior of the material at small, but al so to
that at large, strains. In particular, the knowledge
of the ratio between the ultimate and the proof
stress gives no indication of the fracture strain:
fracture may occur i=ediately after the maximum
load point, or at strains 10 or 50 times higher than
the maximum load strain. The simple tensile test
in which only the maximum load but not the stress-
strain curve iS- measured, however, may give .a
quantity that is extremely useful for judging the
ductility of the material for certain uses. This
qJiantity is the uniform extension, i.e., the strain
at which the load. maximum is reached and necking
starts (OA in Fig. 1.5). Since practically no further
extension takes place outside the neck after this
has been initiated, the uniform extension can easily
be measured on the fractured tensile specimen if
this is long enough to contain parts sufficiently
removed both from the neck and from the heads4
of the specimen. A material with amall uniform
extension (a few per cent) is disrupted easily in
tension and is therefore unsuitable for drawing
operations (wire or deep drawing). At the same
time, however, it may show a high ductility (i.e.,
reduction of area at fracture), so that it may be
eminently suitable to operations involving large
plastic strains without tension. Thus, pure nickel,
tin, or lead are very unsuitable for drawing, but
extremely good for operations like bending or cold
extrusion; austenitic chrom.ium-nickel steels, on the
other hand, have much less ductility but they are,
owing to their large uniform extension, very suitable
for drawing. Figure 1.8 shows how the shape of the
stress-strain curve is related to the uniform strain.
Materials with a fairly sudden yield and little strain
hardening afterwards, like pure nickel, lead, or tin,
have sharply bent stress-strain curves of the type
A; the tangent construction gives for them a small
uniform strain. On the other hand, materials that
strain-harden slowly but steadily in the initial part
of the stress-strain curve, like copper, brass, or
18/8 Cr-Ni steel (type B in Fig. 1.8), have a large
uniform strain, independent of whether fracture
occurs soon after necking or is preceded by a large
reduction of area o
.
1.4 Creep
A. Tbe Andrade Analysis of the Creep Curve.
If a material can undergo progressive deformation
4
Tbe U.S.A. standard specimen is not long enough for thie.:
purpose; a useful specimen can be obtained, however, by
increasing its gage length from 2 11 f.Q 411
fl
., 1
!i'
l
Tl
i j'
L
 '--;
(
,~ -~
. r STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
a.t constant stress, it is said to show creep. The
"'..
sunplest type of deformation that corresponds to
t~is de~ition is viscosity: a material is called purely
VISCOUS f the rate of straining, d-y / dt is a function of
the stress,j(r) and does not depend on the deforma-
!ion already undergone
H" d-y/dt = f(r) (1.32)
"11
, rr. the
functional relationship is simple proportion-
f ahty (Newton's law of.viscosity),
d-y
T = ~- (1.33)
dt
the material i~ said to show Newtonian viscosity;
t.he constant ~ lS the coefficient of .viscosity. Most of
the COJDIIlOU liquida are of the Newtonian type.
Th~ creep behavior of metals, particularly at not
too bigh temperatures, is markedly different from
pure viscosity. If a constant load is applied to a
ten~ile specimen (as. is usual in technological creep
testing) and the stram plotted as a function of time
usually curves of type A in Fig. 1.9 are obtained:
S?lid sol~tions with a tendency to develop vharp
yeld ~01nt (a-brass, Monel metal, Nickel silver)
may gve curves of the type e other alloys show an
induction period, as seen in 'curve D. However,
~urve A can be regarded as the pure type observed
f no structural changes occur during creep. It
shows that the rapid, ahnost sudden, extension that
follows the application of the load is followed by a
period of deceleration; before fracture occurs there
is a period of acceleration, and between the ~eriods
of deceleration and acceleration there is an interval
:(., of constant creep rate which may be quite long, or
. ~ may be merely a point of inflexion.
In bis analysis of creep, Andrade [12] found that
the final acceleration is usual! y a trivial consequence
of the increase of stress due to the decrease of cross-
sectional arca in the course of the constant-lord
tension test. If the experiment is carried out at
l ronstant tensile stress, the acceleration disappears in
. Stroln frocture
D
-----e
Time
Fm. 1.9 Types of creep curves for various materials.
1
i
I
[
9
~=t== +== +b {~~~
Tune Purely Pkmic Trcnsi.nt VIICOU$
Stroin Cre.p Creep
Fm. 1.10 Andrade's analysis of the creep curve.
many cases and curves of type B are obtained. A
period of final acceleration is frequently observed
even at constant stress; however, it is always dueto
structural changes taking place during creep, and so
curve B can be regarded as representing the pure
and simple type of creep curve.
In bis pioneering experimenta, Andrade has oh- .
served that the slope of the stl:aight parts towards
wbich the creep curve tends asynptotically depends
strongly on the temperatura. . At sufficientlylow
temperature, the asynptote becomes horiwntal and
the creep rate vanishes in the course of time. The
period of deceleration, on the other hand, is always
present, even in the neighborhood of absolute zero.
From this, Andrade concluded that the creep curve
(B in Fig. l. 9) representa the superposition of two
essentially different creep processes, wbich follow
the sudden straining after the application of the load.
The first component-is the decelerating one, the rate
of wbich disappears with time; tbis. is at present
called transient creep. Superposed to tbis, at least if
the temperature is not too low, is a constant-rate
creep process, usually called viseous creep because
ita rate depends, roughly speaking, only on the
applied stress and not on the preceding amount of
strain. Figure 1.10 shows Andrade's analysis of the
creep process: the observed creep strain is the sum
of tbe purely plastic (plus elastic) strain which fol-
lows immediately the application of the stress the
. '
trans1ent creep strain, and the viscous creep ~train.
B. Transient Creep. At low temperatures
(below, say, one-tbird of the absolute melting point)
viscous creep is insignificant and transient creep
dominates; hence its alternative name ucold creep."
At hi.gh temperatures (in the hot-creep range), the
trans1ent component is often negligible beside the vis-
cous one; hence the name "hot creep" for the latter.
In Andrade's original experimenta, which were of
relatively short duration, the transient creep curve
could be represented by the expression
'Y= 'Yo+ e~ (t = time). (1.34)
At lower temperatures, however, the logarithmic
expression [13]
'Y = 'Yo + e log t (1.35)
lO DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
ViKOUS
Creep
Rote
Streu
FIG. 1.11 Stress dependence of the viscous creep rate of
lead wires at 17 C. After Andrade.
fits the curve better. All transitional types between
the Andrade formula and the logarithmic formula
can be observed, as well as curves which represent a
more-than-logarithmic decrease of the creep rate..
C. Viscous Creep. The viscous component is
often represented by a reasonably straight curve, as
shown schematically in Fig. 1.10, if the duration of
the test is not very long. Otherwise structural
changes (recrystallization, precipitation, etc.) are
almost invariably present, and then the rat of
viscous creep may increase, decrease, or irregularly
fluctuate in the course of time. This is the basic
factor that makes the extrapolation and practica!
use of creep tests difficult.
The experiments of Andrade [12] have shown that
viscous creep in metals is far from being Newtonian
(eq. 1.33); it is vanishingly small up to a certain
stress region and then increases very rapidly witb.
the stress. Figure 1.11 shows the curve given by
Andrade for the viscous creep rate of lead wires at
17 e as a function of the applied stress. The char-
acter of the curve resembles that of the "Bingham
material,'' an idealized material often referred to in
rheology (Fig. 1.12, in which the stress is plotted as
ordinate according to convention). The Bingham
material is assumed to have a sharp yield point, and
to show linear increase of the strain rate with the
stress above the yield point. The behavior of
metals at high temperatures differs from that of the
Bingham material in that the increase of the viscous
creep rate with the stress, as shown in Fig. 1.11, is
much more rapid than a linear increase. Expres-
sions suggested for its dependence are, e.g., the
following ones :
dyfdt = Ar" Norton [14] (1.36)
dyfdt = A(e"'- 1) Soderberg [15] (1.37)
or
dyfdt =A sinh (ar) Ndai [16] (1.38)
where A, n, and a are constants.
It seems certain that no such simple expression
can represent generally a process depending strongly
on complicated structural features of the materiaL
However, one of the above expressions, or perhaps
another simple relationship, may well be found
accurate enough for practica! purposes in the case of
an individual material. .
The temperature dependence of viscous creep
shows a similar picture. Like all thermal reactions,
it is ultimately governed by the Boltzmann expres-
. sion for the frequency of thermal activations; with-
ont further structural complications, this would lead n
approximately to an exponential dependence of the J; l
creep rate u pon the reciproca! absolute temperature:
doy /dt = ee-AfkT (1.39) 1"
111
where A is the "activation energy'' for the creep
process, k is Boltzrnann's constsnt = 1.37 X
'u:.
-
10-16 erg/" e, and T is the absolute temperature.
It can be shown [17] that,. in NeWtonian viscous
J _
l
fiow, A is practically independent of the applied
stress whereas e is proportional to the stress; on the
other hand, in plastic deformation based on crystal- Il
line slip, the increase of the strain rate dy/dt with r
the increase of the applied stress is due mainly to the
decrease of the activation energy A with increasing
stress [18, 19]. In the case of crystslline plasticity,
J. .'
e may be regarded as a constant because its de-
pendence upon the stress is small relativc to that of
the exponential. That this is trne for the creep of
metals can be seen in the following way: dy/dt is the :.L.:
strain per unit of time; its reciproca! is the time
required for unit increase of the creep strain. Now
creep fracture (see subsection G below) takes place
after a strain of f% = f /100; the time t elapsing
between the application of the load and fracture i
related to the mean creep rate dy / dt by
f/100t = dy/dt
Introduction of this into eq. 1.39 gives
f/100t = ee-AikT (L39a)
q
Sheor
u
Streu
... 1
l
LJ
Yield Streu
Flow Rote
Fw. 1.12 Definition of the Bingham material.
;J
;fL.
u
 .1
,,
. STRENGTH ANO FAILURE OF MATERIALS
or, if the logarithm of base lO is taken,
log(100t/f) + log e = 0.434A/kT
According to Larson and Miller [20], the. dependen ce
of the fracture time upon the temperature for vari-
ous stresses is often satisfactorily represented by
eq. 1.39b with values of log e that vary, for different
materials and experimental conditions,. between 15
!
l
and 23 if t is counted in hours. Thus, log is in
! ; fact almost constant. Its order of magnitude can
be derived theoretically in a simple way. It is well
known that, for processes of this kind, the activation
energy is always around 1 electron volt (ev) at room
temperature. If it were significantly higher (say,
2 ev), thermal activation would be so sluggish that
the creep rate would become too small to be observ-
able; if it were somewhat lower (say, 0.5 ev), the
creep rate would be too high to be followed experi-
mentally. At room temperature, kT is -lo ev, so
that AjkT "" 40. As a. representative example, Jet
it be assumed that the fracture strain f is 4% and
that fracture occurs after 1000 hours. With these
values, eq. 1.39b gives
log e = 0.434 X 40 - log (25,000) = 13
For A = 1.5 ev, A/kT = 60, log e would be 22.6.
The observed values of e, therefore, correspond to a
range of activation energies between about 1 and
1.5 ev.
It should be remarked that, however narrow the
range of the observed values of log e is, it would be
dangerous to use eq. 1.39b for extrapolating creep
test results to times exceeding the duration of the
test by a factor of 10 or more, because during the
. ''. . '.1' extrapolated time interval structural changes (e.g.,
precipitation, grain boundary oxidation) may occur
and the permissible stress for a given service time
may be reduced far below the extrapolated value
(see Subsection G, "Creep Fracture").
D. Creep under Triaxial Stress. The problem
of how to obtain the principal creep rates for general
1 triaxial states of stress has been treated by Soder-
- _;' berg [15]. His solution is a rational extension of the
treatment of three-dimensional cases in the theory
of plasticity, and is in fair accord with the available
' 1
experience. According to Soderberg, the basic vis-
' cous stress-creep rate relationship is a functional
relationship between the effective shear-stress and
the effective shear-strain rate, where the former is
Telf = .1e; v (er - er,) 2 + ( er2- era) 2 + (era - er)
2v2
ll
and the latter
1 . .
(1.39b)
i'eff = V2 V(!- <2) 2 +(!,-<al'+ (<a- !)2
(1.41)
E, E2 , arid E3 being the pricipal strain rateS; volume
constancy demands. that
e (1.42)
Thus, the general viscous creep law would be
Te!f = /(i'cll) (1.43)
analogous to the three-dimensional Stress-strain rela-
tionship suggested for purely plastic materials (cf.
eq. 1.8). The relative magnitudes of the principal
creep rates are assumed to be given by the Lvy-
Mises equations
<, = e[u, - t{er, + era)]
<2 = C[er, - !(era+ er)J
<a = C[er3 - !(er, + er2)] (1.44)
The common factor e on the right-hand side is no
longer indetenninate as in the case of ideal plasticity:
it is determined by the condition that, if the princi-
pal strain rates are substituted on the right-hand
side of eq. 1.43, the correct value ofrell must result.
Details of practica! calculations are found in Soder-
berg's paper.
E. The Mechanism of Creep. Although the
details of the mechanism of transient creep are far
from being clear, there is no doubt that it is a con-
sequence of thermal vibrations enforcing slip when
superposed to a sufliciently high applied stress. In
the course of the creep procesa, the material hardens
and thermal vibrations are then less and less fre-
quently able to produce local slip; this is the cause
of the gradual disappearance of transient creep.
The fact that transient creep can be observed down
to the lowest temperatures is dueto the circumstance
that the applied stress must always be high enough
to cause at least a small amount of sudden plastic
strain before transient creep can be observed. If
it is suflicient to cause slip without any thermal help,
very slight thermal fluctuation should be capable of
producing local slip at the points where the applied
stress is nearly high enough to induce slip without
thermal help.
It has been found that viscous creep itself is a
compound procesa. At least two different mecha-
nisms can produce it, and often the two act simulta-
neously. The first type of viscous creep is called
(1.40) recovery creep. After the application of the load,
 12 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
the rapid plastic deforma.tion produces strain hard-
ening which raises the yield stress to the level at
which it equals the applied stress and thus can resist
the load. If the temperature is high enough, how-
ever, _ thermal recovery or even recrystallization
gradually reduce the strain hardening. In order to
carry the applied load, therefore, the material must
strain-harden further until the amount of strain
hardening lost by recovery is replaced This means
that, in every unit of time, additional plastic strain
arises, the amount of which is just suflicient to make
up for the strain hardening removed by recovery.
The second important type of viscous creep is due
to sliding between the grains of a polycrystalline
metal when a stress acts at a sufliciently high tem-
perature. At Jow temperatures, the grain boundary
is a strong part of the structure: it resists the slip in
the grains. At a high temperature, however, the
boundary becomes soft and viscous and is an element
of weakness. The tungsten filaments of incandescent
lamps, which work at the highest temperature used
in engineering, can be preserved from gradual defor-
mation by thek own weight only by being made of
single crystals, without grain boundaries present.
F. Evaluation and Engmeering Use of Creep
Tests. Transient (cold) creep is of great practical
importance, e.v,., in prestressed reinforced concrete
design. However, since its evaluation does not in-
: volve complex problems to the engineer, and since
the problems in which it plays a role are somewhat
specialized, it will not be treated here.
In many high-temperature applications of metals,
the viscous creep strain during the lifetime of tbP.
equipment is so much greater than the initial tran-
sient creep strain that the Jatter is frequently neg-
lected (sometimes with no suflicient justification).
In such cases, the usual practical rule is to assume
that the long-time creep rate on which the design
should be based is equal to the "mnimum creep
rate" observed in a constant-Joad tension creep test,
i.e., to the creep rate in the straight part of curve A
in Fig. l. 9. Although in the hands of the experienced
creep practitioner this prescription usually work&
fairly well, strictly speaking it is fundamentally
wrong. When the mnimum creep rate occurs, tran-
sient creep may or may not have disappeared. If it
has not, the mnimum creep rate is not tbat of the
viscous component alone, but the sum of the viscous
and the residual transient creep rates. In extreme
cases, solely the acceleration of transient creep, due
to the decrease of the cross-sectional area, may give
rise to curves of type A, Fig. l. 9, at Jow temperatures
where no trace of viscous creep can be present. The
common rule, therefore, has to be supplemented by
the condition that the constant-rate part of the
creep curve must extend over a long time, sufficient
for the disappearance of the transient component,
in order that themnimum creep rate can be identi-
fied with that of the viscous creep.
Since structural parts must often have a service
life of 10 or 20 years, whereas creep tests cannot be
extended in engineering practice beyond about one
year (often they must be obtained within a few
weeks), the extrapolation of creep test results to the
service life is the central problem of creep testing.
Sorne of the extreme short-time testing methQds sug-
gested between the two wars failed because. their '
authors were unaware of the compound nature of n
creep. Unless the test is extended long enough for u
the transient component to become relatively small,
it cannot give even an approximate idea of the mag-
u
n
nitude of the viscous component.. The present con- y
ventional methods of creep testing usually avoid this f 1
pitfall; they can be subdivided into the following tJ
three classes:
l. Abridged tests. The creep strain is measured
as a function of time.for a few stresses around the
n
. :
g,
probable service stress, at the service temperature,
and extrapolated to the service life.
2. M echanicaUy accelerated tests. The mmcimum
n
n.
permissible creep strain is enforced within the time
available for the test by a suitably increased stress.
From several such tests at different stresses, the '1
stress is plotted as a function of the time after which u
the permissible strain is reached, and the curve ex- 't,
trapolated to the service life to give the permissible ~J~
service stress. !
3. Thermally accelerated tests. The maximum per-
mssible creep strain is enforced within the time
available for the test by a suitably mcreased tem-
J
perature. From such tests at a few different stresses
and temperatures, the stress is plotted as a function
of tbe test temperature and of the time required for
resching the permissible strain, and extrapolated to
the service life and service temperature.
The abridged test would give a correct extrapola-
tion if structural changes taking place in the material
during its service life could be discounted. Ther-
.mally and mechanically accelerated tests are in
principie more Jikely to Jead to errors because they
take place under stress and temperature conditions
difi'erent from those in service. However, occasion-
ally certain structural changes that would occur
during the service life but do not take place during
the abridged test may be observed in the mechani- ; 1
cally or thermally accelerated test. Then these lj
;l
1
u
l J
l
~-
 STRENGTH ANO FAILURE OF MATERIALS
tests, although less correct in principie, may lead to
a better extrapolation. N o general extrapolation
method can take into account the highly individual
reactions of materials to stress and temperatura, and
the likelihood of grossly erroneous results can only
be reduced by an intimate knowledge of the metal-
lurgical, structural, and plastic properties of the
material.
G. Creep Fracture. The grain boundaries of
polycrystalline metals, being places of atomic dis-
order, behave like a two-dimensional glass. They
have a softening range of temperatura (roughly
identical with the "equicohesive temperatura'') in
which they change from being . a hard structural
component to being the softest. At very high tem-
peratures their effective viscosity is so low that, at
low stresses, most of the deformation is localized in
them: the grains slide ahnost as rigid units on their
neighbors. This leads to the opening up of gaps
between the grains, and finally to the type of frac-
ture peculiar to high temperatura creep: at first
i! sight, it appeara almost brittle.
!) '
~ j The strain at which creep fracture occurs depends
on the stress and the temperatura. At low stress and
high temperatura the deformation within the grains
is insignificant compared with the effect of sliding of
the grains upon their neighbors, and thus the fracture
strain is small However, the variation of the frac-
ture strain in a given range of stress and temperature
is always very small compared with the simultaneous
variation of the creep rate. The latter may change
in the ratio 10,000,000 to 1 while the fracture strain
increases, for instance, from 2% or 3% to 10% or
15%. Consequently, the fracture time is usually
inversely proportional to the mean creep rate, to a
., j
fair approximation.
The creep fracture test5 consista iu applying to
the specimen a constant tensile load and recording
the time elapsing to fracture. This test is simpler
and easier to perform than the standard creep test
hecause strain measurements are omitted. It is
required for design whenever the material has such
poor ductility under creep conditions that fracture
may occur before the maximum permissible creep
strain is reached. Since creep strains exceeding 1%
are not often permitted (pressure vessels and pipes
are an exception), and fracture occurring after less
than 1% strain is infrequent, the creep fracture
test is usually unnecessary. It is nevertheless
widely used because it can be interpreted as a crude
creep test. As mentioned above, the fracture strain
vares within relatively narrow limits, so that the
6In the creep tester's vernacular, ustress rupture" test.
13
creep fracture test represents a creep test in :which
the time required for a certain strain (the fracture
strain} is measured for various stresses and tempera-
tures. The great shortcoming of the test is .not so
much the variation of the fracture strain as the fact
that it is always performed at high stress levels in
order to obtain fracture within 1000 or, at most,
10,000 hours. It has been shown by many experi-
menters, particularly by Grant and his collabora.-
tors [21], that the creep rate may change abruptly
even after 10,000 hours owing to sorne structural
change (e.g., coarsening of a precipitate, or oxida-
tion). For this reason, extrapolation from high-
stress short-time tests to the long-time service
behavior is impossible, unless it is known (from a
thor<iugh investigation of the material extending
over years) that no structural changes m ay be
expected in the time interval between the duration of
the routine creep test and the service life. . .
1.5 Types of Fracture; Molecular Cohesion;
the Griffith Theory
Fracture is the disintegration of a body into frag-
ments under mechanical stresses. If a certain type
of fracture occurs in a given material when a stress
component reaches a critica! value, this is called the
strength or fracture stress. Many types of fracture,
however, do not take place at a characteristic value
of a stress component.
Until about 20 years ago it was not realized that
there are many fundamentally different types of
fracture obeying quite different laws. They can be
classified into two main groups: briUI.e fractures and
ductil.e fractures. The former occur with little or no
plastic (or other non-elastic) deformation; the
mechanism of the latter essentially involves plastic
deformation. The mechanism of brittle fracture was
elucidated long before that of ductile fractures,
mainly by the work of A A Griffith in 1920 [22].
Griffith' s effort was directed to the eJ<planation of the
extraordinary discrepancy between the very high
values of strength inferred from the magnitude of
the intermolecular and interatomic forces, and the
observed values of the tensile strength, which are
usually hundreds or thousands of times lower.
The way in which the tensile cohesion of a material
is determined by the attractive and repulsiva forces
between its molecules is illustrated in Fig. 1.13.
Suppose that a crystal contains atomic planes with
the spacing b perpendicular to the direction of ten-
sion. As the tension is raised, the spacing b increases.
The net interatomic force acting between two parts
of the crystal across the gap between two atomic
 14 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
AHroctive Foroe
o,f---,f~--~~----
lnt&nnoleculot
Spadng
Repubive Force
FIG. 1.13 The dependence of the intermolecular forces upon
the molecular spacing.
planes vanishes if no tension is applied; in this case,
the attractive and repulsive forces cancel. If a
tension is applied and the atomic spacing increases,
the repulsive forces diminish more rapidly than the
attractive ones; the excess of the attractive forces
over the repulsive ones balances the applied tension.
A13 the atomic spacing in the direction of tension
increases, the repulsive forces become insignificant,
and the tensile force transmitted through the crystal
lattice must then start to diminish with increasing
strain owing to the decrease of the attractive forces
with. increasing separation of the atoros. Canse-
,; quently, the net atomic force transmitted through a
c~oss section must have a maximum, equal to the
highest externa! force the material can withstand,
i.e., its strength. From the general knowledge of
the atomic forces it can be estimated that the maxi-
mum must occur when the spacing of the atomic
plane8 has increased by a large fraction of its initial
value; for an order-of-magnitude estmate, it may
be assumed to occur when the atomic spacing has
increased by sorne 25% or 50%. If Hooke's law
were applicable for such large strains, the tensile
strain would be between 0.25 and 0.5 and the cor-
responding tensile stress, i.e., the molecular strength
of the material,
<Tm = 0.25E to 0.5E
where E is Y oung's modulus. Instead of approach-
ing the arder of magnitude indicated by eq. 1.45, the
measured tensile strengths are extremely low. The
strength of ordinary sheet glass is about 1/1000 of its
Young's modulus; that of rock salt crystals, less
than 1/10,000. It was known to physicists befare
Griffith that the most likely cause of the discrepancy
was the presence of invisibly small cracks or other
fiaws which produce stress concentrations and thus
raise the applied stress to high local values. It was
Griffith, however, who calculated the .critica! value
of the. applied tensile stress .,.. at which a crack ' of
atorruc sharpness and of length e, starts to propagate.
He used the following approach. When the crack
extends, the surface area of its walls increases, and .
this requires energy for overcoming the attractive
forces between the atoms separated by the crack.
If the grips between which the specimen is pulled do
not move during the crack propagation process, the
ouly source from which the necessary surface energy
can be obtained is the elastic energy released as the
crack extends. Let dS be the surface energy needed
for eularging the crack by an '
infinitesimal .amount'
and dW the elastic energy released simnltaneously.
'The crack can propagate ouly if dW is at least as
. large as dS; thus,
dW = dS (1.46)
is the condition for the crack being just able to
propgate under the tensile stress. It wm be seen
that the stress needed for propagating a crack
decreases as the length of the crack increases; once
condition 1.46 is satisfied, therefore, the crack will
extend rapidly, and fracture will occur.
Griffith carried out this idea in the simple case of a
plate containing an interna! crack of length 2c
(Fig. 1.14). It can be shown that the effect of such
a crack upon the fracture stress of the plate is equal
to that of an externa! crack of length (depth) e in
one of the side edges of the plate. A sharp and flat
interna! crack of length 2e can be regarded as an
elliptical hole of majar axis 2c and an extremely
short minar axis; the stress distribution around it
'.
when the plate is put under a tensile stress .,. was
calculated by lnglis in 1913 [23]. From this the
excess energy in the plate, due to the presence of the
n
u
<T
{1.45) '1
u
l
<T
Fm. 1.14 Plate with a Hat elliptical hole (=crack).
 '
~
STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS 15

crack, is obtained as stresses. The discussion of the complete answer is

1 beyond the scope of this chapter [24]; the result is
2 2
W = 1ra c /E
~ that, so long as the highest compressive principal
per unit thickness of the plate, where E is Y oung's stress is less than three times the highest tensile
' ; modulus; if e increases by de, the released elastic principal stress, fracture should occur when the
j energy is greatest tensile principal stress reaches the value of
the tensile strength deduced for uniaxial tension
" ; (eq. 1.48); the algebraiclly smaller principal
stresses have no inf!uence. According to the theory,
j On the other hand, the increase of the length of the the compressive strength should be eight times the
1
'
!1 crack is 2dc, and the increase of its wall surface area tensile strength if the material is isotropic and con-
cll
1'
1 is 4dc per unit thickness of the plate; consequently, tains cracks randomly distributed in all directions.
li
~ if a is the work required for creating a new surface of Thus, the theory confirms partially a well-known
'
1 unit area, the increase of the total surfac energy is statement found in textbooks on the strength of
e
l dS = 4ailc (1.47) materials concerning the condition of brittle failure:
~ 1 in the essentially tensile region of principal stresses,
' J Equating dW and dS gives failure does ohey the maximum tensile stress cri-
1; ~=M- (1.48)
terion. However, the maximum tensile stress condi-
, tion cannot be valid for any state of stress. If it
e l were, the compressive strength of brittle materials
'
' This is the famous Griffith equation for the tensile would be infinitely high. This shortcoming of the

'
-~

j ( l strength of a brittle material containing an interna!

crack of length 2c, or a surface crack of depth c. In
textbook nile has been corrected by the Griffith
theory, in the way just mentioned.
ii the calculation, it has been assumed that the problem One of the most important results of the work of
'

'
l
J
J
l l
is two-dimensional, and that the plate is very large
in both directions, but at the same time thin com-,
pared with the length of the crack; if it is thick, the
' 1
factor (1 - v2 ) has to be applied to the denominator
,,,' T' 1 under the square root, v heing Poisson's ratio.
'
L For glasses of the ordinary types, the crack length
e nec~ssary to explain the observed tensile strength
' ? is of the order of 1 micron. In glasses, the dangerous
1 cracks are almost always at the surface; tensile
l
'
stresses confined to the interior are relatively harm-
T
less. This is the explanation of the high strength of
"tempered glass," obtained by quenching glass from
j
the softening temperature by an air blast. By the
time the interior has become rigid, the surface has
cooled down considerably; when subsequently the
. i'
rigid interior cools, it puts the surface layers under a
tangential compressive stress. Any tensile stress
produced by externa! forces is diminished at the
surface by the residual compression. In the interior,
the residual stress is tensile, but this is of no con-
sequence because there are no sharp cracks present
from which fracture may start. Thus, the strength
of the glass is strongly increased.
The Griffith theory explains very satisfactorily
the strength properties of completely brittle mate-
rials such as glass; for detailed treatment, reference
should be made to the literature [24].
An interesting feature of the theory is the answer
it gives to the question of strength under triaxial
Griffith is the realization that the strength of a
brittle material is determined by the f!aws it con-
tains. This is strikingly illustrated by glass, the
strength of which can be made a hundred times
higherthan normal, if by aspecial design (fibre glass)
the worst cracks are made ineffective.
1.6 Ductile Fractures
The Griffith theory and the fracture condition
(eq. 1.48) are applicable ouly to fracture of the
cleavage type ("brittle fracture"). In addition to
this, there is a large group of fractures in which sep-
aration into fragments occurs as a consequence of
certain plastic deformation processes; these are the
"ductile" fractures. The simplest ductile fractures
are straightforward geometrical consequences of
plastic deformation; a wire of gold, e.g., breaks in
tension by the formation of a neck which becomes
thinner and thinner until it is drawn out to two
needle points in contact. Similarly, single crystsls
of zinc or cadmium may break, after slow extension
at a high temperature, when one part of the crystal
slips off the other along a slip plane in which the
deformation has become concentrated.
The nature of the fracture process is less obvious
in the common fibrous fracture of ductile metals,
which produces the bottom of the cup in the cup-
and-cone fracture. However, it seems to be funda-
mentally the same type of geometrical attenuation

1
16 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Comtrained yield sfr4m 'i Y
Tensile
s..... u
Pla$tic Te11511e
Strain E
Fm. l.lP Scheme of the clasaical tria.xial tension theory of
notch brittleness,_ after Mesnager [25], Ludwik [26], and
Orowan [27].
as in tl:e preceding examples, repeated many time,;
on a microscopic scale in the surface of fracture.
Shear fracture, which forms the sides of the cup and
the cone, is a somewhat different phenomenon. The
plastic deformation leads here to the propagation of
a crack at the tip of which there is a high concentra-
tion of strain, destroying locally the cohesion of the
material.
A ductile fracture cannot obey the Griffith condi-
tion (eq. 1.48). This can be realizad in the following
simple way: The plastic deformation mechanism
which leads to ductile frl!-cture is not essent.islly de-
pendent on the elastic moduli of the material; it
could take place even Young's modulus were in-
finitely high. On the other hand, cleavage fracture
of the Grif!ith type would be impossible in a per-
fectly rigid material; an infinitely high value of E
in eq. 1.48 would give an infinitely high tensile
strength.
One of the conditions governing ductile fracture
can be easily recognized: it coincides with the con-
dition of the particular type of plastic deformation
which is responsible for the fracture. Thus, in the
tensile fracture by neck attenuation the ouly frac-
ture condition is that the tensile load must reach
the value of the yield stress in the neck, multiplied
by the cross-sectional area of the neck and by the
plastic constraint factor. In shear fracture, too,
this is a necessary condition for the propagation of
the shear crack. Another condition, however, must
also be satisfied: the shear strain at the tip of the
crack must reach the critica! value at which the co-
hesion disappears.
Ductile fractures usually occur after the struc-
ture has become unserviceable by excessive plastic
deformation. However, if the material has a low
ductility, shear fracture or other types of ductile
fracture may occur after very little deformation. A
threaded bolt of a Jow-ductility material, such as
certain precipitation hardened alloys, can be sheared
off during tightening after a small amount of plastic
twist. Another instance is that of extremely creep-
resistant alloys which may fail by creep fracture at
high temperaturas after a relatively small creep
straln. ,
l. 7 The Brittle Fracture of Steel ("Notch
Bri ttleness")
Low-carbon and medium-carbon steels behave in
a maiJ.ner that is not a mere intermediate case be-
tween glassy brittleness and high ductility. A com-
mon structural steel can be very ductile in the
ordinary tensile test, with no sign of a potential
brittleness, but it can break with little or no visible
plastic deformation if it contains a crack or a notch.
The classieal triaxial-tension theory of notch
brittleness was put forward by Mesnager [25] and.
independently, by Ludwik [26]. In a form modified
according to the present state of knowledge [27], its
principie is illustrated by Fig. 1.15. The abscissa in
this figilre is the tensile strain and the ordinate the
tensile stress; Y representa the ordinary tensile yield
stress-strain curve. The theory assumes that ama-
terial suffers brittle (cleavage) fracture when the
tensile stress reaches a critica! value B ("brittle
strength") which, in its dependence u pon the plastic
strain, is given schematically by the curve B. In
the ordinary tensile test, ductile fracture occurs at
the point D on the curve Y, befare the tensile stress
reaches the value of the brittle strength. However,
if the specimen contains a notch or a crack, plastic
constraint raises the value of the tensile stress
I]
'f:
reached during plastic yielding to qY, where q, the j
i
~
"constraint factor," is greater than l. The curve q Y
may intersect the curve of the brittle strength B
l
Compreuive
fM~
1!
FrktiOflal CONtraint
upon specimen
-1
-- -- I 1 Te ndency to
spread
m
Fm. 1.16 The ongm of plastic constraint in a. notcherl
tensile specimen illustrated by the frictional constra.int actinz;
upon a tla.t compression specimen.
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
befare the plastic strain is high enough to produce
ductile fracture, and so brittle fracture may occur
at F.
The way in which plastic constraint arises is iilus-
trated in Fig. 1.16. Suppose that I is a coin com-
pressed plastically between two hard cylinders, JI
and I JI. The necessary mean compressive stress is
higher than the yield stress Y in uniaxial compres-
sion: it has to overcome, not only the resistance Y
of the material to plastic deformation, but also the
frictional resistance of the compression blocks (indi-
cated by the arrows) to the lateral spread of the coin.
The radial frictional forces, together with the axial
pressure, create a state of triaxial.compression (a
hydrostatic pressure superposed toan axial pressure ).
The mean axial stress required for plastic compres-
sion is then not Y but qY> Y; of this, Y is required
for the plastic deformation itself, and (q - 1) Y
for overcoming the friction.
Figure 1.16 can also be regarded as representing a
circurnferentially notched cylindrical specimen, I
being the notch core and JI, JII the fui! sections of
the specimen. If the specimen is plastically ex-
tended, the conditions are siniilar to the case of the
compressed coin, with the shear cohesion between
the core and the adjacent parts of the specimen
replacing the friction. As befare, the axial stress
required for producing plastic deformation in the
core must be higher than the yield stress Y.
Plastic constraint is fundamentally different from
elastic stress concentration. It cannot arise without
sorne preceding plastic deformation; moreover, its
magnitude depends on the depth and sharpness of
the notch in a very different way. In pure elasticity,
the stress concentration at the tip of a notch becomes
infiuitely high as the radius of curvature of the tip
converges towards zero. In contrast to this, the
plastic constraint factor of a circumferential notch
such as is illustrated in Fig. 1.16 increases only toa
value of the arder of 3, instead of rising towards
infinity, as the tip radius is reduced to zero [27].
This is the reason why so many ductile metals
cannot be made to fracture in a brittle manner by
the application of a sharp crack: if, for any value of
Worl<
must be less strong than that of Y or q Y; this is
'""'"~
Temperotur.
Fzo. 1.17 Extreme types of transition curves.
17
Tentile
~
Strongly comlraine<l yield lilress.
opproximately 3Y
Brittle 1tre~~
Yield lifress in ;eMion y J
'T To
Tempeiotre of Temperature
complet. em~elllfllf Trvnsition tempercrture
between notch brittleneu
and full ductility
F!o. 1.18 Davidenkov-Wittman Theory of the transition.
between brittle and ductile fracture, as modified by the author.
the plastic strain, the brittle strength is more thau
about 3 times higher than the yield stress, plastic
constraint alone caunot raise the tensile stress to
the fracture level
An important feature of notch brittleness is the
existence of a transition temperature between notch-
brittle, aud purely ductile, behavior. Figure L 17
shows the dependence of the work of fracture, as
measured with a Charpy or Izad pendulum hammer,
on the temperature in low-carbon steels. Above a
certain temperature regan it has a high value, and
the fracture of the notched specimen is entirely of
the fibrous type. At low temperatures, the fracture
work is extremely small, and the fracture is entirely
of the cleavagc ("crystalline") type. Between these
two temperature regions, there is a transition zone
in which the fracture work drops rapidly with de-
creasing temperature.; at the same time, the area of
cleavage in the surface of fracture increases towards
100 per cent. With sorne materials, the transitiou
zone is so narrow that one can speak of a '1transition
temperature"; in other cases, e.g., of many low-
alloy ferritic steels, it is spread over hundreds of
degrees F.
Figure L 18 shows schematically how the classical
theory interpreted the transition phenomenon [28].
Y is the curve giving the temperature dependence of
the yield stress; the curve q Y ( = 2 or 3 times Y),
therefore, represents the highest tensile stress that
an atomically sharp crack can produce during plastic
yielding. Experiments and theory show that the
temperature dependence of the brittle strength B
schematically indicated in the figure. It is seen that
the tensile fracture is entirely brittle below the tem-
perature Tb, even in the absence of any notch. If a
notch or crack of maximum sharpness is present,
brittle fracture is possible below the temperature T,,
but not above it.
 rt' 1
~\

t .
k

18 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

n
f"
\J
r,"]
Recent investigations [29] have shown that the the tensile stress to the fracture leve! in typical cases
fundamental cause of brittle fracture in normally of notch brittleness under static loading; it must be
ductile steels is not plastic constraint but the ab- aided by strain hardening, and this requires con- '
normally high velocity-dependence of the yield stress siderable plastic deformation. However, brittle '
f1
of ferritic steels. The experiment from which this
can be recognized is as follows: The edge of a low-
carbon steel plate is provided with a brittle crack by
fracture can start in a welded structure with very
little plastic deformation. The plastic strains pro-
duced by thermal expansion and contraetion during
1 ~:

forcing a chisel into a notch at a low temperature.
If the plate is subjected to tension at room tempera-
ture, it is found that the brittle crack is unable to
welding and the corresponding strain hardening can
bardly be made' responsible for this, because the
thermal strains seem too small to take the material
rnu..
propagate as a brittle crack. Instead, large plastic
deformations arise around its tip, accompanied by
sorne fibrous crack propagation; alter this, the frac-
ture suddenly reverts from the ductile to the cleavage
beyond the region of yield into that of strain
hardening.
The final question is this: What is the condition
under which the clesvage crack arising from the in-
~
1

[
n ';

~n[J
'-'

t.ype and the newly crested brittle crack runs across termediate ductile crack in static loading becomes a
the plate. This shows that, at low rates of straining, rapidly running crack, in which the velocity-increase :i~-
plastic deformation in microscopically small regions of the yield stress can replace the hesvy plastic de-
around the tip of a brittle crack cannot creste the
degree of triaxiality of tension necessary for brittle
formation necessary around a slowly extending crack
to produce cleavage? A crack can run rapidly under
-~
~
~!.\
~-
':;{
g
,J
iL
fracture; quite large deformations, such as can be static load only if the work required for its propa- ~
Li
seen with the naked eye and felt with the fingers, gation is obtained from the elastic energy stored in _!_;_
:~

are required. However, once cleavage cracking the specimen. It was seen in Section 1.5 that the i}"
":;..
starts again, it runs at high speed and without large Griffith equation {1.48), by virtue of its derivation,
.?
iJ
plastic deformations. is the condition for the crack propagation work to
The simplest interpretation of these 0bservations
is that in the brittle fracture of steel' the stress is
be supplied from the relessed elastic energy; how-
ever, it cannot be applied directly to brittle fracture
.,~

-:--- J]
~ ...
raised to the leve! of the brittle strength by the high in steel. It has been found [27] that clesvage frac- " r
t
\_

rate of plastic deformation around the tip of a run-

ning crack rather than by plastic constraint. With-
out a sufficiently high velocity of the crack, the
ture in low-carbon steel around room temperature
is not quite brittle; there is a thin cold-worked !ayer
at the surface of fracture, representing an energy of
~
~
;~

i
o
'{-,
u
production of the plastic constraint necessary for cold work of about 2 X 106 ergs/cm2 Thisis around
clesvage fracture requires such extensive plastic 1000 times greater than the surface energy of steel;
D
1
deformations that the fracture, though of the cleav- the work of crack propagation per unit area of the <:. .. '
!
age type, is far from being brittle, i.e., of low energy crack walls, therefore, is given by the plastic surface '
consumption. Triaxiality of tension, then, is prob-
ably no more than one of severa! ways of initiating
work p, beside which the surface energy is negligible.
If the plastic surface work per unit ares of the cleav- f
f]
L;
clesvage fracture;-the clesvage fracture is then trans- age fracture can be treated on the same footing as ~..
formed into brittle clesvage fracture by the velocity the surface energy, the condition for the work of n
effect u pon the yield stress as the crack gathers speed.
The rather exceptional combination of ductility
propagation of a brittle crack in steel to be supplied
by the simultaneously released elastic energy is
u
with potential brittleness in steel may be understood [24, 32]
now as being a consequence of another exceptional {1.49)
property of low-carbon steels, the unusually strong
dependence of their yield stress upon the rate of instead of the Griffith equation {1.48). In eq. 1.49
straining [30, 31]. The yield stress of copper or the factor V2J; has been omitted to indicate that
aluminum increases only sorne 10 to 20 per cent be- the equation does not pretend to be accurate enough
tween "static" and ballistic testing speeds; for low- for this factor to matter.
carbon steels, however, increases of lOO and 200 Brittle cleavage fracture in steel, therefore, re-
per. cent have been recorded. quires the fulfilment of two conditions:
Why such large deformations are needed for start- l. The temperature must be below the transition
ing clesvage fracture at the tip of a crack under slow
tension is a question not yet answered. It has been
range;
2. The applied stress must satisfy the crack propa- 1
suggested that plastic constraint alone cannot raise gation equation {1.49).

1 ~

1
J
 STRENGTH ANO FAILURE OF MATERIALS
The first condition is satisfied by most structural
steels, at least at low winter temperatures. The de-
signer, therefore, can avoid the possibility of brittle
fracture only by taking care that the crack propaga-
tion condition should not be satisfied. The simplest,
although practically not always easy or even feasi-
ble, way to do this is to avoid the presence of cracks
exceeding in length a certain limit. The smaller the
crack length e, the higher is the (mean) tensile
stress " in the plate at which crack propagation is
possible. Since the stress cannot rise above the
yield stress Y, the length of the smallest crack that
can start brittle fracture is obtained from eq. 1.49 as
eo ,; Ep/Y2 (1.50)
Cracks below this length are harmless (unless, of
course, they can grow by a non-brittle mechanism
which does not reqnire the fulfilment of the crack
propagation condition, eq. 1.49). If, therefore, the
possibility of cracks exceeding in length the critica!
value eo can be e!iminated by careful fabrication or
inspection, brittle fracture cannot occur even below
the transition temperatura With E=3X107 psi=
2 X 1012 dynefcm2 , p = 2 X 106 ergfcm2 , and
Y = 6 X 104 psi = 4.1 X 109 dyne/cm2 for the
strain-hardened steel, the critica! mnimum crack
length eo is obtained from eq. 1.50 as
Co = 0.25 cm = 0.1 in.
To avoid any crack exceeding this length is diflicult
and costly, but not impossible, as is shown by the
l occasional use of non-aging low-carbon steels for
pressure vessels at liquid-air temperatures.
Alternatively, the designer may attempt to keep
the stress leve! so lo\v that eq. 1.49 is not satisfied
even though the longest cracks unavoidably present
roight exceed the critica! length Co If, e.g., the
presence of cracks of 0.4 in. length cannot be ex-
cluded, the :tensile stress must be kept below 30,000
psi; cracks of 1 in. length would set an upper safe
liroit of about 19,000 psi to the stress, and so on.
Naturally, the propagation condition (1.49} may
not be the only condition that must be satisfied
befare brittle fracture can occur. If eq. 1.49 is cor-
rect, brittle fracture cannot occur below the stresses
derived from it; however, sorne other, more exacting
condition may in sorne cases set a higher limit, so
that fracture in fact may not occur at stresses as low
as correspond to eq. 1.49. A simple example of this
is the case of a steel plate containing a brittle crack
and subjected to slowly applied tensile stress, as in
. the experimenta described above. Although the test at the lowest service temperature gives a high
stress given by eq. 1.49 may be quite low, the crack
19
cannot start to propagate befare considerable plastic
deformation takes place around its tip, and the
stress required for this may be quite clooe to the
yield stress of the plate. In other words, in this
case an initiation condition must be satisfied besides
the propagation condition, and the former is more
exacting.
In recent experiments [33] in which the difficulty
of crack initiation .was overcome by a wedge ham-
mered into the crack by the impact of a bullet, frac-
ture could not be provoked below a fairly clearly
recognizable stress leve! which depended on the con-
ditions of the experiment (noteh angle, plate size,
etc.). Since the mechanics of the crack initiation by
wedge impact is very complex, it is difficult to rec-
ognize the significance of this result. The observed
stress threshold is probably due to the necessity to
satisfy sorne crack initiation condition; whether this
condition is of more general significance, ora particu-
lar characteristic .of the wedge impact experiment,.
is an open question.
The practica] importance of brittle fractures in
steel structures has rapidly increased in recent times,
owing to the widespread use of welding and of high-
tensile steels. Welding results in high residual tensile
stresses adjacent to the seam, and it may also cause
structural damage (e.g., grain boundary oxidation).
This may lead to the formation of cracks which can
run across the weld seam and wreck the entire struc-
ture in a fraction of a second. The high yie!d stress
of many modern steels, obtained by alloying addi-
tions, cold work, or heat treatment, may lure the
designer to the use of working stresses under which
spontaneous crack propagation becomes possible
(cf. eq. 1.49). C!early, an uncritical raising of the
design stresses on the ground of the increased yield
stress is entirely unjustified, unless the transition
range is also considerably lowered. If the latter
condition is not satisfied, higher yield stress may
merely mean that the working stress is no longer
determined by the yield stress but by the necessity
of avoiding brittle fracture.
Good ductility (high fracture strain, reduction of
area) in the ordinary tensi!e test ending with ductile
fracture does not mean increased immunity to brittle
fracture in the case of ferritic steels. The possibility
of brittle fracture can be assessed only by determin-
ing the transition curve of the steel and estimating
the size of the most dangerous crack that may be
present. For low-carbon steels, it appears that a
fracture work of 15 ft-lb in the V-notch Charpy
degree of protection against brittle fracture even if
20 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Table 1.1
Sta tic Cyclic
Mechanical Creep fracture Ordinary cyclic
fatigue
Chemical Delayed fracture Corrosion fatigue
of glass stress
corrosion
cracks cannot be avoided. This figure, however,
does not apply to harder steels. If a heat-treated
high-tensi!e steel of 160,000 psi yield stress gives a
V-notch Charpy value of 15 ft-lb; the deformation
of the notch-bend specimen is only about one-quarter
of that of a plain low-carbori. steel with the same
Charpy value but a yield stress of only 40,000 psi.
The 15 ft-lb high-tensi!e steel, therefore, has a
tendency to brittle fractur comparable to that of
a hot-rolled low-carbon steel with a Charpy value
of 4ft-lb.
If a steel is to be nsed in the brittle-fracture
danger zone of temperatura and stress, careful
design and workmanship are of the greatest impor-
tance. Sharp stress concentrations, such as abrupt
cross-sectional changes, sharp thread profiles, or
blind root welds, must be avoided, and the formation
of cracks during fabrication and heat treatment
prevented. On important equipment, or where
failure may endanger !ives, particular attention
must be given to careful inspection and to the
removal of interna! stresses.
1.8 Fatigue
A. General Features. The term "fatigue" is
used if a specimen breaks under a load which it has
previously withstood for a length of time, or during
a load cycle which it has previously withstood a
number of times. There is a remarkably sharp
distinction between those cases of fatigue in which
only the total duration of loading matters while it is
of secondary importance whether the load is steady
or interrupted, and those where only the number of
load cycles matters and the duration of the cycles is
of a subordinate importance. The first type of
fatigue is called statw, the second cyclw.
Purely elastic deformation cannot cause fatigue;
all it does is to strain atomic bonds, and these
cannot wear out. Fatigue can be the consequence
either of non-elastic deformations (i.e., of lattice
injuries or intergranular displacements it produces),
or of chemical or physicochemical processes ac-
celerated by the applied load. Thus, fatigue phe-
nomena can be classified according to their physical
cause a.s mechanical or chemical.
In this way, a twofold subdivision of fatigue
phenomena is obtained, as illustrated in Table l. l.
An example of static mechanical fatigue is creep
fracture, already discussed in Section 1.4. A little-
known case of static fatigue is that obse:ved in the
brittle fracture of steels which may occur suddenly
after prolonged steady loading. The time delay
between the application of the stress and the occur-
rence of fracture must be due to a slowly progressing
deformation process; the rate of this process may be
determined by the rate at which carbon atoms
diffuse in the iron lattice. Thus, the delayed brittle
fracture of steel may possibly represent a case of
physicochemical static fatigue.
The cause of the static fatigue of glass is un-
doubtedly physicochemical (34]. It is known that
air (probably mainly its moisture content) reduces
the .surface energy of mica by a factor of 10 or 12.
It must also reduce the surface energy of glass;
consequently, the Griflith crack propagation con-
dition (eq. 1.48) may be fulfilled for a given stress
cr and crack length e in the presence of air (i.e., when '
--t-
a has a lowered value), but not in vacuum. In this
case, the crack can only propagate at the rate at
which air or moisture can diffuse to its tip. After a
period of slow propagation with the help of absorbed
moisture, the crack length m8.y i:ncrease to the value
at wlch the applied stress can propagate the crack
even without the reduction of the surface energy by
moisture; fracture then occurs suddenly. The
physicochemical nature of the delayed fracture in
glasses is verified by tbe observation that static
fatigue is absent in vacuum.
The best known type of static fatigue .due to
chemicat action is stress corrosion, of which the
"season cracking" of cold-worked brass and the
14
caustic embrittlement" of steel are familiar ex-
amples. In sorne cases, its cause is the precipitation
of a phase in the grain boundary which deprives the
adjacent parts of the grains of an element that
increases the resistance to chemical attack (35]. In
the case of sorne austentic Cr-Ni steels, for instance,
chromium carbide may segregate in the boundary
during heating in a certain temperature region, and
the boundary regions of the grains are then depleted
in chromium. Crack propagation by solution of the
more easily attacked (more anodic) boundary layers
cannot progresa, hwever, without the presence of a
tensile stress which opens up the crack and provides
space for the corrosion products. U nder the applied
stress plastic deformation occurs at the tip .of the
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
crack; this may disrupt protective layers, and the
increased free energy of the deformed region makes it
more susceptible to attack (more anodic ). Whether
these two effects represent important causes of stress
corrosion is not certain.
Stress-corrosion cracking can progress not only
along the grain boundaries but also acrss the grains;
brass single crystals crack under tension in the
presence of ammonia much like polycrystalline
brass [36, 37]. This suggests the possibility of a
stress-corrosion mechanism similar to that of the
static fatigue of glass [38]. The effective surface
energy of the crack walls which enters into the
Griffith equation (1.48) can be lowered not only by
adsorption but even more radically by chemieal
combination between the corrosive agent and the
metal atoms; .consequently, a crack may propagate
in the presence of a corrosive medium by cleavage
under a relatively low tensile stress while, in the
absence of corrosion, the propagating stress de-
manded by eq. 1.48 may be higher than the yield
stress so that crack propagation by cleavage is
impossible. Obviously, the effect of the adsorptive
or corrosive is to cut the cohesive bonds between the
atoms of the crack walls at an early stage of the
deavage process, by converting -them into chemical
or van der Waals bonds between the atoms of the
crack walls and the atoms, molecules, or ions of the
adsorptive or corrosive agent.
In accordance with its chemical origin, the sus-
ceptibility of metals to stress corrosion is extremely
specific. Thus, for instance, the caustic embrittle-
ment of Cr-Ni-Mo low-alloy steels apparently can be
avoided by omitting any one of the three alloying
elements.
Corrosion fatigue differs from stress corrosion in
that it occurs only if the stress vares cyclically. It
is fairly insensitive to the duration of the cycles (i.e.,
to the total duration of stress application). Corro-
sion fatigue starts with the appearance of surface
pits which then spread and join up to form surface
grooves. not unlike the cracks on the bark of a birch
tree. These pits and blunt cracks apparently de-
,elop because they give rise to stress concentrations
Time
Fm. 1.19 Typical stress cycle.
21
log S
(s.,...
omplitvde)
. -- --.....
'--~:g~hfriti~ mafeals
Log N (Nu.,:.bor of cydes
to froctvre} .
FIG. 1.20 Representative fatigue fracture stress
-curves for metals.
where the increased elastic energy or plastic deforma-
tion locally raises the free energy; at these spots the
material is electrolytically more soluble in the corc.
rosive solution (more anodic) than its surroundings.
Another possible reason for the local attack is that
the plastic deformation at the pits or cracks may
prevent the formation of protective (passive) layers.
Those features of corrosion fatigue which are of
quantitative interest to the designer will be men-
tioned briefly after the treatment of ordinary
mechanical cyclic fatigue. The chemical mechanisms
of corrosion fatigue, like those of stress corrosion, are
too specific to allow any general treatment. In
what follows. therefore, the main emphasis "~ be
laid on common mechanical fatigue, which is the
most important fatigue phenomenon from the point
of view of the engineer
The existence of mechanical fatigue of materials
under cyclic stressing was established by Rankine
in 1843, and the basic laws of the phenomenon were
investigated experimentally by L. Wohler between
1852 and 1869. To describe it in clear terms, a
simple terminology should first be introduced.
Generally, a cyclic stress is the superposition of a
steady stress s and an altemating stress of amplitude
S and range 2S (Fig. 1.19). The stress amplitude
that causes fracture after N cycles will be called the
fmigue strength for N cycles; if it tends towards a
finite value for infinitely increasing N, this will be
called the limiting fatigue strength or, briefly, the
!migue limit. In the literature, the fatigue strength
is usually called fatigue endurance; however,
there is no reason why the correct technical term
"strength" for a fracture stress should not be used in
this case also. The fatigue strength depends, in
general, on the steady stress superposed upon the
purely altemating stress.
If the logarithm of S (the stress amplitude) is
plotted as a function of the logarithm of N (the
number of cycles to fracture), curves of the type
shown in Fig. 1.20 are obtained. Plain carbon steels
 22 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
,....._--Lum,-<ue_rrcoJo_Jo.LeJ"'-<OY.!~Q!!.gmo to harden it so that
Fto. 1.21 Effect of high-amplitude fatigue on silver
chloride sheet.
mrually have a clearly defined fatigue limit; recent
experiments indicate that this may be a consequence
of the phenomenon of strain aging shown by such
steels. Nonferrous materials may also give curves
showing, more or less clearly, two straight parts
connected by a curved transition region;- however,
the second straight part is usually not quite hori-
zontal but slightly descending. In such cases, there
is no clear fatigue limit within the experimentally
accessible values of N. The fatigue strength on
which the desigu must be based is then that for the
number of cycles which the structure must with-
stand during ita intended life.
B. The Mechanism of Fatigue. A revealing
observation about the mechanism of fatigue is that
the fatigue crack, in general, seems to run along slip
planes, not cleavage planes [39, 40]. This c!lll be
recoguized without ambiguity in iron where slip
planes and cleavage planes never coincide.
It seems that alternating slip can lead to the de-
velopment of high tensile stresses in the slip planes
due to a progressive warping of the slip "packets" in
the course of cyclic straining. Figure 1.21 shows the
waviness developed during a high-amplitude fatigue
test in sorne of the large grains in a polycrystalline
silver chloride sheet. The development of tensile
stresses during the warping' of slip planes may be
understood by means of the dislocation theory of
plastic deformation [41, 42]; if the stress is high
enough, it can cause local fracture.
However, the local tensile stresses which arise in
the course of prolonged alternating slip do not pro-
vide a sufficient explanation -of mechanical fatigue.
If the material strain-hardens with plastic deforma-
no further slip can occur unless the stress amplitude
of the following cycles is progressively_ increa.sed;
how, then, can alternating slip continue in tests at
constant stress amplitude? On the other hand,
observations show that altemating slip continues,
with gradually decreasing amplitude, even in safe
ranges of stress; how can it then be explained that,
in such cases, even hundreds of millions of non-
elastic strain cycles are insufficient for accumulating
the amount of interna! stress and lattice damage
necessary for fracture? Thus, the basic questions
of fatigue are (1) How is progressive slip and struc-
tural damage possible under cycles of constant stress
amplitude; and (2) How are safe ranges of stress
possible?
The answer to these questions is given by the
general theory of fatigue [42, 24], which is concerned
with those typical features of the fatigue phenomenon
which are largely independent of the individual
molecular mechanism of the fatigue damage. A
quantitative description of the theory would require
too much space to be presented in this chapter; how-
ever, a qualitative outline of the main points can be
given briefly.
The salient point is that in cyclic stressing
progressive plastic deformation soon becomes con-
fined to relatively small regions (e.g., at the tips of
small cracks, or in particularly unfavorably situ?-ted
grains) which are then surrounded by more or less
purely elastic material. Now it is ea.sily seen that.
if a largely elastic specimen is subjected to cycles of
constant stress amplitude, a small plastic region
em bedded in it will experience slress cycles of
increasing and strain cycles of decreasing amplitude.
This is a consequence of progressive strain harden-
ing: as the yield stress of the plastic region rises, its
elastic surroundings have to exert upon it increasing
stress amplitudes to enforce further plastic deforma-
tion. By Hooke's law the elastic surroundings must
then suffer increasing strain amplitudes, and so the
strain amplitude in the plastic region decreases
because the sum of the two strain amplitudes must
remain constant for a given amplitude of stress
applied to the specimens as a whole.
The gradual decrease of the plastic strain ampli- fj
tude explains why sale ranges of stress are possible.
It can be shown [42, 43] that the total (integrated
absolute) amount of plastic strain in an elastically
u
l
u
 STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS
embedded strain-hardening plastic region always con-
verges towards a finite value as the number of cycles
increases toward infinity. This limit value of the
total plastic strain decreases with the decrease of
the stress amplitude applied to the specimen.
Below a certain stress amplitude the total plastic
strain can never reach the critica! value necessary
for producing that combinatjon of strain hardening
(i.e., of the local stress amplitude) and structural
damage at. which fracture occurs. On the other
hand, if the local plastic region fractures, a small
crack arises and gives rise to a region of stress
concentrations in which plastic deformations may
now begin. A repetition of the above procesa may
lead to the extension of the crack and finally to the
fracture of the specimen.
An interesting point emerging from the theory is
that a fatigue fracture can arise without any re-
duction of the cohesion (strength) by structursl
damage. Strain hardening alone may raise the
stress in plastic regions gradually to the fracture
leve! even if the initial strengtb of the material is
not reduced in the course of the alternating plastic
straining. In most real cases, however, increase of
the local stress by strain hardening and reduction
of tbe strength by structural injuries probably go
hand in hand.
Observations indicate that, in reality, the last
traces of alternating slip never disappear; there is
apparently a minimum value of the plastic strain
amp!itude below which no strain hardening is
produced. This can be recognized most directly
from the fact that the width of the hysteresis loop
decreases but does not vanish during cyclic stressing.
It may be mentioned that the general theory of
fatigue leads to a semiquantitative derivation of the
typical shape of the log S-log N curve, and it also
100
Curve 1; O.lt.
1! Curve 3; O.o45X
"
~-
0
! 50
b
1
<
"'
~------~~~---+~--~~~~--_L----~~_J
o ~ 100
S. ~n Sll'e$$ of Cyde, 10:J psi
FIG. 1.22 Dependence of fatigue atrength on ateady stress in plain ca.rbon steels.
23
explains the remarkable fact (see below) that the
inJ!uence of the steady stress upon the fatigue
strength is, as a rule, very small and sometimes
imperceptible up to the value of the static yield
stress.
To sum up, it can be said that the typical featur""
of fatigue under cycles of constant stress amplitude
follow directly from the fact that plastic deformation
is not uniformly distributed but, after an initial
deformation that may possibly extend over most of
the specimen, becomes confined to a few local
regions. Once plastic f!ow becomes locally con-
centrated, the conditions governing the development
a
f fatigue cracks can be investigated by general
consideration of the change of stress and strain
amplitudes in plastic regions embedded in elastic
surroundings subjected to cycles of constant stress
amplitude. As far as the general features of the
fatigue phenomenon are concerned, the molecular
nature of the fatigue procesa is of secondary im-
portance; in particular, fatigue fracture might con-
ceivably occur without any decrease of the cohesion,
solely by the rise of the local stress by strain harden-
ing to the fracture leve!.
C. lnfiuence of a Superposed Steady Stress.
Figure 1.22 shows the dependence of the fatigue
strength (limiting stress amplitude) of three plain-
carbon steels on the steady stress (mean stress of the
cycle) according to the experimento of Pomp and
Hempel [44, 45, 46]; the dash-dotted lines at 45
to the coordinate axes are the loci of the points at
which the maximum stress of the cycle (including
the steady stress) reaches the conventional elastic
limit (in the present case, the 0.2% proof stress).
The curves ref!ect, first of all, a general feature of the
dependence of the fatigue strength upon the steady
stress: up to the elastic limit, they represent straight
u,
1~ ~
 -)'..]
i_.

24 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

those for the smooth rod (owing to "plastic con-
-~
straint" excrted by the adjacent larger sections)
~100 its fatigue strength, however, is reduced by th~
{
u ----- stress concentration present. Figure 1.24 shows fa-
tigue strength curves for 1 in. and 11 in, Whitworth

\ 1
1
~----~----~----~------~
o ,. 200
\00
'"'
1. Mean Streu al Cycle, 10 3 p~i
FIG. 1.23 Dependence of fatigue strength on steady
in patented (0.62% 0) ateel wire.
lines which. slope downwards only slightly with
increasing steady stress. Occasionally this line is
horizontal; in al! cases, the influence of the mean
stress on the fatigu strength is small.
Another feature of Fig. 1.22 is the rapid change
of the character of the curve at the elastic limit.
The slope changes abruptly with the onset of sig-
nificant plastic deformations; the curves show a
distinct increase of the fatigue strength (limiting
safe stress amplitude superposed to the steady stress)
at the end of the elastic region. This "step" at the
elastic limit is followed by a second abrupt change
of slope, during which the fatigue strength declines
with further increase of the steady stress.
With 'strongly cold-worked metals, proof stress
and ultimate stress nearly coincide. In such cases
only the first part of the "step" seen in Fig. 1.22
can be observed. An example is shown in Fig. 1.23
("patented" steel wire, 0.62% C) [45].
If a rod is circumferentially notched (e.g., if it
is thrcaded), its static yield and ultimate stresses
referred to the smallest cross section are higher than
:~ >01
u
threaded rods of the carbon stee!'which, in the form
of smooth cylindrical specimens, gives curve 1 in
Fig. 1.22 (this curve is repeated in Fig. 1.24) [46].
The designer is mainly interested in stresses
within the. elastic limit; for this reason, the present
considerations will be confined to the first part of
the curves in Fig. 1.22. This can be represented
stre~
schematically as a straight line connecting the point
P of the fatigue strength in purely alternating
stressing with a point Q on the abscissa axis (cf.
Fig. 1.25); as before, the dash-dotted 45 line
represents the elastic limit beyond which curve
deviates from the line PQ. In the stress range of
interest to the designr, the effect of the steady
stress is therefore given by the equation
S=So(1-~)
. 8p
(1.51)
where S is the fatigue strength at the steady stress s,
So its value for s = O, and sp = OQ, a stress param-
eter that determines the .position of the line PQ.
For many decades in the past, the dependence of
the fatigue strength upon the steady stress was
usually represented by the Goodman diagram in
which the assumption was made that the stress
parameter sp = OQ can be identified with the ulti-
mate stress; the Goodman diagram is indicated
in Figure 1.25 by the dashed line PU where OU is
the ultimate stress. Goodman's idea was that the
line would have to go through the point at which
"failure" would occur in purely static tension. As
can be seen from the discussion in Section 1.3, this
argument is invalid: the ultimate stress is not a
stress at which fracture occurs but merely the

..e
u
~
Ploin ba~

o
..,; 25
1" and 1r
bors, overoge
Whitworth threoded
~olue~

,. "
Mean Stress. s, ol Cycle. 10) pii

FJG. 1.24 Comparison of fatigue strengths of plain and Fta. 1.25 The influence of steady (mean) stress upon
threaded bars of 0.1% e stcels. the fatigue limit.
 ,,
!(
STRENGTH ANO FAILURE OF MATERIALS
,,!l (conventional) stress at which the maximum load is
reached and necking begins in the static tensile
llr
cr
test. For this reason, the ultimate stress point U
has no place on any curve showing the dependence
of the fatigue strength upon the steady stress, and
much less on the straight line that forms the initial
elastic part of such curves. In the experimental
X. curves shown in Fig. l.22,.for instance, the extension
' of the initial straight part may intersect the abscissa
]~
axis quite far from the point U of the ultimate
stress; the stress parameter sp in eq. 1.51 and the
! position of the point Q can only be derived from
! fatigue tests. The only point that can be made in
defense of the Goodman line is that its errors, how-
X i ever large, usual!y lie in the safe direction.
D. Influence of a Compound State of Stress.
Relatively little is known about the condition
J: of fatigue fracture for cyclically varying triaxial
'' states of stress. However, a practically important
y l
case, that of a shaft subjected to cyclic torsion and
bending simultaneously, has been investigated in
detail by Gough and Pollard [47]. They found that.
~ f ;
for a given (large) nnmber of cycles, those corre-
"(
. l
;
'i sponding values S and T, respectively, of the tensile-
stress amplitude due to bending and of the shear-
{ n' .. stress amplitude due to torsion at which fracture
...
' ;
'' ;.
~
occurs are determined approximately by the re-
lationship
~ ,,,
'
~
(1.52)
X where Sois the fatigue strength for the same nnmber
1
of cycles in pure bending, and T 0 the fatigue (shear)
( strength in pure torsion.
E. Inlluence ofNotches and of Surface Flaws.
Stress raisers are relatively 'unimportant in ductile
metals under static stress, because plastic fiow levels
1: down the stress at the stress concentrations. In
cyclic stressing, the situation is different: local
cyclic straining produces progressive strain harden-
ing with consequent rise of the local stress. If the
strain hardening could continue with cyclic plastic
deformation at a finite rate, no matter how small
the plastic strain amplitude, it would finally raise
the yield stress until no p!astic deformation could
occur. The local alternating stress amplitude and
the effective stress concentration factor would then
be the same as in a purely elastic body of the same
geometry.
Experience shows that this is not the case in
fatigue. The effect of notches, cracks, and surface
fiaws is usually much greater than in static stressing,
but it is still far below what it would be for a purely
25
elastic material. The simplest explanation of this
remarkable fact is to assume that cyclic straining
ceases to produce strain hardening w!>en the strain
amplitude becomes too small (see above); if this is
the case, the material at the tip of the crack never
becomes quite elastic and the stress can never reach
the leve! of the elastic stress concentration. Dif-
ferent materials have different "n~tch sensitivities" 6
(not to be confused with the notch sensitivity for
static brittle fracture). Sorne of them, like grey
lamellar cast iron or certain bronzes, are almost
insensitive to the presence of small sharp cracks or
notches; their q value will therefore be close to zero.
Others, like harci steels, are very sensitive, with q
in the neighborhood of l.
Similarly, the surface quality has an .infiuence
upon the fatigue strength of ductile metals that .is
between those for a completely brittle material
like glass and for a ductile metal under static stress.
Occasionally, the fatigue strength of extruded light-
alloy rods with the extrusion skin has been found
to be as low as one-half of the fatigue strength of a
machined specimen of the same rod. In sorne cases,
the fatigue strength can be raised considerably by
surface rolling or shot blasting (e.g., for heat-treated
spring steels); in others, such a treatment has no
siguificant beneficia! infiuence (e.g., with mauy
light alloys). Excessive surface rol!ing or ,shot
blasting in materials of limited ductility may ev,en
reduce the fatigue strength by producing surface
cracks.
There is a difference of great importance between
the fatigue strength of a ductile metal and the
(static) strength of a brittle materiallike glass. In
the latter case, the strength can be raised sometimes
by a factor of 10 or even lOO if surface cracks are
very carefully avoided. In ductile metals, it is
relatively easy to improve the quality of the surface
so that any remaining fiaws have no infiuence on the
fatigue strength. However, this does not raise the
fatigue strength spectacularly because plastic defor-
mations set in as soon as the elastic'limit is exceeded,
and they produce cracks after sufficiently prolonged
cyclic stressing in a way that is now more or less
understood. For this reason, there is no hope that
the fatigue strength may be raised much above the
elastic limit. If, on the other hand, the elastic limit
is raised by strain hardening, precipitation harden-
6A conventional quantitative definition o the rela.tive notch
sensitivity q in cyclic stress is q = (k- 1)/(ko:- 1) where
kc is the ela~tic stress concentration factor for a given notch
and k is the factor by which the fatigue strength is reduced
by the presence of the notch. Of course, q dependa in general
on the size and shape of the notch.
26 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
ing, or in any other way, a decrease of ductility is
unavoidably associated with the increase of the
fatigue strength.
F. Fatigue Tests on Specirnens vs. Fatigue
Tests on Structural Parts. The strength of
structural partS under static load can usually- be
calculated with reasonable accuracy on the_ basis of
tests performed on specimens. Stress concentrations
either do not matter (in very ductile materials), or
they can be calculated by methods given in the
theory of elasticity. The situation, however, is very
different in cyclic stressing. The effective stress con-
centration factors depend here not only on the geom-
etry and on the elastic constants, but in the first Iine
on the "notch sensitivity" of the material, which
depends on the size of the notch. Whenever a
structural part has a strongly non-uniform stress
distribution, therefore, its fatigue properties cannot
be calculated from tests on specimens W:ith any
reasonable accuracy. If the structural part cannot
be overdimensioned so asto exclude any danger, it is
necessary to carry out full-scale fatigue tests on it
[48]. This is particularly important, of course, in
the case of aircraft structures. As already mentioned,
attention must be given in any case to possible dif-
ferences between the fatigue behavior of specimens
with carefully machined surfaces and specimens or
structural parts with surfaces as they will be present
in the structure.
There is a more trivial reason why so often conclu-
sions drawn from experiments with specimens are not
fulfilled by structures. Fatigue tests are usually con-
stant stress tests, occasionally constant strain tests.
On the other hand, if a structnre is subjected to cycles
of constant load or deformation amplitude, sorne of
its elements (for instance, regions of stress concentra-
tions) will be under cycles of increasing stress
amplitude and decreasing strain amplitude, for the
reason explained above in connection with the general
theory of fatigue. It follows, then, that the results
of constant amplitude tests cannot be applied directly
to the calculation of the fatigue strength of structures
with non-uniform stress distribution. A general
method of calculation in such cases has been given
[43]; for the present, however, Iack of experimental
data prevents the practica! use of this method except
in the simplest cases.
G. Periodically Varying Therrnal Stresses.
If a body is rigidly clamped at two points, increase
or decrease of its temperature gives rise to thermal
stresses in it. The magnitude of these stresses de-
pends not only on the temperature change and on the
material, but also on the shape of the body; in a
multiply bent, relatively thin tube the stresses are
nrL>'
much lower than in a straight bar fixed at two cross
l
sections.
Obviously, the action of a stress upon a material H
is quite independent of how it is produced; conse-
quently, the fatigue effect of a thermal stress cycle
fl
1 .
.J
is identical with that of a mechanical load cycle h
involving the same stresses at the same temperatures.
Compared with the ordinary fatigue test, the only
n
new factor introduced by the thermal cycling of a
LJ
1'
rigidly supported specimeu is that, together with the
;
'' '
stress, the temperature also vares during the cycle.
If the temperature amplitude is relatively small, the rJ
.
.
fatigue effects of a thermal cycle will be the same as
those of an isothermal load cycle involving the same n
stresses ata constant temperature equal toa suitably
chosen mean temperature of the thermal cycle. That
u1 "
d
this can be so even for cycles of considerable tempera-
ture amplitude is indicated by recent experiments of
Coffin [49]. The equivalent mean temperature of
the cycle, however, is not necessarily the mean value
~'
(:_
.
:
of its highest and lowest temperatures. If the magni-
tude of fatigue damage is determined mainly by the
amount of plastic deformation, the temperature of
n
the equivalent isothermal cycle willlie nearer to the
maximum than to the mean temperature of the
thermal cycle because the material is softest, and
plastic deformation greatest, in the high temperature
part of the cyclc. The opposite behavior (the low-
temperature part of the cycle being of dominating
importance) may conceivably also occur. If the
specimen is a straight rod or tube with fixed ends, it
is always in tension during the low-temperature part
of the cycle. If now the tensile part of the cycle is
more likely to produce fatigue damage than the com-
pressive part, the effect of the thermal cycle may be
closer to- that of an isothermal cycle with the same
f]
t.
stress range taking place near the Jowest temperature
of the stress cycle. '[J_:_.
l
A new factor appears (both in thermal and in
purely mechanical cycling) if the temperature is so
'
high that the strain hardening and the structural
damage due to plastic deformation are currently re-
moved during the cyclic straining. In this case, the
progressive changes which represent cyclic fatigue
cannot develop. Nevertheless, fracture may occur
owing to a different phenomenon which has been
treated already under the heading of creep fracture.
At very high temperatures (in the hot creep range),
the grain boundaries become soft, and the consequent
relative displacements between the neighboring
grains open up cracks which finally can lead to
fracture ("static fatigue"). At first sight, it might
ll
LJ
 - } STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS 27
seem that this cannot occur under purely cyclic stress
because the displacements produced by the tensile
part of the cycle are reversed by the compressive
part. However, the compressive part cannot undo
'
~

.. al! damage done by the tensile part, and so fatigue

fracture can also occur under purely cyclic stress, Stress Curve

although much more slowly than under a steady

tensile stress.
~

i
Lazan and W estberg [50] have carried out experi-
ments in the interesting transition region just below
..
l
the hot-creep range; they applied both purely cyclic
;! and purely static stresses and intermediate types of
.. ~ loading with a static stress superposed upon steady
stress. Figure 1.26 illustrates sorne of their results. Log N (N= Number of strflS cydes)
..
l .\s in room temperature experiments, a relatively FIG. 1.27 The damage are& in fatigue.
.. i low mean stress has only a s!ight influence upon the
fatigue strength if the durationof the test is not too further deformation [19b, 51]. In the course of the
~

~ long. If the time to fracture is 150 hours or longer, deformation, its relatively highly hardened structure
~
_: creep predominates over cyclic fatigue, and the changes to the less hardened structure characteriatic
' steady component of the cycle becomes important . of deformation at the higher temperatura A similar
from the beginning. The vertical parts of the curves strain-softening effect can also be observed in fatigue
}
show that the static fatigue strength is almost un- tests with previously strongly cold-worked materials
. '
1 : inf!uenced by the cyclic component until the cyclic [52]. This, however, does not mean that strain
.
\ S stress amplitude becomes higher than about one-ha!f hardening is not an important factor in fatigue.
g of the static stress. The observed curves, therefore, Local regions of stress concentration, e.g., at the tip
; fT consist essentially of a nearly horizontal part repre- of a fatigue crack, may well barden under cyclic
: senting cyclic fatigue (except in very prolonged tests, stressing, while the static yield stress of the pre-
e
'' as mentioned above), and of a vertical part repre- strained bulk material decreases by thermal recovery
::: ' senting creep fracture. The transition between the with or without strain softening.
horizontal and the vertical part is the region in which H. Thermal Fatigue. The most severe case of
cyclic and static fatigue are of comparable impor- cyclic thermal stressing takes place when the surface
- '* tance. of a metal is rapidly heated to a high temperature
If a material has been cold worked and then sub- and then cooled again. This occurs in hot rolls, gun
jected to plastic deformation at a higher tempera- barreis, etc.;. if the temperature amplitude is high,
ture, it may soften more than if it had been subjected the usual effect is the formation of surface cracks
to the effect of the higher temperature alone without ("crazing") which gradua\ly spread inwards. Fre-
quently this cannot be prevented; the life of the body
Speed of Cyding
can be prolonged, however, if the surface is machined
30 21.4,000 reversol5/hr. off befare the cracks become too deep. In other cases,
""
~ Time to Frodure
thermal cracking would occur with most materials
but can be avoided by the use of special metals, such
as, e.g., the 12% Cr steel used for ro\ls iri continuous
3-20
o
,_ i
sheet glass manufacture.
j Anisotropic metals such as zinc, or metals that
!!' suffer phase transformations in the temperature
~
o 10 range to which they are subjected, can suffer plastic
l deformations on a microscopic sc!:ile within the grains
which are confined and distorted by their neighbors,
"' even if there is no significant temperature gradient
present. This may result in progressive structural
s. Meen Streu of Cyde, to3 p5i damage during thermal cycling.
FIG. 1.26 Fatigue-creep rupture interaction curves for J. Damage by Overstrcss. If a material is sub-
N-155 at 1500 F. After Lazan and Westberg. jected to stress amplitudes above the fatigue limit,
28 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
it may suffer permanent damage which reduces its
fatigue strength for subsequently applied cycles of
lower stress amplitude. It seems that those combina-
tions of stress amplitude and number of cycles above
which permanent damage occurs lie in the area D
(Fig. 1.27) between the high-stress part of the
log S-log N curve and a line below it which joins the
curve at the bend [53]. This line, shown dashed in
Fig. 1.27, is the "damage line." The permanent
damage suffered in the damage area D consists proba-
bly in the formation of small cracks.
K. Corrosion Fa ligue. If the cyclically stressed
material is in a chemically active solution, its fatigue
strength may be substantially lowered. Whether in
this case an approximate fatigue limit exists is not
certain; as in stress corrosion, the phenomenon is so
strongly inf!uenced by the individuality of the metal
and of the surrounding solution that the only general
statement that can be made about it is a warning
against prematura extrapolations to even slightly
different metals and solutions.
References
l. M. Cook and E. C. Larke, "Resistance of Copper and
Copper Alloys to Homogeneous Deformation in Com-
pression," J4 Inst. Melals, Vol. 71, p. 371 (1945).
2. M. Tresea., "Mmoire sur le poinc;onnage et la. thorie
mcanique de 1& dformation des mta.ux," Compt. rend.,
Vol. 68, pp. 1197-1201 (1869).
3. R. Von Mises, "Mechanik der festen KOrper im plastisch-
deforma.blen Zustand," Nachr. kgl. Ges. Wiss. Math.-Phys.
Klasse, 1913, pp. 582-592.
4. R. Hill, The Mathematical Theqry of Plasticily, p. 20,
The Cla.rendon Presa, Oxford, 1950.
5. J. L. M. Morrison, ''The Yield of Mild Steel with Particular
Reference to Effect oi Size of Specimen," Proc., Inst.
Mech. Engrs. (L<mdon), Vol. 142, pp. 193-223 (1940).
6. O. Hoffman and G. Sachs, Introdudion te U.. Theory of
Plasl.icj.ly for Engineers, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York, 1953.
7. M. Considere, "L'emploi du fer et de l'acier dans les con-
etruCtions," Ann. Ponts el Chausses, 6th Seri~, Vol. 9,
pp. 574-775 (1885).
8. G. Sa.chs and J. D. Lubahn, "Failure of Ductile Metals in
Tension," Trans. ASME, Vol. 68, pp. 277-279 (1946).
9. H. \V. Swift, "Plastic lnstability Under Pla.ne Stress/'
Juurnal of Mech. & Phys. of Solids, Vol. I, No. 1, pp. 1-18
(October, 1952).
10. W. R. D. Manning, "The Overstrain of Tubes by Interna!
Pressure," Engineerin, VoL 159, pp. 101-102, 133-184
(1945); also "The Design of Compound Cylinders for
High Pressure Service," Engineering, Vol. 161, pp. 349-
352 (1947).
11. C. W. MaeGregor, L. F. Coffin, Jr., and J. C. Fisber,
"The Plastic Flow of Thick-Walled Tubes with Large
Strains," J. Appl. Phy11., VoL 19, pp. 291-297 (1948);
also "Partially Plastic Tbick-Walled Tubeat'' J. Franklin
lnst., Vol. 245, pp. 135--158 (1948).
12. E. N. da C. Andrade, "The Flow in Metals Under Large
Constant Stresses/' Proc. Roy. Soc., Series A, Vol. 90,
pp. 329--342 (1914).
13. P. Phillips, "The Slow Stretch in Indiarubber, Glase, and
Metal Wires when Subjected to a Constant Pull," Phi/.
M ag., 6th Series, Vol. 9, pp. 513-531 (1905).
14. F. H. Norton, Creep of Steel at High Temperatures,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1929.
15. C. R. Soderberg, 1'The Interpreta.tion .of Creep Tests
for Machine Design," Trans. ASME, Vol. 58, pp. 733-743
(1936). .
16. A. N dai, uTh Influence of Time. u pon Creep. The
Hyperbolic Sine Creep Law,U S. Timoshenko 60th Anni-
versary Vol., Macmillan Co., New York, 1938.
:17. E. Orowan, "Discussion on Plastic Flow in Metals,"
Proc. Roy Soc., Series A, Vol. 168, p. 307 (1938); also
f]
i
Proc. First Nat. Congr. Appl. Mech., June," 191i1, p. 453.
J. W. Edwards, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1952.
18. R. Becker, "ber die Plastizitat amorpher und kristal-
liner fester KOrper," Physik. Z., Vol. 26, p. 919 (1925);
also Z. Tech. Physik., Vol. 7, p. 547 (1926).
19. E. Orowan, "The Creep of.Metals," Z. Physik., Vol. 98,
p. 382 (1935) also "The Creep of Metala," Trans. West of
Scolland Irm Steel Inst., pp. 45--96 (1947).
20. F. R. Larson and J. Miller, "A Time-Temperature Rela-
tionship for Rupture and Creep Stresses," Trans. ASME,
Vol. 74, pp. 765-771 (1952).
21. N. J. Grant and A. G. Bucklin, On U.. Extrapolation of
Shart-Time Stress-Ruptu.re Data, ASM Preprint N o. 18,
1949.
22. A. A. Griffi.th, 1'The Phenomena of Rupture and Flow in
Solida," Trans. Jlqy. Soc., Series A, Vol. 221, pp. 163-198
(192(}-21); also First [nlern<lt. Congr. Appl. Mech., p. 55,
Delft, 1924.
23. C. E. Inglis, "StreBHeS iu a Pla.te due to the Piescncc of
Cracks and Sharp Cornera," Trans. Inst. Naval Archit.,
Vol. 55, Part I, pp. 219--230 (1913).
24. E. Orowan, "Fracture and Strength of Solida," Reports
m Progress in Physics, Vol. 12, pp. 165-232 (1949).
25. A. Mesnager, Runion des Membres Franrais et Belges de
l' Association 1nternationale des M thode d'Essais, pp. 395-
405, December, 1902.
26. P. Ludwik and R. Scheu, "ber Kerbwirkungen bei
Flusseisen," StahlundEisen, Vol. 43, pp. 999--1001 (1923).
27. E. Orowan, "Notch Brittleness and the Strength of
Metals," Trans. Inst. Engrs. Shipbuilders Swt., Paper
No. 1063, pp. 165-215, December, 1945.
28. N. N. Davidenkov and F. Wittman, 11 Mechanical Analy-
sis of lmpact Brittleness," Phys.-Techn. Inst. (U.S.S.R),
Vol. 4, p. 308 (1937).
29. D. K. Felbeck and E. Orowan, 11Experiments on Brittle
Fracture of Steel Plates," Welding J. (N. Y.), Res. Suppl.,
Vol. 20, No. 7 (1955).
30. M. J. Manjoine, ulnfl.uent"'e of Rate of Strain and Tem-
perature on Yield Stresses of Mild Steel," J. Appl.
Mechanics, Vol. 11, pp. A211-218 (1944).
31. G. I. Taylor, "Testing of Materials at High Rates of
Loading." J. Inst. Civ. Engrs., Vol. 26, pp. 486-519.
(1946).
32. E. Orowan, "Fundamentals of Brittle Behavior in
Metals,'' in William M. Murray, ed., Fatigue and Fracture
of Metals: A Symposium, pp. 139-167, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1952.
u
 1
'

STRENGTH ANO FAILURE OF MATERIALS 29

1 33. F. J. Feely, Jr., and M. S. Northup, "Study of Brittle
-
' Failure in Ta.nk Steels," presented at the Midyear Mtg.,
Am. Petr. lnst., in Houston, Texas, May, 1954.
1 34. E. Orowan, "A Type of Plastic Deformation New in
], Meta.la," Nature, London, Vol. 149, p. 643 (1942).
35. G. Akimow, "Eine neue Theorie der Struktv.rkorr08ion,"
Korrosion u. Metallschutz, VoL 8, p. 197 (1932).
l 36. G. Wassermann, "Untersuchungen ber den Vorga.ng der
Spa.nnungskorrosion," Z. Metallkunde, Vol. 34, p. 297
1, (1942).
37. G. Edmunds, ''Seaaon Cracking of Brasa, u ASTM Symp.
45. A. Pomp and M. Hempel, "Dauerprfung von Stahldreh-
ten unter wechselnder Zugbeansprunchung," MiU. Kaiser-
Wilhelm-Inst. Eisenforsch. Diisseldorf, Vol. 19, pp; 237-
246 (1937).
46. A. Pomp and M. Hempel, "Dauerfestigkeitsschaubilder
von Gekerbten und KaltverformtenSthlen..:sowie von
111- und ti"- Schrauben bei Verschledenen Zugmittel-
spa.nnungen," MiU. Kaiser-Wilhelm-Inst. Eisenforsch.
Dsseldorj, Vol. 18, pp. 205-215 (1936).
47. H. J. Gough and H. V. Pollard, "The Strength of Meta.ls
under Qombined Alterna.ting Stresses," Proc. Inst. Mech.

1~
on Streso-C<trT. Cracking in Metals, p. 67 (1944).
38. E. Orowa.n, in a pa.per presented befare The Elctrochem.
Soc., Boston, Oct. 4, 1954.
~
~- 39. J. A. Ewing a.nd J. C. W. Humfrey, "The Fracture of
Meta.ls Under Repeated Alterna.ting Stress," Tram.
Engrs. (London), Vol. 131, pp. 3-54 (1935).
48. R. L. Templin, uDesigning for Fatigue" in William M.
Murra.y, ed., Fatigue and Fracture of Metals A Sym-
posium, pp. 131-138, John Wlley & Sons, New York,
1950.

:r l
Roy Soc., Series A, Vol. 200, pp. 241-250 (1003).
40. F. A. McClintock, "On Direction of Fa.igue. Craks i~
Polycrystalline lngot lron," J. Appl. Mechanics, Vol.
-j 19, pp. 54-56 (1952).
41. E. Orowan, uDisloca.tions and Mechanical Properties" in
1 Dislocat'm& in Metals, AIME, New York, 1954.
- '' 42. E. :Orowan, uTheory ~f the 'Fatigue of Metals," Proc.
Roy. Soc., Series A, VoL 171, pp. 79-106 (1939).
-( 43. E. Orowan, ustress Concentrations in Steel under CyClic
Load," WeldingJ., (N. Y.), Res. Supp!., Vol.17, pp. 273s-
282s, June, 1952.
\; '
-! ' 44. A. Pomp and M. Hempel, 4 'Dauerfestigkeitsschaubilder
49. L. F. Coffin, Jr., uA Study of the Effects of Cyclic Thermal
Stresses on a Ductile Metal," Trans. ASME, Vol. 76,
No. 6, pp. 931-950 (1954).
50. B. J. Laza.nand E. Westberg, ''Effectof Tensile and Com-
pressive Fatigue Stress on Creep, Rupture and Ductility
Properties of Tempera.ture-Resistant Materia.ls," Proc.
ASTM, Vol. 52, pp. 837-855 (1953). .
51. J. E. Dom, A. Goldberg, and T. E. Teitz, "The"Effeet of
Thermal-mechanical Hiatory on the Strain Hardening of
Metals." AIME Tech. Pub. No. 2445, 1948.
52. N. H. Polskowski, "Softening of Certa.in Cold-worked
Meta.ls Under the Action of Fatigue Loada," ASTM

-~ '] von St:.a.hlen bei verschiedenen Zugmittelspannugen unter

Bercksichtigung der Prfstabform," M.iU. Kaiser-
Preprint No. 74, 1954.
53. H. J. French, "Fatigue and Hardening of Steels," Trans.
n Wi!helm-lmt. Eis<nforoch. Diisseldorf., Vol. 18, pp. 1-14 Am. Soc. Steel Treating, Vol. 21, pp. 899-946 (1933).
(1936).
- J 'f 1!
-3
''
-
~ !~).;

< )

' '
1 '
 CHAPTER
Design Assumptions, Stress Evaluation,
and Design Limits
T
HE previous chapter passed over the problem
of calculating stresses and strains from the
applied load in order to concentrate on cer-
tain fundamental knowledge frorn the physics of
solids which, it was pointed out, is relatively new
ar.d as yet largely unformulated for use in routine
design engineering. The present chapter .offers a
general examination of the factors which enter into
the evaluation of stresses in piping systems due to
various externa! and internalloadings, their associa-
tion \vith design limits and Code rules, and finally,
their significance and application to practica! design.
With the increasing complexity, size, and economic
significance1 of piping installations, it is necessary
to look beyond the limits of ordinary piping design
practice and to give attention to the experiences of
designers in related fields, particularly that of pres-
sure vessel design. Indeed, there is often no logical
distinction between pressure vessels and piping.
Therefore, appropriate comments relative to com-
parative piping and pressure vessel design approaches
are given frequently in the discussions which follow.
In further consequence of the economic importance
of present-day piping installations it is necessary,
just as in the design of structures and pressure equip-
ment, to effect a careful and realistic compromise
between design features (not overlooking materials,
fabrication, and inspection requirements) and the
overall plant economics (first cost plus maintenance
and contingency for damages to property and per-
sonnel in event of failure). Safety of operating
1Piping is a majar item in process plants, running from 50
to 75 per cent of the total pl.nt cost. Similar significant
expenditures are incurred in power generation and marine
propulsion installations.
30
personnel and. the interests of the general public
dictate that all. feasible precutiorui be exercised.
Maximum assurance of safety, however, would
require complete examination . of an materials and
fabrication by the best available means arid with
duplicate independent inspection. Even so, abso-
luta assurance of safety could not be attained due to
personnel fallibility and th"elimitations in sensitivity p
of available methods of nondestructive examination. 4J \i '~
With this realization, in the practica! approach of
achieving adequate aafety economically, lower levels
of quality are accepted on the basis of including com-
pensating safety factors in design, which are the
n .
'-..;
combined result of experience and reasoning. Many
inconsistencies still exist in current practice relative
to quality requirements of materials and fabrication,
and in the value placed on various degrees of inspec-
tion, tests, and nondestructive examination.
It should be appreciated that Codes and Standards
can establish only a leve! of minimum requirements
for average service, based on knowledge, experience,
and the consensos of qualified individuals. Many r. I.
&
circumstances relating to service operation, materials
and fabrication, inspection limitations, orto unusual
design deserve special consideration if the resulting lJ
piping systems are to be reasonably free from main- '
tenance, and provide satisfactory length of life with
safe operation. To assist the piping engineer in the
exercise of good judgrnent on these special problems,
this chapter offers approaches which largely depend
on well-established practica! experience.
2.1 Codes and Standards
The objective of Code rules and Standards (apart
from fixing dimensional values) is to achieve mini-
l j'
L.
 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
mum requirements for safe construction; in other
words, to provide public protection by defining those
material, design, fabrication, and inspection require-
ments whose omission may radical!y increase operat-
ing hazards. Absolute assurance of safety would
require perfect design, materials, and fabrication;
this is seldom, if ever, achieved. On the other hand,
experience with Code rules has demonstrated that
the probability of disstrous failure can be reduced
to the extremely low leve! necessary_. to protect life
and property by suitable mnimum requirements and
safety factors. Obviously, it is impossible for general
.rules to anticipate other than conventional service,
and it would be uneconomic for them to provide for
corrosion, erosion, fatigue, shock, or potential brittle
fracture, except to the degree that such conditions are
.' known to be present. Suitable precautions are, there-
fore, entirely the responsibility of the design engineer
guided by the needs and specifications of the user.
A listing of all Standards and Specifications con-
cerning piping design, together with their mandatory
effective edition references, appears in an appendix
f 1
.; of the Code for Pressure Piping (ASA B31.1).
: ASA B9: Safety Code for Mechanical Refrigeration
~ j Those which affect the mechanical design of piping
are briefly commented on in the following para-
I ;--.
.
graphs, relative to their basic approach and sig-
nificant details.
'' One of the difficulties which often confronts de-
..
,.,_ signers of vessels and piping, as related to Code
requirements and particularly local governmental
regulations, is the proper classification of borderline
pressure equipment. Currently (1955), neither the
ASME nor the ASA Code contains definitions for
vessels or piping which are helpful in this respect.
> While the Code Committees have considered this
matter, no common agreement has heen reached.
.. 1,:.
~' ... Sorne items in piping systems often considered and
' .
fabricated as part of the piping, e.g. pulsation damp-
- r:M
..' &;
eners, are classed as pressure vessels in sorne States.
-.~,,.'. _. ~
In doubtful cases it is advisable for the user to cheek
- ., with the local authorities, especially in localities
having regional pressure vessel!aws.
1l
i.~
r.
'
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Section 1,
Power Boilers, contains rules for the pressure design of boer
piping withio the specified boiler limits which are associa.ted
with appropriate steam and feed-water stop valves. The
design, fabrication, and inspection requirements of the ASME
Unfired Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, are often used by
reference in company specifications to supplement the Piping
Code. Section IX of the ASME Code is the universal basis
for qualification of welding procedures and operators of all
pressure equipment.
ASA B31.1: Code for Pressure Piping. This is the
standard "Piping Code" which includes sections on Power,
31
Gas & Air, Oil, District Heating, Refrigeration, Oil Transmis-
sion, Gas Transmission and Distribution Systems '(ASA
B31.1.8-1955), and Chemical Piping. lts basic or general
supporting sections deal with requirements for interna\
pressure, flexibility, materials, fabrication, and testing.
At the -present writing_ (1955), 'this.'Code is in the procesa o{
evolution from a Design- Practiee to Safety. Code. The
Gas Transmission and Distribution Section has been adopted
by severa! States and ie under CO!;)sideration by others; the
entire Code is used aS a basis of enfOrcement in several U. S.
cities and in the Provinces of Ca.na.da. In recognition of this
trend, 8. CoD.ference Comnittee similar to that of the ASME
Boiler Code and composed of the Chief Inspection Authority
of each State and eaeh Canadian Province whieh has adopted
the (Piping) Code, has been appointed. At the same time a
procedure was established to provide interpretations in the
form of Cases, whieh again para.llels the ASME Boiler Code
procedure.
This transition is lalli;:ely due to reeognition by publit:
authorities that pipe line failures associated with a sudden
release of stored energy are potentially as dangerous as pres-
. sure vessel failures. Experienee with piping systems also
demanded a change in the former attitude that thermal ex-
pansion strains could not be responsible for a major failure.
Although this type of failure is due to fatigue rather than to a
single application of strain loading it can be a definite hazard
in most services.
This Code oontains, in Section 9, brief rules for pressure and
general design of ptping for this specific service.
Piping for Ships. Such piping requires special considera-
tion because o added strains from the motions of the ship .
Naval vessels are subject to a.dded shock due to sudden
maneuvering, gunfi.re, explosiona, etc. Requirements for
merchant. and naval vessls are contained in the following
Standards:
U. S. Navy, Bureau of Ships: General Maehinery Specifi-
cations; General Specifications for Building Naval Vessels.
American Bureau of Sbipping: Rules for Building and Class-
ing Vessels.
United States Coast Guard: Marine Engineering Regula-
tions a.nd Material Specifications.
Lloyd's Register of Shipping Rules
Flange and Fitting Standards. The Bl6 group of ASA
Standards a.pply to pipe~fitting deta.ils. Although their signifi-
cance is prima'rily dimensional, they involve design factors
which should be apprecia,ted. These are summarized in the
following sections:
Sted Flanges. The proportions of separate flanges and those
integrated with fittings were established many years ago, based
on simplifi.ed cantilever analysis. In 1953 the steel flanges
were reinvestigated according to present ASME Boiler Code
formulas. New ratings were established for two general
classes of gaskets and facing details. These appear in ASA
Standard, Bl6.5-1953, and also in the ASME Codes. The
basis of the new ratings is r~orded in Appendix D of the
B16.5 Standard. The calculated stress in the flanges shows
appr~iable variation with size, series, and facings. A stress
o 8750 psi at the primary pressure rating was selected for the
purpose of establishing Class A ratings. Class B ratings are
approximately 83% of Class A ratings. In the creep range at
or above tbe primary rating temperature, ASME Power
Boiler Code stresses are adhered to. For temperatures up to
32 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
650 F the ratings ar~ based on allowable stresses, which are
.approximately 60% of the yield strength. This is similar to
the allowable stress basis of the Piping Code, Section 3, Oil
J>iping. Ratings between 650 F and the primary service
temperature are established by a straight line transition.
In general, the bolting, partieularly when alloy steel, is of
substantially greater strength than the flanges, which can be
distorted by overtightening. This excess bolt strength is
significant in the ability of ASA flanges to transmit line mo-
ments, as discusscd Iater in hapter 3.
Sleel Flanged FiUing Thickness. Fitting thicknesses were
originally established for caskarbon steel by application of
the Barlow (outside diameter) formula with an allowable
stress of 7000 psi at the primary pressure rating, and applying
a 50% increase in thickness as a "shape factor." This approach
was later extended to other cast and forged materials.- The
fitting thicknesses in the 1953 issue of B16.5 are based on this
same allowa.ble stress, which is 80% of the value used for
rating Cla.ss A tlanges, using the primary service pressure
and the modified Lam formula now common to the Codea.
An excess thickness of 50% is provided for all flanged fittings
in recognition of the reinforcment required at the side outlets
of tees, bonnet necks of valves and similar branch conneetions,
as well aa for elbows, whether or not they ha.ve side branch
conneetions.
Steel Butt Welding Fitting Thickness. For cast-or wrought-
butt welding fittings the thickness required by ASA Standarrl
B16.9 at the welding ends is the same- as that of tbe pipe size
arid schedule with which they are intended to be used. In-
stead of establisbing mnimum wall thicknesses or "shape
factors" as is done for tlanged fittings, this Standard requires
only that the bursting strength be not less than that of a pipe
of the correSponding material, size, and schedule number; the
pressure-temperature rating then J?ecomes identical with that
of the inta.ct pipe.
:U'I-AS.ME Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels. This
pressure vessel Code is sometimes used as a reference in
company specifications. Except for the absence of mandatory
random examination requirements, its provisions are essen-
tially the same as Section VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pres-
sure Vessel Code.
AI,I Standards. In addition to materialspecifications for
line pipe, threads, etc., the American Petroleum lnstitute has
standards for certain types of iron or steel valves for refinery
or d.rilling and production service (API Standards 600, 6C
and 6D) and for ring-joint fianges (API Standard 6B). The
fianges and ratings utilized in Standard 600 are based on ASA
stand.ards. Standards 6C and 6D assign separate pressure
ratings for "pipe line service" and "drilling and production
service" at 100 F. In addition to utilizing ASA Standard
tlanges, API Standard 6B includes a special ''2900 lb" series.
This is similar to the original assignment of a 4000 lb rating
to 1500 lb series flanges, drilled one size smaller, which was
advanced and used by The M. \V. Kellogg Company, except
that the design was refined, in accordance with calculations
using ASME Code formulas, by Messrs. Petrie and W atts
of the Crane Company and Standard Oil Company (Indiana),
respectively. The API Standard assigns a 100 F rating of
7500 psi for pipe Iine service, and 10,000 psi for drilling and
produetion service. For the la.tter service, materials with
higher tensile and yield strengths are required. The API
ratings for ASA flanges are the same as ASA r.S.tings for pipe
line service; for drilling and production service the 600 lb and
higher series are required to have iilcreased pbysical propertie:
and accordingly are a.ssigned ratings about 33% higher.
Other Standards: Other Standards which contribute to
piping designare those of the Manufacturera Standardization
Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry (MSS Standard
Practices), American Water Vlorks Association (AWWA),
American Gas Association (AGA), Federal Specificatiom
Board (FSB), and Association of American Ra.ilroads (AAR).
These are for the most part dimensional standards and rating
tables for specific piping and fittings.
2.2 Design Considerations: Loadings
A piping system constitutes an irregular space
frame into which strain and attendant stress may
be introduced by the initial fabrication and erection.
and also may exist due to various circumstances
during operation, standby, or shutdown. In its
erected position, a piping system is subject to loads
dueto dead weights (pipe, fittings, insulation), snow
D
IJ
or ice, contents of the line, wind load for exposed
piping, and earthquake or other shock loading in
special situations. Interna! (or externa!) pressure
D
i
\
!
loads may be imposed in service or off stream. The
restraint of thermal expansion provided by terminal
and intermediate anchors, guides, and stops intro-
duces thermal stresses in piping due to temperature
changes. Further stress may be introduced hy the
movement2 of terminal equipment, foundations, or
bui!dings under temperature changes or other load-
n
r
ing, or from any influence affecting the relative posi-
t.ion of the line, anchors, or intermediate restraints.
The dead load effects, except contente, are usually
maintained at all times, while wind or earthquake
effects will be variable and reach maximum design
values infrequently, if ever. Pressure and tempera-
ture changes usually occur simultaneously, but may
be independent or have a variably dependent rela-
tionship. They may be relatively uniform for entire [J '
service periods, or involve swings of variable
duration.
Dead load and wind or earthquake effects ort pip-
ing are no different than for conventional structures,
while pressure effects are essentially the same as
those encountered on pressure vessels or boilers.
Overall expansion effects differ from those on struc-
tures exposed to ambient temperature changes, in
'.J
1
that the range of temperature variation on piping is
much greater. j
[
For many problems, the designer must consider
more than one service condition, as well as start-up,
shutdown, and emergency conditions; for example,
a specific plant may involve more than one feed
2Frequently termed "extraneous" movement by piping
designers.
1
1
L.
l
.. j'
DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN Lll\UTS
stock or severa] alternate products which may re-
quire different processing pressure and tempera-
tures. Many plants involve highly inflammable,
toxic, or otherwise unusual fluids, or specialized
machinery and equipment which must. be carefully
isolated from air or contaminante. Start-up and
shutdown may require protracted periods of warm-
ing up, cooling off, or operations such as purging,
washing down, pickling or passivating, solvent clean-
ing, air-steam decoking, etc., each of which may
introduce entirely different combinations of temper-
l ature and pressure over given portions of piping sys-
.1 t.ems. Temperature differences, or other loading
more severe than norm~l service conditions, may
result where circumstances dictate. that parts of a
system be heated successively. A proper apprecia-
tion of these various possibilities requires an ade-
quate knowledge of the . process. design, operation,
instrumentation, and control .of .the connected
equipment or entire plant. It is not unusual for
start-up and shutdown procedure to be governed
by mechanical design limitations rather than to suit
process only.
For exhaust steam vacuum service, opinion differs
as to whether the design temperatura for thermal
expansion effects should be based on the normal
operating temperature under vacuum conditions
plus an occasional rise to 212 F, which temperatura
would be approached with loss of vacuum, or on
212 F, as though it were the normal operating tem-
perature. The first approach is consistent with the
handling of other operating upsets, it being recog-
nized that at reduced capacity or after lengthy
periods of operation or with abnormally high cooling
1 water temperatures, higher absolute pressures and
corresponding temperatures may occur. It is there-
fore concluded that design considering the 212 F
case as an abnormal short duration (not an operat-
ing) temperature is reasonably logical.
The Piping Code (ASA B31.1-1955) is deficient
in adequate rules for protection against overpressure.
The requirements of the ASME Boiler Code, Sec-
tion VIII, for safety valves, etc., are a useful guide
but require modification to suit common piping
practice. Pip wall thickness is generally established
for a design pressure equal to the maximum (non-
shock) service pressure, without provision for a
margin between service and design pressure, and
safety valves are generally set to relieve at about
10% above the design pressure. This is in contrast
with pressure vessel practice, where at least one valve
must be set to open at or below the design pressure.
Differences~also exist in the roaximum overpressure
33
allowed while a safety valveis blowing; for oil piping
a 33!% increase is often used, compared to 10% on
pressure vessels, except under exposure to external
fire when 20% is allowed. This situation will prob-
ably be rectified when adequate rules for protection
against overpressure are providedin tbe Piping Code.
The. static effect of individualloadings forros only
one phase of the broad subject of the design of pip-
ing systems. It is equally important to consider the
duration,. frequency, and manner of application of
each loading, and their mutual occurrence. Both
pressure and temperature stress, if applied in a suf-
ficient number of repetitive applications; may result
in fractur.e by fatigue. Failure may be accelerated
by the dynamic influence of very sudden changes of
pressure or temperature. Dynamic effects may also
introduce the possibility of direct shock failure,
apart from the brittle fractures associated with met-
allurgical considerations or ferritic steels at tempera-
tures below the transition range: While failure due
to corrosion or metallurgical changes is not a subject
for this book, it should be mentioned that the leve!
of stress in the piping or the occm:rence of plastic
f!ow may be a contributing factor in sorne cases.
Failnre by stress corrosion is an importsnt example.
The loadings which have been discussed can be
segregated for design purposes into two categories:
l. Those representing the application of externa!
forces which, if excessive, would canse fai!ure inde-
pendent of strain.
2. Those representing the application of a finite
externa! or interna\ strain. These are generally
introduced through temperatnre change.
The design consideration of individual loadings
may be approached on the basis of the duration,
freqnency, nature, and probability of their occur-
rence. Individualloadings may be:
a. Present during extended normal operation but
not during off-stream condition.
b. Maintained throughout the service life.
c. Occasional and of short duration as well as low
cumulative duration (including start-up and shut-
down conditions).
d. Emergency or abnormal condi tions of short
duration.
For proper establishment of design assumptions,
it is necessary to have an adequate appreciation of
all direct and contingent requirements to which the
piping ~ystem will be subjected, and also to under-
stand the interrelations between the behavior of
structures and materials, according to our present
state of knowledge. It is the aim of this chapter to
provide useful assistance toward the first objective.
34 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Chapter 1, together with the references cited, should
prove valuable in estab!ishing a reasonable and
broad fundamental understanding of the flow and
fracture of metallic materials.
2.3 Design Limits, Allowable Stresses, and
Allowable Stress Ranges
In the pr-eceding section of this chapter, piping
system loadings have been grouped into two cate-
gories: externa! effects which, if excessive, might
cause direct failure, and strain effects attendant to
temperatura change. Categories for individual
loadings were also suggested, depending on the dura-
tion, frequency, and nature of. the loading. This
section is devoted to the discussion of the nature of
stresses for the various forros of loading common to
piping, as well as to a consideration of allowable
stresses and an examination of the design limits
which are not directly provded for by:.conventional
allowable stresses and nominal safety factors.
When considering basic allowable stress values, it
is appropriate to distinguish between primary,
secondary, and localized stresses. Although there
is probably no accepted definition of primary and
secondary stresses in piping systems, the following
criteria will be advanced for purposes of this dis-
cussion:
Primary stresses are the direct, shear, or bending
stresses generated by the imposed loading which are
necessary to satisfy the simple laws of equilibrium
of interna! and externa! forces and moments. Among
the primary stresses due to externa! effects are the
direct longitudinal and circumferential stresses due
to interna! pressnre and the bending and torsional
stresses due to dead load, -snow and ice, wind, or
earthquake. In addition there are the direct, bend-
ing, and torsional stresses due to restrained thermal
loading, the externa! forces being supplied in this
case by the line anchors or other restraints. In
general the leve! of primary Stresses directly measures
the ability of a piping system to withstand the
imposed loadings safely. Accordingly, those stresses
dueto sustained externalloading (categories (a) and
(b) of Section 2.2) are controlled to the Code allow-
able stress value for the operating temperature.
Sorne overstress is allowed for temporary externa!
loadings (categories (e) and (d)).
Secondary stresses are usually of a bending nature,
varying from positive to negative across the pipe-
wall thickness and arising generally because of dif-
ferential radial deflection of the pipe wall. A most
important example of secondary stresses is that of
the circumferential bending stresses in a curved
pipe subject to bending, discussed in Chapter 3.
Secondary stresses are not a source of direct failure
in ductile materials upon single load application.
If above the yield strength they merely effect local
deformation whicn results in a redistribution of the
loading and a reduction of the stress in the operating
condition. If the applied loading is cyclic, however;
they establish a local strain range corresponding
essentially to their full original maguitude. They
thus constitute a potential source of fatigue failure.
Localized stresses are those which die away rapidly
within a short distance from their origin. Examples
are the bending stresses in the hub of a flange, at a :ir.:..I
sharp cone-to-cylinder junction, or at the inside
diameter of a branch connection. Localized bending
' '
~
stresses can be considered equivalent in siguificance
to secondary stresses. It is possible in sorne cases for
the plastic fiow which may result from an initial over-
stress to alter the contour of the pipe toa stronger
shape. This would lower the local strain range dur-
ing subsequent applications of the loading and the
fatigue resistance would be raised accordingly.
Allowing large initial amounts of localized deforma-
tion carries the risk, however, of propagating fiaws
in the base material, particularly in welds, and of
initiating cracks in !ess ductile heat-affected zones
adjacent to welds.
The Pressure Vessel and Piping Codes contain
tables of all'lwable stresses at various temperatures
which are related only to the primary static-!oading
stresses (categories (a) and (b) of Section 2.2). The
leve! of localized stresses at nozzles, branch connec-
tions, in heads, etc., is only loosely and indirectly
controlled by foimula and shape requlrements and
may easily be 100% or more above that of the
primary circumferential pressure membrane stress.
Due to the lack of adequate analyses or to the difli-
culty attendant to their evaluation, many secondary
u
and localized stresses are neglected by the Codes, n
such as the bending stresses in vessel or pipe shells
dueto piping reactions, although the Code may warn
u
the desiguer to consider such loadingo.
Two criteria are associated with piping stresses.
One is the so-called "Code allowable stress" at the
[J
operating temperature, familiar to all designers of
pressure equipment; the other one is the somewhat
less known "allowable stress range," which is derived [J
from Code allowable stresses and which has appeared
in the Piping Code since 1942 as the basis for expan-
sion and flexibility desigu. The application of each
of these cri teria is covered later in this section in
connection with specific loadings.
The allowable stress is a function of the material
u
 e
'
DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
- properties and safety factors as associated with spe-
' ~ cific design, fabrication, and inspection requirements:
..
Experience with the pressure vessel Codes as pres-
e
ently constituted has shown that pressure and other .
7 maintained loading can be sustained by average
- j" equipment within this allowable stress limit for an
indefinite period. Also, it is not uncommon to allow
e
l moderate short durations of overload or overtem-
,-
l
i
' perature due to abnorma\ or emergency circum-
' stances. In a more precise approach, however, such
e
~
'' overloads should properly be assessed on aii inte-
f; grated basis with respect to duration and frequency.
-j In the following pages, the various considerations
influencing the serviceability or safety of piping sys-
e
1j tems are summarized and augmented by current
-J opinion as to advisable limits of stress, or other de-
sign criteria.
For Pressure Loading: In the 1952 ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, the basis for the
allowable stresses for ferrous materials in both Sec-
tion I, Power Boilers, and Section VIII, Unfired
Pressure Vessels is given in Appendix P of Seo-'
tion VIII. This appendix is important as a general
reference not only for its explanation of the basis of
allowable stresses given in the Code but also for its
guidsnce in setting stress values for similar materials.
For nonferrous materials Appendix Q (Section VIII,
Unfired Pressure Vessels) similar!y establishes the
basis of allowable stresses.
The allowable stresses for Section 1, Power Piping,
of the ASA B31.1-1955 Code for Pressure Piping
=--
are identical with those of the ASME Power Boiler
Code; those of Section 3, Oil Piping, within refinery
limits, are in agreement in the creep range with
Section VIII of the ASME Code. At lower temper-
atures, the safety factor on tensile strength is lower
than that of the Unfired Pressure Vessel Code, allow-
able stresses being limited to one-third of the mini-
muro tensile strength or 60% of the minimum yield
strength. The other sections of the Code for Pressure
Piping are intended for either ambient or relatively
moderate temperatura service, with allowable stresses
in varying percentages of the yield strength s. or
tensile strength S. as indicated below.
Section 2. Gas and air piping: 0.6 to 0.72 s.
Section 3. Oil transmission lines outside refinery
limits: 0.85 s.
Section 4. District heating systems: 0.25 s.
Section 5. Refrigeration piping systems: 0.25 S.
Section 8. Gas transmission and distribution pip-
ing systems: O. 72 s.max.
The assignment of higher allowable stresses for high
35
yield-strength materials operating at temperaturas
below the creep range, and recognition of yie!d
strength enhanced by cold work and/or heat treat-
ment, reduces the margin of safety provided by the
Piping Code for unassessed stresses and for fatigue
life under cyclic conditions. In addition, Sections 2
and 8 use nominal rather than minimum pipe-wall
thickness, which further diminishes safety margins.
The dependence of fracture (and bursting) stress
upon the shape of the part is quite properly recog-
nized in Chapter l. This effect, however, is one that
is commonly ignored in ordinary design practice and
in the Codes which represent such practice. Hence,
the Code safety factors against bursting, related
only to fracture of conventional tensile test speci-
mens, must be regarded as nominal values which are
not necessarily the actual safety factors for the burst-
ing of a cylindrical vessel under pressure, or for any
other general shape. While an exact evaluation of
the disparity between safety factors for a tensile test
specimen and those for a tube requires a complete
knowledge of the plastic stress-strain properties of
the material, a general evaluation for a wide range
of materials is made possible by certain reasonable
assumptions.
At first, the material under consideration is con-
sidered to obey the effective stress-strain relationship
of eq. 1.8, stresses being dependent upon strains in
accordance with the deformation theory of Hencky-
Mises (eq. 1.7). Further, it is assumed that a func-
tion of the type
.-, = B(o*,)" (2.1)
where crz = true stress in uniaxial tension
*z = logarithmic strain in uniaxial
tension
B and n = assumed material constants,
can adequately describe the stress-strain curve in
uniaxial tension. The types of stress-strain curves
obtainable from eq. 2.1 through a variation of the
constant n (sometimes referred to as the strain-
hardening exponent) are shown in Fig. 2.1. 3
From the foregoing assumptions, it can be shown
that the engineering (conventional) stress in a ten-
sile bar, at the instsnt of attaining the maximum
load, is given by
S. = B(n/e)" (2.2)
where s. = ultimate (conventional) tensile stress
e = 2. 71828 = base of naturallogarithms
B and n are as previously defined.
3B, also called the "hardness factor," is simply the true
stress value at a logarithmie axial strain of 1.0.
36 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

than 4.0 on bursting will apply to cylindrical pres-

sure vessels (of carbon or low-alloy steel), as proved
by nurnerous static destruction tests. Similar com-
ments apply to Codes using a different fraction of
the ultimate tensile stress as a design basis. Thus,
for the ABA B31.1 Code, Section3, which limits de-
i ... sign stresses to ! of the ultimate tensile stress, a
""
.i
e
.2
safety factor of around 3.0 will be available against
bursting of. thin-walled cylinders. .With other ma-
0~--~----c----------------- terials or with departures from the simple cylin-
0 .2 " .6 .8 1.0
logothmic Stroin. E\ drical tube, however, it would appear that the sbape
Fw. 2.1 Analytical representation of the tensile stress-strain effect may bear investigation for more accurate
curve for various values of n. assessment of bursting conditions.
In the creep range a similar safety factor does not
This instability stress value is identical with the exist. That is, if creep continues while tbe pressure
conventional Hultimate tensile stress." is maintained, fracture will inevitably take place
In a thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel the after a sufficiently long time. Hence, the design
conventional circumferential stress at instability (at stress is selected to avoid failure within the service
the maximum sustainable pressure) can be expressed life period.
as For the case where 100% of the extrapolated 105
hour creep fracture stress is allowed by the Code,
(2.3) and if this value governs the design stress (i.e. it is
lower than the stress causing 1% creep extension
For a structure in uniaxial tension a design based in 105 hours), it would appear that the "life factor"
on 1/k of the ultimate tensile stress (as given by (actual vs. desired life) may be no more than 1.0.
r,.'' ..J
eq. 2.2) represents a true safety factor of k. For In other words, if the desired design life is also '

.'
'

"t :
pr~.ssure vessels the safety factor should appropri- 105 hours (about 11.4 years), fracture should follow ,.
ately be applied to eq. 2.3. If, instead, safety fac-
tors are related to the ultimate tensile stress for
pressure vessel design, then the quotient
when the design life is exhausted. Admittedly, there
are only a few ferrous metals whose extrapolated
stress value for creep fracture is less than the stress
producing 1% creep in 105 hours. However, even
n~
L?
Q= s,;s. = 1.155(0.577)" (2.4) for these metals, no case of fracture following in-
will indicate whether the real safety factor against t.ended life is known in the annals of the industry,
bursting, on a single application of overpressure, is although many pressure vessels have operated in the
larger (Q > 1) or smaller (Q < 1) than the nominal creep range for periods considerably exceeding
or presumed value of k, i.e., 11.4 years.
One reason for this lies in the fact that the allow-
(S.F.,.,.~,) = Q X (S.F.,,.,,on) (2.5) able long-time design stress values (for both creep

A plot of eq. 2.4 in Fig. 2.2 gives values of Q for and creep rupture) are obtained. by extrapolation '...
values of n ranging from O to 0.5 and shows that
l
(for materials behaving as assurned) the safety fac-
1.2
tor for bursting of thin cylindrical vessels will be
larger th"n the tensile safety factor when n is less
than 0.263 and smaller when n exceeds this value.
In commonly encountered materials the strain-
hardening exponent n vares from about 0.05 to 0.15
for greatly cold-worked or tempered materials and
is within the range of 0.2 to 0.45 for soft annealed
metals. Carbon and low-alloy steels generally have .2
Volue of n
n values from 0.15 to 0.25. Within this range Q has
0~--~--~~~~--~----~-
a value barely exceeding 1.0. Thus, if i of the ulti- 0 .1 .2 ~ .3 ... .S
~
mate tensile stress is used as a basis for design, an
actual safety factor equal to or somewhat higher Fm. 2.2 The "safety factor ratio" Q a.s a function of n.
 .
,. "?:
,.
.' DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
from short-time tests. Although not strictly admis-
sible, this extrapolation generally leads to acceptable
results for the creep values as shown in Fig. 2.3. On
the other hand, in the very short-time creep rupture
tests comparatively high stresses are used. As men-
tioned in Chapter 1, this tends to promote intra-
crystalline deformation, with an ensuing high
ductility. At the longest commercial testing periods
(general!y 104 .hours) the stresses are much lower;
intracrystalline deformation is largely absent, and
e j . the ductility is considerably lower, although the
stresses are still higher than those producing 1%
elongation in the same time. The respective posi-
tion of these stress values does not change even
when the loading period is increased to 105 hours.
However, the conventionallog-log extrapolated value
based upon test resulte up to 104 hours in duration
may in sorne cases yield a fictitious rupture strength.
\ at 105 hours which is below the 1% creep stress
;
'1
' value, as shown in Fig. 2.3._ The unrealistic aspect
of this extrapolation pal'tial!y explains why pressure
vessels do not .fracture after 11-12 years even if
extrapolated test data would predict this in cases
where the creep fracture value governs design.
Structural Effects. The Piping Code rules
ABA B31.1-1955 require that primary stresses dueto
weight of pipe, fittings and valves, contained fluid
and insulation, and other sustained externalloadings
be maintained within the hot allowable stress s.
Occasional effects such as wind and earthquake
should have little influence on the fatigue life of the
piping system or creep at high temperature. There-
fore, they can be treated more liberally, sirilar to
AISC (American Institute of Steel Construction)
practices, where 33!% higher stress is allowed for
the separate effects of wind or earthquake super-
imposed on the basic loading.
In average piping systems, structural loading is
not investigated in an overall fshion; instead it is
l controlled by standardized practices and details. In
extreme cases of large or stiff piping it is advisable to
':r' evaluate the complete loading. Attention should be
).
1 directed to those loadings which can occur simul-
,. taneously, so as to obtain an integrated equivalent
cyclic strain as discussed in Section 2.6 and under
J; "Temporary Loadings" in this section.
1 Structural instability or collapse of piping under
1 longitudinal loading, such as is encountered in
-l'
- 1 columns, is possible only under unusual circum-
j f
stances. Collapse by circumferential buckling is
more likely to occur, although the thickness-to-radius
.. J
!,;
ratios ordinarily used in piping applications are
usually high enough to prevent this. As a design
i
j i
.i
37
::,.. O Creep frodure Test Doto
~, X Creep Rote
Creep Stress Cu~ Extropoloted
for 1% Creep Rote ~Creep-frodure Curwt
~
-........._~-
-r True Creep-frodure
...., _____
Curve
Stress fCH" 11: Crup Rote
in 10.s hours
Extrapolahtd Stress f ft'odure in 10~ hoursj
(desi'gn .tress)
10 10' 10' 10' 10'
Time, houn (log. c:ale)
FIG. 2.3 Comparison of extrapolated and actual creep-frac-
ture curves for a typical material at constant temperature.
criterion to guard against circumferential buckling,
it is suggested that primary longitudinal compressive
stresses should not be permitted to exceed 0.07 Et/r,
where E is Young's modulus of elasticity, t is. the
wall thickness, and r is the radius.
The allowable stress range was suggested initially
by Rossheim and Markl [1] as a measure of the
permissible strain range in a cycle of load app!ication
to guard against the possibility of a fatigue failure
after a given number of cycles. It is selected so that
it will be applicable to ductile materials and to
average commercial pipe surface conditions at the
location of highest stress (strain) range. The prin-
cipal cyclic loadings are restrained thermal expan-
sion and pressure, although weight of contents and
occasional effects such as wind and earthquake are
also repetitive in nature. A cycle of externalloading
usually vares from the fui! presence of the loading
during operation to its complete removal under off-
stream conditions; the distribution of the associated
interna! strain between the cold and hot ends of the
cycle may on the other hand vary dueto the depend-
ence of strains on the material properties at ea~h
temperature and the presence of initial fabrication
stresses or residual stresses set up as the result of
plastic flow.
With the erection and completion of the final
joint of each leg of a piping system, interna! stress
may be introduced by cold pul!, weld shrinkage, or
flange makeup. This establishes an initial state of
stress, limited only by the yield point of the material.
With temperature change on the first period of
operation, expansion strain is superimposed on the
residual fabrication strains. If the total exceeds the
elastic limit at any point, yie!ding occurs, leading to
relaxation of the initial fabrication stresses and a
redistribution of the thermal strain. Prolonged
elevated temperature will serve to further reduce the
 38 DESIGN OF. PIPING SYSTEMS
A,,
~A,, _ that the piping system seeks an equilibrium condi- ,,
,, ~ ever, still permitted when estimating maximum
t=. 1
F'Io. 2.4 Represen.tation of bar for calculation of plastic
etrain oonceqtr&tion factor.
hot stresses by creep, at a rate proportional to the
combme:d stress (expansion, pressure, weight, etc.).
The re:duction o the stress due to thermal strain
loading by plastic f!ow or creep at the operating
temperatura is terme:d "relaxation." The relaxe:d
strain reappears at the cold end of the temperature
cycle with reversed sign.
For moderate-temperature piping, the division of
thermal strain hetween the hot and cold condition is
adjuste:d during the initial cycle in an amount
dictated by the iuitial residnal fabrication stress and
the thermal-stress maguitude. The imposition o a
temporary over!oad during operation can effect a
further strain shift from the hot to the cold condition.
For higher temperatures, where creep occurs, strain
adjustment continues until the combine:d stress at
the operating temperatura is re:duce:d to the relaxa-
tion limit. For conveuience in design this is general!y
assume:d to he the Code allowable stress level Al-
though such adjustment takes place, it is important
to grasp the fact that the strain range per cycle does
not change and that the ability of the pipe material
to sustain t.he range is a function of both its hot and
cold properties. The process wherein the pipe line
seeks an equilibrium condition, and the resulting
self-adjustment accomplishe:d by yielding and creep,
is terme:d "self-springing."
Self-adjustment may lie miuimize:d by prespringing
(cold springing) which consists o incorporating pre-
stress during erection. Since this practice is par-
ticularly useful in controlling initial reactions so as
to protect connected equipment it will be discusse:d
in that regard under the heading of Piping and
Equipment Intereffects in Section 3.14.
Ail to whether prespringing offers advantages
beyond controlling the initial hot reaction, a general
answer cannot readily be given. In the 1942 edition
of the Piping Code, the allowable stress range could
in effect he increase:d when 50% or more prespring
was provide:d by the permissible re:duction in the
expansion loading to two-thirdi The 1955 edition
provides a uniform stress range regardless o the
initial strain condition. This is base:d on the reason-
ing that fatigue life is primarily dependent on the
range o strain which is unaffecte:d by prestress, and
tion by self-springing. Credit for prespring is, ,,
and cold reactions on terminal etuipment. ,
prespringing, the plastic flow which the line
have to undergo on the first, or first few cycles,
order to effectively self-spring itsejf, can be av<>ide:d
entirely or appreciably re:duced. This is soine1ime8f.\ if::
considere:d advantageous in minimizing the risk
an early failure due to "follow-up elasticity" en,ects Ei;'
should there he a highly localize:d weak link in
system. However, from a fatigue standpoint,
henefits are attributed to cold springing once
spring has been effected. The advantage of
spring in this respect is more important for pip,ing;;''
which is to operate at temperatures in the cre>eoii<
range. The proposition has alsobeen advance:d
the hot plastic f!ow associated with se~f-s>rhlgilog-J
will detract from the final av&Wsble ductility uncler,c
high temperatura "cre>ep" conditions; in reality,
mechauism o self-springing is probably more n"'Lr!y.l.
akin to fabrication hot forming operations. In
ligbt, the ouly cle<Lrcut conclusion that can he drs,wn,;
is that prespringing can have ouly advantageous
no deleterious effects, especially as concerns initial
terminal reactions. Therefore, it is ae:::~~;;:.[
practice when economically justifie:d and
carrie:d out. ., . . .
The 1955 Piping Code rules cal! attention to the i
possibility of an undesirable amount o creep in areas,
of re:duce:d strength; such as short runs of re:duce:d .
size in highly stressed zones under certain conditions. ,
The possibility of the unit strain in local highly\
stressed areas being maguifie:d under .conditions of.
plastic f!ow by rea;;on o the follow-up elasticity of
the more lowly stressed areas is not generally appre-'
ciated. In order to gain a better understanding, it:
is of interest to study a simple analogue consisting
of a bar having a section of re:duce:d area, as sho:wn in
Fig. 2.4, restraine:d at the ends and subjected to
cyclic heating and cooling. The bar will be assume:d .
to be made of an ideally elastic-plastic material
(non-strainhardening).
Let this bar now he subjected to cyclic heating
and cooling o constant amplitude, to a leve! which
causes plastic f!ow in member 1 on each cycle. It
can be shown then that during any thermal halfcycle
(from heating to cooling or vice versa), other than
the first heating operation, the total (elastic plus.
plastic) unit strain in member 1 is given by
(2.6)
.:j
L;
l

.. i DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
. where Ee = elastic strain range limit
= s"'+ s. (2.7)
E, E,
e = unit linear thermal expansion for a
temperature rise of !>.T.
L = total length.
L., L 2 = lengths of members 1 and 2.
At, A 2 = cross-sectional areas of members
1 and 2.
s." s = yield strength at the cold and hot
temperatures, respectively.
E" E, = Young's modulus of elasticity at
the cold and hot temperatures
respectively.
Had this bar been analyzed on the assumption that
all strains remained elastic, the calculated unit strain
range in inember 1 would be given by:
L All that is necessary is that plastic flow occurs prefer-
e-
<,=-~-
L,
(2.8)
-.
: \
l
1 + A 1L 2
A2 L 1
The strain given by eq. 2.6 is higher than that
indicated by eq. 2.8, and the ratio of the two can be
termed the strain magnification factor (3, which is
given by the following equation, valid for ,, 2': ,,
. '
{1.
(3, = 1+ A L [1 - ~]
A,L2
2 1 ,,
(2.9)
This is an extremely interesting result, since ,, is the
maximum unit strain calculated by application of
elastic theory and ,, is the maximum unit-strain
range which the material can accept without allowing
plastic flow on each cycle. So long as ,, does not
exceed ,, there is no magnification factor. The
magnification factor for ,, greater than ,, is given by
eq. 2.9. Figure 2.5 is a plot of this equation for a
specific ratio of A./A 2 = 0.5 and shows the magni-
fication factor as a function of ,,,, and L 2 /L 1 ; high
values can be reached which would materially reduce
the fatigue life of such a bar. The magnification
factors increase as area A1 approaches area A 2 . At
first thought this might be unexpected; the explana-
tion is that, as A./A 2 approaches unity, the portion
of the calculated strain in member 2 which is never
developed, but instead causes plastic flow in member
1, increases as a direct function of A 1 /A 2
From this simple analogue it can be generalized
that, in any system which is stressed so that plastic
flow occurs over a portian of the total length only,
the unit stre.in is magnified in the portion undergoing
39
All ve~lllft cokuloted ,,
for A/A2=0.5
0 1~-.~~.-~.-~.-~.-~7~-.~~.-~~0-~11~~~2~~m
Rotio of Calculoted Ebtic Stroin Range ta
. ..
AvaUabl Eladic: Strain per HaH Cyde
Fm. 2.5 Strain magnification i~ a locally weakened bar.
such flow by the follow-up elasticity of th more
lowly stressed portion. It is not necessary that the
area of the critica! portion be less than the remainder.
entially in the critica! portion rather than over the
rest of the system. Lower mechanical properties can
have the same effect as reduced area. Systems
stressed in bending are subject to this effect even
when of uniform properties and size due to the non-
uniform stress distribution which prevails. Strain
magnification will occur whether the plastic flow is
due to exceeding the elastic limit or iS due to opera-
tion at high temperature where the plastic f!ow and
strain magnification factor would be a function of
time per cycle.
Similar conclusions were obtained in a recent
paper by Robinson [2]. Analyzing a few selected
piping systems operating at elevated temper.tures
(in the creep ran:ge), he found that severe strain
concentrations can exist in layouts where the maxi-
mum stress is limited to a very short length of the
piping, and where the follow-up elasticity of the
remainder of the system is great. These ~ndings
are in agreement with those of the previously pre-
sented analysis for strain concentrations under
plastic flow conditions.
The allowable stress range limits established by
the Piping Code are such that plastic flow due to
expansion effects is not permitted to occur with each
cycle. Both yielding and creep effects have been
considerad in basing the hot portian of the allowable
range on the hot yield or creep strength, whichever
governs. Repetitive strain magnification over sub-
stantial lengths of the piping should, therefore, not
occur. For lines Which are not presprung, it is, how-
ever, possible for sorne such strain magnification to
occur during the initial operating period, while the
 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
line is undergoing self-springing. Since this occurs
only once it must be considered in an entirely differ-
ent light and wou\d have no influence on fatigue
life.
The bar analogue presented above was used to
derive ma.gnification factors asswping that the weak
area was initially known and that an elastic analysis
of stress conditions was made. The analogue could
be readily modified to show the extremely high local
magnification factor which would exist at a defect
in a bar of nniform area, which is sufficiently serious
to cause local plastic flow. It is well known that
fatigue failure follows rapidly in the presence of such
a defect.
The allowable stress range, as associated with the
various types of repeated loading, is discussed in de-
tail in the following treatment of specific loadings.
Expansion "Stresses. Since thermal expansion
occurs a8 a finite strain load associated predomi-
nantly with bending effects, fracture on initial appli-
cation is unlikely to occur in ductile materials.
Fractures resulting from repeated applications of
" thermal strain loading are similar to fatigue failure
under mechanicalloa.ding. Therefore, the allowable
stress or strain range must be related to the number
of cydes anticipated during the life of the piping
system. Failure will occur in the zone of highest
cyclic strain, whether primary, localized, or second-
ary. For this reason it is necessary to apply stresr.
intensification factors for any individual piping com-
ponent wherever stresses above the leve! of the pri-
macy stresses are introduced. Dueto the importance
of suh stresses from a fatigile standpoint, Chapter 3
is entirely devoted to reeording present knowledge
of stress intensification in various components of
piping systems as well as thekinfluence onflexibility.
Overall design is based on the stress range for the
critica! component, as established by its intensifica-
tion factor and the nominal primary stress: at its
location.
The basic allowable stress range established for
thermal expansion stresses in the 1955 Piping Code
1.258. + 0.25 s,
where s. = allowable stress at ambient tsmperature
S, = allowable stress at operating tempera-
ture,
has been selected with the objective of providing a
4
Since the pressure vessel eodes do not provide rules for
thermal expansion loading, it is desirable to check the effect
of eomparatively stiff piping on vessel shells o low thickness/
radius ratio. This is aecomplisbed in the :ma.nner outlined in
Chapter 3 for terminaJ connections.
mnimum of 7000 cycles of operation without failure.
Local and secondary stresses are kept within this
limit by the stress-intensification factors. For a
num ber of cycles greater than 7000 the stress range
is reduced by a factor relating the allowable "
range to the number of cycles as determined
ambient tsmperature fatigue tests on caJrbcm-lltee\ 1,
pipe. The reduction factor has a lower limit of 0.5. :
Sorne a.djustment of these factors, particularly for
materials otber than carbon stee~ will undoubtedly """
be necessary as further fatigue information is "
obtained.
The possibility of fatigue failure under the cyclic "
straining conditions present in piping systems
been questioned by roany individuals. The ,..."'"~ ,,,
n
sitions were variously advanced that the in1;enoal
strain loa.ding associated with thermal cycling uf:
not initiate fatigue cracks, or that the str<es&relievin; '
.. '
and annealing effects at elevated temperatures would
prevent the propagation of such cracks. AB indi- "
cated in Chapter 1, reasoning should lead to the
opposite conclusion; furthermore, experimental veri- "
fication that fatigue under constrained
n
loading does occur. is provided by the work ~~
L. F. Coflin, Jr, [3, 4,], who demonstrated that}?
fatigue failure is primarily associated with the range ,.,"" ""
of cyc\ic plastic strain, while stress or strain relief is
of a secondary order of inflence.
The Code allowable stress range cited above as-
sumes that longitudinal stresses due to pressure and
other sustained externa! loadings are not over the
basic hot allowable stress, S,. For hot lines the .
expansion stresses at operating temperatures are :
assumed to be gra.dually lowered by yielding and
creep, so as to be carried essentially as an off-stream ,
or cold stress. If the longitudinal stress due to sus-
tained loadings is less than s,,the Code permits the
unused portian to be applied to extend the stress
range available for expansion effects. Therefore the .
Code, in effect, permits a total maximum allowable
stress range eqnal to 1.25(8. +S,), for thermal
expansion stress combined with stresses from othet
sustained loadings. For service temperatures below
the occurrence of siguificant creep, the total per-
missible longitudinal stress (both bending and direct)
is equivalent to approximately 1.25 times the yield
strength for power piping and 1.38 to 1.5 times the
yield strength for oil piping.
In general, Code desigu is simplified for general
use; at best it considers only average static condi-
tions and establishes mnimum desigu requirements,
placing dependence on the safety factor to take care
of unassessed stress conditions. The cyclic natnre
- -.-..-
 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
of loading and the possibility of fatigue failure are
not specifica!ly considered, except in the Piping
Code's treatment of piping flexibility for thermal
expansion. It might be asked why the fatigue design
approach is currently limited to piping expansion
analysis. This is dne to the fact that the Unfired
Pressure Vessel Code rules limit primary pressure
stresses in ferritic materials to 62!% of the yield
stress and 25% of the tensile' strength. . This pro- ,
vides a reasonable margin against the possibility of
fatigue dueto localized and secndary stresses, which
may he lOO% or more above this allowable stress,
for the type of cyclic conditions normally enco~n
tered in most pressure vessel services. By compri-
e
1 son, thermal strains play a greater role in the design
of piping, which would be seriously allected econom-
- j"
ically (and would he virtually impractical in the
-l case of large stitf systems) if total stress induding
expansion effecte were to he heldwithin theCode
e allowahle stress at the operating temperature.
'
Spurred by this necessity, experience and analytical
-~ work have led to the Piping Code's more advanced
e
.l '? . treatment of thermal strains, and to rules which
recognize the inf!uence of number of cycles, hot and
cold material properties, and local stress intensi-
r' .
e
fications.
It remains for the piping engineer and designer to
recognize any nnusual demands imposed by the de-
:>\_:_1 sign or service on piping systems. The following
~ ! topics, in particular, are not at present adequately
covered by thc mnimum Code design.
-
' Shock or Dynamic Loading. Shock or dynamic
-l
loading conditions warrant special consideration be-
cause of the added stress which can be introduced
-V by the rate of application of the motivating influence
.. j and the fact that the yield point of steel can be ap-
preciably raised by very rapid loading. Localized
yielding at points of stress concentration may be
: inhibited under such conditions and fracture more
2 readily initiated. The general subject of vibrations
which are a source of concern from a fatigue stand-
l point is treated in Chapter 9. The more significant
dynamic loadings which enter into piping design can
l be listed as follows:
Earlhquake. The accelerations associated with
earth tremors are generally of the order of l to
8 ft/sec 2 These values represent about 3% to 25%
of the 32.2 ft/sec 2 acceleration of gravity. For this
reason, earthquake design is commonly approached
by applying a horizontal force acting at the center
of gravity of the structures; this force is lO% to 20%
of the structure weight, depending on the maximum
nccelerations recorded for the locality considered.
J
41
Earthquake loading is not normally assumed i'i de-
sign unless it is specifically required for the locality
concerned. Sorne consideration has heen given to
requiring that al! structures be checked for sorne
minimnm lateral thrust of this type, lower than in
recognized earthquake zones, but this is not the
practice at present.
Gun Fire. Piping on warnhips is sometimes
checked for the .dynamic effect due to the firing of
guns.
Water Hammer or F/.Qw Surge Effec~- ThePiping
Code contains water hammer allowances for cast
iron pipe, in the form of a required increase in design
pressure. On steel pipes no standard allowance is
made for flow snrge or hammer, and allowances are
usually made only on high-head water flow lines,
such as penstocks. The shock pressure due to sud-
den stopping of a liquid is a function of its velocity,
stoppage time, and the elasticity of the pipe. Pres-
sure surge effects are present wherever reciprocating
pumps or compressors are nsed. The accompanying
mechanical vibrations may in certain cases be suf-
ficient to result in fatigue failure, if not promptly
corrected. This subject is treated in more detail in
Chapter 9.
Brittle Fracture in Ferritic Steel. The poten-
tia! dangers of the brittle fracture of steel structures
were made clear during World War JI and after by
the numerous failures of merchant ships, and by
occasional parta! or complete failures of bridges,
pressure spheres, gas-transmission piping, and stor-
age tanks. The phenomenon and conditions under
which fracture may occur were discussed in Chap-
ter l. From the practica! design standpoint it has
been realized for a long time that, as ambient tem-
peratures are reduced, the hazard of brittle fracture
in ferritic steels s increased. As a result, the Pres-
sure Vessel Codes have required for many years that
for services below -20 F (excluding applications
for service at prevailing ambient temperature, such
as outdoor pressure storage tanks), ferritic materials
have an impact value of at least ft-lb, at the low-
est intended service temperature as determined by
keyhole or U-notch Charpy specimens.
The numerous fractures of ships and other struc-
tures have resulted in extensive investigations for
the causes underlying brittle behavior. While no
complete practica! remedy for avoidance of brittle
fracture has resulted, severa! factors have been rec-
ognized to have important influence. Although in-
dividual impact or equivalent testing of each plate,
bar, or tube at the lowest service temperature still
provides the best assurance as to its transition t.em-
42 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
perature, there is definite evidence that average
transition temperatures are lowered and the inci-
dence of fa.ilures significantly reduced, within the .
muge of ambient temperatures, by using open-
hearth or electric-furnace steels, controlling the
manganese-carbon ratio of platea over ! in. thick,
and by employing killed steels made to fine-grain
prnctice, particularly for thicknesses over 1 in. (see
ASTM Sjle!l. Al31-53T for example). Normalizing
is also desirable for important plate applic!l.tions over
1 in. a.lthough none of the ASTM Specifications for
structura.l steel at present requires this in any thick-
ness; however, ASTM Specification A131-53T in
parsgraph 4(b) mentions that platea over 1f in. may
be required to be. produced to specia.l specificatio!s.
The ASTM Specification A373-54T covers struc-
tura.l steel for welding and is similar to A131 except
that it makes no reference to fine-grain prnctice for
platea over 1 in.. or. to specia.l requirements over
1l ID: .The development of these specifications and
their gradua.lly more widespread use in the construc-
tion of ships, tankage, and other structures at insig-
nificant increase in cost is an encoilraging trend.
Though it represente only a modest start it indicatea
that much more conld be accomplished by economic
steel specification control and that its extension .to
a.ll pressure services is a necessa.ry undertaking.
The experimental work a.lso showed that a siguifi-
cant improvement in performance can be achieved
through careful design by the avoidance of high
stress concentration or areas of high local restraint
(e.g., ship hatch corner design). Significantly, a.ll
such failures have been triggered off by a relatively
minor flsw or .notch,. the majority of which were
associated with welds. Apparently, in addition to
the possibility of welds contsining sma.ll crncks, the
local residual stress pattern 88Sociated with them is
a factor. The latter playa a significant role, not only
in iuitiating crack propagation, but in accelerating
the crack propagation speed to a leve! where it can
continue as a spontaneous process through a much
lower stress field. This is in keeping with the theory
given in Chapter l.
Non-ductile Materials. Cast iron and other
non-ductile materia.ls are usua.lly confined to rela-
tively 1ow tempernture service when used for pres-
sure parts. Bending stresses for these materia.ls
must be kept within well-defined allowable va.lues
(for cast iron, usually 1! times the allowable stress
for tension). Bell-and-spigot or packed joints of a
design incapable of taking longitudinal stress are
provided with anchors at the end of each run, with
expansion absorbed by movement at the packed
mnts. For low-tempernture underground linea
expansion provision is usually not necessary.
Temporary Loadings. An allowance of 33!%
above the ba.sic allowable hot stresses established
for oil piping in the Piping Code has be<>nsugesGecl;~
for temporary loadings due to wind or earthcua'ke.,?
Stresses due to occasiona.l brief overloads in opera- ,
tion can be similar!y treated; such might be
sioned by minor upsets in operating condions or
starting-up or shutdown conditions. For
piping applications the .ASME and ASA Codea, :'
specifica.lly recognize occa.sinal operating varaiOiOilS :,
in pressure and temperature, allowing the following
ihcrease in the ca.lculated stress due to
pressure: . .
l. 15% during 10% of the operating periOO: .: e fl
2. 20% during 1% of the opernting period. ' '. iJJ
~. ~
.This permissible overstress is intended to cover the . u
surges expected to occur due to the heat lag of
~
boilers whenthe output is suddenly decreased. .'
not recommended as a general design prnctice
normal operation variations in pressure or . .
L
ture as it is better to design for the maximum pre.s-l
sure and temperatura conditions expected to occur
in regular operation. However, brief temperature
or pressure upsets may be treated on this basis,
provided they are such as to require quick reme-
dial adjustments in_ operation to restore normal
conditions. .
Severe upset or emergency loadings sometimes ca.ll
for immediate drastic correctivo measures and may
require shutting down the uuit. Wherever prac-
ticable the same limit as proposed for temporary
loadings should be observed, but the nature and
probability of the emergency often requires specia.l
consideration. In the case of piping where design iS
controlled by creep and stress-rupture properties,
analysis of the ability of the systern to sustain an
occasiona.l short duration emergency can be based on
the short-time properties of the matericl. or, more
frequent, on the permissible creep stresses for the
shorter time period involved, by evaluation of the
cumulative creep for service and nnusua.l conditions.
N o standard guide can be given. More study and
tests are desirable to assess the cumulative effect of
short-duration high overloads and long-duration
normal loads. It is known that, for a given total
period of overloading, the number of times the
loading is appli<d has a significant effect, being more
damaging as the frequency of application increases
for a constant total duration of the overload.
Where ba.s'ic allowable stresses are set higher or are
established by cold-worked properties (e.g. gas
! 1
,l. J
 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, ANO DESIGN LIMITS
transmission line piping) l overstress due to tem-
porary loading should be avoided.
Abnormal temperature differences may occur due
to upsets or during stirt-up operations1 which can
cause thermal expansion stresses higher than assumed
for the normal design condition. When infrequent
compared to the normal design condition, sorne
increase in the permissible stress range can be justi-
f fied. For example, when working to the rules of the
1951 ASA Piping Code, The M. W. Kellogg Com-
pany designed for emergency thermal expansion con-
ditions using a 50% increase over the basic allowable
~ j stress range. A more appropriate design approach
would be one which would determine the number of
cycles at the Code allowable stress range which
would he eqnivalent to the number of cycles under
the diverse conditions actually anticipated. Assum-
ing a basic relation between number of cycles N and
stress range SR of the form
the equivalent numher of cycles N, at a stress SA
can be established roughly as
J may be expressed in a co=on manner as follows:
=--.:r
:;. r
where K and n are constante for the material.
N 1 is the number of cycles producing an over-
- load stress S,.
N2 is the number of cycles producing an over-
)
load stress S 2 , etc.
-j N n is the numher of expected operating cycles
on the normal design basis.
S n is the corresponding calculated stress.
\'
.1 SA is the Code allowable stress range for
7000 cycles.
Since the Code stress range is intended to provide for
a minimum of 7000 cycles at a stress SA, if N, does
not exceed 7000, the design may be considered
equivalent to a Code design. Tests on carbon-steel
pipes [5] indicated that n can be taken equal to 5.
Without similar test data, the use of n = 5 for other
materials is open to sorne question.
-j 2.4 Stress Evaluation
Stress evaluation is co=only limited to primary
direct, bending, and torsional stresses which, in pip-
ing, result from the effect of pressure, weight, and
thermal expansion. Localized and secondary stresses
which do not affect the overall system are not ordi-
1 narily evaluated directly although their influence on
1
_j
the cyclic or fatigue life under thermal expansion -is
taken into account through so-called stress intensi-
fication factors. The following discussion presents
background information and comments to aid under-
standing of the current approach in treating various
loadings.
2.4 Interna! Pressure up. to 3000 psi Maxi-
mum. In their present status, the Pressure Vessel
Codes already mentioned are stated to be applicable
when the pressure does not exceed 3000 psi. Pres-
sures above this may require special attention to
design and fabrication details, closures, branch con-
nections, etc., in view of the heavier wall and thick-
ness/diameter ratio involved. Actually, any such
limit is strictly arbitrary and should more properly
be established as a pressurejstress limit so that the
influence of different materials and the effect bf
temperature would be included.
For the most co=on surlace of revolution,. the
cylinder, the so-called inside diameter (or membrane)
and outside diameter (or Barlow) forniulas were
first used for thickness/diameter below and above
0.1 respectively. These were later supplanted by
the mean diameter formula and, more recently, by
the universally adopted formula approximating the
results of the Lam formula. Al! these formulas
S = (pr;/t) + Kp (2.11)
where p = interna! pressure.
r i = inside radius.
t = wall thickness.
K = constant having values between O and l.
If K is given the value of O, the inside diameter for-
mula is obtained; for K = 0.5, the mesn diameter;
for K = 1.0, the outside diameter. When the value
of 0.6 is used, stresses are obtained which correlato
reasonably well for values of t up to about 0.5r; with
the recognized inside circumferential stress formula
of Lam. This approximation, discovered by H. C.
Boardman, was rapidly adopted for moderate-
temperature piping by both Pressure Vessel and
Piping Codes, while for piping in the creep range it
is considered applicable if a further adjustment of
K is made as covered later in this section. Similar
relationships, which approximate the direct circum-
ferential pressure stress at the inner-wall surface for
other shapes of revolution, are presented in Table 2.!.
For dished heads it may be noted that the Code also
relates the design of torispherical and el!ipsoidal
hesds to the sphere formula, which is suitably modi-
fied by a correction factor to correspond with the
44 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Table 2.1 lnternal Pressure-Circumferential
Stress Formulas for Elastic Conditions
Sha pe p S
pr SEt p
Cylinder
SE -0.6p T + 0;6! Et [r; + 0.6tj

Cone* Use (...!.!__)

cosa
in place of r . in the cylinder formulas.

pr 2SEt p
Sphere Et [r; + 0.2tj
2SE- 0.2p r; + 0.2t 2

Torus (pressure inside)t

SE- pK
pr [RR-
- 0.5r;]
T R-
SEt
0.5r;) K E_
Et
- 0.5r;) r; + it] .
[(RR- ~,
( R-r, r+ t

General shape of revolutiont

SE- pK
pr [1 - f
2R 1
J SEt
_E_
Et
[(1 - 2__!<_)
R, '
r + Kt]
(1 '- 2~}+ Kt
where r i = inside radius (use meridional radius in general formula, i.e., .radius from axis of revolution and normal to
surface, see Fig. 2.6).
. E = weld joint efficiency.
R = tcrus center line bend radius.
Rt = actual radius of curvature in meridional plane at the point in question (positive if conca.ve to pressure)
(Fig. 2.6). . .
a = ! cone included (apex) angle.
K = 0.6 e+ !r;/R.)
S = circumferential stress.
(use absolute value).

p = interna! pressure.
Not covered by Piping Code at Present.
tNot given in any code at present.

membrane stresses a.ssociated with their contour.
The pressure design of shell openings for nozzles,
manholes, and hranch connections is hased on the
simple maintenance of the original cross-sectional
area, by replacement of the removed metal by rein-
forcement nnmediately adjacent to the weakened
area. Flanges and eover plates involve primarily
bending stresses; the direct stresses -in these com-
ponente are connnonly neglected due te their lesser
magnitude. Specific formulas are given in the Codes
for their pressure design.
2.4b lnternal Pressure over 3000 psi. The
Codes at present (1955) do not eover the design of
high-pressure vessels, although this subject has re-
ceived considerable attention in the last two decades.
Many problems arise at high pressure for which con-
ventional code deteils are either totally unsuited or
present an undesirable choice. Examples are: nozzle
reinforcements which, within Code limits for rein-
forcement, entail extremely abrupt changes in sec-
tion, eones, etc., iJ;lvolving inside comer rad which
are small in comparison with the wall thickness. As
the pressure is increased, practicallimits are reached
for design as covered by Code rules. ln the follow-
ing it is attempted to summarize the practices which
A
v
1
Fm. 2.6 The meridional radius of curvature for
shells of revolution.
are followed in the design of shells, heads, closures,
and connections of high-pressure piping.
The Lam formula and the Rankine (Maximum
Principal Stress) criterion, on which the ASME
Boiler Code and ASA Code for Pressure Piping are
based, no longer predict general yielding or rupture
within reasonable limits when the thickness/diameter
ratio exceeds approximately 0.20. Although the
error is on the safe side, the deviation becomes
greater the more. the thickness/diameter ratio is in-
creased. For initiation of yielding the Maximum
Shear or Maximum Shear.Strain Energy Theories
are in good agreement with experimental evidence,

'
U
 "1
-J DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS 45

"
'
j 1
as mentioned in Chapter l. Either of these theories
may be used to practica! advantage as general yield-
ing or bursting criteria when applied in conjunction
with plastic stress analysis.
-
Circ\lmferentiol

"l
-j
For thick cylinders; yielding of the inside fibers
leads to compressive residual stresses in the plasti-
Axiol
St<eu
1-++-iH-l
cally deformed portian of the wall when pressure is
1
TeMile
1
"1 removed, increased stress in the outer fibers under z...,
1; -~ pressure loading, and greater uniformity of ..shear
stresses throughout the wall thickness. . This redis-
1
Compreuive
1
tribution of stresses due to plastic flow is tenned
"1 "auto-frettage"; it was first employed for casting
J ;
guns in the early nineteenth century. Later, greater
control and nnifonnity of stress distribution was at~
" tained by shrinking successive closely machined shell
] layers on to each other, thus producing a thick-
walled cylinder, whose inner layers are in a state of
precompression.
'
The fact hat initial yielding of the inner fibers
-
J ;_ occurs at only a fraction of the pressure correspond-
ing to general yielding distinguishes thick-walled
"1 r~
vessels from thin-walled shells. Since the pressure to
produce failure in thick-walled vessels is more
FIG. 2.7 Typical stress va.ria.tion in a pipe under elastic
or creep conditions.
'.J i;
-!<-;
properly associated with plastic rather than elastic
r-1 criteria, a valid design of these structures can be For a severely cold-working material the assumption
~ that the strain is the sum of an elastic strain obeying
!1. based on plastic analyses, and related to the general
Hooke's law and a plastic strain can be considerably
L yielding and bursting conditions. The various
approaches which have been suggested are diseUBSed in error. Special analyses have also been worked out
i;~1 in the following paragraphs. for strain-hardening materials.
-J M odified Elasticity. This approximate solution Plasticity analyses are generally based on the
assumes that a safety factor of 4 on bursting is main- assumptions that (1) elastic strains are negligible in
01 tained so long as yielding of the inside fibers is comparison with plastic strains; (2) the volume' of
~ ' avoided at the design pressure. This approach also the material remains constant during deformation;
J
requires that the stress at the mean wall thickness, and '(3) the length of the pipe is unchanged under
as calculated by the Lam formula, does not exceed the application of pressure. The distribution of cir-
' the usual allowable (0.25S.) value. The safety cumferential stresses changes completely from the
] elastic resulta, the maximum in the plastic range
factor assumed by this analysis is likely to be in
. error on the unsafe side. occurring at the outside fiber. The shear stress also
' A uto-frettage. The wall is assumed to be in two tends to be constant through the wall thickness, But
j layers with the inner !ayer taken to be in a state of remains a maximum at the inner fiber. Figure 2. 7
precompression, attained by applying a suitable illustrates the difference in stress distribution. For a
' l overpressure and yielding the inner fibers. The thick-walled cylinder of an ideally plastic (non..work-
j stress is then calculated by the Lam formula con- hardening) material, Ndai [6] gives the following
sidering the nitial prestressed condition. The results formulas at the onset of general yielding:
.l will be similar to the preceding approximate ap- -- __ p[1 - log, (r0 /r)]
proach for the same safety factor. S (2.12)
.l Partial arul Complete Plasticity. Stress analyses
log, (r0 /r;)
of cylinders having an inner plastic-elastic zone and
an outer elastic zone are available in many text
Srz = --Lp[~lo~g,:_:(~r.~/
log, (r./r;)
r'. !.!)]
(2.13)

- 1' books dealing with plasticity. These solutions are

generally based on the assumption of an idealized p
2S, = S,, - S,. = (independent of r)
material which is elastic up to the yield stress and log, (r./r;)
plastic (non-work-hardening) at the yield value. (2.14)
.J

. l

J
. l
!
 46 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
where Soz = circumferential stress at any radius r.
Sn = radial stress at any point r.
S, = shear stress.
r =- outside radius.
ri = inside1 radius.
r = radius at point in question.
The value of 28, is eqnal to Se at the ontside radius.
If this is accepted as a snitable criterion of general
yielding or bursting, it is interesting to know that
eq. 2.14 can be closely approximated by the simple
mean diameter formula.
Spurred on by an interesting paper by Burrows
and Buxton [7) on available formulas for cylinders
under internhl pressnre, the ASA B31 Com.mittee
appointed a sPec;a! task group tostudy the snbject
and recommend a simple appropriate formula for the
design of heavyCwalled piping in the_ creep range.
This task group: recommended that the value of K in
the simple forinula of eq. 2.11 be gradually modified
from 0.6 to o:3 at temperatures over 900 F for
ferritic steels and over 1050 F for austenitic steel.
This recommendstion was approved and the formulas
for piping in the ASA Pipiug Code, Sections 1 and 3;
and the ASME Power Boiler Code now include this
provision. :: '' pressure. The Code design of a stiffened shell
m.
The rormu!s'given eq 2.12 to 2.14 will provide
a rea.sonablygood answer for the behavior of thick-
walled cylinders made of materials with ouly mild
stra.in-hardening tendency. -Where a more e:act
evaluation of probable performance is desiroo; the
stress distributiori should be evaluated from the
actual str~:l..in cha.racteristics of the '!1&- shell and stiffener under pressure, and the elastic
terial [8, 9, lO]: An analysis of thick-walled cylinders
under interna! pressnre in the creep range has also
been advanced by Ba.iley [11].
Concerning the practica! design deta.ils of thick
shells, an effort should be made to avoid stress raisers
in the form of abrupt changes of section at the loca-
tion of openings, nozzles, and intersections. The
observance of these rules, coupled with careful con-
trol of materials and fabrication, and with -adequate
testing, -may permit a reduction in the overall
nominal safety factor without diminishing (and
possibly improving) the real safety factor. With the
trend to higher pressnres and temperatures, more
adequate use of material is imperative. Lower safety
factors for simple snrfaces of revolution or for con-
struction of controlled low stress intensification is
also necessary [12).
2.4c Externl Pressures. Externa! pressure
loading involves, in addition to control of direct
stresses, the consideration of stability. Direct
stresses for externa! pressnres are governed by the
same formulas as fr interna! pressure, except that
the signs of all of the equations containing the pres-.
sure p have to be reversed, indicating compresslon
stress.
Stability of cylinders -against collapse is
covered by the rules of the ASME Boiler Code, -
Section YIII, which provide for the design of both-
unstiffened and stiffened cylinders of al! Code:
materials. For an explanation of the Code charts, .-
reference should be made to a paper by E. O. Berg-
man [13). -This paper also contains an- extensive
bibliography on this snbject. Similar to columns,:
the limiting compressive load which a cylinder
susta.in is related to its equivalent slendemess, <Jnd
conditions, and deviations from true contour. In
the case of long unstiffened cylinders (length/ _ :-~-
diameter over about 10), the collapsed contour
approximately follows a figure 8 outline, consisting
of two complete lobes. Consequently, an unstiffened
cy!inder may be compared with a fixed-end oolumn
whose length equals one-half of its circumference.
For stiffened cylinders, the number of lobes increases
as the length-between-stiffeners/diameter is de-.
creased, with a corresponding _increase in collapse
establishes a shell thickness and combined moment
of inertia for the stiffener and shell to assnre the
stability of the entire shell section. This resnlts in
heavier stiffeners than would be obtained by a
design approach wherein the stiffener loading is
based on division of load between the connected
condi tions up to the point of collapse. The col-
lapsing pressure of heads (which in early Code
editions involved a f!at reduction in allowable
externa! pressure to 60% of that allowed for interna!
pressure) is now predicated on the collapse pressure
of a complete sphere having a radius equal to that of
the spherical part of the head.
The ASME rules attempt to ma.ints.in the same
nominal safety factor of 4 against collapse under
externa! pressure as is used against bursting under
interna! pressure. There is some reason to question
whether this is entirely logical, since the effect of
localized stresses or stress concentrations, such as at
branch connections, may be entirely different. Also,
the degree of hazard in the event of failure will
generally be appreciably lesa for externa! pressnre,
although hazard must still be judged independently
for individual applications. In addition, the Code
rules maintain the same safety factor for failure by
elastic instabi!ity as for failure by plastic yielding,
 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
except for small tubes where a variable lower safety
'lf t
factor is recognized. The practice of the Structural
" J Steel Codes in reducing the safety factor on columns
as the length/radius-of-gyration is reduced appears
logicaL For vessels or pipes a similar practice could
be followed by lowering the safety factor to 2 on the
yield point as a suitable function of diameter/thick-
ness, but this practice is not yet recognized.
2.4d Expansion. The evaluation of externa!
reactions at terminal points and intermediate re-
straints of piping systems is given in detail in
Chapters 4 and 5; The expansion (orces in space
systems will generally result in 3 force and 3 bending-
moment components at each terminal point. The
number of such components is reduced .with parta!
end fixation.
The evaluation of the terminal reactions permits
the calculation of the three moments (2 bending and
1 torsional) at any point in the pipe line by the
application of statics. These moments, in turn,
permit the designer to calculate the stresses by
~' )
utilizing the section modnli of the pipe. . The con-
;':
tribution of direct forces for the expansion stresses
: .;
in piping systems is generally insignificant, unless
the piping layout is extremely stiff.
For simplicity the Piping Code provides that
expansion stresses be calculated with the cold
(ambient temperature) modulus of elasticity. The
design values of Poisson's Ratio and the torsional
modulus for expansion stresses likewise refer to this
temperatura The Code also provides thermal
expansion data for evaluating the change in length
over any temperature range. This use of room-
temperature data avoids the necessity of using
elevated-temperature properties, which may be less
!'. 1 accurately determined. With the principal strain
- ~ '
generally present at atmospheric temperature due to
pre- or self-springing, the Code practice of using the
"cold" values of mechanical properties is entirely
sound.
2.4e Otber Loading. Other loading which may
,. 1
act on piping systems includes: the weight loads of
.JI the piping, including structural members; the weight
of the insulation, and contenta; snow and ice loading;
wind loading if exposed; loading due to acceleration
J imparted by earth tremors; special shock loading,
such as gun fire or moving vehicles; and unbalanced
static pressure or flow effects.
It is possible to include any or al! of these loads in
a complete solution, following the methods of
Chapter 5. Ordinarily, these effects are not suffi-
ciently critica! to warrant the extra engineering cost
of this more precise approach. Instead, they are
47
indirectly controlled in a standardized way (e.g.,
support standards) or individually estimated and
controlled so that the surn of al! effects will approxi-
mately meet the same combined stress criterion.
For large-diameter or otherwise. stiff piping systems,
particularly where expensive materials are involved
or where the increased space f9r additional flexibility
would require enlarged buildings or other consider-
able expense, every contribution to the overall strain
should be evaluated by a simultaneous solution.
Weight effects are conveniently minimized by the
provision of adequate supports. Where such supports
just balance the weight reaction, they can be va1i~ly
ignored in the expansin analysis. 'This condition is
seldom achieved even with elaborate compensating
spring hangers. . However, average piping is suffi-
ciently stiff so that the local restriction due to sorne
support friction or unbalance is not a serious factor.
For separate. estimation, conventional columu and
beam analysis of . individual critica!. members, or
frame analysis of combinations of members is recom-
mended. Wmd and dynamic effects can be similar!y
treated. Unbalanced pressure effects are resisted
wherever possible by rigid stops or ties which are
taken into account in the flexibility analysis, unless
such provisions would adversely affect the behavior
of the line. In the latter case a careful analysis may
be made to determine whether the pipe itself can be
designed to carry the loads. If not, the unbalanced
pressure effect must be handled by special design
arrangements.
2.5 Combination of Stress: Stress lntensifica-
tion and Flexibility Factors
The 1955 Piping Code rules for flexibility contain
the following equation for the combination of stresses
due to thermal expansion:
sE= v's. + 4s, (2.15)
where SE = equivalent stress to be compared with
the allowable thermal expansion stress
range, psi.
s. = resultant longitudinal bending stress
psi = f3M/Z.
S, = resultant torsional shear stress psi =
M,2z.
M. = resultant bending moment, lb-in.
M, = resultant torsional moment, lb-in.
Z = section modulus of pipe, in. 3
{3 =
stress intensification factor.
This equation is based on the Maximum Shear
Theory and for convenient comparison with Code

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
a.llowa.ble stress ra.nge, eq. 2.15 represente two times
the maximwh sbear stress due to expa.nsion loa.ding.
M stated in Section 2.3, the Piping Code establisbes
a. separate limit of s. for the maximum longitudiha.l
stress due to pressure, weight, and other externa!
sustained loa.dings, with the proviaion that, if such
loa.dings do not a.dd up to s., the difference may be
used to increase the a.llowable stress ra.nge for expan-
sion effects. This a.pproach has been a.dopted for
convenience in practica! desigu calculations. It is
obvious tha.t, when using combined-stress formulas
and a. specific yield critrion, stresses from a.llloa.d-
ings sbould be included to determine the principal
stresses before combining them. On the other hand,
from a fatigue failure standpoint, the loadings.which
cause cyclic stresses are the most Significant. There
is, therefore, reasonable logic in combining these
separatelyfor,compa.rison with an a.llowable'.stresa
range. Actua.lly, so long as the a.llowa.ble stress ra.nge
is a.djusted to suit the methods of calculation a.nd
stress combination wbich will be used, deSigis arrived
a.t by various approaches can be ma.de substantia.lly
the sa.me. Simplicity of a.pplication has been the
objective of the Code.
The Code's use of the maximum shear-stresa
criterion for expausion stresses represente a. departure
from the evalua.tion of stresses elsewhere in the Code,
where only principal stresses are cousidered. While
a uniform criterion would be preferable to a.void con-
fusion and permit better assesament of sa.fety factors,
,there is greater need for closer evaluation of. cyclic
strain !oa.dings which may lea.d toa fatigue failure.
The approach laid down a.bove is rei:ommended for
ordina.ry practice, in view of the mandatory require-
mente of the Code a.nd the relative Simplicity of
handling expausion stresses separa.tely. For critica!
applications, or where loadings are Simultaneously
analyzed, it is more appropriate to evalua.te al!
stresses prior to combining them and compare them
to the total a.llowable stress ra.nge 1.25 (S.+ s.).
The a.dditional provision that the principal stress
dueto long-time sustained !oa.dings other than expan-
sion should not exceed S,, must also be observed.
For convenient reference the following formulas
are given:
Let S L = maximum longitudinal stress due to
pressure, weight, and other sustained
loading plus expausion stress s.
as de-
fined above.
S, = circumferential pressure stress.
S, = shea.r stress dueto torsion as previously
defined.
(' ;
Then the resultant principal stresses a.t the outside
fiber csn. be written as
S, = 0.5[SL +S, +v'4S,Z + (SL- 8,)2]
82 = 0.5[SL + 8 11 - V48,2 + (SL ~. 8,.) 2] (2.16)
S3 =O
and the combined "eqnivalent" stressfor the respec-
tive yield condition becomes
Maximum Shear Theory ,(Tresca)
The greater of 8 1 as given above or
v'4Sl + (SL- s, . (2.17)
Distortion-Energy Theory (Mises)
V3S," + SL2 + Sl SLSp (2.18)
Ule of the maximum shear theory is favored for
cousistency with the Piping Code. '
In the sa.mple calculations in Chapters 4 a.nd 5 the
Piping Code rules are followed. The exsmples in
Chapter 4 involve expausion a.lone; in Chapter 5,
Ssmple Ca.lculations 5.14, 5.15, a.nd 5.16 include
weight or wind effects. .
In the Genera.! Ana.lytical Method, the infiuence '
of localized effecte .on deflections and rotations is
provided for by the inclusion of f!exibility factors
:0!
with the shape constants. In effect, this compensates 'L..:
for the a.dditional displacemeilte by providing a.n
increase of the length of the member to a s<Xa.lled
virtual length, producing the desired relative deflec-
tio!L The net infiuence of this increased f!exibility
is to decrease reactions and nominal primary stresses.
This greater f!exibility of local components, such
as bends, is the result of localized stresses whose
magnitude above the nominal primary stress leve] is
a
expressed by stress-intensification factor, whose use
is mandatory in the new Piping Code rules, These
rules contain suggested flexibility and stress factors
for usual piping components, with the provision of
a.llowing the a.lternate use of experimentally deter-
minad actors.
2.6 Evaluation of Def!ections and Reaetions
Line movemente or deflections are of interest in the
desigu of yielding supports, such as spring hangers,
and in establishing clearances for the free expausion
movement of a large-dismeter or complex line.
Sample Calculation 5.10 in Chapter 5 illustra.tes that
the evaluation of def!ections by the Kellogg General A
Ana.lytical Method requires little extra. effort after 1'
L
; ,
---:1
u
 ''
I DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
., i
the reactions have been determined. Line move-
'~
;
i ments at any point are also readily determined by
j
' Model Test for any condition of loading, as discussed
; in Chapter 6.
'l It must be appreciated that calculated deflections
J establish only a range of movement; the absolute
position of any point at a given time is, in addition,
dependent upon the combined effects of initial fabri-
cation stress, relaxation and creep, changes in dead
load, adjustment of hangers, and local temperature
differences at the eross section. Except for temporary
overload of terminal equipment, etc., a line may be
adjusted to any desired initial position so that the
movement range occurs over the desired location.
Equipment may be protected against erection over-
load by thermal unloading (controlled local stress
relief) as diseussed in Chapter 3.
Since maintained loads, such as piping weight and
insulation, are essentially eonstant, deflection calcu-
lations are ordinarily eonfined to expa;.sion effects.
In general, the effect of maintained loads (such as
piping weight and insulation) and transient loads
(such as contenta, snow, and wind loads) are effec-
tively limited by properly placed and designed sup-
ports, guides, or ties. The siguifieant movements
will then be associated only with thermal expansion,
and defleetion ealculations can be eonfined to this
effect.
The caleulations in Chapters 4 and 5 and the model
tests in Chapter 6 give, as their first result, the
reactions of the supports on the piping system.
These forces and moments are determined on the
basis of a strain equivalent to the total expansion
and using the modulus of elasticity and Poisson's
ratio at atmospheric temperature. They do not
include the influence of initial stresses dueto fabrica.-
tion. The resulting reaction range will be immedi-
ately realized in its full maguitude only for piping
systems subjected to 100% cold spring. Beyond this
consideration, it is important to know the maximum
rea.ctions to be expected in the hot and cold condi-
tions for the purpose of examining their effeet on
terminal equipment. The Piping Code provides the
following rules on this subject:
(2.19)
R, = CR, or (2.20)
R=
e
s. - R
( 1 -SE-Eh r
E,) (2.21)
1
The value of R, is taken from equations 2.20 or 2.21,
'1
'
1[
'--;.1
49
whichever is greater, and with the further condition
that
s. E,.
SE X E 1s less than l
where e = cold spring factor varying from o for no
cold spring to 1 for. lOO% cold spring.
SE = maximum computed equivalent expan-
sion stress (per eq. 2.15).
E, = modulus of elasticity in the cold condi-
tion.
E = modulus of elastieity in the hot condition.
R, = range of reactions corresponding to the
full expansion range based on E,.
R, and R represent the maximum reactions
estimated to occur in the cold and hot
conditions, respectively.
Obviously, the Code formulas for reactions, based
upon a division of strains between the ambient and
service temperatures, are somewhat arbitrary.
Eqnation 2.19 attempts only to establish the initial
magnitude of the hot reaction for purposes of check-
ing the capa.city of equipment to take such effects.
Equations 2.20 and 2.21, in turn, are aimed at estab-
lishing the maximum value of cold reactions, either
as obtained through initial cold springing, or due to
subsequent self-springing under service conditions.
The signs (directions) of the hot and cold rea.ctions
are always opposed to each other. For temperatures
in the creep range, the hot reaction will eventually
be lowered to a value roughly corresponding to Jhe
design allowable creep stress s.. This value approxi-
mately corresponds to R =
s.
SE R.,, whereas the cold
reaction increases to the value given by eq. 2.21.
Equations 2.19 and 2.20 are applicable toa multi-
plane system only when the prespring is applied as a
uniform percentage in each direction. In practice
there may be instances where prespringing in a pre-
ferred direction only may be sufficient and be utilized
because it is simpler to carry out. For such a case
the rea.ctions for the actual prespring to be applied
should be calculated by an appropriate analytical
method in place of eq. 2.20. For the most complete
control of prespring, an analysis of the type shown
in Sample Calculation 5.13 is recommended.
When prespringis not specified, oris not adequately
controlled, the reactions due to fabrication may in
exceptional cases correspond to yield-point stress in
the system, unless thermal unloading has been em-
ployed. Fabrication residual strains will be reduced
when the piping system is first heated if the combined
 50 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
expansion and residual stresses exceed the yield
strength. The fabrication strain so relieved is not
reestablished during subsequent service, nor will it
affect the fatigue Jife of the piping system.. Its
significance Jies largely in the load which it introduces
on equipment or foundations as long as it.lasts.
The individual hot and cold reaction values are of
interest mB.inly for judging their effect on sensitive
equipment, such as pumps and turbines which involve
maintaining close clearances and aligument; they are
also of interest in connection with foundation design.
In regard to localized stresses in the shell of terminal
eqnipment; however, the reaction range rather than
the magnitude of the individual hot and cold reactions
is the significant factor. This aspect is dicusssed in
more detall in Chapter 3.
2.7 Design Significance of lnspection and
Tests
Wall thickness calculations, when dealing with
pipe or a cylindrical shell, have always included a
so-called "joint efficiency" for welded seams which
has usually heen applied ouly to circnmferential
pressure stresses. For structural loading the joint
efliciency is sometimes neglected. It is also generally
disregarded in fiexibility calculations or compressive
loading and most situations where ouly bending
stress is involved.
The term "joint efliciency" is a holdover from
riveted construction, where a definite breaking
strength could he associated with a specific design.
On welded joints, where weakening effects such as
rivet holes are absent, it is not diflicult to provide
design strength equal to the base material as
evidenced by procedure tests of sample welds, even
for lapped joints. Better criteria of the reliability
and performance of a welded joint are its capacity to
take deformation asa measure of its safety against
cracking, the absence of weakening defects as assured
by examination, pressure tests, and mechanical tests
of occasional complete joints or specimens; for high-
temperature service the tests should be carricd out
both at room and scrvice temperature, but this is not
current practice except for special applications.
Assessment -of performance tests and degree of
examination would lead to establishment of a
"quality factor," rather than a "joint efliciency."
Where repetitive loading is involved, the potential
infiuence of the desigu details, fabrication quality,
and basic structure of the weld- and heat-affected
zone of the parent metal can.apparently be accurately
evaluated ouly by full-scale fatigue tests under com-
bined loadings and temperature cycling. However,
scale tests and the use of small specimens have
proven valuable in investigations of certain aspects
of this problem, particularly for establishing general
trends or for the quality control of procedures and
actual fabrication.
The leve! of quality of design, materials, and fabri-
cation atiained, as assured by adequate llllpection
and tests, is at maximum econom.ic.effectiveness when
the individual factors are controlled to the same de-
gree [12]. Overemphasis on any aspect does not
ordinarily lessen the hazards -attendant to the
neglected factors, so that the probability of failure
is not proportionately reduced.
' There is sorne opinion that pipe girth joints are less
critica! than longitudinal welds. This view stems
from the fact that longitudinal press)ll"e stresses are
approximately orily half the circumferential stress.
It ignores the fact that expansion and structural
effects usually make longitudinal stresses the criterion
of design, and that weakness in a longitudinal direc-
tion causes a local weakness circumferentially. In
addition; initial fiaws, in propagsting, tend to change
orientation for maximum influence from the maxi-
mum stresses present..
Adequate pressure testing, as practiced on pressure
vessels, often presents economic problems in piping.
Shop tests of irregular or large-diameter runs require
special fiihgi r. else extra welds for closures.
Adequate lield. prcssure tests require the installation
of blinds and often extra fianged joints, in order to
protect lo~er pressure vessels and .terminal equiP:.
ment; they sometimes reqnire special rigging for
inspection access, and temporary supports. Such
cases require individual treatment; When the field
test is adeq\JB.te the shoi test can be waived by
mutual agreement. -In judging the adequacy of the
field test, the degree of inspection and leve! of test
stress should be jointly considered.
A water- or liquid-pressure test fulfills dual func-
tions. The design, materials, and fabrication are
checked to a reasonable mnimum extent by a pres-
sure test based on 1.5 times the design pressure in- ~_,_.
~l
creased by the ratio of cold to hot allowable stresses
(S,/ s.). During testing, there is an opportunity to t
detect leaks due to cracks, porosity, or other fiaws
which extend through- the wall. These objectives
are accomplished at mnimum hazard when the
testing fluid is essentially incompressible, thereby
limiting the stored energy. During such a test,
should a break initiate, there is immediate loas
of pressure, usually before extensive damage is
done or fragments detached and prope!led through
space.
1
 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS
The detection of leaks can be accomplished with
equal or greater effectiveness at lower pressures by
using liquids of lower surface tension properties, or
by reducing the surface tension by additives, or by
the use of air or other gas. Air pressures of 5 to lO
psi usually suffice for the detection of leaks with
equal or better effectiveness than water at full test
pressure. The Vessel Codes permit air tests as a
substitute for water tests at a reduced stress leve!
(83.3% of hydro test for ASME Code and 73% for
API-ASME Code), while Section 3 of the Piping
Code limits air tests to 50 psi. The Vessel Codes
require that pressure be applied in successive stages
to minimize high-energy rupture hazards. The pre-
cautions exercised should be in sep with the size,
volume, stored energy, test stress leve!, and quality
of inspection.
The effectiveness of a test in proving the soundness
of astructure decreases rapidly as the pressure recedes
from 1! times the equivalent cold working pressure.
It is doubtful that air tests, at the leve! prescribed
in the Codes, accomplish much in this direction other
than detection of gross omissions or deficiencies.
These, for the most part, shouid have been revealed
by careful visual inspection. In addition, one appli-
cation of pressure at or near normal design stress will
often not reveal poor welds or even lengthy cracks,
unless already extending through the wall. Higher
pressure tests are more effective as a result of greater
overstress in weak areas, and the initiation of plastic
flow in distorted or poorly fit-up areas. However,
there is certainly no complete assurance that a struc-
ture is safe as a result of successfully passing a single
pressure test.
Equal or greater assurance of soundness can be
obtained by radiographic examination of al! welds
coupled with a pressure test at the design pressure.
For magnetic materials where thicknesses do not
exceed ! in., a magnetic powder examination inside
and outside in lieu of radiographic examination can
also be considered acceptable. This is not intended
to imply that weld inspection and tests are inter-
changeable. Instead, they must be considered
51
simultaneously in evaluating safety. For heavy-
walled or critical-service piping, al! practicable
inspection procedures and tests are desirable and
necessary for adequate safety.
References
l. D. B. Rossheim andA. R. C. Markl, uThe Signifieance of,
and Suggested Limits for, the Stress in Pipe Lines due
to th Combined Effects of Pressure and Expansion,"
Trans. ASME, Vol. 62, No 5 (1940).
2. E. L. Robinson, "Steam Piping Design to Minimize Creep
Concentrations," presented at Annual Mtg. of ASME,
New York, 1954.
3. L. F: Coffin, Jr., "A Study of the Effects of Cyclic Thermal
Stresses on a Ductile Metal," ASME Paper No. 53-A-76,
presented in December, 1953.
4. L. F. Coffin, Jr., "The Problem of Thermal Stress Fatigue
in Austenitic Steels at High Tempera.ture," presented at
ASTM meeting, Chicago, June, 1954.
5. A. R. C. Markl, "Fatigue Tests of Piping Components,"
Trans. ASME, Vol. 74, No. 3, pp. 287-303 (1951).
6. A. Nd&i, Plasticity, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York,
1931.
7. W. J. Bu~:ton and W. P. Burrows, "Formula for Pipe
Thickness," Trans. ASME, Vol. 73, pp. 575-587 (July,
1951).
8. W. R. D. Manning, ''The Overstrain of Tubes by Internal
Pressure," Engineering, Vol. 159, pp. 101-102, 183-181
(1945}.
9. C. 'V. MacGregor, L. F. Coffin, Jr., and J. C. Fisher,
"Partially PlasticThick-Walled Tubes," J. Frank!in Inst.,
Vol. 245, pp. 135-158 {1948).
10. C. W. MacGregor, L. F. Coffin, Jr., and J. C. Fisher.
"The Plastic Flow of Thick-Walled Tubes with Large
Strains," J. Appl. Phys., Vol 19, pp. 291-297 (1948}.
11. R. W. Bailey, "Creep Relationships and Their 4-pplica-
tion to Pipes, Tubes, and Cylindrical Parta Under Interna!
Pressure," Proc. lnst. Mech. Engrs. (London}, Vol. 164,
pp. 425-431 (1951).
12. J. J. Murphy, C. R. Soderberg, Jr., and D. B. Rosshelm,
11
Considerations Affecting More Economic but Equally
Safe Pressure Vessel Construction Utili?.ing Either Pres
ent-Day Ductile or New High-Strength Less-Ductile
Materials," API Paper presented at St. Louis, May 10,
1955.
13. E. O. Bergman, "The New-Type Code Chart for the
Design ofVessels Under External Pressure," ASME Paper
No. 51-A-137, presented at Atlantic City, November,
1951.
 CHAPTER
3
Local Components
HIS chapter will consider important com-
T
ponent<l of a piping system other than stra.ight
pipe, including flanges, bends, miters, corru-
gated pipe, bra.nch conneetions, and terminal con-
nections, all of which are designated herein as "local
componenta" sinee individually tbey usually occupy
a limited length of tbe total pipe run. The localized
stress pattarn wbich tbey introduce often signifi-
cantly increases tbe f!exibility of the entire piping
system at the expense of stress intensification or
strain concentration at their location. It is the
intent of this chapter to offer a digest or; current
knowledge ahout each local component, and discuss
practica! application to the design of piping. Accu-
rate evaluation of stress and deflection for localized
effecta is often complex, or even impossible with
present knowledge; as a result simplifying assump-
tions and shortcut solutions are resorted to, sorne
of which will be discussed herein.
3.1 Pipe Bends: Structural Loading (Static
and Cyclic)
Pipe bends are curved bars with an annular cross
section, whose reaction to extarnalloading is com-
plex. Visual observation, as well as scattered testa,
established quite early that the elementary theory of
elasticity is inadequate to account for the peculiar
properties of tubular bends. Despite this fact, con-
siderable time passed before a satisfactory analysis
was undertaken. While theories are sufliciently
advanced today to account for the major aspecta of
the behavior of pipe bends, many refinementa of this
problem still demand clsrification and a further ex-
tension of theoretical inquiry.
Systematic investigation of pipe bends began in
1910, when Bantlin [1) observed and reported on the
phenomenon of ovalization, and on the fact that it
52
n
1!>
:;
&J
y:
V L
r
(
l !J
!. l'
l. ..
:
Jesds to greater flexibility than could be accounted
! J..
for by bar theories. Ayear Jater, the first theoretical
treatment of tbe subject was published by von
Krmn [2), who investigated the stress distribution
in curved tubes subjected to in-plsne bending. 1
U .
At about the saine time Lorenz [3) and Marbec (4)
independently furnished a solution of this problem,
']
(;..
using Castigliano's tjleorem in tbeir work instead cif [
the principie of mnimum potential energy as used by 11
Krmn. Hovgaard continued Krmn's work and
arrived at an identical solution through a different
o
' 1
approach (5] while Karl [6) refined the solution by
considering more terms in the series
expansion for the
basic variables. In 1943 Vigless [7] extended the
theory to include the case of out-of-plsne bending of
curved pipes. These theoretical investigations read-
ily establish the following points:
l. The elementary bending theory for bars, wbich
assumes a linear variation of longitudinal stresstJ5,.
cannot account for the actual stress distribution in
curved tubes under external bending loada. In
reality, the longitudinal bending stresses in the
extreme fibers are greatly relieved by the ovalization
(flattening) of the cross section, which, under differ-
ent loading conditions, takes the forms shown in
Fig. 3.1. At the sa.me time the maximum stresstl5
are shifted nearer the neutral axis, as shown in Fig.
3.2.
2. This a!tered bending-stress distribution, in
tum, decreases the bending-moment resistance of
the section. The ratio of the resulting increased
1In-plane bending refers to the case in which the pipe is
subject to bending by forces or moments applied in the plane
of the bend. Out-of-pla.ne bending designates the case in
which the forces or moments act perpendicularly to the plane
of the bend. Obviously, these two eases can be combined to
give a so1ution for forces or rooments acting in any arbitrar:Y
plane.
(l
u
 ; .

LOCAL COMPONENTS 53
(a) Elementary (b) Theory of
deflection to that predicted by conventional beam &!nding Cvrved
theory is termed the "flexibility factor" for that Th~.,. p;....

member.
3. The maximum longitudinal stresses in pipe
bends will differ from those generated in straight
tubing of equal dimensiona. High circumferential
bending stresses are set up as well. For pure (in-
plane) bending, theory indicates that the peak
r -(
stresses will he the circumferential stresses near the
' 1
\ neutral axis (a= O) of the pipe. The ratio of the
maximum stress in the curved pipe bend to that
which would exist in straight pipe subjected to the
same moment is termed ((stress, intensification fac-
tor."
These findings were subsequently reexamined by
Beskin [8], who found that the previously established
results were applicable only when the bend charac-
teristic2 was comparatively large; as the characte"-
istic diminished, the results hecame increasingly di-
Yergent. Instead of a maximum flexibility factor
for in-plane hending of 10, and a maximum stress
intensification of about 3.5, as implied by earlier
analyses for the mathematicallimit of h = O, Beskin
found that both flexibility and stress intensification
factors hecome infinite at this extreme value.
Further investigation showed that Krmn's solu-
tion would have yielded results identical with those
of Beskin, had the Fourier expansion been -carried
to more terms than one.
Treating the problem of in-plane bending of curved
tubes by means of the theory of thin shells, Clark
and Reissner [9, 10] found that the Lorenz, Krmn,
Karl, and Beskin solutions merely represented
higher order approximations (in the order men-
tioned), and confirmed Karl's findings [6] that alter-
2The bend characteristie is h = tRjr.,. 2, where t = wall
thickness of pipe, R = radius of bend, and r"' = mean radius
o( pipe.
SECTION A-A
(o) ln-plclfle (b) ln-plane
&ending eending
(tangenh {tongents
IMd forced
together) Opart)
MoJ:. longitudinal streu cxam
ot angle a 1 (see Fig. 3.8)
Fm. 3.2 Distribution of longitudinal atresses in curved pipes.
nate solutions by the principie of mnimum potential
energy (used by Krmn) and the principie of least
work (adopted by Lorenz, Karl, and Beskin), estab-
lish upper and lower limits for the true rigidity of
the tuhe. The Clark-Reissner solution is obtained in
terms of a trigonometric series expansion for the
stress function and meridional angle change. . By
retaining only two terms of each series expansion,
and limiting the range to h > 0.5, the Clark-Reissner
approach hecomes eqnivalent to. Karl's solution.
For h < 0.5, the number of terms needed for satis-
factory accuracy increases rapidly; therefore, an
asymptotic solution was investigated. Making
assumptions which hold true when h is much smaller
than 1, closed-form solutions were obtained which
are startlingly simple. AH analyses dealing with the
problem of hending of curved tubes predict equal
flexibility factors for in-plane or out-of-plane hend-
ing.
Krmn's original solution (first approximation)
for the flexibility factor, k, is
9
k= 1+ -12_h_:;2 +-1 (3.1 ) 3
Second, third, and nth approximations [11] have the
form
(e) Ou1-of-plooe
6er>ding 2
k= 1 9+0.255/h (3.2) 3
+ 12h + 1.3400+0.00750/h2
2
4
k= 1 9+0.3003/h2 +0.0010587 /h
+ 12h2 + 1.4004+0.013946/h2 +0.00001276/h4
(3.3) 3

1 9
(3.4)3
__j k= 1+ 12h2 +1-j
A

In eq. 3.4, j is a function of h; for known values of h

FIG. 3.1 Ovalization (flattening) of pipe bends under externa! 3In eqs. 3.1 to 3.4 the rigorous mathematical analysis would

bending moments. Exaggerated. demand that h(l - v2 )-H be used inatead of h.

'
j
 JJ
54 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
the magnitude of j can be obtained by interpolation Out;>f-plane {Longitudinal {3. = 1.08/h (3.8)
from the following table:
bendmg Circnmferential 'Yo= 1.50/h (3.9
h o 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.75 1.0
j 1 0.7625 O.684 0.3074 0.1764 0.07488 0.03526 0.()2()26 In this same range the variation of angle a 1 (pertain-
Beskin's solution for the f!exibility factor cannot ing to the largest longitudinal stress, .as sho\Vn
be expressed in closed forro; bis umerical resulte, Fig. 3.2) with the characteristic h can be given
which merge with Krmn's nth approximation, are "'' = 0.82h (3.10 ' .
plotted in Fig. 3.3. Clark and Reissner's asymptotic Equations 3.6, 3.7, and 3.10 are obtained from
solution yielda the following expression, valid for asyrnptotic analysis of Clark and Reissl).er.
small values of h: tions 3.8 and 3.9 represent emprica! proposals
k= 1.65/h (3.5) 4 by The M. W. Kellogg Company, and Markl
Stress intensification factors, unfortunately, differ respectively. The various stress intensification
for in-plane and out-of-plane bending. In general, tors are charted in Figs. 3.4 to 3.7, whereas a 1
in-plane bending leads to higher circumferential plotted in Fig. 3.8.
stress tnaXIIlli than out-of-plane bending for identical . These results convey that for either in-plane
pipe henda subjected to equal bending momente. out-of-plane loading, the circumferential.stress
For longitudinal stresses exactly the opposite of this neighborhood of a = o wiU first the exceed
statement halda true, as witnessed byeqs. 3.6 to3.9. point. .This stress is apure bending stress (e:clu.dirt
The stress intensification factors at the outer surfaces, interna! pressure effecte ), varyil).g from a po<tiii(:;
valid only for small values of the bend characteristic maximum at the outer surface toa neg~ti,~e 1:naxinowri ', Ll
(h < 0.5), have the fo!lowing expressions: at the inner walL Aslight amonnt.of yielding,
ing the elasticity of .the pipe wholly unimpaired,
In-plane {Longitudinal {3; = 0.84Jh* (3.6)
materially relieve thls.stress, as has beei\ observed
bending Circumferential -y;= 1.80/h* (3.7) 5 experimente [13]. Similar deductions can. be made:f~
'> = 0.3 is assumed in eqs. 3.5, 3.6, 3. 7, and 3.10. concerning the maximum longitudinal stress at the ::
0
lligorously, tbe correct value in eq. 3.7 should he: outer surface. Pronounced yielding wiU ensue only< '
1.80 (1 when the maximumlongitudinal stress at the middle,
,., = -;r ! .....
- , )
surface also exceeds the yield point. Therefore, . i~
60

(1) - - Asymptotic Solurio!l !

1 5
(Ciork - Reiuner)

(2)---Beskin's (lo~-radius bends)

(3}--$Yf~KN"ds ond Pordue's {Smolkodius bends)

20 !)--VonKc!irmn's nth Awroximation

(5)----Appto~timate. ~
h
(V"tuat. - Del8uoft0)
(For RnQlkadius lhick-waUed bencls)

']g
L

h=~
'
FIG. 3.3 Flexibility facwrs for in-plane or out-of-plane hending.
-_r LOCAL COMPONENTS
the opinion of roany investigators the stress intensifi-
cation factor of greatest practica! significance is the
one pertaining to maximum longitudinal stress exist-
ing at the middle surface of the pipe wall thickness. 6
Closer scrutiny of the theoretical developments
6 the following assumptions:
Fatigue tests do not support this. In fatigue, cracks open
up perpendicular to the actual maximum stress which is the
circwnferential stress at the inner pipe waii. This is to be
expected, Binoo under reversed -strain loading beyond the
elastic range, as applied in a fatigue test, initial plastic flow is
of little help in alleviating the range of strain at each point.
described above reveals that, in addition to qealing
only with pipes having a constant curvature of the
center line, constant cross-seCtional properties, and
being made of an isotropic and homogeneous mate-
rial obeying Hooke's law, the analyses are based on
l. Plane sections remain. plane and the neutral
axis retains its originallength afterloading.
2. Longitudinal and circumferential stresses are
principal stresses.

0.84
{1)--Asymptotic Solution h2n (Oark- Reiuner)

(2)- -Beskin's (lorge-radius bends)

(3)---Symond1; and Pard~'s {Scnotl-radiu bends)

(.C) ----Appro:ximate, h2/31.2 {Ycssat- O.l8uono)

(For small-radiltli thick-walled bert<h)

lfG. 3.4 In-plane bending: outer surface longitudinal stress intensifics.tion factor.

1.80
(1}--Asyrnplotic Solulion h2/3 (Ciark- Reissner)
3)
(2)- -Beskin's (lart~e-radius bends)
10
8 (3)----Syrnonds and Pordue's (Short-radiltli bends)
1.07
(.4)----Appro:ximole, hOJII (Viuat- Del Bwno)
(For ~mall-radius thick-wolled bends)

1)

FIG. 3.5 In-plane bending: outer surface circumferential atrcss intensification factor.
 r-..
~~~;~
56 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS p
,fJ
;
3. The bending moment has a constant value for the curved pipe is acted upon by pure bending j
t.he entire lengt.h ofthe bend. moments. According to St. Venant's principie, local
4. Radial and longitudinal strains are uniform
t.hrough the wall thickness.
disturbances imposed at the boundaries will cancel
a short distance therefrom. In this light, assUillLptiiofiJs : ~-
D
2 and 3 can also be adopted as having reasonable,
5. Circumferential strains produce pure bending,
n
~
and thus vanish at the middle surface of the pipe validity.
wall. The remaining assumptions de>lerve closer sc1rutinl';J
6. The radius of the bend is much greater and the Assumptions 4 and 5, dealing with the strains
wl!ll thickness is small compared with the diameter oped under loading, are idealized sintplifictionsor: n
of the pipe.
Assumption 1 is fundamental to the theory of
the actual strain distribution, and will be in
with the actu.l strains only when R/rm > 10
~~
t J

un
elasticity and can be accepted as being true. The larger than a "five diameter" bend). For
second and third coJ;lditions will be satisfied only if radius bends, characterized by 1 < R/rm < 10,
.1
'
( 1 ) - - ........ {14...-n>d"... beodo)

(2}- ---Syrnond5 ond Pard~N's (Smcdkadi\15 bendt)

L
t.-1

(3)--App<o- ~ (\YeiO
"'
n
L

11
~

FJG. 3.6 Out-oCwplane bending: outer surfa.ce longitudinal stress intensification factor.

.
(1)---mate. "' (Marld) '""'
10 (2)- -BWdn' (lorge rocfi!lf bends)
8
(3)---symondl ond Pcnd...-<s ,~roa""' h.ndsl

j
t r].

l
i 2
u '

! 1.0

u
.
'

ha.!!.,,

FIG, 3.7 OuMf-plane bending: outer surface circumferentia.l stress intensifica.tion factor.

!i
;_~
1
 '
LOCAL COMPONENTS . 57
e3
el has been shown [7, 13] that under in-plane bending and displacements (fiattening or ovalization). ,.J:<:nd
(reducing the radius of curvature) the circumferen- restraints tending to oppose ovalization, (straight
i tial stresses do not vanish at the middle !ayer (see pipe tangents to a minor degree, fianges or terminal
assumption 5). connections to a severe degree) willlower fiexibility
,<-1 The last assumption plainlyelimits the accuracy of and stress intensification factors; in these cases the
{
the foregoing theories to thin-walled, large-radius theory will give higher values than those actually
e J. !' tube bends; the generally accepted view is that these operative. Thus deviations hetween theory and
e -~.
''' analyses are proper only if both conditions, namely actual behavior will be greatr the more severe the

' }
!i r1 that R/rm and rm/t be greater than 10, are simulta-
neously satisfied. Since Beskin's derivation indicates
end restraint, or for a given end restraint, the.lesser
the subtended are of the pipe bend.
that at h > 1.0 the fiexibility and stress intensifica- Having elaborated on the underlying assumptions
1 ~
tion factors become generally negligible, it is of and results obtained from an analytical approach,
' interest to note that this development is not con- it is enlightening to examine how the theories com-
e
( ditioned upon the above-stated limitaon on wall pare with results obtained from experimental work.
. ~g thickness. Investigations ,must be separated into tests per-
, To extend the validity of previous analyses, formed under static r.onditions and those relating to
j
' Symonds and Pardue [14] undertook to investigate fatigue conditions, since they represent fundamen-
the effect of R/rm ratios considerably less than 10, tally different types of loading.
-~
(25 R/rm 53). It rnay be pointed out that under The . first significant static t.ests were .. made by
t
'
-
] these conditions the wall thickness ratio assumes a Hovgaard [5, 13, 15, 16], who proved that experi-
much greater importance; the fact that the "shoi-t- ments were in close agreement with theoretical pre-
radius" development is based on thin-shell theory dictions for the fiexibility, distortion and str8Ses of a
e
l l'
--f
1- plainly limits the range of accuracy to about
h = 0.2 for R/rm = 2, or h = 0.3 for R/rm = 3.
given system, although calculated stresses showed
smaller extremes than those actually observed. It

1 The Symonds-Pardue theory representa a first-order must be added that Hovgaard's tests were performed
e
n approximation to the infiuence of R/rm, and shows mostly within the limitations of his theory: stress
. j that for short-radius bends (long- and short-raditis distribution measurements were confined to sections

"--!';-
l !; welding elbows), the fiexibility factor suffers little
change, but stress intensification factors are generally
remote from the disturbing effects of type-of-loading
or end-fixity conditions, and most of the experimenta
~;.;

___ J. j
higher than for large-radius pipe bends, as seen in were limited to large-radius bends (Rfrm > 10).
f Figs. 3.3 to 3.7. Al3 might be expected, the resulta Similar observations were made by other investi-
-----.f of this work merge with Beskin's solution, as R/rm gators [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22], who again foun<! the
u increases to 10. longitudinal stresses to be slightly in excess of theo-
-':~
Lastly, all of the theories described apply rigorously retical values. It was also observed [21] that the
. j
, only to endless toroidal sections. If the curved tube fiexibility of pipe bends for in-plane bending was
is not endless, the theory is accurate only if the end greater than that predicted by theory. This devia-
.,
conditions allow the development of idealized strains tion was small, but consistent, and was ascribed to
'
(1) --Cic:nk- Reiuner
(1)
{2)----A5ymptotic Solution O.B2hl/)
{Ciork and Reiuner)
"'l

'i

10~--~-~-~_L~_L~~---~-~~~L-~LL~---~--L__J
.01 .02 .04 .06 .08 .1 .2 " .6 .8 1.0 2.0 4.0
h=.!!
~
Fw. 3.8 In-pla.ne bending: angle al corresponding to location o( maximum longitudinal fiher stress.
58 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
the fact that the theory of curved tu bes did not take
into account secondary influences predicted by the
theory of curved bars. Tests conducted under out-
of-plane bending [7], in turn, showed that the rigidity
of pipes was greater (i.e., the f!exibility less) than
indicated by analysis. This was l!<ttributed to the
restraining effect of straight tangents applied to the
ends of the quarter pipe bend. Stresses meanwhile
were smaller than was anticipated from theoretical
research.
A thorough investigation on the effect of end con-
ditions was carried out by Pardue and Vigness [23].
Dealing first with f!exibility factors, they found that
even the most detailed theory [14] was capable of
predicting f!exibility factors for out-o-plane bending
only if the pi:ie bend merged with a straight tangent
of sufficient length. Substituting a f!ange for the
tangent at either end resulted in a drastic drop of
flexibility; when both ends were f!anged, f!exibility
dropped even fnrther. Right-angle bends . were
subiect to these reductions in a greater degree than
U-bends, confinning the logical expectation that the
smaller the subtended angle of a pipe bend the
greater will be its sensitivity to disturbances caused
by end restraints.
A!most identical ststements apply to the stress
intensification factors. The theory is in agreement
with actual behavior oliy insofar as the bend is
furnished with suffi~iently long straight tangents,
the experimental values being generally a shade on
the high side. With an increased degree of end
fixity, this correlation breaks down. Applying
flanges to both ends of the bend initiates a much
greater reduction of the stre8s intensification factor
than using one f!ange and one straight tangent; and
again, right-angle bends were subject to these modi-
fying effects to a greater degree than U-bends.
Additional confirmation of theoretical resulta
was provided by a series of tests carried out by
Gross and Ford [24, 25, 26]. These tests proved
that, in line with theoretical predictions, the cir-
cumferential stress in the vicinity of a = O was the
largest absolute stress; in the tests carried to failure,
the cracks always ran along the side of the bend at
about the location of the neutral axis. Contrary to
assumption 5 of the theory, however, the circum-
ferential stress at the middle !ayer did not vanish.
Application of strain gages to the externa! and inter-
na! faces proved that the maximum stresses were
always situated on the inner surface of the bend,
which may explain the observation [25, 27] that
cracks in pipe bends are initiated on the inner face
and penetrate outwards. To account for this defi-
1
1 '
ciency in the theory, Gross [25] suggested that the
transverse compression, ignored in the analytical
work, be taken into account. He also presentad an
"
d
approximate derivation for this quantity, and proved i
~
that adding this stress component to the others
included in the theory actually brings experimenta
and analysis into good accord.
The examination of test results also confirmad
b
that the theory of maximum distortion energy pre- ~
t~
dicted quite' accurately the load and location at 1
which incipient yielding occurs. N o such criterion
could be advanced for the ultimate load-carrying
capacity of the bends, except for noting that failure []
(which took place by collapse under a moment short- 'J
ening the chord of the bend) occurred at a load which
was generally twice as large as that required to
n
J.~
initiate yielding. j
Vissat and De!Buono [28] describe the results of
tests on welding elbows with a ratio of R/rm equal
to 2 or 3. Restricting the tests to in-plane bending
and fitting experimental points by analytical ex- ' ,
pressions, the following relations were proposed for
f!exibility and stress intensification factors:
Flexibility factor
k= 1.40/h (3.11)
Stress intensification factors (m-plane bending)
/1:--=
'Yi =
1.2/h1i
1.07/h0.78
(3.12)
(3.13)
'
n
,,'
~
'
As seen in Figs. 3.3 to 3.5, these pro;osals result in
lower f!exibility and circumferential stress intensi-
fication factors, but higher longitudinal stress in-
tensification factors as coropared with the data of al!
ther theories. While these results can be used on
welding elbows having the characteristics investi-
gated, sorne reservation should be exercised, since
on the thick-walled short-radius bends used in this
work the restraining influence of straight tangents
or f!anges has not received sufficient evaluation.
The next point of interest is to examine whether
the conclusions drawn above remain valid if the
bend is acted u pon by repeated cyclic loading rather
than a single static load. Obviously, fatigue con-
ditions will hardly modify the flexibility of a sound
local component. What is sought through a fatigue
test, therefore, is the practica! effect of stress in-
tensification on the number of cycles to failure.
In addition to manner of loading, fatigue tests
differ in two aspects from static tests: in the manner
of measuring stress intensification, and in the weight
given to plastic f!ow. In static tests, the stress
: '
L
 !
' '
' 1
LOCAL COMPONENTS
intensification factor denotes the ratio of actual peak
stresses to those developed in a straight member of
identical dimensions (for pure bending, the reference
stress is M /Z)! In fatigue, the effective stress
intensification factor relates the stresses causing
failure over a given number of cycles in a straight
pipe tangent (or polished bar) to those initiating
fracture in the test piece. subjected to an equal
, amount of stress cycles.
AB regards the significance of plastic strains,
static-stress measurements are strongly dependent
upon the presence of plastic fiow with its attendant
redistribntion of loading and stress-mitigating effect.
In the fatigue test the local strain range per cycle is
the significant value determiniig performance;
therefore, a redistribution of stresses due to plastic
strains has only a minor significance. While it is
common practice to use and establish design prac-
tices in terms of stresses based on elastic theory,
it shonld be appreciated when dealing with fatigue
that in reality these stresses are being used as a
suitable index of the strains involved.
Fatigue tests on piping components were initiated
by Rossheim and Markl [29], followed by a detailed
research program carried out by Markl [12, 30].
Since it was felt that the stress peaks developed in
local components as compared with straight runs of
pipe constituted the desired fundamental informa-
tion, stress intensification factors were based on a
comparison with S-N diagrams obtained for straight
commercial finish pipe, containing butt welds, a
clamped edge or similar stress raisers. A stress
intensification factor of unity was assigned to the
latter for practica! reasons.
'' The first finding of interest was that, while the
S-N curves for both straight pipes and welding
elbows of carbon steel seemed to reach no endurance
limit within the number of cycles employed (2 X 106
cycles max), both curves were approximately straight
and parallel to each other on a log-log plot. This
indicated that the stress intensification factor could
be given as a constant, regardless of the number of
stress cycles involved. . findings that permanent overall deformation of the
In comparing test results with theory, it was
found that Beskin's or the Symonds-Pardue theory
predicted quite accurately the fiexibility of the bend
or elbow, as well as the type and location of failure.
The agreement between tests and theory for stress
intensification factors was less satisfactory; however,
a reasonably good correlation was obtained if the
test reoults were drawn into comparison with only
one-half of the maximum theoretical stress intensi-
7Where Z = 1fr, is the section modulus of the cross section.
59
fication factor (referring to circumferential stresses
for both in-plane and out-of-plane bending).
When considering the significance of this finding,
it is important to note that Markl's reference point
of unity for the test results is not a theoretical but
a practica!, one. In the first place, Markl [30] found
that the clamped edge use!i in the earlier tests in-
volved a stress intensificatiori. factor of about 1.5, as
,compared to pipes with a tapered end. The remain-
ing factor of about 1.4 needed to bring experimenta
and theory into agreement may perhaps be attrib-
uted to the stress raisers inherent in commercial
finish pipe as, compared to the theoretically. con-
sidered smooth homogeneous tube. Markl could
have changed his reference point of unity and as-
signed different test factors; however, he found that
butt welds involved the same stress intensification
as the clamped edge. Therefore, he reasoned that a
base line which wou!d jnclude the effect 'of such
normally encountered stress raisers would be much
more satisfactory for practica! design. This reason-
ing has been supported by practica! designers and
by the ASA Code for Pressure Piping Committee.
It is, nonetheless, an important point which should be
kept in mind, particularly in connection with the
practica! app!ication of any theoretically derived
factors for other piping components.
Recourse to. eqs. 3. 7 and 3. 9 indicates that the
experimentally found reduction factor of 2.0 leads
to design stress intensification factors (when referred
to the aforementioned base line) of the following
magnitude:
'Y< = 0.90/h * for in-plane bending,
'Yo= 0.75/h* for out-of-plane bending
It happens that these stress intensification factors
are very close to the theoretical value of the longi-
tudinal factor for in-plane bending, which has long
been in customary use instead of the more proper
circumferential factor. The seeming justification
of this latter practice stemmed from Hovgaard's
pipe bend occurred only when the longitudinal stress
at the middle surface exceeded the yield stress.
The recommendations of the revised ASA B31.1
Code for Pressure Piping are derived principally
from these experimental observations. For both
in-plane and out-of-plane bending, the Code recom-
mends that the stress intensification factor
(3.14)
{3 ='Y = 0.90/h* 1.0
be used, the choice of a single factor having been
60 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
--1---4"'=
- -90'
,._,
--"-tr.
2(R-r.) o
Fio. 3.9 Distribution of circumferential streeses in pipe bend
subjected to intemal preeadl"B.
accepted for practica! reasons only. The f!exibility
factor, as proven by theory and experimenta, is
givenas
k= 1.65/h
Additio;,. fatigue tests again proved the restraint
of straight tangenta upon the fnll development of
the f!exibility and stress maguification factors; as in
static tests, this inf!uence was increasingly accen-
tuated with reduction of the subtended angle of the
pipe bend. As a rough measure, it conld be stated
that both f!exibilty and stress intensification factors
were reduced from their fnll value for a quarter-bend
elbow to unity, as the subtended angle of the bend
approached zero. This rule was upset only at the
very small are bends, where the disturbing effect of
closely spaced welds obliterated the restraining
inf!uence of the straight tangenta, causing a con-
comitant rise in the stress intensification factor.
3.2 Pipe Bends: lnternal Pressure
The foregoing theories and experimenta dealt
solely with pipe bends subjected to externalloadings.
In addition to this effect the pipe wall will be stressed
by the pressure of the fluid in the system. For a
curved pipe subjected to a pressure p, the longi-
tudinal and circumferential membrane stresses are
given approximately by [31]
r,.p
"' = 2t
2R + r,. sin a r,.p
.-2(R+r,.sina) -t
"-
8 Notice tha.t theee formulas are identical with the equa-
tiona for straight pipes, except for the first fraction a.ppeariog
in eq. 3.16.
The resulting stress diotribution is shown in Fig. 3. 9.
A more elaborate investigation [32] and tests carried
out on curved pipes under interna! .pressure [25]
confirmed the general validity of eqs. 3.15 and 3.16,
and showed that maximum stre8ses will be reachoo .
at the line of the bend having the least radius of
curvature (crotch), as predicted by eq. 3.16. Yield-
ing will first occur at this point: Despite this, it is
not normal practice to apply theseformulas t.o the
design 9f pi)e henda. .
When externalloading and interna! pressure are
imposed aimultaneou5ly oil a pipe bend, experimen~
resulta [26] show (as should be expected) that mrua-
mum circumferential stresses occurring for externa!
moment loading alone will be reduced by the pres-
ence of interna!. pressure. . While the presence of
interna! pressure will slightly .reduce the f!exibility
of the bend [13, 24], the stress, whether referring to
principal . stresses or coinbined. stress, will also be
mitigated [26] .
(3.5)
3.3 Miter Bends
Particular!yfor theless severe services, changes in
direction are not infrequently made by mitering
straight pipe (Fig. 3.10). Yet miter "bends" have
receivoo much less attention in the literatura than
curved pipes. Nevertheless, it was shown by z.:no
[33], who investigated the f!exibility of a five-section
right-angle miter bend (h =! 0.0158), that the theo-
retical f!exibility values of ;curved pipes were ap- n.
'-"''
L'J
; :
'
-~"''
.. 2tp '
(3.15) 8
--
- 2tp
- ..
= miter spadng
f{J mtt.rongltl
8
(3.16) R.,. equiYolent bend rodius = . cot fl'
rmtMOn radi111 of pipe
Fm. 3.10 Geometry of miter bendl!.
u
 WCAL COMPONENTS
proached as the tangents were made sufficiently
long. 9 Similar indications were obtained by Gross
and Ford [26], who measured stresses and flexibility
on a mi ter bend of h = 0.0483, and found them
reasonably well predicted by the theory of curved
tubes.
Little additional information is available concem-
. ~- ilg the properties of welded miter joints under static
"r--~ loads, since in addition to difficulties encountered .
with plain pipe bends, miter joints are subject to
variations introduced by differences in fit-up and
welding as well as in the arrangement of segmente.
_-\.vailable evidence, however, seems to indicate that
the flexibility is less and stress intensification is
greater for witers than for plain bends of .the same
major dimensiona.
Miter bends have also been subjected to intensive
cyclic testing [12] with the finding that their be-
havior could be predicted with reasonable accuracy
through analogy with curved pipes when the proper
characteristic variables were include<L From geom-
etry (see Fig. 3.10) the radius of the tangent are of
a bend can be expressed as R = !-s cot </>, where
s = miter spacing at center line, and q, = miter
angle. If there is but a single miter or if the mi ter
spacing becomes large, however, this radius loses its
significance and an effective radius was suggested,
empirically expressed as R = Tm (1 + cot <J>)/2.
......, Thus the bend characteristic assumes the follmving
form:
tR cot q, l8 . mercial finish carries an inherent stress-raising factor,
h = 2 = -- - for small rmter spacmg,
Tm 2 Tm 2
S reasons, referred to tl!at of butt-welded or clamped-
- - tan q, <1 (3.17)
Tm
1+cotq,t
h = - for large miter spacing,
2 Tm
S the theoretically derived value of this factor, as
- -tan</>> 1 (3.18)
Tm
r By using this bend characteristic with the expression
r derived for curved pipe, eq. 3.14, values of stress
intensification are obtained which show a good cor-
relation with the tests. The flexibility factor was
somewhat smaller than for plain curved pipes, and
resembled that for welding elbows with one flange
and one plane tangent. The flexibility factor for
~ithout ta.ngents, i.e., with flat plates welded directly to
the end of the last miter segmenta, the flexibility for in-plane
bending was fo1J,nd to be reduced to only 3% of the theoreti-
<'.ally predicted value for & bend.
61
miter bends can hence be given as
k = 1.52/hl' ;::: 1.0 (3.19)
with h taken as the lesser of the values obtained from
eqs. 3.17 or 3.18. These results are incorporated
in the recommendations of the ASA B31.1 Code
for Pressure Piping.
3-4 Bends and Miters: Summary
Pipe bends depart from conventional beam theory
chiefly as a result of distortion (ovalization) of the
cross section under bending. Under static loading,
theories predict the flexibility, maximum stresses,
and occurrence of incipient yielding with .good
accuracy for bends with plain tangents whose sub-
tended angle is larger than 90. At present theories do
not consider the restraining influence of straight
tangente (particularly significant for curved pipes
whose bend angle is less than 90), nor can they
effectively deal with the inhibiting tendency of severe
end restraints, such as flanges or terminal connec-
tions. To evaluate the characteristics of com-
ponente falling into this category, reference must be
made to such test data as are available.
In actual service, idealized static loading condi-
tions are seldom encountered. A certain amount of
plastic flow will always take place, enabling the bend
to carry loads in excess of those predicted by the
classical elasticity theory. The significance of theo-
retically calculated stress values is further reduced
by the fact that even straight piping with a com-
and that the performance of bends is, for practica!
end pipes rather than polished test specimens. Not
only experimental evidence but also a long bistory of
successful design practice support these facts.
These considerations will hardly affect the flexi-
bility factor. Therefore, it is sound practice to use
given by eq. 3.5. When considering stress intensi-
fication factors, however, it is sufficient to base
calculations on only one-half of the theoretically
predicted value; as supported by Markl's fatigue
tests, the appropriate equation for this factor is given
by eq_ 3.14.
The increase of membrane stresses in pipe bends
subjected to interna! pressure loading (as compared
to straight pipes), is generally not significant. In
fact, tests demonstrated that a static load alone will
lead to higher localized stresses than a combination
of this static load and a moderate interna! pressure.
The effect of interna! pressure on bends can, there-
 62 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
FIG. 3.11 Types of reinforcement for branch connections.
fore, be ignored in normal applications. An investi-
gation of this effect, in line with the pnciples laid
down in the text, is warranted ouly for very ctical
service.
The stress intensification and fiexibility factors of
short bends (subtended angle less than 90) are
known to be less than those indicated above. De-
spite this fact, it is recommended that no reduction
for either factor be used on short bends, since the
expemental evidence on this subject is not con-
elusiva.
Miter bends, as a rule, have lower fiexibility and
higher maxilnum stresses than those pertaining to
curved pipes of similar dimensions. By this token,
the appropate design value for the fiexibility factor
of miter bends can be obtained from eq. 3.19. The
stress-raising factor will be given by eq. 3.14, with
the bend charactestic given by the smaller value
obtained from eqs. 3.17 or 3.18. These design,c-
tea for miter bends oginate from tests conducted
on 4 in. miters ouly. For large-diameter miter bends,
fit-up and fabcation difficulties are likely to lead to
more severe conditions than would be indicated by
the design rules stated above.
3.5 Branch Connections: Static Pressure
Loading
<1
.:t,-
The junction of a branch with a heac;ler, usually
referred to as a branch connection, is inherently a . ~-
point of structural weakness in piping. N ot only:
the absence of metal in the heac;ler opening but
the abrupt c;lirectional changes and oftentimes sharp
variations in cross section give rise to severe stress;
intensification. While this handicap of a branch
connection can be overcome to a large extent by-;
reinforcement and by the use of favorable contoursi' ,
it is dif!icult to achieve the idal of developing a
strength equal to that of the intact pipe. ..
Branch connections must be designed first in re'J
gard to their ability to resist static loads. This
be the concern of the present section, while the e!ftlCt'' <
of repeated loads will be considered in Section 3.6i
S.;.,tion 3. 7 will present a short review of various <
pertinent Code rules, and Section 3.8 will give
summary together with practica! design retlOIIl-1\
mendations.
An involved geometrical shape and the strong
influence of certain secondary effects10 make the:
analytical investigation of branch connections su,::_,
jected to pressure or structuralloading prohibitively'
diflicult. Consequently, investigations dealing with:
this subject are largely confined to expementali
research. The salient'information on the action of.
branch connections subjected to interna! pressure,
is summarized in Table 3.1 although mention should
also be made of a few tests reportOd in references
[34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39]. Figure 3.11 shows vaous_
types of reinforcements which have been proposed.
From Table 3.1 and its underlying tests, the follow-
ng conclusions can be drawn: Unreinforced full-
sized connections are deficient in both yielding and
bursting strength. This deficiency decreases as the
branch becomes smaller in compason to the header.
The limited number of tests seems to indicate that
an unreinforced 90 intersection develops the full
bursting strength when the ratio of branch to header
I
diameter does not exceed ! . Unpublished tests .ou
30 in. diameter pipe and the general expeence with
pressure vessels, however, show that this rule cannof
be extended beyond the commouly available sizes ?f'
commercial pipes. ' ..,,
The addition of a pad reinforcement is beneficil1J ;
in that it permits the fabcated connection to de-' ..
velop almost the fui! bursting pressure of the header: '.
10Such as the existence of longitudinal be;nding in the header
due to removal of pa.rt of its wall, and the interpla.y of radial
displacementa of both header and branch under intemal-
pressure.
'l
.i
,j
ij'
 -- ~.

LOCAL COMPONENTS
Pad reinforcements, however, afford little restraint
against plastic fiow and are, therefore, ineffective in
raising the yielding pressure of the intersection to
the desired value [42, 43].
Severa! alternatives have heen advanced to elimi-
nate_ the shortcomings of unreinforced or pad-rein-
forced intersections. The reinforcing saddle [44],
e<
11 shown in Fig. 3.llb, adds reinforcement around the
' highly stressed areas of the crotch and shoulder.
The complete encirclement pad is pictured in Fig.
3.1lc. This proposal [45] extends the reinforcement
]
J Ta~le 3.1 Summation of Internal Pressure Test Results on Piping Branch Connections
63
beyond the region where most failures oCthe pad-
reinforced branch connections originated." An ex-
tension of this concept [46] supplements the encir-
cling band with shoulder pads, as shown in Fig. 3.lld.
While no test results are presented, the authors of
these proposals have stated that the performance of
full-sized branch connections reinforced in accord-
ance with these alternate -details was entirely ade-
quate under pressure loading. On the other hand,
the horseshoe-and-gusset reinforcement (Fig. 3.lle ),
due to its extreme rigidity, led to stress concentra-

-l Pressure as per cent

'

Angle Pressure as per cent of

;!
Type of that supported by
}
Size of of tbat supportod by
' Ref. right--angle
of intact header
Authorn lnta-- intersection sin a Remarks
No. Reinforoe-
seetion,
l Hea.der Branch Cegrees ment4' at Propor- at atPropor- at
-
' in. in. tionallimit Blll1!tiog tionallimit Bursting
-
35 Everett
&
i
McCutchan 8 8 90 None 38.5 69.6
J
40 Crane 8 4 90 None 76.9 101.1
c.. 12 6 90 None - 91.4
8 8 90 Pad 61.5 98.9
; 12 12 90 Pad - 93.0
--
41 Seabloom 24 24 90 Horseshoe - 38.5
and gusset
-~~: .,,7,
--
- - 90 Non<> -70.0 ~70.0 Averaged
test values
11.9 6.2 90 None ra1ues aver-
10 4.2 90 None }81.0 }82.5 aged f9r
48 Blair two tests
7.5 7.5 90 Pad 74.5 96.0
11.9 7.5 80 Collar 79.0 90.0
11.9 7.5 80 Gusset&pad 85.0 90.0
11.9 7.5 80 Unbalanced 110.0 >100.0 Averaged
triform values
6 6 90 Balanced 121.0 >100.0
triform
49 N. Gross -8 -8 90 Weldiog - -96.0 Averaged
W> val ue
--
- - 90 None 70.0 70.0
Av..-aged
11.9 10 90 None 79.0 79.0
Vo value
6 4 90 None 83.0 86.0
- - 60 None 60.0 60.0 85.6 85.6
Averaged
48 Blair 11.9 10 60 None 56.0 66.0 70.9 83.5 )o.s66 value
6 4 60 None - 66.0 - 76.7
- - 45 None 50.0 50.0 71.4 71.4
Averaged
11.9 10 45 None 43.0 44.0 54.5 55.7 0.707 value
6 4 45 None 51.0 61.0 61.5 70.9
- - 60 None 63.0 65.0 90.0 92.8 0.880
Y -oonnectiont
- - 30 None 34.0 40.0 48.6 57.1 0.502

See Fig. 3.11 for identification of types of reinforoements.

tLast eolumn denotes 1/(eoaec a - 0.5 eot a) instead of sin a for equal-sized Y-intersections.
64 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
tions of such lll&gnitudP. that the intersection sus-
tained only 38.5% of the bursting pressure of the
intact header.
Collar reinforcemente of the type shown in Fig.
3.11/ were pioneered by the Swiss firm of Sulzer
Brothers, Ltd. [47], as early as 1928. Experimente
[48] indicated that this method had characteristics
similar to the pad-type reinforcement. As a further
improvement, Blair [4S] suggested that the stiffening
collar be supplemented by a third horseshoe encir-
cling the bottom of the header. He gave the name
"triform" to the resulting arrangement, shown in
Fig. 3.llg. As Table 3.1 shows, triforms performed
very satisfactorily, considering both yield and burst-
ing pressurea
While tests confirm the effectiveness of triforms,
this type of reinforcement reqnires intricate fitting
and welding which does not lend itself to radiographic
examination. In high-temperature service the ribbed
construction leads to thermal gradiente. Further-
more, the sharp re-entrant corners suggest high
stress concentrations which lll&Y not be revealed in
static-pressure tests but would become critica! under
repeated loading. American experience with the tri-
forro is quite limited, hence in the United States it
is regarded as a novel approach until ite performance
is more adequately assessed.
Wdding tees, Fig. 3.llh, are preferred structurally
to fabricated welded intersections, eapeciall~ where
the size of the branch U. equal to or approximates the
size f the run. Recently, cast tees proveo to be
sound by radiographic and lll&gnetic particle exam-
ination and by hydrostatic test, are finding increased
acceptance. Only a few articles [49] are published
concerning the design and strength properties of
drawn tees subjected to interna! pressure. The rea-
son for this lies in the reqniremente of ASA Standard
B16.9, which prescribes that welding tees must be
able to withstand the full bursting pressure of
straight pipe in sizes for which they are intended.
On the other band, the Standard makes no demands
regarding the pressure to be supported by drawn
tees at their yield strength.
Despite the presence of high stresses at the interna!
mrface of the crotch [49], welding tees, in general,
involve lesser fabrication difficulties and stress con-
centrations than those associated with welded inter-
sections. Their perfoflll&nce with regard to bursting,
based on the Standard and the meag"er test data that
are available, is also satisfactory. 11 Welding tees
"The cylindrical tee teeted by Gross [49], which failed at
96% of the pipe burating pressure, would not comply with
American Standard requirementa.
having a uspheroidal" intersection zone are claimed
to develop an increased resistance to yielding under
interna! pressure. Branch connections subject to
extremely high internal pressures are usually forged
and bored [50].
Test resulte dealing with acute-angle (inclined)
branch connections are even more caree than those
for right-angle intersections, being confined to those
reported by Blrur [48], and assembled here in Tabla
3.1. This evidence indicates that within the limite of
the experimente (i.e., branch angles from 30 to 90);',
the strength of such intersections is roughly propor-
tional tothesine ofthe branchanglefor bothfulland. 1 ic. n.
.,J
reducing sizes, which is eqnivalent (as Blrur pro, :{~0. :;
posed) to basing reinforcement simply on the arelly\~
removed from the sidewall of the header. The' .};?!i"'c,
quantity of test data, however, is hardly sufficient to . 4Zt
support any such concluruon. Intni~ively it would ,,,~~~,,
seem that acute angle branch connect10ns are further' .,,'\jl<\}
weakened by the increased stress concentration at the 'i;o:
crotch due to the elliptical shape of the cut-out, and ;e:.',, .
by the pressure load transfer through the reentrant, '";,
crotch comer. Recognition of these effecte h8.s Ied ,<
to the current ASA Code requirements which will be -'
discussed in a subsequent section. ..
The foregoing material deals with branch connec:
tions in pipes subjected to interna! pressure loading.,. '
Closely related to tliis field is the s11bject of nozzles
and openings in pressure vessela. While no_ well~
drawn division exists between these two fields, two
criteria may be mentioned, which help to separate
these problema. First, in pressure vessels the dia.m-
eter of the branch (nozzle) is usually small as com- ..
pared to that of the header (vessel). This fact
diminishes sorne of the secondary effecte to lower
Ievels. Secondly, the wall thickness to diameter ratio
is also exceedingly small, in large-sized pressure
vessels. This permita the investigator to study the
effecte of openings in pressure vessels by means of
flat-plate analogies, which would otherwise be of little
use or validity to the designer of piping branch con-
nections. It should be remembered that even on
pressure vessels; the theoretical flat-plate analogies
cannot assess the p,ffect of the hydrostatic end pu\1
exerted by the branch on the vessel. This effect can
be evaluated on the basis of recent contributions by
Bijlaard [51] and Hoff [52].
The theoretical approach to the problem of
stresses around nozzles in pressure vessels has
traditionally consisted of the investigation of flat
platea with a circular opening reinforced in the
manner shown in Fig. 3.12. Among these analytical
studies [53, 54, 55, 56] Beskin's work [56] is the m<ist
' '
u
f
lJt
 WCAL COMPONENTS 65
complete. In this study, combinations of (jrim-type" Rim (pipe collar)

and "fiat ring-type'' reinforcements, applied sym-

- j metrically on both si des of the plate, are investigated.
Ba.sed on the principie that the distortion energy
governs yielding, stress intensification factors are
c.riyen in terms of the "effective stress" rather than
~

. -.-. any one of the principal stresses.

The results of Beskin's investigation are shown in
condensed form in Table 3.2. Since the idealized
stress condition in shells under internal pressure can
be decomposed into a hydrostatic and uniaxial cir- FIG. 3.12 Edge reinforcement of circular cut-outs
'1' cumferential stress of equal mangitudes, the last in ftat plates.
j column ofstress intensification factors in Table 3.2,
headed by "Average" ref!ects upon the conditions (doubler plate only) is less ef!icient in reducing stress
. prevailing around nozzles in pressure vessels. As
1 pesks. The dimensions incorporated in Table 3.2
.' 'e can be seen, both the rim-type reinforcement and are characterized by Fig. 3.12.
the doubler-rim combination (with at lesst 50% of The plastic behavior of f!at plates having a circular
the reinforcing area supplied to the rim) are quite cut-out reinforced by a pipe collar was also investi-
' effective in diminishing the peak stresses existing gated [57]. The analysis was restricted to ideally
.

' l -0 around unreinforced openings. In both cases, best plastic materials (no strain hardening) wl;lich obey
results are obtained when the ratio o total reinforce- the maximum shear-stress f!ow condition. It was
ment to hole area (reinforcement ratio) is in the found that for a "full-strength" reinforcement (load
' J neighborhood of 0.8-1.0; at this ratio the average at fully plastic condition in reinforced plate equal to
-;, stress intensification factor is reduced to a leve! of or greater than that referring to intact plate), the
l about 1.35. By contrast, the pad-type reinforcement dimensions of the pipe collar, as shown in Fig. 3.12,
1 must satisfy the equations:
Table 3.2 "Effective Stress" Concentrations around
H 1 + t./R
Circular Holes.in Flat Plates, Reinforced by
Various 1\Iethods
-=
t t,/R
for R/tn :5!
.
(3.20)
H 1 + t./R
m. -(
Stress Inttmsification Faetor Area o( Reinforcement
for R/tn 2': !
R'
-R Area of Cut-Out v'1 + 2(t.!R) 2 - 1
Rl t
Biaxial 1 Uniaxiall
Tec.sion Tension Average Rim 1Doublerl Total These equations bear resemblance to the results of
Rim Rein!orcement only the elastic analysis, indicating that, for a.. given
amount of reinforcement (t.H = constant), maxi-
o 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 2.50 - - o mum effectiveness is achieved when the reinforce-
0.4 1.0 1.0 1.32 1
1.52 1.42 0.4 - 0.4
ment is concentrated near the opening (small t. and
0.8 1.0 1.0 1.08
' 1.63 1.35 0.8 - 0.8
large H). N aturally these resultS can be considered
1.2 1.0 1.0 1.01
1
1.76 1.38 1.2 - 1.2
to retain their validity only within consistent limits. 12
Doubler Plate Reinforcernent only Furthermore, for strain-hardening materials or large
- 2.0 1.4 1.52 2.30 1 1.91 - 0.4 0.4 plastic strains eqs. 3.20 can be used, at best, only as
- 3.0 1.2 1.43 1 2.04 1.74 - 0.4 0.4 a rough guide. This plastic analysis was recently
- 2.0 1.8 1.37 2.17 1.77 - 0.8 0.8 extended [58] to reinforcements of various cross
- 3.0 1.4 1.22 1.90 !.56 - 0.8 0.8 sections.
- 5.0 1.2 1.03 1.75 1.39 - 0.8 0.8
Experimental work has corroborated the basic
- 5.0 1.3 1.00 1.85 1.42 - 1.2 1.2
findings and, in sorne respects, the numerical resu_lts
Doubler and Rim Combined of theoretical work. It was found [59] that unrem-
0.2 2.0 1.2 1.36 1.78
forced circular openings in either heads or cylindrical
1.57 0.2 0.2 0.4
0.4 2.0 1.4 1.01 1.61 1.31 0.4 0.4 0.8 vessels led to stress concentrations in excess of those
0.4 3.0 1.2 1.02 1.73 1.38 0.4 0.4 1 0.8
0.4 5.0 1.1 1.04 1.72 1.38 0.4 0.4 0.8 12For instance, the assumption of a very high and very
0.6 5.0 I.l5 1.00 1.85 1.43 0.6 0.6 1.2 slender rim would violate the fundamental condition that the
1 stress distribution be constant over the height of the rim.
66 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
predicted by flat-plat,e theory." These peak
stresses diminished, in general, with a reduction of
the ratio of the diameter of the opening to that of the
vessel.
Ful!-scale tests also indicated that excessive stiff-
ening led to greatly increased b~nding moments just
beyond the toe of the weld attaching the nozzle.
Optimum conditions were obtained [55, 59, 60] by
concentrating the reinforcing metal near the open-
ing. With appropriately reinforced openings the
stress concentration factors were successfully limited
to the theoretically predicted va!ue of about 1.35.
For small openings these optimum resulta were
achieved by a pipe collar whose height-to-thickness
ratio varied between 3 and 4. F!at doubler-type
reinforcements were found to be ineffective, as pre-
dicted by theory; the stress concentration in _these
cases was in the vicinity of 3.0 at the longitudinal
axis of the opening.
Fnrther proof of these resulta was offered by
Schoessow and Brooks [61]. Heavy rim-type rein-
forcements (reinforcement ratio 1.06-1.15) were only
moderately effective, reducing stress concentrations
from 2.50 for an unreinforced hale to about 2.05.
Heavy doubler and thin rim combinations, however,
effectively reduced stress intensifications to between
1.26-1.51, roughly in line with the predictions of
the flat-plate analogies.
The tests described above were a!l conducted with
the reinforcement being applied on!y to one side of
the vessel. Stress measurements were likewise
limited to the externa! surface. In contrast, theo-
retical predictions are based on the assumption that
the reinforcemei:tt is applled in equsl proportion to
both faces of the plate. The question, therefore,
arase: if reinforcement is applied to one face only,
what conditions will prevail on the unreinforced side?
An experimental answer to this question was soon
forthcoming. It was shown [62] that the analogue
prediction indicated the correct trend only as long
as the reinforcement was applied synnJ.etrical!y,
as assumed by theory. Reinforcement applied to
one face benefited only the surface onto which it
was attached [55]; the stress pattern in the other
face, however, remained essentially the same as it
had been in the unreinforced opening. Further proof
carne from tests conducted more recently by Gross
(49]. The reinforcement was applied to one side
only, by welding nozzles to the vessel opening in the
11
Stress concentration maxima for the hoop stresses occurred
at the ends of the bofe diameters parallel to the axis of the
vessel, with some valuea as high as 5.5 in contrast to the
theoretical prediction of 2.5.
conventional manner. Strain readings, however,
were taken on both faces of the vessel. For rein-
forcement ratios14 of ronghly 0.23, 0.615, and 1.0,
the maximum stress concentration factors on the
nozzle side were about 2.8, 2:3, and 1.8, respectively., .
These resulta are in reasonable agreement with.
previous experimental and theoretica! work. Signif-.
icantly different values were, however, found on the
interna! face, the maximum stress concentration
values here heing equal to 3. 7, 2.8, and 2.4. This
showed that an increase in thickness a!one cannot
bring about the desired reduction o peak stresses, :'.J.
and that only a moderate improvement in the stress
a
distribution on the unreinforced face can accrue from
reinforcement applied to the opposite side. ,.,
Actually, the circular opening is not the ideal:
shape for a cut-out in pressure vessela Stress con- :
centrations in a plate are rninimized if the shape o
the opening is an ellipse with an axis ratio equal
the "ratio of biaxia!ity," the major axis o the. '.
ellipse being aligued with the direction o the _
greatest principal stress. In pressure vessels, .this .
would cal! for an elliptica! cut-out with a major~
to-minor-axis ratio .o 2 with the minar axis being
in the longitudinal direction; the stress concentration
associated with the unreinforced opening then be-
comes 1.5 (as contrasted to 2.5 for the circular hole).
Both an ana!ytica! i:n:vstigation [63] and experi-
mental work [61] vimfied the desirable qualities of
reinforced elliptical openinga In the tests, an in-
crease of the reinforcement ratio from 0.16 to 1.13
lowered the maximum stress intensification factor
from 1.40 to 1.19. While these resulta estsblish
the sound concept of elliptical no~zles, it must be
added that the fabrication and preparation of nozzles
of this type would be beset by severe difliculties.
':}
._ 1
~ ..
These may overshadow the desirable aspects by
increasing the cost of elliptica! pipe attachments to a
prohibitively high leve!.
3.6 Branch Connections: Repeated Loading
Having considere<! the performance of branch con-
nections under interna! pressure, attention will now
JI
~J
be focused on their behavior under repeated externa!
loads, such as imposed by thermal expansion of the e~
pipe !ine. Although this subject received sorne con-
~-
sideration in Blair's paper, the most detailed infor-
rnation is found in Markl's work (12, 64].
These tests produced the fol!owing resulta: Fail~
ures of. full-size unreinforced intersections occurred
at locations similar to those of curved pipes. The
H.Effective height of reinforcement taken equal to ra.dius of
finished opening.
~ ,
1
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
stress intensification factor could be correlated
reasonably well with that for a single miter bend
(see eq. 3.14) if the characteristic variable was taken
to be
h = t/rm (3.21) 15
Reinforced fabricated intersections cannot be
categorized with equal facility, since the amount of
metal incorporated in the reinforcement and the
nanner of its distribution will affect the stress in-
tensification and flexibility factors. In an attempt
to formulate a rule which would correlate reasonably
well with limited tests on 4 in. size pipe and be ap-
plicable to most reinforced branch connections,
Markl [12] proposed that the average thickness of
the header and branch at the crotcli; t., be assumed
-- J as the governing factor. Assnming that reinforced
intersections otherwise behave like unreinforced
ones, the characteristic variable would then become
h = (~)2.5 .!_ (3.22) 16
t Tm
while the stress intensification factor is agin ob-
tained from eq. 3.14.'7
These results refer to tests where the assemblies
r-:- were loaded through the branch; loading straight
through the header proved to be less severe in al!
cases. Fnrthermore, it was shown that the direction
of hending (in- or out-of-plane) did nt seriously
influence these results, so that one.factor can be used
in practica! design. While Markl's work represents a
marked advance in practica! design approach, it
must be conceded that the experimental data are
rather limited. More work would certainly be qe-
sirable to check its applicability to large-diameter
piping and to reducing-size branch connections.
Data regarding the performance of full-size ASA
standard welding tees under repeated externalload-
ing can again be found in Markl's papers. Assuming
that the metal thickness avai!able in the crotch zone
and the crotch radius are the controlling variables,
t.he characteristic variable was expressed in the form:
h = (~)2.5 ~
t Tm
(1 +Te)
Tm
(3.23) 18
1
~is equation is obtained by simply substituting ~ = 45
in eq. 3.18 for single miter bends.
1
&rhe design formula of the Code is given in a rnodified
form of eq. 3.22.
17The qua.ntity t in eq. 3.22 is the thickness of the pipe used
in the stress cs.lculation. The intensification factor of eq.
3.14 is &.gain applied to this pipe. These results refer to full-
sized intersections and should be used with discretion for
other cases.
18
In thc Code, the recommended fOrmula for the charac-
1
67
where t, = effective thickness = average of crotch
and side wall thicknesses.
re = crotch radius.
Experimental results for three different 4 in. com-
mercial welding tees were in reasonable agreement
with stress intensification factors obtained from eq.
3.14, if eq. 3.23 was adopted for determining the
characteristic variable.
The jlexibily factors associated with unreinforced
and reinforced fabricated intersections or welding
tees have not received suflicient attention. Rough
tests seem to indicate that the added flexibility of
full-size branch connections is small; that is to say,
the branch will act as if it were fixed at the header,
whereas the header will retain the flexibility of an
intact pipe. These results, however, are open to
question since ful!-sized intersections should ap-
proach single miter bends in flexibility. In addition,
flexibility of the branch would be expected to increase
for reducing-size intersections (see, e.g., eq. 3.27 in
Section 3.14). Lacking specific theoretical or experi-
mentsl results, and in order to remain on the safe
side, it is suggested that a value of LO be assumed
for the flexibility of al! types of branch connections.
3.7 Branch Connections: Comparison with
Code Requirements
It is of interest to compare now the experimental
data with established design practice as expressed
by Code requirements for 90 (perpendicular) branch
connections. The Code for Pressure Piping, ASA
B31.1, Section 6, utilizes the area replacement
method, requiring that the area removed from the
wall of header (referring to the required minimum
wall thickness times the diameter of the finished
opening) be replaced by the excess thickness avail-
able in the header or nozzle wall plus any metal
applied to the intersection in the form of reinforce-
ment. This reinforcement is considered to have
value only within the rectangular "reinforcement
zone," the length and height of which is limited as
shown in Fig. 3.13. In the subsequent derivation,
the following nomenclature is used:
t H = mnimum thickness of header less corrosion
t8 = mnimum thickness of branch allowanoe.
R = radius of header ts.d
Rn = rad.ms ofb ranchOUle.
w = leg of fillet weld.
teristic variable of welding tees has been simplified to h = 4.4
tfr by making assumptions for t. a.nd T.c: wlch oonservatively
reflect customary proportions.
 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
unreinforced branch connection as compared to the
The sme~ller of
intact header of the same size. As an example
Reinforarment
Zono
2.5t. +1., assume standard pipe sizes, w = i in. for 4 in.
or 2.!tM
branches or smaller, w = i in. for larger branch sizes;
and a corrosion allowance of 0.1 in. The "pressure
reduction ratios" may then be obtained for variou8
header and branch sizes from eq. 3.24... The resulta
of these calculations for the specific case are tabu~
lated in Table 3.3 except that branch connections
not exceeding 2 iri. or 25% of the header size are
shown with a 100% ratng since the Code permi~

FJ:a. 3.13 "Arca. of reinforoem.ent," as specified by the Piping

Code, ASA B31.1, Seetion 6.
this arbitrarily.
An examination of this table indicatas the follow:1
ing trends:

n
'
l. For equal-size intersections (proceeding along
the diagonal of Table 3.3), the pressure reductio11
p n = ma.ximum servce pressure pennissible for ratio decreases with incressing pipe sizes to a limiting ..
. intact header. value of 50%. This is in reasonable accord with
S = allowable stress at operating temperature. experimental evidence, although tests carried out
t 1 = tbickness of header required by Code for on full-size intersections up to 12 in. did not show
given size, service pressure, and operating bursting-pressure reduction ratios helow 65%.
temperature. 2. Increasing the size of the branch connection
t. = tbickness of branch required by Code for for a given header (moving from left to right i.I:;;:
given size, service pressure, and operating given row of Table 3.3) decreases the pressure reduc::
temperatnre. tion ratio. Although this trend is borne out by
p = allowable pressure permitted by Code for tests, the Code reduction ratio appears conservativa
the completed mauifold. for small-size headers, since it permits on!y 56% of
tp = tbickness of reinforcement pad (if used). the "intact header pressure" to be applied to half~
size intersections with an 8 in. or 12 in. header, as
According to the Code, the required thicknesses contrasted to the 9-100% obtained in ex)erir0ent5:
can be expressed as More complete and more searching experimental
t _ pRn data would, however, be necessary to jnstify clo8ei'
1
-S+OAp' evaluation of certain sizes and proportions. .
3. An increase of header size for a giveii branch
size over 2 in. (traversing Table 3.3 from top to
bottom of a specific column) results in a redued
The "area to be replaced" is A = 2t1 (RB - lB) allowable pressure. This is contrary to the limited
For an unreinforced intersection with a branch exP.,rimental evidence, which shows that the burst;..
not heavier than the header, the available excess ing pressure developed by a branch connectimi
metal witbin the "zone of reinforcement" can be increases as the diameter ratio between the branch
given by and header pipes becomes smaller. Again more
searchi11g experimental data are desirable.
AR = 2(tn- t)(RB- tB) + 5tB(ts- t.)+ w 2 4. The arbitrary Code provision assigning 100%
Equating A 8 to A, and using the wall-tbickhess for welded branch pipes not exceeding 2 in. or 25%
expressions, yields the following result: of the header size, while reasonable from test results,
introduces abrupt breaks in allowable ratings,: A._
Rn smoother transition is desirable.
--0.4
p tn The ASA B31.1 Code rules applicable to oblique
- = (3.24)
PH 0.8Rn(RB- ts) RBtB + _
04
branch connections are mandatory for branch angles
0.4tn(Rs - ts) ts 2
+0.2w 2
+
not less than 45 and when the branchfheader
diameter ratio is not less than 1/4. These rules, wbich
The "pressure reduction ratio," p/pn, expresses recognize the higher stress intensification in the
the decrease in allowable pressure for the completad acute crotch, reqnire that the replacement area be

u
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
equal to the area removed from the header multi-
plied by a factor of (2 - sin a) where a is the branch
angle. The rules (for branch/header ratios of 1/4
and larger) make no distinction between full-sized
and reducing branches, a practice which appears
somewhat contrary to experience.
3.8 Branch Connections: Practica! Considera-
tions and Summary
In the foregoing sectiollil giving the highlights of
available test and analytical data, it has been noted
that stress concentrations can be expected to be
present around all circular openings and branch
connections, and tbat even for the most carefully
designed reinforcement, the factor is not likely to
subside below 1.3. The question naturally arises
.. J
as to the practica! significance of such effects. The
answer at present must be sought primarily in ex-
perience. Service experience using nominl design
allowable stress values (as estsblished by Secti<>n 3,
Oil Piping, of the ASA B3l.l Code for Pressnre
Piping, and the concept of the. simple replacement-
of-area method) has been reasonably good despite
the fact that design and attachment details and
fabrication quality used bave not always been as
good as they should he. This fact may be accounted
for by the following considerations:
69
l. The design stress used provides a considerable
margin for local overstress.
2. Highly localized stress can be relieved by local
yielding. Such yielding induces local residual stresses
of the opposite sign iu the off-stream condition, so-
that the area can operate on a "stress rangeu basis
in the same manner tbat thermal expansion strains
may be absorbed in piping systems.
3. Mpst applications do not involve a very large
number of cycles. Therefore, the design need not
insure that stresses be kept at all times below the
endnrance limit of the material.
4. Experience to date is largely confined to steel,
which normally acts in a ductile manner.
Thus, although this experience has been generally
satisfactory, those service failures (and all of the
laboratory fractures) that occurred in pressure
vessels and pipe lines to date bave, almost without
exception, been shown to originate at brarich con-
nections or local attachments. Therefore, good
engineering . demands . that careful judgment be
exercised when selecting designa and fabrication
details, and that fabrication quality be adequately
controlled. Poor fit-up, welding, and lack of root
penetration on welded branches, can easily furnish
added stress-raising effects .which can lead to
failure.

Tahle 3.3 Pressure Reduction RatioS in Per Cent for Unreinforced Intersections

~ 1"
1"

100
.!"
2 2" 2!" 3" 4" 6" 8" 10" 12 11 14" 16" 18" 20 11 24 11

ll" lOO 100

2" lOO 100 89
2!" 80 71 67 66
3'< 77 69 65 64 63
4" 100 65 62 62 61 59
6" lOO 100 59 60 58 57 60
8" lOO 100 100 58 57 56 58 57
10" 100 100 100 56 55 54 56 55 55
12" 100 100 100 56 55 54 56 55 55 54
14" 100 100 100 56 55 55 57 56 55 55 54
11
16 lOO 100 100 56 55 54 57 56 55 54 54 53
18" lOO 100 100 56 55 55 57 56 56 55 54 54 53
20" 100 100 100 56 55 55 57 56 56 55 55 54 53 53
24" 100 100 100 56 55 55 57 56 56 55 55 54 53 53 52
*Based on the Code for Pressure Piping, ASA 831.1 for: standard weight pipe withO.l corrosion allowance lego( fillet weld = t"
for branches 4 11 or smaller, and i 11 for larger branch sizcs.
70 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
.Ai3 design stress levels and temperatures increase,
greater attention must be given to reinforcement
details. The same is true when design stresses are
raised in proportion_ to_enhanced physical properties
of material obtained by cold work, since the effect of
localized stresses becomes much more serious.
Full-size 90 branch connections are difficult to
fabricate by welding without appreciable distortion,
particularly when a pad-type reinforcement is used.
This difficulty increases with the size of the header.
It is best to avoid such connections wherever it is
economically justified. In critica! service, welding
tees, when available, should always be used in
preference to fabricated welded intersections. Inte-
gral reinforcement obtained by using a heavier pipe
for _the header (or for both header and branch) is
generally preferred to built-up construction and is
satisfactory for moSt applications. Sharp cornera
at the intersection should be avoided by the use of
concave weld .fillets. Fabrication presents consid-
erably greater problema as the size of the branch
relative to the header is increased and must receive
special care when this ratio exceeds 50%, particularly
for header sizes above 12 in. On headers of large
size with small openings (branch to header diameter
ratio less than 50%), the method of reinforcement
should be gnided by the principies established for
the reinforcement of nozzles on pressure vessels.
The greatest benefit from a given amount of rein-
forcing metal will be obtained by concentrating the
reinforcement nea! the finished opening. Flow
considerations permitting, the effectiveness of the
reinforcement can be increased by application of
the reinforcing metal to the inside, as well as outside,
surface of the header. The use of elliptical nozzles
may be considered for extremely severe service
conditions, since they extend the possibility of re-
ducing stress concentrations to the limiting value
of l.
For the design of special heavy-walled .fittings in
critica! service The M. W. Kellogg Coinpany has
found the rather simple design apptoach given in
Fig. 3.14 satisfactory.. This is, in effect, an analysis
designed to control the average membrane stress
within the chosen limits, and includes a correctiGn
for non-uniform stress through the wall thickness
equivalent to nsing the mean diameter cylindrical
hoop stress formula instead of the inside diameter
formula. Therefore, it assures a fitting strength
roughly equal to the connecting pipe. The regions
over which the pressure area and metal areas are
averaged are arbitrarily selected as being in reason-
able accord with experience.
The use of gnsset or rib stiffeners is not recome
mended, due to the high stress concentrations likely
to exist at their ends or adjacent to the attachment . ;,
welds. They are even more objectionable on, hot
piping, since the ribs act as cooling fins and
thermal stresses are imposed; if such stiffeners
used on hot piping the thermal effe<;ts should be
minimized by the application of heavy insulatiOIL
The effect of structuralloadings other than pre&:
sure and cyclic loadlngs must be given due corlBiCler~>.
tion. Markl's work in establishing suggested ot.~Oo-d
intensification factors for piping flexibility arulyies ~
is a good start, but more work is necessary on
sizes. and reducing branches. Where an imliviidual :
flexibility analysis is not warranted, yet ~::~if
stresses are expected to be at or near Code
the branch location (with the moment loading
carried through the branch), it is recommended
branch connections be reinforced to develop ,.,,,.,,,n
strength of the header, even if the operating 'pressiu-e
may not reqnire it.
The selection of design and fabrication ae1r.aus a.s
well as the methods and extent of inspection
be in line with the expented severity of service. :
details which minimize distortion and promote
root-welding conditions are to be fa,rored ' ".Asean
'._ J
i
..
example, setting a branch on a pipe and we:lding;~t
before the hole in tl header is cut will ."''u"~.
tortion when the branch pipe is large compared
header; set-on construction also permits the -.v,,-
backing ring.
Regarding inspection methods, a magnetic .
examination should be favored for magnetic mat-
ria!s; for non-magnetic materials, a penetrnnCoil::
examination is quite practica! and is recommended
for important services. Radiographic .examinations
of branch attachments are being increasingly used as
a quality control check; although they are useful in
n
controlling the general quality level of an individual
operator's work, such radiographs cannot be int'Cr- 11
preted to assure the absence of cracks unlessmany ::;j;~
angled shots are taken. An indiscriminate appraisa!-: fiJ-q{-]:
of radiographic examination may create an unwar- :~,:,;~
ranted degree of assurance regarding absence,:J?f ,;
harmful defects. ~J: ~;. . _
-:-.:~ ... J~~ :q;f~;~t~-
3.9 Corrugated Pipe
.--.'.):f.-
Al< pointed out in the introduction and in Chapter
7, straight .corrugated pipe provides intermediate
flexibility' between a rigid piping system and, an )
.xpansion joint system. Jts use rnay be advantageous
where acute space Iimitations exist, or where .reac-
tions on equipment attendant to stiff or large-size
j
)
1
 LOCAL COMPONENTS 71

-~

P(E+fA)
A

TEE 90 ELBOW

i;
-l
~ + t, ...:;;,
2

> p(E+rA)
S,.= A

plF +e)
USE AUO fOft
s.;; --;;.--'-- 4:1 EL&OW

LATERAL WYE OR 45 ELBOW

NOMENCLATURE

A, 8 - NETAL AREA, (SQ,IH.)

0_, Oto- IHSIDE DIANETER Of fiTTINGS. (IN.)
E,F - INDICATED PftESSUilE AllEA, (SQ.IH}
G,l'l.k - ..DICATED l.EHGTHS,IIM.}
p - OESIGN PR[S~RE, AT OESIGN TEYPfRAT\IR&;, (pStCJ
S,., Se- Al.l.DWA8LE STRESS AT OEStg( TENP[RATURE, (p$1)
\ t 2 - IHOICATEO METAL THICKNESS, (tN.l
f;s - AVERAGE YETAL, THICKNESS Of fl.AT &UIIfACE:, UNJ
o<.o,S - INDICOATEO AtGLES.

FIG. 3.14 Special he:1vy wall fittings: check of reinforccment for interna] pressure.
 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
pipe must be reduced without further addition to
pressure drop, process problems or similar factors.
The fact that corrugatious greatly increase the
flexibility of a straight cylindrical tubs has long bsen
appreciated. However, it is less well known that this
reduction in stiffness is obtained by the introduction
of bending stresses, the leve! of which must be con-
trolled for satisfactory service; also, it is not always
appreciated that a corrugated bsnd may bs less
flexible than a plain pipe bend due to the fact that
the corrugatious resist ovalization.
Corrugatious were initially obtained by hot roll-
forming processes such as are used for shaping the
flues of Scotch Marine boilers. This imposed limita-
tions on the depth and pitch 60 that resort was made
to uniform localized heating and controlled collapsing.
This process resulted in sorne upsetting and a
sharper radius of curvature at the crown. More
recently, equipment has been designed which pro-
vides rolled corrugations of greater depth. The
mean diameter of rolled corrugations is usually that
of the original pipe, while those formed bycontrolled
collapsing have a mean diameter roughly eqnal to
the initil outside diameter of ~e pipe. Corrugating
can only be accomplished ou straight pipe, so that
bsnds must be formed afterward. Creased bend
construction is usually limited to sharp rad bends,
commonly 2 to 3 diameters in radius; these are formed
by heating plain pipe on one side and bending so as
to bulge out the corrugations on the inside of the
bend.
Early tests [21, 65] showed that, for bnds having
a five-diameter radius, corrugated construction pro-
vided no greater flexibility than plain bends, and
that for smaller rad corrugated or creased curved
pipes are usually less flexible than plain bends; also,
that the torsional stiffness of corrugated pipe was
slightly greater than that of straight pipe of the same
nominal diameter.
In the foregoing tests, as well as later ones [66], it
was established that a corrugated bend derives its
flexibility in bending or direct loading mainly from
a change in axiai length (tb.tough an increase on the
teusion and a decrease on the compression side), as
compared toa plain bsnd, which derives its increased
deflection from ovalization of the cross section, and
the attendant modified stress distribution. A
creased pipe bsnd takes an intermediate position
between these extremes, deriving its flexibility on
the plain portion by ovalization, and on the creased
portion by change in length.
Consistent flexibility values for corrugated and
creased 6 in. diameter pipes were obtained from static
tests by Dennison [67], who related test resulte to
the calculated values for plain pipes of the same
dimensions, 19 as given by elementary beam theory.
Corrugated bends were found to have higher flexi-
bility factors than creased. bends, although a good .
approximation for both confignrations was 6.0.
Nominal stress intensifi.cation factors (denoting.the
ratio between the endurance limits20 of small
polished specimens to that of the actual piping
ponent) were obtained from fatigue tests, indicating :
an average faetor of 8 for both corrugated
pipes of the type tested. With one exception,
cipient cracks in corrugated pipes originated on the
insids surface and penetrated outward, while
creased bends the cracks always initiated
externa! surface.
The foregoing tests have led to the acc:eptAnc:e
rl
'! l,
an assumption of nniform flexibility factors for
mercial corrugated or creased pipes. For the str~ ,,
intensification factors, however, it was felt w.w:,;
duly conservative values resulted by basing L
comparison on the endurance limit of polished
Therefore, further tests were carried out by
heim and Markl [29], in which the fatigue strenth'';'
of plain tangente was taken as a basis of cornpuisol
for stress intensification factors. Based on .-,-z
,,:
lJ
experimente a stress intensification factor of ---....7" ..,, l
~uggested as reasonable for "rion-cyclic" .
less than 20,000 stress cycles), whereas for "cyclic"
Service {up to 500,000 reversals) a stress intensif\-
cation factor of 5.0 was proposed. A flexibility
factor of 5.0 was suggested as a conservativ~ value .
for average commercial creased or corrugated pip.
These values forro the basis of the current suggested
values in the ASA B31.1 Code, V2: a flexibilityfae~
tor of 5.0 and a stress intensification factor of 2.'5 ..
for usual commeroial corrugated or creased com-
ponente under bending or direct axial loading. The
Code also suggests a flexibility factor of 0.9 and .. ,.
stress factor of unity for torsionalloading. '' t;
In contrast to the nniform values recommended t~)/:
by the Code for all sizes and shapes of corrugated ., ~; t~,i.
.
pipes, ' :i,<.~rt
t he actual fleXI'bili'ty and stress facto rs are a >~'B'':
function of the size and wall thickness of the piPe ~ .; ~L
19-J'he term ccplain pipe of the same dimensiona" refers a to:'
pipe ba.ving the sa.me dia.meter and wall thickness as tha.t
for naking the corrugated (creased) pipe in coDwideratio.
20 1'Endurance limit" denotes the alterna.ting
apecimen can infinitely sustain in a fatigue test.
' )
teste 2 X 10 8 eyclea are taken to be equivalent to "an infi.nitEi"'.iW :
number of cyelea. -. , _ u
211 'Fatigue
strength," as opposed to ."endurance limit;"
denotes the average ma.ximum alternating stress whieh ;a
spedmen can sustain for a given number of stress cyeles_.-~;.
lj
L
 . LOCAL COMPONENTS 73
100 1000
and particularly the depth and pitch of the corrug&-
tions. Test results show that an increase in the 70 700

depth of the corrugation will improve its flexibility,

but increase the stress intensification factor.
The greatly simplified caae of a curved beam
shown on Fig. 3.15, which is obtained after segment-
ing a corrugated pipe into strips of unit width, can
...
20
-
200

- " be analyzed readily. This analogue will indicate

higher f!exibility and lower stresses than those exist- 10 100
ing in the actual structure. Nonetheless, it is useful
in roughly predicting the inf!nence of dimensional 7~ t 70
~
changes, and for comparison with established service.
.j The results obtained from this analogue, assuming -4.0 ~ .co
that v = 0.3 and the corrugation pitch is 4r, are: ~

,. (3r/t) + .09]
e )
2.0 20
Flexibility factor =
Theoretical stress intensification
factor = [(6r/t) + 1] ~
10

Stress intensification factor com- o:r 7~

pared to plain pipe (Code basis) = 0.5[(6r/t) + 1]

OA ~
These relations are plotted in Fig. 3.16, which shows
the strong dependence of both of these desigu fac-
l ; tors on the ratio of r jt. 22 An increase in the pitch ~ ~L---~-----L----L---~-----L----"
o " 8 12 16 ~ ~

. ' of the corrugations with other items nnchanged
would decrease the f!exibility factor; likewise, a
.i change in the shape of the corrugations to a more
rigid shape would decrease the f!exibility, but also
decrease the stress intensification factor.
A detailed analytical evaluation of stresses in cor-
rugated components is extremely difficult. More-
over, if the manufacturing tolerances and variations
in shape or between successive corrugations are con-
siderad, the theoretical treatise becomes impractical.
.\n approximate solution was developed by Donnell
2
2Jlue to the simplifications assumed here, the ratio of pipe
2 r/t, Ra6o of Convg!;rtion Oeplh to ,;p. waa Thiclcneu {Pikhw;Twke Depth)
Fxa. 3.16 Stress intensification. and flexibility factors in
u analogue" solution for corru.gated pipes.
[68] for V-shaped and semicircularcorrugations nnder
concentric axialloads, and the results were extended
by inference to corrugations of elliptical and sinus-
oidal cross sections. Tests on thin-walled corrugated
pipes, having corrugations in reasonable accord. with
the specific shapes analyzed, were in good agreement
with theory. For corrugation shapes as normally
produced in heavier-walled pipe, the analysis can

r
radius to pipe wall thiekness R!t does not enter the solution. be accepted only as a rough approximation.
A more recent theoretical approach [9] treats the
----:------1 effects of both axialloads and interna! pressure, but
restricta the analysis to thin-walled cylindrical bOdies
of relatively large diameter, so that the results are
applicable to corrugated light-gage expansion joints
1 / rather than pipe. This analysis is not readily
adapted to design, since the final results are given

_!_~~~
in terms of unfamiliar functions, whose numerical
values are not tabulated in standard mathematical
, - tables. For a more detsiled treatment of the expan-
sion joint bellows, reference should be made to
Chapter 7.
__ _L In summation, corrugated pipes have practica!
application when added.flexibility for stress or end-
FIG. 3.15 Analogue representation for ana.lysis of reaction reduction must be obtained in extremely
eorrugated pipes. limited space, thereby permitting the retention of
74 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
a rigid piping system and avoiding the use of ex-
pansion joints. Its use is best confined to straight
lengths, since it will have little, if any, advantage
over plain pipe when used for bends. The same may
be asid for creased bends, which offer no significant
advantage over plain bends in fiexibility and may
involve higher stress intensification. Corrngated
pipe, properly designed, is capable of carrying the
axial interna! pressnre thrust in common with
straight pipe, but it is important to note thst the
stress intensification factor applies to the longitudinal
pressure load, as well as other loadings; yielding, or
creep, will result if the combined static or dynamic
loadings exceed established limite. Fc:irapplications
in the creep range an accurate evaluation of the
stress intensification factor for the particular cor-
rugation used is desirable. Occasionally, corrngated
pipe is used to localize plastic deformation which
might occur dnring extreme upset conditions; for
such service the range of local unit plastic strain
determines the number of cyCles which can be sus-
ts.ined (see Chapter 7). It is adviaable that limit
stops or equivalent means be provided to limit over-
all yielding.
3.10 Bolted Flanged Connections: General
Background
Flanged connections provide for the ready joiuing
or separsting of portions of a piping system to facili-
tate inspection or cleauing, or to avoid in-position
welding or heat treatment. Their infiuence on the
performance of a piping system involves evaluation
of (1) the effect of the fiange as a local component,
and (.11) the effect of the forces and moments trans-
mitted through a: fiange on its ability to maintain a
tight ses!.
Analysis of fianged joints was limited to cantilever
approximations unti! the advance made in 1927 by
W aters and Taylor [69]. Combiuing the elastic
hehavior of a fiat plate with a cylinder treated as a
beam on an elastic foundation, they obtained ex-
pressiona for the circumferential, radial, and axial
stresses in fianges with short cylindrical hubs of
constant thickness. These theoretical resulte were
reasonably well substantiated by tests, and offered a
reliable basis .for the evaluation of loose-hubbed
fianges (Vllin Stone, threaded, lapped) within the
ASA range of dimensiona [70, 71, 72]. In subseqnent
years this derivation was extended by Holmberg
and Axelson [73] to fianges integral with the pipe
wall.
These analyses were limited to hubs of uniform
thickness, although the desirability of increased hub
thickness at the fiange-hub intersection was gen-
erally recognized. An exhsustive theoretical analy-
sis of this problem [74, 75] was undertaken by
Waters, Rossheim, Wesstrom, and Williams. It
inculluddebed both_edbolt-mom~nht an? pressnredeffecte,.Jl.Ild ._,_fi.-_._;_-~-
1
co app 1 to strmg t, smg1e, or ouble taper. . .
combinationa of hub contour, with fillets simulated. ">
by tangent tapers. A complete arialysis, including . -!;J'f
direct pressnre and pressnre discontinuity stress, is
complex for other th!fn a straight hub; the consider~
able effort involved in this approach is justifiable- . C. 0
only on high-pressure, large-diameter fianges . in
critica! service. For usual services and fiange _
proportions it has been found that the direct-pressnre
and pressure-discontinuity effects can be neglect<ld;
and the fiange subjected to a uniformly distributed
externa! moment equal to the product of the bolt
load, gasket load, end pressure load, and their re',.
spective lever arms. The junction of the ring and_
hub is as8umed to undergo zero radial displacement;'
the bolt load to be unaffected by changes in pressnre,'
..
u
and ideal elasticity to be maintained without yielding
or creep. Despite these simplifying assumptions, the :
analysis has proven adequate for most. problemS
when coupled with a suitable choice of design
stresses, gasket factors, etc. to provide .. inple
margin for these effects. Originally introduced int
the ASME UnfiredPressnre Vessel Code on aper
missive basis, its general acceptance soon led to itS .
adoption as a mandatory requirement. One wide- .
J'._: .
e
spread usage is on exchanger fianges, for which it . '-
has been approved by the Tubular Exchsnger Manu"
factnrers Association (TEMA) and applied to the.
standard fianges in their rules; it has also ben wideJy:
used in connection with rerating ASA standard
fianges. ..1
Experimental work [76, 77, 78] has shown that the ...
<',
theoretical formulas closely predicted the stresses.
developed under various loading conditions. It h..
also been shown that a reasonably uniform gasket-
load distribution can be expected only when the
n
maximum bolt pitch is a function of the bolt diameter .
and the fiange thickness, and that, within the normal
range of fiange dimensiona, the width of the fiange
has no appreciable effect upon the load distribution,
Taylor Forge & Pipe Works' Modern Flange Desigll, ".
[79] presente the formula in terms of bolt diameter/i:~Xi;
fiange thickness, and gasket factor. This fonimla,.-.~;;r
~~~':~;::~::~!iu~:~=ic;';!'J~!:;,:~.:r JI
Present ASME fiange-stress formulas are stated
for fiange and hub dimensiona assumed in advance,
leading to tim~onsuming trial-and-error solutiori.
.. .
--''l;~
---:Yu
 WCAL COMPONENTS
Simplified methods have been developed [80, 81] to
aid the designer in quickly arriving at well-propor-
tioned economical flanges. Other practica! sugges-
tions are contained in Modero Flange Design [79].
For certain relatively mild low-pressure services,
.l such as water works, thin and relatively wide flanges
with soft gaskets located inside the bolts have been
successfully used. Such flanges usually cannot be
justified by the Code design approach. The explana-
tion of their satisfactory use must be sought in
recognition of higher stresses, use of soft gaskets, and
the possibility of the flanges contacting each other
at the OD, establishing thereby a limiting counter-
moment befare excessive strains are developed. For
considerations involved in such special service,
reference can be made to the paer by Waters and
Williams[82] and the discussion thereof.
The design assumption that the initial bolt load
remains constant for any magnitude of the interna!
:: t pressure ha8 also been explored. It has been shown
[74, 76, 83, and others] that a hydrostatic endforce
': may either increase or decrease the initial bolt load,
. 2 depending upon the relative position of the gasket
reaction and the elastic properties of the assembly.
With customary flanges, exemplified by ASA Stand-
ard B16.5, the bolt load decreases slightly with appli-
cation of interna! pressure, since the net moment on
the flange ring increases, which in tum causes in-
creased flange rotation and a decrease in the distance
between flanges at the bolt circle. The bolt stress
is at all times a function of the summation of the
strains of the entire assembly, and their individual
moduli of elasticity. Since the modulus decreases
with temperatura rise, the bolt load will likewise
decrease as the temperatura of the assembly is unic .
formly raised. If the temperature of the components
is not uuiform, the differential strains will alter the
bolt stress in proportion. Except in unusual cases
these effects are not of practica! significance, since
the flange design permits pretightening to a leve!
sufficient to compensate for bolt-load reduction,
local yielding, or creep over the period of time
established by the material properties and tem-
perature.
An understanding of flange leakage may be ob-
tained by idealizing the assembly as two elastically
coupled bodies, the bolts on one hand, and the flanges,
including the gasket, on the other. The complete
joint is then represented schematically as two springs
with different initial lengths and stiffnesses. When
the joint is tightened, this initiallength difference is
eliminated by submitting the bolt spring to tension
and the stiffer flange spring to compression. A
L
75
superimposed hydrostatic load would have th~. simple
effeet of subjecting both springs to equal amounts of
added tensile strain. In this simplified representa-
tion; leakage would occur when the tensile strain
imparted to the flange due to the hydrostatic load
offsets the compressive strain set up by tightening
the bolts (i.e., the spring representing the flange is
under no force and retunis to its original length).
This concept was presented by Dolan [84] who gave
pictoriai representation to this interpretation by
means of a simple force-extension diagram. N eed-
less to say, the elastic coupling concept is a consider-
able oversimplification of actual conditions in a
flange which must include al! components, changing
moment and rotational effects, temperatura, creep,
etc. as treated, for example, in [82].
Code rules establish two criteria which must be
satisfied to maintain a gasketed joint free from
leakage. The one establishes a minimum initial unit
gasket seating load, and the other a ratio of gasket
load to interna! pressure for operating conditions;
both are related to the gasket material and construc-
tion. As to the effective width of gasket, arbitrary
assumptions are made which are related to the
flange-facing details arid relative concentration of
loading; double this width is used for application of
the gasket operating pressure factor.
Actually, the performance of a gasketed surface
depends not ouly upon the elastic properties of the
gasket material as influenced by its design details,
but also upon the bolt load and deflection of the
flanges (initially and under pressure); the.. maxi-
mum gasket load (at the inner and outer edge or at
projections); the gasket thickness and physical
properties; and the surface finishes of gasket and
flange, which determine the elastic and plastic
deformation attendant to an initial seal In actual
installations, the varieties of gasket stiffness, surface
finish, and imperfections of gasket and flanges, as
well as the properties of the contained fluid or gas,
can cause wide variation in the minimum load and
gasket pressure to maintain tightness. The Code
rules for minimum load and gasket factor are, there-
fore, approximations of average conditions for flanges
of usual proportions. For this reason, these rules
are not mandatory but merely tentative.
Where very stiff flanges or minimum-width gaskets
are involved, the entire width of the gasket may be
at essentially the same unit load; conversely, for thin
flexible flanges or wide gaskets, the gasket load may
be much lower than predicted by Code rules. Ex-
tremely soft gaskets, such as gum rubber, def!ect
directly undcr the interna! pressure, and flow later-
 76 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
ally to equalize and distriliute the gasket load. Due
to this behavior, they can often be made tight under
very low unit gasket loading or, at times, even in the
absence of a net gasket load from the bolts. Special
facing details or gasket designa to promote self-
sealing tendencies are successfully used where the
service permite the use of soft gasket material, or
where extremely high working pressure can be
uti!ized to provide suflicient load to sea! harder
gaskets. Sorne facing deteils are based on mechani-
cal concepts, such as ring-type joints; others, as for
instance, lens rings, benefit from reduced or line
contact.
Where elastic conditions are maintained, leakage
of a properly fabricated and assembled flanged joint
should not occur if the initial bolt load is sufficient
to m!i.intain the reqnired gasket load above the
longitudinal loads developed by pressure and struc-
tural effects, and to compensate for the expected re-
ductions in bolt load due to fiange defiection and
change in elastic modulus. The infiuence of struc-
tural loading is treated further in the next section.
Flange bolts are ordinarily made up at ambient
temperature; as the temperature is raised in service,
the tempemture of the bolts, fianges, and pipe may
no longer be the same, either during the transient
heating period or in the equilibrium servce condition.
Since the bolts receive heat through limitad contact
with the fianges they will respond more slowly to
changes; similarly, non-integral flanges, such as the
Van Stone.type, will!ag behind the pipe under tem-
perature change. In the absence of insulation, these-
temperature differences will be much greater. Where
fiow temperatures fiuctuate rapidly. or where externa!
infiuences (such as rain on exposad flanges) upset the
equilibrium between bolts and flanges, joints may
leak due to loss of gasket sealing load. This raduc-
tion in sealing pressure is traceable either to expan-
sion differences, or to yielding resulting from tem-
porary overload. If serious yielding does not occur
the joint will eventually re-esteblish the same gasket
load, although it is possible that the temporary
leakage will have causad wire-drawing and prevent
re-eStablishment of a sea!.
In actual installations, completely elastic condi-
tions are almost never realizad; aside from localizad
yielding, creep will be present in high-temperature
service and to sorne extent at al! temperatures,
particularly for non-metallic, non-ferrous, or highly
stressed gaskets. Under repeated load applications
the degree of yielding or creep with respect to time
is increased.
In order to deal with the effects of plastic fiow or
creep due to temperature effects, it is necessary to
consider both transient and constant thermal condi-
tions. Of these two, the transient thermal state is
often the more important, since it will generally lead ,
to higher-stresses and a.greater amount of yielding. :
This case was investigated by Bailey [85] for loos<b
ring and integrally weldad flanges. Making a few;,
simp!ifying assnmptions, he showad that stresses in_,
weldad integral flanges were ouly 60% of those in the.
less intimately connected loose fianges under tran";
sient temperatures. .AB a continuation of this work,,
Bailey undertook to investigate the effect of creep:
upon the elastic stress distribution. Again both the_,
loase and welded integral flanges were considerad for, .. -" _
various creep strength ratios of bolt material ,to_~t;;.,:~'
flange material. The effect of bolt holes was taken{/-T
into consideration through an analogy with . the(
tensile creep-relaxation properties of a solid strip of
metal versus a strip of metal with a series of holes . ok :,<,_
varying pitch and diameter. The effect of thermal,- ':' -~ !J.
!J.
bending moment acting on a joint dueto pipe expanl,',: -_(' L
. sion was omitted, on the assumption that under creep; <i/:_
conditions externa! forces would in time be raduced,;_,~ ''"''
to negligible magnitude. The analysis showad that_-
the tightness duration of the flangad joint (as definad
by the time at which the stresses would fall below,s,,:
permissible leve! or permit leakage) is a function,Qf.,
fiange thickness forgiven material properties .of, .
flange and bolts. It was also found that an optimuni,
fiange thickness existe for each joint, which increases
as the ratio between the creep resistence of the bolts-
and flanges becomes greater. These optima were.
generally greater than reqnirad by the Code._. ;_.As
would be expected the analysis indicated the d~.:
bility of having high elastic strains in holts and:
flanges combinad with high creep resistence. - These
properties are in opposition, since high stresses cause:-
accelerated creep. For given materials certain
changes in design will, however, provide increased 'i
elasticity without increased stresses, e.g. increasing .'---1
,_
the effective bolt length; similarly, changing, th~
material of any component to one of equal elasticity,
but great~r creep resistence, will improve high tem-
perature performance.
Bailey's analytical work was not followad by .ex-
perim~nts of suflicient extent to prove or disqualify.
the conclusions reachad. However, an interesting
report, including sorne test data on various aspects
of flange design, was publishad _by Gough [86] on
this subject. ''":~'-
The fatigue characteristics of various types ,of
steel flanges subject to repeated bending strains.re-
ceivad attention in an invesgation carriad out at.
- - - - )1
1
J
!:
j
'i:.
 - j; LOCAL COMPONENTS
atmospheric temperature by Markl and George [87].
Using a constant-displacement type fatigue-testing
machine, on 4 in. standard weight and 0.080 in. wall
pipe with 300 lb ASA standard RF flangell, fatigue
failure occurred almost invariably in the pipe proper
-' adjacent to the flange attachment, where there is a
marked change in contour, and not in the flange or
' bolts. A few tests were made with 600 psi interna!
presSilre; in these tests leakage well in advance of
failure was noted only on threaded joints. Gasket
e leakage was not experienced when bolts were pre-
' tightened to 40,000 psi, although it was encountered
-
f
when they were tightened to only 20,000 psi. The
S-N diagrams of all types of flanges investigated
p
were represented by straight lines on a log-log plot,
-1 which were parallel among themselves and with the
lines obtained for straight tangents or butt-welded
- pipes. This made it possible to assign single stress
r
- '
" intensification factors to each of the various types
of flanges investigated; these results. are listed in
.. Table 3.4. The snperiority of the welding neck
' flange is in line with service experience with regard
- j' to suitability for critica! service.
t. :
The relatively poor performance of the. lap joint
11 flanges was rather surprising since such flanges have
1>7
a fairly good service record; the lap thickness used
f~
.. f
was the same as the pipe wall and the poor results
were attributed to inadequate strength of the lap
-~~ ....... to carry the high bending moments imposed, the
lap apparently rocking back and forth on the gasket.
In general, stress intensification factors increase with
increasing abruptness of cross-sectional changes in
the flange at the pipe connection. The welding neck
flange with its smooth transition exhibits no per-
.
ceptible stress-raising tendency, whereas threaded
flanges, due to stress concentrations present in the .
threads, carry an intensification factor of about 2.30.
The effect of a sea! weld covering all exposed threads,
as used in sorne services, was not investigated. It
should also be kept in mind that in elevated-tem-
perature service the load distribution on flange
details involving double welds would be less favor-
able, and that additional thermal stresses would
result from temperature differences between the
pipe and flange.
For services where creep or severe cyclic effects
are present, greater attention must be paid to the
reduction or elimination of stress raisers. Fillet
rad should be generous, and sharp corners should
be avoided. Stud bolts with continuous threads or
with unthreaded portions machined to the root di-
ameter should be used in preference to headed bolts,
which involve sharp fillets under the heads and the
77
Table 3.4 Stress lntensification Factors for
Various Flanges
Welding neck flange 1.00
Socket welding flange (double welded) 1.15
Slip-on or forged ring flanges (double welded) 1.25
Slip-on or aocket welding flanges (single welded) 1.30
Lap joint flanges 1.60
Threaded flanges 2.30
thread runout. For satisfactory performance, bend-
ing in studs should also be held to a mnimum.
3.ll Bolted Fhnged Connections: Practica!
Consid~rations
Experience indicates that the design rules of the
ASME U nfired Pressure Vessel Code are gene rally
entirely adequate for the design of special flanges,
with gaskets located inside the bolts, for service
under interna! pressure. For flanges having fui!
face gaskets, or for any design which permits the
development of a counter-moment reaction outside
the bolt circle, there is no recognized standard de-
sign approach; a special ASME Code Committee is
currently {1955) working on this problem.
For piping applications it is necessary to consider
the effect of other loadings in combination with in-
terna! pressure. These are usually longitudinal
fore<lS and bending or torsional moments due to
weight, wind, or thermal expansion of the pipe line.
By far the majority of piping flange applications in
the United States utilize ASA Standard B16.5 flanges.
The ASA Standard gives allowable pressure-temper-
ature ratings but offers no guidance as to ~ible
bending loadings. These flanges have been cus-
tomarily -used up to the allowable ratings without
any check of their capacity to carry additionalload-
ings. While occasional difliculties due to such loads
have been encountered, their service record must be
considered very good. Unsatisfactory performance
occurred generally only with pipes having an appre-
ciable excess strength or corrosion allowance and a
high value of thermal expansion. An example is the
use of 150 lb standard flanges with low-pressure,
high-temperature heavy-walled pipe. A discussion
of the influence of bending and torsional moments
on ASA flanges is included in the paper by Rossheim
and Markl [29]; results of tests on 4 in. 300 lb stand-
ard flanges are given in the paper by Markl and
George [87.]. ASA flange strengths, when judged by
ASME Code analytical methods, are by no means
uniform, and the piping designer should be aware
that there is greater reserve strength in the smaller
sizes and lower-pressure classes than in the larger
sizes and higher-pressure classes. Good-design prac-
78 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
tice indicates the desirability of keeping flanged
joints at a mnimum for operating and maintenance
conditions and, insofar as possible, locating needed
f!anges in the most advantageous location with re-
spect to applied moments.
]i'or routine design investigations of the effects of
loading other. than interna! pressure on flanges
covered by ASME Code rules, The M. W. Kellogg
Company has found if is satisfactory to calculate
first the maximum load per inch of gasket circum-
ference due to the applied longitu<lirud bending
moment and force. Then theinternal pressure equiv-
alent to this loading is determined. Ffually the
Code design approach is applied, assuung an
internal pressure equal to the design internal pre&-
sure plus the calculated pressure equivalerit to the
other loads. The equivalent pressure, exjlressed
in formula form. is: P = (16M/...G") + 4F/..,<i',
where M = lo.ugttudfual oending moment in.-lb; G=
diameter of effective gasket reaction as <lefined by
Code, in.; and F = longitudinal :foree, lb. The
flange is checked for a pressure of p = P + Pd,
where P = design operating pressure. Taking
the moment on the gasket center line is consistent
with analysis and experience which indicates that.
with a properly pretightened flange, the bolt load
changes very little when a moment is applied,
whereas the gasket loading changes appreclably.
The most importsnt point for praetical design is
to establish a proper allowable stressfor such checks.
For steady loading other than thP.rmal expansion the
same allowable stress as .for internal pressure alone
should be used; for temporary {short duration)
loading, an increase of 33.3% in the basic design
stresses is suggested. . Loading due to thermal ex-
pansion can be treated on a "stress range" basis
similar to the treatment of thermal stresses in the
pipe itself; allowable stresses for both bolts and
flange can be established accordingly. From a stress
standpoint there should .be no question abouf this
procedure. From a flange leskage standpoint the
validity of this approach is somewhat questionable,
particularly under creep conditi.ons. N onetheless,
it is only by such an approach that the demonstrated
capacity of flanges to take rather sizeable moment
effects can be reasonably justified. The M. W. Kel-
logg Company's satisfactory experience in checking
thermal moment effects has been based on an allow-
able stress for both flange and bolts of ! {S. + S,)
as prescribed bythe 1951 ASA Standard B31.1 Code
for piping
With adequately pretightened flange bolts the
thermal moment appears during the first heating
cycle. If the operating temperature is sufliciently
high, both the bolt stresses and thermal flange
moments will gradually relax due to creep in the
pipe !ine; leakage while ht would then depend on
the relative relaxation ratea. Assuming substantial
hot relaxation, a sizeable thermal moment of oppo-
site Sign would develop when the .line returns to
atmospheric temperature, and leakage may occur if
pressure is applied in the cold condition. Thus there
are probably factors in the problem not adequately
assessed, and whether the increased stress range now
permitted by the Code can be applied to flange de-
sigo without affecting tightness is not established.
The influence of torsional moments may be. in-
vestigated as indicated in the Rossheim-Markl
paper [29); as shown therein the capacity of ASA
flanges to take torsional moment is less than for
lo!'gitudinal moment. This is generally true of al!
flanges, unless special mechauical means such as
dowels or keys for transmitting torsion are provided;
!J
caution is therefore in order when high torsional
moments may be imposed. Generally, however,
flange leakage is not as much of a problem under
torsion as it is under bending.
Occasionally, special applications may warrant a
more extensive study of stress-strain relations in the
flanged joint. This maY be done by adapting the
n
"j
approach presented !y W esstrom and Bergh [83),
and Blick (88, 89).
When selecting gasket dimensions for hot flanges
it is well to make the gasket as wide as can be satis-
factorily seated by the initial ASME Code design
bolt load, rather than use a narrow width which will
just avoid extensive iuitial yielding or "crushing."
This will insure maximum resistance to creep under
operating conditions.
In petroleum service. applications the tightness
performance of high-temperature flan~es is usnally
improved by leaving the flanges uninsulated and
providing a weather shield only. The flange and
bolts then operate at a lower metal temperature and
relaxation is slowed. Where heat loss requires it;
the shield can be lightly insulated. In power piping, ]
however, heat losS is mueh more a matter of concem,
msking full insulation generally a necessity.
l3y fa~ the greatest leakage troubles with f!anged
joints arise due to rapid temperature changes or
quenches which create sizeable temperature differ-
ences Within the flange componente. Where .these
conditions can be anticipated, flanges are preferably
avoided; if used, great care is wrranted in their
selection and location. The. mating of dissimilar
types of flanges, such as Van Stone and integral
1
L

e -~
i 1 LOCAL COMPONENTS
" ') types, generally tends to exaggerate difficulties
arising from temperature differences.
.- The problem of dissimilar flanged joints is brief!y
discussed in Section 3.12.
-' 1
J.---,
i 3.12 Joints Between Dissimilar Materials
-" )
Individual piping systems may involve more than
e
""1, 1 one material, or may be connected to equipment
' : of different metal analysis, so that the inf!uence
of intermediate or terminal joints between materials
-l of different physical properties must be considered.
A principal factor influencing these dissimilar joints
is the difference in expansion characteristics; others
are variations in hardness, electrolytic potential,
e
f structure, ductility, and stiffness.
'i
.. 1 The transition in material may occur at a bolted
flange, a threaded coupling or union, a rolled con-
..
1 nection, a weld, or at a special transition piece.
~
Potential difficulties in the form of leakage or failure
-
' due to thermal cycling are related to the range and
. frequency of temperature change, the differences in
l
~ j material properties, and the details of the dissimilar
-l joint. ' factors associated with presence of a weld.
~ i For low-temperature service, all of these types of
)'
connections are successfully used. As the tempera-
.j ~
j:
'
ture is raised, threaded and rolled joints require
that the higher expansion material be inside. With
~ 1' further increasing temperatures, the elastic stress
!~: ~~ ' interaction is no longer maintained; this leads to
J ,.
.} leakage and finally structural failure. Sea! welding
' does not permit appreciably higher temperatures, as
r structural strength is not usually improved. Al! of
these forms of connections involve significant stress
raisers and localized areas of high deformations.
.. f
Hence, where repetitive cycles of wide temperature
range are involved, the probability of fatigue failure
dictates against their use.
. ' For f!anged joints consisting of integral butt-
welded f!anges of dissimilar material, (but each of
like analysis with the pipe to which it is attached),
leakage is dictated by the initial bolt stress and
gasket sealing properties, as compared with the
differential expansion between the bolts on the one
hand, and the f!ange and gasket on the other.
With certain types of gaskets, leakage may also
depend on the differential radial expansion at the
gasket center line. By using lapped or Van Stone
f!anges, the flange and bolt temperatures are re-
duced, and the f!anges and bolts can be made of the
same type of material, with differential expansion
limited to the Van Stone lips and gasket. The gasket
load must be sufficient to restrain the relative radial
movement of the lips, or the gasket must be of a
' i
79
design which will maintain a sea! under differential
expansion movement. While severe local stresses
proportional to the restraint are caused in the lips
(which must also carry the bending due to pressure
and structuriioading), these stresses can and should
be confined to wrought, carefully contoured material,
so that reasonable fatigue life and satisfactory tight-
ness can be obtained for high temperatures. Dis-
similar flanged joints of special design using bellows-
type gaskets or pressure sealing have been utilized
in power plant service [90]. For joints between
ferritic and austenitic steel, the design selected should
be such as to permit the use of ferritic alloy bolts;
austenitic bolts are unsatisfactory because of tbeir
low yield strength and high coefficient of expansion.
Bolted joints generally are avoided for extreme-
temperature service, a construction not involving
gasket sealing being preferred. With welded con-
struction, leakage is no longer a factor. Satisfactory
service in this case depends upon the local strainc
range differential, on the number of applications of
this strain range, and finally, upon the metallurgical
Using the most common material combinatin
asan example, the austenitic steels have a coefficient
of expansion of about 10.4 X 10-6 in./in./F (within
the temperature range 70-1200 F), whereas the
low-chrome-alloy steels have a coeflicient of about
8. X 10-6 in./in./F. When joined with a sharp
interface, this difference will induce stresses when the
joint is heated or cooled. For a butt joint between
pipes of equal thickness the maximum thermal
stress will be the circurnferential (hoop) . stress
developing at the junction, which has a magnitude of
" = !E 11T 11a (3.25)
Here E represente the modulus of elasticity (assumed
identical for both metals), !1T the temperature
change, and Aa designates the difference between the
coeflicients of expansion for the two metals. Apply-
ing a stress-relief at 1200 F to the junction and cool-
ing the pipe then to 100 F, !1T becomes 1100 F,
!1a is equal to 2.4 X 10-o/F. Taking now E =
29 X 106 psi, a circumferential stress of 38,300 psi is
calculated (tensile in austenitic material and
compressive in ferritic material).
The foregoing analysis assumes a thin cylinder
and evaluates only the differential radial def!ection
at the mean radius. In addition to this effect, there
is also a discontinuity at the interface due to the
differential change in thickness of the two materials
which will introduce further local radial stresses of
equal magnitude, tensile in th~ one material and
 q
!'
80 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS q
,,,
u;:
.....
A~ntenitic Aontenitic
Weld
changing the weld bevel so that the heat-affected
zone on the ferritic side wasmore inclined (Fig. 3.17). '. . Jb
These tests did not, however, include the effect of
.
'j fi
S<

fnslde ond ovtlide gra~~nd smooth and
wiKtonti.tly 1111\h aflet welding
Fla. 3.17 Dissimilar weld jointJ 15 interfac.
compressive in the other. The resulting state of
equal biaxial stress will raise the ca!culated stresses
by a factor of 1/ (1 - v). A more detailed analysis
would disclose sorne edge-bending stresses across the
junction.
A simple butt weld approaches the above assump-
tions and appears at least the equal of other possible
details from a standpoint of stress magnitude. Stress
is, however, ouly one factor determining perform-
\'ti
differential expansion stresses, so that improved ll'if
performance resulting from inclining the ferritic n,
heat-affected zone may in this case be attributed 1Jf
~,,
largely to the lower axial stress component in this
critica! zone.
When Carpenter et al. [92] changed from a hot
fatigue test to a thermal quenching test, the number
of cycles which could be withstood dropped drasti-
cally, failures being experienced after76 to 318 cycles,
as compared to 89,000 or more for .the hot test.
Weisberg and Soldan [93], in a separata series of
tests, obteined no failures after 100 quench cycles.
Under such drastic quenching appreciable additional
thermal stresses are introduced because of transient
temperature differences across the wall thickness.
The possibility of improving the performanc;e of
dissimilar joints by inclining the bond line originated '1
,_
~-

~
i!
i
'

ance; its influence m~ be weighed along with that
of other factors. One of these factors is the particular
detall of the joint. For example, connecting an
austenitic pipe brancli to a ferritic header would
force almost all of the differential strain into the
austenitic part. This would increase the maximum
stress by a factor of about 3.6, ..s compared to the
simple butt weld.
A:. in the case of overall thermal expansion strains
with The M. W. Kellogg Company and was aimed
at a largely longitudinal interface rather than one
transversa to the pipe axis. This method has been e
f],.
incorporated in the desigu of special joints made by
the Kelcaloy process (Fig. 3.18). Tests [91, 93] and
service experience over a period of six years show
excellent performance. Whereas differential ex-
pausion stresses are likely to be somewhat higher
than in a simple butt joint, the primary advantages '
' ..
...
[ 1 . .

in piping systems, the performance of dis.similar over a conventional weld or a weld simulating the ' .
joints would be dependent on the number of cycles construction lie in the essentially longitudinal
and the strsin range per cycle. While such j oints
generally give . satisfactory service in constant
temperature operation with relati,;ely few tempera-
ture cycles and an absence of sudden quenching
interface and in the unique manufacturing process.23
The physica! properties of metal deposited by this
procesa are cousistently superior to those obtained
n
uDescribed by Blumberg and Bunn in their diacuaaion of
conditions, many joints subjected to more severe W eisberg's papei [91].
conditions have failed. Investigations conducted
on this subject [27,' 91, 92, 93], and experience
indieate that metallurgica! factors and flaws seriously Fonitic Steel
y 1 1
affect performance when associated with plastic J.
---- '-'. t-~ . -.!..,.-1
---r-
deformation due to yielding or creep. The heat- 1 1
1 1
affected zone on the ferritic side of the dissimilar -----=--.-~
weld has been shown to be the most critica! zone,
due possibly to reduced ductility of the mixed analy-
sis in the fusion zone and metallurgical changes
during the course of the test or service which result
in strain concentration at this location. From a
stress standpoint the superposition of interna!
pressure loading and externa! longitudinal loading
reduced the number of cycles which could be with-
stood in a hot fatigue test at constant temperatura.
While all welds withstood a large number of cycles,
a somewhat improved performance was obtained by Fta. 3.18 Kelcaloy transition pieces.
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
by ordinary casting or welding methods. Austenitic
sections, for example, are sgnificantly free of micro-
fissuring. In addition, progressive and rapid solidi-
fication around the entire circumference of the bond
zone occurs simultaneously, resulting in greater uni-
formity, minimum residual stresses, and less acute
material transition and heat-affected zones.
The Kelcaloy process is also being used to produce
f :
joints with a simple butt bond substantially trans-
verse to the pipe axis. Their principal advantage
over welded joints again les in the metallurgical
superiority and relative soundness inherent in the
process of manufacture. Additional advantages
are: only one heat-affected zone compared to two in
a conventional weld, and 'adaptability of the process
to produce and closely control special chemical
analyses. As an example of the latter advantage,
carbon migration at the interface (whch has been
experienced at ferritic-austenitic junctions and
whch hastened sorne failures) can. be combated by
introducing a carbide stabilizer, such as columbium,
into the chrome-m0lybdenum steel, leading to an
analysis whch is not generally available.
Whle ths discussion has emphasized that metal-
lurgical aspects greatly inf!uence dissimilar weld
performance, detailed discussion of ths subject is
not withn the scope of this book. Principal factors,
however, can be listed as follows:
l. Carbon migration rcsulting in a carbon-de-
pleted zone in the ferritic steel near the austenitic
weld interface.
2. Formation of sigma phase in the austenitic
material near the interface.
3. Abrupt change in structure and physical prop-
erties of weld metal and heat-ffected zone resulting
in a "metallurgical notch."
4. Tendency of austenitic weld deposita toward
microfissuring.
5. Oxidation or other corrosive notchng at the
ferritic material junction accelerated by local strain.
The discussion in reference [92] will be found inter-
esting and instructive. There is still a great deal to
be learned about austenitic and dissimilar-joint
welding and the service performance of austenitic
welds. The same can. be said in general about the
high-temperature performance of the heat-affected
zones of al! types of welds under plastic deformation
and creep conditions. Where weld difficulties have
been encountered in service, the preponderance of
cracking has been associated with heat-affected
'.
zones.
In important practica! applications of dissimilar
joints for high-temperature service, no matter what
81
type of design and fabrication technique is decided
upon, every effort should be made to eliminate
mechanical stress raisers. Weld reinforcement
should be built up to effect an anneal of the preceding
!ayer and then should be removed without notches
or other surface stress raisers near the weld; ma-
chining is preferred wbere practicable. Backing rings
should be avoided, and controlled inside contour
welds (K-Weld) should be used where back welding
cannot be accomplished. The joint should be ex-
amined for soundness by the best nondestructive
methods applicable.
3.13 Other Components
Various componente other than those specifically
mentioned in individual sections of this chapter
may be encountered, but insofar as their inf!uence on
the f!exibility and fatigue performance of the system
is concerned, the principies outlined in ths chapter
usually can be applied as necessary. Sorne deserve
at least brief additional comment.
A valve should be able to carry loading from
attached piping similar to a standard tee of com-
parable pressure-temperature rating, but as a further
consideration should be sufficiently free from warp-
age or distortion to permit operation and tight
shutoff. These problems are withn the province of
the individual manufacturer; their engineering has
advanced considerably in recent years, particularly
for high-pressure, high-temperature service. As
in the case of f!anges, care should be exercised in nsing
low pressure rating valves with relatively he'vy
walled pipe, since the imposed moment as erected
or due to expansion may be beyond their structural
capacity. For large-diameter piping, valves are
sometimes used with venturi ports (particularly
when motor operated) or standard valves one or
two sizes smaller are used with reducers in conven-
tional lines. The bodies of venturi valves are usu-
ally designed with consideration for the moment
which may be applied by the larger piping. Sim-
ilarly, when using standard smaller valves, such
piping moments must be given consideration.
. Flanged fiUings of either cast or wrought steel
(ASA Standard Bl6.5) are capable of developing the
full structural strength of their f!anges; for further
comments on the moment capacity of f!angs see
Section 3.11 of ths chapter. Ths applies to tees,
crosses and elbows. The pressure rating of such
fittings is given in the ASA Standard and commented
on in Chapter 2.
Screwed and socket welding fiUings (ells, tees, crosses,
unions, and couplings), whether cast or wrought
82 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
,.
.2
.,
sharp cone-to-<Jylinder junction tlle local stresss:''
-.
-----
f=E>demalaxk>l .,.be. (lbo.)
(po.itiw... - - .
(TO!oloodt-=f .... hyd.......
.,. load ,,. to ........ p)
Fw. 3.19 Canica! transition.
steel, are similarly furnished to nominal pressure
ratings and are limited to sroall sizes and generally
to moderate service conditions. Screwed jointa are
obviously limited in their capacity for transmittng
to..Sional moment. Actually, in plumbing practice
they are often relied upon to relieve thermal ex-
pansion by permitting a small angular rotation of
one thread upon the other, a practice, however,
which not infrequently resulta in leakage. In ten-
sion or bending, screwed fittings can be depended
upon to be equal in strength to unthreaded pipe of
the same rating, but due allowance for metal removed
in threading must be made in determining the wall
thickness of the pipe. For cyclic effecta (mechanical
or thermal), screwed jointa involve the stress-raiser
effect of the threads, an effect not entirely eliminated
even with heayY sea! welds. At the higher tem-
peratures, sea! welding is usually necessary to pre-
vent leakage. Socket welding fittings also involve
the stress intensification effect of fillet welds, but are
superior to threaded jointa if the welds are adequate.
Threaded and socket-welded fitting jointa would be
expected to involve stress intensifications in line
with the fatigue test resulta obtained for f!anges of
threaded and single-welded socket types.
The thicknesses of blind flanges in ASA Standard
B16.5 are the same as those of functional f!anges.
For nonstandard cover plates, the rules of the
ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code may be used;
it should be mentioned, however, that the ASA blind
f!anges are of lesser thickness than those resulting
from the application of these rules. EUipsoidal
weiding caps are commonly used, as presently cov-
ered by ASA Standard B16.9. Individual ap>liCJ>-
tions for larger sizes or special shapes, including
heads, may be checked using the rules of the ,,.,.,.,
Unfired Pressure Vessel Code.
Markl [12] has fatigue-tested smoothly contoured)
commercial reducers and finds a stress i.tlteJ:tSifical~iori',
factor of unity justified. For the design of spe<cial!.~
conical reducers reference can be made to the mt.~~
pretive report of the work of the Design Divisilori'<
of the Pressure Vessel Research Committee [94]
pressure vessel hesds. For the particular case of
at the intersection can be closely ap]proOllo.ated
using the familiar beam on an. elastic.f)urtdatioltl.
analysis and treating the cone as though it were
cylinder having a radius equal to the
radius of the cone at the jnnction. The resl!lting
strei.ses due to an interna! pressure p and e;~~~
loada F and M are given by the following f<
(with Poisson's ratio taken as 0.3):
Outside intersection (Point () in Fig. 3.19)
sn = 'f1.816C3 + (pR/2tn cosa)
:.
Cone {
"' = -C1 + (pR/tn cosa) 'f 0.546Ca
s = 'f1.816n2Cs + (pR/2t)
Cyl. ..
{
= -c. + (pR/t) 'f o.546n2 Cs
Re-entrant intersection (Point (2) in Fig. 3.19)'
. {"" ;.. :1:1.816Ca + (pR/2ton cosa) .
Cone
sc1 = C1 + (pR/ton cosa) :1: 0.546Cs .'
s 12 = 1.816n2 Ca + (pRo/2to)
Cyl. { .
sc2 = C2 + (pR 2 /to) :1: 0.546n2 Ca
In these equations upper signs refer to the stresses in :
the outer fibers and lower signs to those in the iriner )
fibers. The subscripta l and e refer to longitudinal :.
and circurnferential stresses, respectively; a nm;t1re
sign denotes tension. The cotl.Stlmts a]pp<mriing abov~
are given by the following expressions:
1
C1 = ~. [ C 6 ( Vn cosa+~.) .
- c~(2vn cosa+ 1 + ~.)
= ~. [ Co ( Vn cosa+:.)
C2
+Co(n"+l+ vn:osJJ ..
.L.i;_ j'
 WCAL COMPONENTS 83

C3 = --i-
n e,
[C (v'n cosa+ 1) +
6 C6 (n 2 - 1)]
tions, and soil constitute an integrated structural
system with equilibrinm of interloading effects.
Each part of this structural system is inf!uenced by
1 1
c.=n2 + n.+2(v'ncosa+1+ v'ncoso:) its individual environment, e.g. pressure, tempera-
ture, weight, etc.' as well as by the effects transmitted

VR[pR
C5 = 2.57 -
t
- + -F- + - 2 tan a, for m-
2 2.-R .-R
M] . from attached parts of the system.
Ordinarily, supporting structures, foundations, and
soil are subject only to ambient temperatures, and
.. 1 tersection (1) are sufficiently rigid so that def!ections under pipe

VR;[pR2
= 2 57-- - - + -F- + -M- tan a fonn-
. t.'" 5 2 2.-R 2 1rR/ '
J . expansion, etc., are small enough to be neglected.
Sometimes, however, temperature rise is unavoid-
able in .steel structures; slender or high structures
tersection (2) may also, in combination with their foundations,
involve significant def!ections under even moderate
C6 = 0.85 pR (1 - - -- ) for
t
1
ncosa
in~rsection (1) reactions. Connected equipment will undergo di- '
mensional changes which may augment or decrease
1 the thermal expansion loading. The fabrication and
= -0.85 pR, (1 - - - ) for intersection (2)
~ ncosa . assembly of such an integrated structural .system
n = t,jt for intersection (1)
necessarily involves deviations from nominal dimen-
siona. Hence the fitting of piping, in combination
= t,jt. for intersection (2) with weld shrinkage, sets up iuitial interna! stresses
I t has been assnmed in the above that the intersec- which at the weakest location of the system may
equal the yield strength. Ail such conditions must
tions are far enough apart (about 2 /lit. ruin) so
~~
be recoguized and provided for by the piping
designer.
that their local effects do not inlluence each other For simplification in analysis,. the ends of a piping
"ignificantly. The maximum fiber load due to the system are usually considere<! fixed at the equipment
externa! moment is taken as though it were uniform connections. Obviously, this is a limiting condition
around the circumference; this approximation is for the maximum reaction; localized bending or direct
considered to be on the safe side. loading of the equipment, by causing def!ection or
i" The special case when 11 cos a = t is of interest rotation, serve to reduce the piping reaction. The
i for intersection (1). When n = 1/cos a the stress result will be an intermediate fixity between fixed-
j ..,. . formulas for this intersection reduce to: and hinged-end conditions. While the conventional
su = =F3.63C7 cos2 a+ (pR/2!) assumption of complete fixation may seem unneces-
Cone { sarily severe, it must not be inferred that excessive
s,, = - (1 + cos2 a 1.089 cos2 a)C1 + (pR/t)
additional safety resulte. It is possible to deviate
s, = =F3.63C7 + (pR/2t) from fixed-end assumptions without increased risk
Cyl. { of fatigue damage to connection equipment only
s, = - (1 + cos2 a 1.089)C7 + (pR/t)
when analysis is made of the bending stresses in the
where c7 equipment whose localized def!ections are being

=
2.57 sin acosa
1 + 6 cos2 a + cos4 a
[VR][pR2 +
Ls
F
2.-R + 1rR 2
M J
For consistent treatment with other stress intensifi-
cations in the ABA Code for Pressure Piping, rolled-
pipe data should be chosen as a basis of comparison.
Therefore, the calculated maximum stress as given
by the above formulas should be divided by two when
comparing with the usual expansion stress limits.
3.14 Piping and Equipment InterefTects
In the over-all picture a piping system and the
mutually connected equipment, structures, founda-
utilized. When dealing with rotating or other equip-
ment where alignment is sensitive to distortion,
piping can seldom be permitted to exceed the stiff-
ness obtained with fixed-end assumptions.
Considerable misunderstanding on the part of
equipment designers relative to piping reactions has
existed in the past. Manufacturers sometimes have
made it a condition of their warranty that no piping
reactions be transmitted to their equipment. In
other cases, force have been Iimited to unreasonably
low values, while completely ignoring the more im-
portant effects of bending moments. Such impractical
criteria, however, are detrimental to all concerned,
84 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
including the equipment manufacturer, as the piping
.designer is left without a usable guide.
At present, the more progressive manufacturera
attempt to provide more realiatic load carrying ca-
pacities or offer to check their equipment, on large
critica! unita, for the reactions of the proposed piping.
The problema which they face should be appreciated
by the piping designer. With moving parts and the
need for close clearances,. all atrain muat be carefully
controlled to avoid misalignment, rubbing, binding,
excessive wear, or other rnaloperation. At the same
time, the involved and discontinuous contours usually
required are not amenable to a reliable evaluation of
either def!ections or stresses. Thus, the rnanufac-
turer is often forced to rely on the judicious use of
experience or the projection of occasional test data
to individual equipment.
The rnagirltude of effecta at sensitive equipment
should be kept Iow particularly when cost is not
siguificantly increased by so doing. . This objective
rnay be approached by providing local pipe f!exi-
bility in complex syatems to favor the equipment,
using !"oca! restrainta to take reactions directly or
to force deflection into other portions of the system
(discussed further in Chapter 8); by an over-all
increase in: the f!exibility of the syatem; or by a
favorable relative positioning of the equipment.
The potential inf!uence of effecta on equipment rnay
often be moderated by the' selection of types which
are relatively insensitive to distortion and misalign-
ment. Also, the location of equipment should be
such as to keep pipe sizes to a minimum insofar as
practicable, a point of particular concern in regard
to the larger lines (e.g. pump suction and driver
exhauat lines).
In the absence of suitable rnanufacturer's data or
applicable experience, approxirnations for limiting
Table 3.5 Allowahle End Reaction Exerted by Connected Piping on Pumps, Turbine Casings, and Pressure
Vessels
Type of End
Reaction Rossheim-
Forces, lb Markl*
Moments, in.-lb
Radial reaction, including weight of pump riser,
3.25D'
etc.
Tangential reactions, any direction .
Longitudinal bending moment .
. 1.50D1
Circumferential bending moment 60D'
Twisting moment
In this column D denotes the OD of the pipe increased by 3 in.
fD is equal to the sum of the nominal diameters of suction and discharge decrea.sed by 15% for every 50F increase over 650F.
reactions on such equipment have been suggested.
These are no more than rules of thumb which repre-
ent experience alone without supporting analysis.
Various factors are used as ndices, either individu-
ally or in combinations, such as weight, cross section,
suction or discharge nozzle sizes (and rating), cubie .
volume, and pressure shell thickness-to-diameter
ratio. For many years piping reaetion limita of
1000 to 3000 pounds were specified regardless of
size or details of the equipment involved. Such
limits are now generally considered meaningless.
Other approaches relate metal cross section to
different unit values for resultant. forces and roo-
menta. Pressure shell thickness/radius ratios are
also employed sometimes to establish the potential .
rnaximuin pressure which that portion of the shell
can withstand. A more accurate evaluation of
local moment capacity of surfaces of revolution is
given: elsewhere in this section.
Cubic volume is not a siguificant parameter. It
has been used largely in the absence of equipment
weight, by assurning an overall density 2 to 5 times
that of water. Weight, where obtaiuable, is a more
suitable parameter and is usually increased by the
estimated weight of the contenta. In either ap-
proach, the weight is considered as the maxinunn
value which the resultant force may attain.
Suction or discharge nozzle sizes. provide a more
comprehensive index of rotating equipment design,
since they ref!ect equipment size. Pressure rnay be
assuined to maintain a rough balance between pipe
and equipment atiffness. Based on a survey of
acceptable piping designa for equipment piping,
Rossheim and Markl [29) proposed the cube of (pipe
OD plus 3 in.) as a criterion to which .conatanta were
applied to establish the maximum axial and lateral
forces in pounds or bending moments in foot pounds.
Wolosewick for Maximum Temperatura 650Ft
4-Point Support 2-Point Supports
Actual Maximum Actual Ma.ximum
Value Allowable Value Allowable
250D 4,000 300D 2,700
100D 1,500 85D 900
10,000
2700D 40,000 1700D 22,000
18,000
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
Wolosewick [95] additionally varied allowable reac-
tions to suit the type support (2 to 4 point), and
j service temperature. The limits advanced in these
"~' 1.. t.wo papers are tabulated in Table 3.5.
The Rossheim-Markl study also brought out the
., 1 . J fact that expansion stresses in the piping studied
ranged from 1000 to 6000 psi. This and subsequent
experience led to the following practice used with
success by The M. W. Kellogg Company for the
past five years. .The combined stress dueto bending
and torsion is calculated for an assumed pipe having
a size and wall thickness equal to that of the nozzle
and connecting pipe, respectively. This stress is
limited to 6000 psi.
In establishing limits for pipe loads, consideration
must also be given to the capacity of equipment
supports: that is, anchor bolts, bed plate, steel struc-
ture, and foundation each in turn must be able to
accommodate the pipe loads.
The effect of loalized concentrated forces and
moments on shells is of widespread importance in the
design of piping. The resulting bending and direct
stresses and their effect on fatigue Jife are important
factors in establishing satisfactory structural design
not only for tees, branch connections on pipes, and
nozzles on pressure vessels, but also for supporting
saddles, lugs, trunions, legs, hangers, and similar
attachments. Due to a lack of symmetry and
variation in cross section the theoretical analysis
1
of these local effects is not only laborious but, up to
the present time, has been accomp!ished only for
special Jimited cases.
An intensive investigation of the problem of local
loadings on cylindrical shells was begun in 1952
by a special subcommittee of the Pressure Vessel
Research Committee Design Division. The first
results of this program were presented in P. P.
Bijlaard's papers [51, 96] dealing with the effect of
radial loads and local moments, and evaluating the
case of a localized uniformly distributed radial load
acting over a finite area of a cylindrical surface.
.\ comparison of analytical results [51] with values
extrapolated from experimental results available in
the literature [97, 98] shows reasonable agreement.
An adaitional theoretical treatment covering the
application of local circumferential and longitudinal
bending moments has recently been published [52].
These investigations, as well as experience on the
behavior of surfaces of revolution under localized
effects, provide a general understanding of the mo-
ment distribution and stress patterns attendant to
such loading. Individual analyses, however, are
exceedingly lengthy and involved, so that the aim is
85
to provide simplified approaches with a re~onable
understanding of the extent of their deviation from
more accurate solutions.
Along this line, The M. W. Kellogg Company has
made use of an approximate solution based on the
bending of a beam on an elastic foundation, to evalu-
ate the local shell stresses. resulting from a nozzle
bending moment, or radial thrust on a cylindrical
or spherical shell. The piping moment is simulated
by a uniform circumferential radial line load equal
to the maximum reaction (lb per linear in.) at the
edge of the nozzle neck. With this unit load, the
shell bending and resulting stress is established
similar to the effect of a narrow shrink nng loading,
the unit moment being applied to the shell thickness
or combined shell and pad thickness where rein-
forced. The formula used in this approach is:
1.17"\R
S =
11 5
[F1 + 1.5F2 ] (3.26)
where S = local longitudinal bending stress in
shell, psi.
R = meridional radius of shell, in.
t = effective local thickness of shell, in.
(shell thickness plus reinforcing pad
thickness ).
F 1 = unit loading due to applied longitu-
dinal24 bending moment (lb per linear
in.).
= Mf,rR.Z where M= moment, in.-lb,
and R. = mean radius of nozzle con-
nection. -t
F 2 = unit loading due to a radial thntst, lb
per in.
= Pz,.R. where P = total thrust, lb.
The combined local stress due to thermal reactions
and interna! pressure is held to the same total allow-
able stress range as for the piping itself [1.25
(S,+ SH )]. As noted previously, the thermal reac-
tions must be based on the full expansion and the
cold modulus of elasticity. The individual hot and
cold reactions cannot be used for this purpose.
While this check is not precise, it has resulted in
safe designs over a considerable period of years. At
least, it provides a simple method for consistent
design and, when more precise methods are de-
veloped, it will afford a basis by which the results of
the new proposals may be assessed in terms of past
experience. There is one further interesting observa-
24For a circumferential moment it is believed that the
bending stress (circumferential) may be in sorne cases up to
several times that indicated for a longitudinal moment.
86 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
tion which can be made. If a moment loading only is
1.17-v'R M nozzle becomes expressible in the form of shape weffi-
assumed, eq. 3.26 becomes S = 1 6 X - -2 If
t rRn
.the thickness of the nozzle is t,. this may be written as
(t.17vR:~.) X 4
S=
t ..R. t,.
Tbe portian of this expression enclosed in brackets
represents the stress intensification factor as used
in the Piping Code. For identical shell and nozzle
thicknesses the factor reduces to 1.17{R/t)*. The
similarity of this to the factor suggested by the Pip-
ing Code for full-size tee intersections, 0.9(R/t) *, is
noteworthy.
The same shrink ring loading approach has been
used by The M. W. Kellogg Company to determine
the rotations of nozzle connections due to the local
deflection of the vessel shell under the influence of
piping moments, viz:
</> = 2. 46M
E
[.!f:__]"
rmt (3.27)
where
</> = angular rotation, radians..
M = moment acting at nozzle, ft-lb.
rm = mean radius of nozzle, in.
R = radius of vessel, in.
t = thickness of vessel shell, including rein-
forcing pad, in.
E = modulus of elasticity of shell material,
lb/in. 2
AB is the case with the preceding treatment of
stress, this equation for rotation is connected with a
longitudinal moment. Where this moment acts in a
circumferential direction, tests indicate that the
flexibility may be severa! times greater. However,
the localized stress is not likely to be lowered, so that,
for the sake of simplicity the same approach is used
for moments in either direction. This apiroxirnation
enables the piping designer to deal with parta! end
fixation by introduction of a virtud length as follows:
The end rotation of a cantilever subjected to a
moment applied at the end is
<1> = 144ML/El (3,28)
where M and L have dimensions of ft-lb and ft
respectively. Equating this expression to eq. 3.27
yields
L = 0.017 l (R/rm 2t)" (3.29)
where L represents the virtual length of a fictitious
extension having the same rigidity as the pipe line.
Thus, as shown in Section 5.13, the rotation of the
cients which can be added to thhlsual summations
to obtain the equations. No deformation of the shell
plate is assumed to occur as a resnlt of torsional
moment, making no correction necessary for such
loading.
An influence which is sometimes neglected, save
for its effects on the piping proper, is end pres-
sure reaction. .Sometimes a piping system is referred
to as an "open end cylinder" with the implication.
that longitudinal pressnre stresses are absent. Thi
would be true only in straight runs between infinitel,..
stiff vessels whlch undergo no defleetion under th~,
pressure reaction of the pipe cross section, or where
frictionless expansion joints are provided. .
With the introduction of expansion joints, or
other provisions incapable of transmitting the full
longitudinal pressure stress, the end pressure reac-
tion at each fitting, or opposite each nozzle on a
vessel, mnst be considered in the overall structnral
design. Provisions for carrying this unbalanced
reaction must not.adversely affect the freedom of the- -
joint to absorb intended movements. Further dis-
cussion on this point will be found in Chapter 7.
Piping Reactions. When a piping system is de-
signed to the Piping Code, the maximum expected
hot and cold reactions, and the reaction range due
to thermal expansion, are cstablished by the Code
rules (see Chapter 2) for the design of anchors and
checking of terminal equipment. Er'ection stresses :;;:ti>:
);.;'~
and hence the 'initial cold reactions are not included,-
however, since these are related to fabrication and
erection details aud cannot be predicted in magni~
tude or sign unless adequate means are provided for
.f~
their control. Upou heating, the initial effects com- :~~~~!
bine with those due to expansion, their magnitude
being limited by the yield point at the service
temperature. Subsequently, relaxation lowers the
maintained service stress as dictated by the material
creep properties and the relieved strain reappea!"
as a cold stress at ambient temperatura, the adjust-
ment of strain between service and ambient condi-
tions being termed "self-springing." The Piping
Code cold reaction reflects this self-sprung state and
does not consider the initial (as erected) condition;
the Code hot reaction on the other hand reflects
the maxirnuro expected reaction (without erection -
stresses) rather than the final reaction after adjust-
ment.
Careful erection and, in particular, controlled pre-
springing befare service can be used to limit the
maximum reactions, by . assuring their occurrence
1 1
l j'
L
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
;
predominately or entirely at the ambient tempera-
., ture. The Piping Code rules for reactions allow for
the effect of prespring, wlch gains practica! signifi-
cance in this respect only when it is 50% or greater.
Emphasis on the provision of maximum prespring,
..
i approaching 100%, is usually limited to large critica!
j
equipment where maximum assurance against pos-
sible distortion at high service temperatures is
' .-, essential.
Where a piping system is designed to meet limit-
ing reactions, or for other reasons is to operate at
~ stresses of a low arder, (as is the case with large
i turbines, compressors, etc.), the magnitude of the
.. ~
initial cold reactions as erected may be many times
that of the reactions corresponding to expansion, if
i
j
special procedures are not followed. For such sys-
tems prespring is a necessity, and should be accom-
plished in an effective manner. Temporary supports
l 8. L. Beskin, uBending of Curved Thin Tubes," J. Applied
should involve no restriction wlch will not exist in
l '
service, making it usually desirable that the final
e
' 4'
l . joint be at a low elevation, and located wher< the
'! '
,", ~
permanent supports alone will suffice. Formerly,
prespring was accomplished by the accurate fabrica-
'' 1 ; tion of a final section to offset the free (and pre-
' sumably unrestrained) !ine by the desired amount
j 1)esign of Steam Piping to Care for Expansion,' " Tran.<;.
n of prespring on each axis. Subsequent forcing of the
'. ends together was then presumed to provide the re-
i' quired amount of prespring. Tls approach ordi-
... - '::,~
,- narily ignored the rotations.' Recently, therefore,
} The M. W. Kellogg Company has followed the prac-
tice of establislng, by precalculation (see Chapter 5),
the desirable locations of forces and moments to be
:1 applied to introduce the moments required for the
.' desired magnitude of prestress, and simultaneously
'i bring the ends for the final joint into alignment.
Tls carefully measured loading is maintained wlle
'
'' the final joint is welded or bolted up, and post heat-
treated. To avoid possible additional plastic defor-
mation in tls final weld, an adjacent location in
the pipe can be stress relieved befare this operation
is accomplished on the weld. Prespring can be
further controlled by the use of strain gages to check
the degree of accuracy to wlch the desired result
is being achieved.
In the conventional assembly of piping to pumps,
turbines, etc., damage by distortion or misalignment
due to fabrication effects can be avoided by tlier-
mally unloading the completed piping near the
terminal equipment. Tls is accomplished by con-
trolled local heating similar to stress relief, or, in
less critica! instances, by merely locally heating a
. ~~
.~ circumferential area with one or more torches to
reduce the fabrication effects at that location to
87
the yield stress of the material for the applied
temperature.
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88 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
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4
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,,$':
1'\'
'l
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i
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~~
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n
'
'
iJ
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' ;
]
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1
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1
1/
 LOCAL COMPONENTS
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-;s. .:
::
89
82. E. O. Waters and F. S. G. Williams, "Stress Conditions in
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97. G. J. Schoessow and E. A. Brooks, "Stresses in a CyJin-
drica.l Shell Due to Nozzle or Pipe Connection," J.
Appl. Mechonics, Vol. 12, pp. 107-112 (1945).
98. R. J. Roa.rk, ..Streng1;.h and Stitfness of Cylindrica.l SheUEi
under Concentrated Loa.ding," Trans. ASME, VoL 57,
pp. A147-A152 (1935).

CHAPTER
Simplified Method for Flexibility Analysis
W IT.H piping. asWI."th other structures, the
analysis of stresses may he carried to vary-
iug degrees of refinement. At o~e extreme
le mere ~omparisoris with layouts which hi.ve met
the test of service; at the other extreme are compre-
hensive methods involving long and tedious com-.
putations and commensurate engineering expense. 1
The many approaches lying in hetween are com-
pronses which have a scope and value not readily
definable since their accuracy and general reliability
are so heavily dependent on the skill and experience
of the IISer. These so-called "simplified methods,"
nevertheless, fulfill an inlportant need. In capable
hands, and with ample allowance for their Jinta-
tiorui, they serve to provide the quick rough check
demanded in establishing an iuitial layout while
avoiding the use of the more refined calculations
unnecessarily for false starta Moreover, their use
allows the final confirmation by comprehensive
methods to he more safely postponed, when neces-
aary, in arder to even out the work load of specialists
usually employed forthe purpose. In cases of non-
critical service, moderate expansion requirements,
or smal\ pipe diameters, the availability of generous
safety margina may make certain simplified methods
acceptable for final analysis.
4.1 Scope and Merita of Approximate Methods
Approximate approaches are built upon a variety
of sinlplifying assumptions which range from minar
to drastic significance. All such approaches may he
classified in four groups, as follows:
l. Approxim':'te methods dealing ouly with special
1 various combinations of simplicity and accuracy but
The econonc disadvanta.ge of the comprebensive methods
has been offset considerably by developments in model testing
(see Chapter 6) and, more recently, by the rapid progresa in
programmed automa.tic computers (see Chapter 5).
90
!-1
': ~
d
L
f]IJ...
'1
d
'1.;-!
nll
fi,
~l
; ;
'l
L!
e- t
i,.
n
simple piping configurations of two-, three--, or four- a d
member systems having two ternnals with complete
fixity and the piping layout usually restricted to
square corners. Solutions are ususlly obtained from
u
charts or tables. The approximate methods falling
into this category are Jinted in scope of direct appli-
cation, but they are sometimes uaable as a rough
guide on more complex problema by assuming sub-
division into anchored sections fitting the contours
of the presolved cases. . However, the inexperienced
analyst is cautioned not to extend these solutions
heyond the restricted proportions of their geometry.
2. Methods restricted to square-corner, single-
plane system8 with two fixed ends, but without Jint
as to the number of memhers.
3. Methods adaptable to space configurations with
square corners and two fixed ends.
4. Extensions of the previous methods to provide
for the special properties of curved pipe by indirect
means, usually a virtuallength correction factor.
This chapter covers a numher of approximate solu-
tions including a recently developed sinlpfied ver-
sion of the General Analytical Method presented in
Chapter 5. It discusses the fundamental assump-
tions and range of applicability of each of these
methods and is complemented by illustrative ex-
amples. In the interest of a clear and concise
presentation, detailed derivations and procedures
are omitted but references are given to published
technical literature. The shortcut solutions pre-
sented here were selected either for their ease of
application or for their relative accuracy; numerous
other approaches proposed in the literature involve
those given are generally deemed to he most repre-
sentative. The methods described all involve the q
usual assumptions for analyscs to the Theory of
' J
" l
!
u

1
' i 1
'" J 1 SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 91
Ly= Projeded length for
Elasticity which have been incorporated in the
' General Method itself, and which are discussed in
computing Ay
;,
~
_\ppendix A3.
-' The principal weakness_ofallapproximate methods
is that, with current limitatioris of mathematical
'!;': 1
' Ji~ analysis in treating the unbounded geometrical com-
1
' plexity of piping layouts, there exists no means of
e
1'
t
"""essing the maximum error involved. With any
given approximate method, a layout can he devised X
E
1
11 for which the analysis willlead to vastly misleading
- results. Hence, the "accuracy" of an approximate lx=Projected length for computing ..a

'
u~ :-~
method is largely hypothetical, while considerations
of "degree" or "probability" of accuracy are also
F'IG. 4.2 Computing components of restrained
thermal expansion.
not realiStic. In this vein, there is no intent, in the
~ r uSe of examples common to the methods, to convey
J increase will Jikewise be uniform along all directions.
' j~ any true comparison of their accuracy, but rather The change 11 of any dimension L is calculated from
i-- to give an appreciation of the manner of application the relationship
.. '
-1 ~-: and, only in a general way, to indicate Jimitations in
1' theiruse. 11 =Le (4.1)
-o -h:
.. f;..
-~>
Piping flexibility calculations provide accuracy in where e = unit linear thermal expansion2
~' proportion to their completeness. Once simplifying
rlE assumptions of unassessable accuracy are incor-
(dimensionless if both 11 and L
are in the same units)
., J~' porated, it serves no purpose to employ excessive
;
{;
refinemehts in the remsinder of the work When The application of this equation to the determina-
close resnlts are essential on important or intricate tion of unrestrained expansion is illustrated in
n
:; piping systems, the use of approximate methods is Fig. 4.1 for a header with a single point of anchorage
u questionable. It is usually more effective and less
time consuming for organizations equipped to
and with the two ends free to expan<l
In the usual case, however, the piping will have
handle comprehensive solutions to proceed directly more than one point of anchorage or connection to
with the General Method, particularly if pro- equipment and consequently will be subject to re-
grammed automatic computstion and model testing straint whenever expansion differentials arise. If
are available. the piping is not uniform in temperature throughout
or if it is made up of severa! materials having .differ-
4.2 . Thermal Expansion ent coef!icients of expansion, the differences in tem-
Most engineering materials respond to a tempera- perature or material must be taken into account in
ture rise by a nearly proportionate increase in linear the expansion calculations. The expansions of the
dimensions. If the temperature change is uniform equipment to which the piping attsches must be
throughout a homogeneous part, the dimensional simi!arly treated.
The first basic operation in the determination of
the thermal expansion stresses (set up as a result of
restraint) requires the calculation of the unrestrained
expansion of the piping, which is the expansion that
would take place with regard to an assumed single
reference point, al1 movement proceeding from that
2Values of e in the Code, ASA B 31.1, cover most of the

roetals commonly used in piping. These tables are based

on a datum temperature of 70 F, which is conaidered as most
nearly representing the condition under .which the .verage
installation. is made. A more careful aelection of this datum
ma.y be warranted if its effect on tbe temperature difference

"""'"'
Point
is significant. Cbart c-2 of Appendix C gives the slightly
different values of e used in the sample calculations of this
book, which were in preparation befare the Code values were
Fio. 4.1 Expansion at various points on a hender. adopte<!.

l
 92 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
point without interference of any kind. If there is
no displacement of the anchors, the calculated re-
sultant expansion between them is called the result-
ant restrained thermal expansm of the piping system.
The componenta of this expansion are conveniently
computed directly from the projection of the anchor
distances on the respective axes. This procedure is
illustrated in Fig. 4.2, where, by eq. 4.1,
A. = eL, = net restrained expansion in the x di-
rection.
ll.v = eLv = net restrained expansion in the y di-
rection.
!l. = eU = resultant restrained expansion, i.e.,
+ !l.."
!l. = ...;!l..'
More complex cases involving more than one tem-
perature range for parts of the -system, or terminal
displacement due to equipment expansion, will be
treated in the illustrative problema in this and in
the following chapter. Only cases where the tem-
perature is constsnt over a measurable length of
piping are shown; however, thermal gradienta along
piping runs can usually be ~eadily approximated as
to their contribution to the expansion of the leg in
which they occur.
The second basic operation in ealculating str"""""
due to thermal expansion is the determination of tire
forces and momenta which must be applioo to the
ends of the system (which are imagined to have
ternporary initial freedom for expansipn) in order
to return them to their actual fixed positions. This
operation of structural 8.nalysis is di..tingished by
ita involvement with irregular configurations and
the necessity for conversion of deflection {expansion)
into reactions and stress. It occupies the principal
role in the "General Analytical Method of the next
chapter and is equally involved in this chapter, al-
though it is obscured in certrun of the approximate
approaches.
4.3 Preliminary Segregation of Linea with
Adequate Flexibity; Code Rules
A large amount of piping in conventionallayouta
possesses satisfactory inherent flexibility for the in-
tended service. Thus the piping engineer, faced
with the problem of effectively apportioning the
time to be spent on a project, is immediately con-
fronted with the need for recognition of such piping
with a rninimum of attention to each line. Approxi-
mate solutions or simple mies of thumb are there-
fore essential. The resnlta obtained cannot be ex-
pected to compare with those estsblished by the use
of acceptable analytical methods, but in the hands
of a competent designer they serve to assist in the n
,,
recognition of totally inadequate flexibility, and
serve asa baselineforsharpeningjudgment by associ-
i!t
~n
ation of occasiona1 resulta with accurate analysis. .
Piping f!exibility, in providing for the changes in .
length which resnlt from thermal exparision of pip-
ing and connecting equipment, must be adequate
to serve two purpos<is: pj,
l. To control .within acceptable limita the piping L
.reactions on connected equipment located between
or at the terminals of the line. n.
u
2. To maintain stresses in the pipe itself within ~
'.
n
a range so that .direct or fatigue failure and joint
leakage are avoided.
t~
Where sensitive equipment (dueto close clearance
on moving parta, high speed, etc.) is involved, an
accuraie flexibility analysis is usually advisable, '
since approximate approaches are apt to be particu-
larly unreliable for reaction evalnation. Accurate n
ealculations are .ili.o advisable for hazardous con-
tenta in relation to an installation location where
strength is seriously re'duced, as at high tempera" .
tures; for unusually stiff piping dueto size, thickness, .
n
~:.
n
configuration, etc.; for econornic use of expensive;
materials; for definitely cyclic service; or when ap-.. l '
proximate analyses jndiC!'te overstress. Most of . i ~
thesc criteria are quite geJ;leral and subject to opin~ '
ion in their significance and manner of application.. .
They may be grouped under four headings: strength
requirementa; reaction hazards; service hazards;
economics.
Positive assurance that the rninimum required , .
strength for satisfactory service is attained is pos-
sible only by complete analysis; however, for not
too complex piping systems which consist predorni-
nantly of straight runs not concentrated too near
the line of thrust through the anchor points, approxi-
mations of reasonable but varying accuracy are
attainable. A desiguer can develop, for a given
shortcut approach, an idea of ita lirnitations and
range of accuracy for average problema provided
he has a reasonably adequate knowledge and experi-
ence with both approximate and accurate analyses.
Hazards attendant to excessive reactions are cov-
ered in Chapters 2, 3, and 8. It should be noted
that approximate methods generally do not give the .
reactions. In many of those which do, the indica- .
tions are tinre!iable. In particular, neglect of the
flexibility of curved members will result n abnor-
mally high values which. provide little guidance in
]
 SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS
assessing the capacity of sensitive equipment to
absorb such effecte.
Service hazards are related in part to the charac-
ter of the line contents and the energy contained;
and in part to the type of plant, its location, and
the operating conditions {pressure, temperature,
etc.). For example, a line containing light hydro-
::::~ carbons at moderate pressure and at a temperature
.1 :1n approaching their flash point would be considered
o>i to require complete design; a line containing the
;
same material at the same pressure but at a much
lower temperature would be considered average
.l service in a refinery, but might properly be con-
sidered a critica! service in a gas generating system
located in a populated "area. Definitely cyclic serv-
ice, by increasing thehazard of fatigue failure, makes
it necessary that lines be analyzed. A limit of 7000
l complete cycle8 duing the fui! life of the system is
~
. considered consistent with present design criteria in
1
i L- defining noncyclic service.
~ 1 Regarding considerations of strength, reaction
hazards, and service hazards, sorne opinion has
. ! ~'
favored the establishment of arbitrary limite of
'<';;; pipe size, pressure, and temperature,above which
lf piping would be considered critica! with detailed
.. r
lj ; analysis reqnired. It would be typical of such an
j .l approach to require analysis when, simultaneously,
::: l. Maximum nominal operating metal tempera-
ture exceeds 800 F.
2. Service pressure exceeds 15 psi.
3. N omina! pipe size exceeds 6 in.
~ :
Othel"ll have favored a single criterion based on the
energy stored which would be a function of compres-
sibility, volume, and pressure; as an alternative it
has been proposed that a maximum temperature be
also applied.
Such a criterion is more logically established for
a particular industry or type of plant; for this rea-
son such provisions have not been incorporated into
the Piping Code To provide a substitute simple
criterion for the recognition of those systems requir-
ing detailed analysis, efforts have been made to es-
tablish a rule of thumb capable of giving a rough
idea of relative flexibility. Various attempts to
devise a parameter expressing the dominant effects
of configuration geometry have led to the selection
of the ratio of developed length to distance between
anchors as the simplest useful stiffness index for the
purpose This is the basis of the formula in the 1955
edition of the Piping Code (ASA B31.1), which con-
taina reqniremente for mandatory examination of
the flexibility of piping systerns to avoid reqniring
complete analyses on all piping if
93
DY
u(R - 1)' ::; o.o3 (4.2)
where D = nominal pipe size, in.
Y = resultant of restrained thermal expan-
sion and net linear terminal displace-
ments, in.
U = anchor distance {l~i:igth of straight line
joining terminal or anchor pointe), ft.
. 1(. = ratio of developed pipe length to anchor
distance, dimensionless.
This formula is given graphically in Chart C-4 of
Appendix C.*
Equation 4.2 does not directly evaluate stresses;
however, its formulation provides that when the
left side reaches the value of 0.03, the inherent
flexibility of the piping is at the acceptable limit.
Thus, the actual maximum stress.range SE contained
in eq. 4.2 can be found from:
S _ 33.3DY S
E - U2(R- 1)2 A
(4.3)
where SA = allowab!e stress range.
It has been stated that the Code equation repre-
sente no more than a rule of thnmb, and in cases of
unfavorable configuration it can doubtless be
grossly misleading. Nevertheless, it is interesting
to note that in the few examples of average con-
figuration presented in Sample Calculations 4.1 to
4.4, inclusive, it comes very close to the results cal-
culated by the General Analytical Method. This
comparison is shown in Table 4.1.
Sample Calculation 4.1
Mat'rial: ASTM A-106, Gr. A i""l
Design temperature: T = 900F L ~
Unit expansion from 70 F: .1
0.078 in./ft ~
Type of service: Oil piping ~.e
Code allowable stress range:
SA = 21,625 psi
Nominal pipe size: D = 10 in. l-.. 25
Developed length: L = 100ft
Anchor distance: U= 56.6 ft
U/D = 5.66
R =L/ U= 1.77
From Chart C-4
R' = 1.68
R' < R; formal calculations are not mandatory.
The Piping Code formula (Section 621) is given as
DY / (L - U)' :> 0.03. TlB can be rearranged into the form
of Eq. (4.2) by the substitution of R - L/U.
 ]
rl
li
94 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS n
'.. r
--;
Sample Calculation 4.2 U/D = 5.85
Material: ASTM A-106,
Gr. A
Y/U= 0.065 n
i;__j
J
Design temperature: T = R = L/U = 1.97 L~"~

~1
900F ASA B31.1 Code Criterion Chart G-4
Unit expansion from 70 F: R' = 1.61
0.078 in./ft
R' < R; formal calculations' re not mandatory.

n
Type of service: Oil piping
Code allowable stressrange:
s.f = 21,625 psi Table 4.1
Nominal pipe size: D = 10 in.
J
Developed length: L = 115 ft
Anchor distance: U = 58.5 ft
U/D = 5.85
Maximum Longi-
tudinal Tjlermal
Stress for:
ASAB3LI
Code
Criterion
Method
General Analytical
Method, Square-
Corner Soluton
n
~j
R =L/ U= 1.97
ASA B31.1 Code Criterion Chart 0-4
Sample Cale. 4.1
Sample Cale. 4.2
Sample Cale. 4.3
16,800
10,250
10,250
16,750
11,650
8,900
nr1
R'
R' = 1.67
< R; formal calculations are not mandatory.
Resultant Y = V2.082 + 3.08 + .078
2 2
= 3.8 in.
g
1;
Sample Calculation 4.3 While a rule of this nature fills a very definite Ll
need, good judgment must still be exer~ised in th<'
Material: ASTM A.-106, case of certain lines, exempt by this rule, as to
Gr. A whether detailed aalysis should be made in con-
Design temperature: T = sideration of combinations of size, temperature, pres-
900F sure, nature of contents, etc. previously discussed.
Unit expansion from 70 F:
0.078 in./ft 4.4 Selected Chart-form Solutions
Type of service: Oil piping Special solutions have been frequently presented
Code llowable stress range: in the literature by means of a variety of formulas,
SA = 21,625 psi charts, or tables [1, 2, 3], which are both time saving
N omina! pipe size: D = 10 in.
Resulte identical with those of Sample Calcu-
lation 4.2.
and convenient for simple confignrations. Each
solution applies only to a particular configuration.
although the proportions of the legs are permitted
n
'-, ..J-

to vary. Since the number of variables which may

Sample Calculation 4.4 be conveniently handled is limited, these solutions
Material: ASTM A-106, are restricted with regard to the number of legs in
Gr. A the configuration. With judgment and experience,
Design temperature: T = segmenting of more intricate systems permite wider
650F use, although generally at the expense of consider-
Unit expansion from 70 F: able hazard of error and with little saving in time
0.052 in./ft over a complete solution by a more versatile ap-
Type of service: Oil piping proach. The selected cases included herein are Iim-
Code allowable streas range: ited to four which are believed unavailable elsewhere
SA = 23,000 psi in the form given. These cases, shown in Fig. 4.3.
Nominal pipe size: D = 10 in. are set up primarily for convenient use in estsblish-
Developed length: L = 115 ft ing preliminary layouts, and provide directly the
Anchor diatance: U = 58.5 ft dimensiona required rather than the stress for a set
Expansion and terminal displacemente:
of assumed dimensiona.
An assumption common to al! of the chart solu- 1
.J

x-direction: 0.052 X 40 = 2.08 in. tions presented is that the modulus of elasticity is
-direction: 0.052 X 40 + 2 - 1 = 3.08 in. taken to be 29 X 106 psi. The charts are based on
z.direction: 0.052 X 15 = 0.78 in. accurate analysis so that for the square comer cases

1
LJ
 SIMPLIFIED METIIOD FOR FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 95

.. 1
~ ~-----L ____ j_
1~}
e
}3}
e
(a) 1'1"0-fMm~r System Subjected (b) Two-m.~~mber System, with en.
to Thennol Expamion Svpport Displaced in lbe
orr.ction of the AdGining Memb.r

-----,
'1
...... -
,.:t----
y' '
'' --
____ .f,
""'
Gu"
- a a
(e) Two--mH\ber Syst-.. wilh
Ono Suppo<t Dioplo<od
" ... K1L ...
Homol to lnitial Plone .
L

Fl:G. 4.3 Represents.tive cases for chart-form solutions.

given the results obtained will be as accurate as the Sample Calculation 4.5. Given a two-member
charts can be read. These chart solutions (see right-sngle system made of 4 in. Schedule 40 ASTM
Charts C-5, C-7, G-9, and G-11 in Appendix C) A-53, Grade A csrbon-steel pipe. The leg AB is
may be used for the determination of the length of 10 ft_ and the operating temperature in oil piping
leg required for a given allowable stress range. For sernce is 530 F. Find
cases where terminal reactions on connected equip-
L ment are important, such reactions may be obtained
a. The required length of BC snd
b. The moments snd forces at A and C.
from Charts (}-{l, G-8, G-10, and G-12, also in
Appendix C. a.
The charts are constructed so that stress is given The unit expansione from a 70 F datum of carbon
in terms of the s.._, which may be selected to suit steel st 530 F = .040 in./ft, and s.._ = 23,220 psi.
the material, etc. involved. For partial solutions, Enter Chsrt-C-5 with LSA/107 e = 10 X 23,220/
the designer may vary the value of s._
to suit bis 10,000,000 X 0.040 = .581
judgment as to the contribution of the remainder Read over to the curve representing 4 in. pipe
of the system to the overall fiexibility, or, -where and then down to the vslue of K which is 0.59. The
such is not involved, to use a fbced vslue (such as required length of leg BC is therefore K X L =
s.. = 18,000 psi) in applying these chsrts for de- 0.59 X 10ft = 5.9 ft.
sign purposes.
b.
The first case, Fig. 4.3 (a), deals with a two-
member right-sngle system under thermsl expsn- Enter Chart e-u with K = 0.59
sion. The required data are the nominal dismeter Read A 1 = 0.6
of the pipe, the length L of the longer leg AB, the A2 = 0.245
allowshle stress rsnge, s.._, snd the unit linear ther-
mal expansion e. The length KL of the shorter leg Aa = 0.102
BC which will hold the stress to the al!owable limit A 4 = 0.212
is then found with the aid of Chart G-5. From the The moment of inertia I f or 4 in. Schedule 40
supplementsry Chart e-u, the moments and forces pipe = 7.23 in..
acting on the end points are essily compute<!.
The procedure is resdily spparent in Ssmple Cal- IefL2 = 7.23 X .040/100 = .00289
culation 4.5. Ie/L = 7.23 X .040/10 = .0289
96 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Therefore: The reactions therefore become:
F xA = - F xC = - 600,000 X .00289 = - 1730 lb F,A = -F,c = -1750lb
F,A = -F,c = +245,000 X .00289 = +710 lb FuA = -F,c = 785lb
M ,A = 102,000 X .0289 = 2940 ft-lb MZ'A = 5780 ft-lb
M,c = -212,000 X .0289 = -6120 ft-lb M:r.c = -18,800 ft-lb

The second chart-form solution was developed for
a two-member system subjected to a terminal dis-
placement in its own plane.. Figure 4.3(b) shows
end A displaced in the direction of the adjacent leg
(in this case, leg AB). Structurally, this is equiva-
lent to a horizontal movement of support e to the
left. This displacement, however, is now perpen-
dicular to the supported leg BC. With proper dis-
cretion, therefore, this solution is adaptable to
support movements both parallel and perpendicular
to the supported leg.
The required data are identical to those .of the
previous case. The length of Jeg at which the stress
equals the allowable value is found from Chart G-7.
The reaction forces and moments are then secured
from Chart G-8.
Sa~nple Calculation 4.6. Support A of the sys-
tem shown in Fig. 4.3 (b) is transposed in the
direction of leg AB throngh a distance of 2 in.
Leg AB is 22 t long; the system is made of 6 in.
Schedule 80 ASTM A-106, Grade A carbon-steel
pipe to be used in power piping service at 580 F.
Find
a. The required length o leg BC
b. The reaction orces and moments.
a.
Undertheconditionsgivenabove, S.<= 18,000psi
and L 2 SA/107 tl. = .435. If Chart G-7 is entered
with this ordinate, one can read over to the line or
6 in. pipes and down to an abscissa ,aJue of K = 0.8.
The required length o leg BC is tberefore 17.6 t.
b.
The moment o inertia for a 6 in. Schedule 80 pipe
is 1 = 40.49 in 4
The third case is shown in Fig. 4.3(c). It is con-
cerned with a two-member right-angle system which
is subjected to a displacement normal to the plane
of the members. Given the nominal diameter of the
pipe, the length L of the longer leg, the allowable
stress range S.,, and the displacement tl., the required
length KL. o the length BC is found by the use of
Chart G-9. From Chart C-10, the moments and
the forces acting on the end points are ound. This
procedure is illustrated in Sample Calculation 4. 7.
Sa~nple Calculation 4. 7. End C o the two-
member system shown in Fig. 4.3 (e) is displaced
. upwards by 1 in. The members consist o 14 in.
6f1
OD X i in. thick ASTM A-106, Grade B pipes.
The Jength o leg AB is 15 t, and the de8ign tem- ,._. J
(i
perature is 950 F. Find
1
a. The required length o BC and
a.
b. The moments and forces at A and C.
f}
SA = 26,125 psi or oil piping.
Enter Chart G-9 with
J
':;__..
i t
'-
L 2 S.</107 tl. = .588
Read over to the curve representing 14 in.
pipe and then down to the value o K, which is
J
0.24. The required length o leg BC is thereore
K X L = 0.24 X 15 = 3.60 t. n
b.
The moment of inertia, I, o 14 in. OD X i in.
pipe is equal to 372.8 i t!
1 tl./L3 = 372.8 X 1/3375 = .1105
I tl./L2 = 372.8 X 1/225 = 1.657

105 (ltl./L3 ) = 761 and 105 (ltl./L2 ) = 16,740 Enter Chart G-10 with K= 0.24
Read A1 = 115 .J
Enter Chart G-8 with K = 0.8 and read i._

A 1 = 2.30 A = 2.1
q
A 2 = 1.03 Aa = 70.0 .'
j_j
Aa = .3-l5 A.= 24.5
A = 1.12 Ao = 43

~- _j
l
 SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 91

Therefore: Read
FyA -F.c = 12,700 lb A 1 = .55

M xA = -3480 ft-Jb A2 = .90

M,A = 116,000 ft-lb F,A = -F,B = -68,300 X .55= -37,600lb

M:c.= -40,600 ft-lb M,.<= -M,B = +273,000 X .86 = 235,000ft-lb

Mzc = + 71,300 ft-lb
The Jourth case is a graphical solution for the
familiar and important symmetrical expansion loop,
shown in Fig. 4.3(d). Chart C-11 is entered with
the outside diameter D, the effective distanee L
between the anchors or guides, the allowable stress
range SA, and the expansiori !l. between the anchors.
The required height K 2L is found for any value of
K,L. From Chart C-12, the forces acting on the
anchor points and the moments acting on the guides
are compnted.
Sample Calculation 4.8. Given a loop of .
20 in. OD X ! in. thick ASTM A-135, Grade A
e
4.5 Approx~mate Solutions
The methods covered in this section are approxi-
mations, all of which are limited to square-corner
configurations. Although severa! solutions which
fall in this category have been advanced, the two
presented are selected because they appear to
achieve fair reliability with the greatest simplicity.
These are the Guided Cantilever and the Mitchell-
Bridge Methods, both of which are applicable to
three-dimensional piping systems: The fundamental
assumptions and guides for application will be given,
followed by illustrative examples. For a more de-
tailed description of these methods, the reader is

l1 ' pipe. K 1L is 20 ft. Guides are located 10 ft on referred to the literature [4, 5, 6]. For important
e J ,,' either side of the loop, so that L = 40 ft. The dis- piping these methods should not be relied upon as
'' tance between anchors A' and B' .is 100 ft. The the final check; their use by personnel other than
e 1:' line temperature is 425 F and is used for oil piping. those with adequate background and experience is
Find apt to lead to serious errors. They can be used to
.. r " \ a. The required height of K 2 L and advantage, however, for the following purposes:
a. For approximate assessment of the fiexibility
b.. The forces scting at points A' and B' and the
l ]f? of average piping, and to check lines not meeting
moments acting at points A and B.
i the criteria of Section 4.3.
' a. b. On critica! piping, for layout assistance in
l The rinit linear thermal expansion for carbon steel arriving at a suitable system for detailed analysis. ,.
. '! at 425 F = 0.030 in./ft. !l., therefore, = 100 X c. On noncritical piping, to establish the location
of restraints without unduly impairing the fiexibility
0.03 = 3 in. SA = 19,890 psi (ignoring Code per-
1 mission to exclude longitudinal joint efficiency) of the system.
The Guided Cantilever Method. This method
1 L 2 SA is intuitively familiar to many piping designers. Its
107 Dll. = .0531 fundamental concepts are partially used in the side-
Enter Chart C-11 with .0531 sway analysis of frames. The assumptions under-
'f Read over to the curve representing K 1 = 0.5 lying this method can be listed as follows:
and clown to the value of K 2 which is 0.32. K 2L is l. The system has only two terminal points; it is
therefore 40 X 0.32 = 12.80 ft. composed of straight legs of pipe of uniform size
and thickness with square-corner intersections.
.i b. 2. Alllegs are parallel to the coordinate axes.
The moment of inertia for 20 in. OD X ! in. thick 3. The thermal expansion in a given direction is
pipe = 1457 in! absorbed only by legs oriented perpendicular to this
' S direction.
[!l. 1457 X 3 4. The amount of thermal expansion a given leg
La = 64,000 = .0683
can absorb is inversely proportional to its stiffness.
[!l. l457 X 3 Since the legs are of identical cross section, their
L2 = 1600 = 2"73 stiffnesses will vary according to the inverse v1lllue
of the cube of their lengths.
Enter Chart C-12 with K 1 = 0.5 and K 2 = 0.32 5. In accommodating thermal expansion, the lega
98 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS n
t
where a = permissible deflection of leg, in.
SA
L
allowable stress range, psi.
=
length of leg, ft.
=
E = modulus of elasticity, psi.
n
f:
~flLln._
D = externa! diameter of pipe, in.

r
FIG. 4.4 Defiections assumed to occur in a single-plane sys-
For convenience, this equation has .been plotted in
Chart G-13, Appendix C, based on the value
E = 29.0 X 106 psi L)
;.,

tem under tb.e guided cantilever a.pproximation.
actas guided cantilevers; that is, they are subjected
to bending under end displacements, but no end ro-
tation is perrirltted. This condition is pictured in
Fig. 4.4 for the simple two-member system. 3 .
According to assumptions 3 and 4 the individual
legs absorb the following portion of the thermal
expansion in the x-direction:
L"
= 11-
" I-L3 -.I-L." -
where a. = lateral deflection in the x-direction
for the leg under consideration, in.
L = length of the leg in question, ft.
11, = .overall thermal expansion of system
in x-direction, in.
I-L 3 - I-L." = sum of cubed length of alllegs per-
pendicular to the direction consid-
ered (in this case meaning the legs
parallel to the y- and z-directions).
A first (preliminary) evaluation merely requires ' '
LJ
now the calculation of a., a., and a. from eq. 4.4 -and
a from eq. 4.5 (or Chart G-13) for each leg. If a
a., and a, are a11 less than a, every leg possesses a
sufficient deflection capacity, and the system can L
be regarded to be adequately flexible.
This comparison is most conveniently carried out .
:-
]
'..
.
on Form R as shown in Sample Calculations 4.9,
4.10, and 4.11. The stepwise process of the analysis
h
is clearly indicated in these forms, which are self- n
(44) u
. . explanatory in conjunction with the foregoing dis-
cussion. ~l
In Sample Calculations 4.9, 4.10, and 4.11, the
con:lition that a > am (where am denotes the largest
of li., a., and li, in any leg) is satisfied for all legs
save the one next to the far terminaL In this case
a further refinement is warranted in recognition of
the actual rotation which _takes place at intersec-
tions. Xhis refinetis accomplished through the
use of a correction factor f, which allows for the
reduction of bending moment, due to the rotation of
[1,
~

Similar equations can be written for the lateral de-
flections in the y- and z-directions. The schematic
distribution of thermal expansiona to the various
members of a space-bend is shown in Fig. 4.5.
The deflection capacity of a cantilever of the type
stipulated by assumption 5 (and shown in Fig. 4.4)
can be given as:
. 4SL2 SA
a= ED (4.5)
A refi.nement taking end rotation into aecount is expla.ined
later.
the leg' adjacent to the one considered. The value
of f .for the appropriate case is obta.ined from
Chart G-14, depending on the position of the leg
and its length relative to adjacent members. If the
corrected deflection capacity of the leg, /li, is larger
than lim, the leg is considered to be sufficiently
flexible. The use of the correction factor is shown
in Steps 9 and 10 of the Sample Calculations.
The ratio of m/f indicates the proportion of the
allowable stress range that has been used up by the
leg in accommodating thermal expansion. This

b
....

A1=8,.+6,<+6"'

6,<r/ (b) r-<fl<tion

4 .. Ay.A~:lhmoo exponsrom.
..,_._,_...,.
In 1M x-. y-, z-
1
....
FIG. 4.5 Deflections assumed to occur in a multiplane system under the guided cantilever approximation.
 '-.

SIMI'LIFIED METHOD FOR FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS 99

{ ~
';
! .

PIPE oATA "" ::. L L' ~~ 1!~ 1 ~.-L. bfli

1 -~ CAs

z 29.9 1~-3 --; 5,7 1/in"' .;.o.- 1 - - 7.37 1 r..1

1 '!!~ 15-L r 751 p;, - !Z.5~ - 1 3.~8 1 2.f .' L
f r..... soo~

'
' ' ~ . . ..

'
. 1 \ '
!

~ ., ___

'1
. j
''1!
t .:

:!: Jm
. 1i: 1;'51~
l
\~;=r-
-,
'' (
.. j o
~

1~

1--zs-J
sl
+-: f
.... ~
PIPE DATA e;;:; ~ L L' .:~ !!~ 1 !:L' lb{fi r:t..;, CASE
fX
IK""
lw.m r""
z
!O'
.JC5
zg_g
a. ~
1-Z ~-
Z.J ~
---;;;: n7s .oer .u -
/?
!S'
--,-Mh

<
.0?4
-
z.e1
-
.47
.ooR
.027
l.llJ
2.21
....
.?e
.?C
L /.S f.;j /..; ---;c,

:,N: _,,.,. - 7.n

."" =
3-4 y 117< S. O/ 11.00 /1.4
1T<HP. Pm>F 145
o17A~
-.-;o ,-e, - ::utJ .13 <.C. ?.1 T .Sd , 7h

1 :-::::..-:..:

lsv"' 'g~
s.v.
~
l!. V~< .,- -"75
~~!:."') '"~'-<..u".:.: ~=~ :::~ 1PO<NT
o
.O
,o,
<.I0.07S~3.1Z
.1.17
TH::MV{KFI r nr.r, col PIPINc
HL'-L
HL'-1
~u
~
'.575
...
" :;.;.;iu ~' ~.,;;
""""""
"'L' ,!,,f'.,"_\',S!.~f::~?
~ t.~ _,. 23 .<SI.
'" ~OOt
 lO DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

PIPE. DATA 1';: ~ L L' _:;._ 1!~ ~.. L' ~ l,~' CASE t f f ~
tO"_ 1 ~ ~_ 15' .l.Jl$. ,PL ."-7 _-- z.e/ .716 _;;_ 1-5 1.#3 1.0&9 ?J<
""-""' .~G>'I N! v /O' tbOd .oo6 - .OZ4 1.47!. .JJS .
z 1'9.9 1 z., X 15' 3375 - 47 .oBI 2.21 .7&
1''"""~ ,;_ 13-l :!/ SO' /ZSOol ./.04_ - 5.0/ 7-'7 /1.4
IT<HP. 900 145 z 25' tSGZ ,/3 2.1/J - 3.168 :?.1 X Q.5 /.70 .;.57 /.UZO

1Sf<VI<e O'< .....

ermitsan estmate of the actual stress range in the

_g by the formula
cal Method in Table 4.2. While these resulte are
indicative of the accuracy for average configurations,
r_ l:
;,
~ '

for extreme conditions the resulte may be much less

(4.6) favorable
;;here SE = estimated stress range in leg, psi. Table 4.2
' SA = allowable stress range, psi. Method
m = largest of component deftections :z, y,
General
or ~. by eq. 4. 4, in. Guided Cantilever Ana.lytical
~ = deflection capacity of leg by C)lart
G--13, in. Ma.ximum Stress Maximum Stress
Layout a.ccording
f = correction factor by Chart C-14. to: Value Location Value Location
The estimated moment range, which is of interest Sample Cale. 4.9 15,550 4 16,750 4
.t the terminal pointe, is then found from the rela- Sample Cale. 4.10 13,220 5 11,650 o
Sample Cale. 4.1! 13,220 5 8,900 5
ionship .
M,= SEZ (4.7) The greatest asset of the Guided Cantilever
12 Method is extreme simplicity, and applicability to
vhere M, = moment range of maximum bending any space configuration with two points of fixity.
component, ft-lb. In general, least accuracy is realized when the sys-
Z = section modulus of pipe, in., from tem consiste of legs of greatly disproportionate
Table C-1, Appendix C.
In Sample Calculations 4.9, 4.10, and 4.11 the
length, or when terminal displacemente are present
in addition to thermal expansion. From the lim-
ited evidence available to date, it appears that the
1
lValuation of the stress and moment ranges are error will normally be on the safe side.
;hown in Steps 11 (last column) and 12, respectively. The terminal moment range given by the Guided
:<'or a parta! indication of the reliability of the Cantilever Method is no more than a crude indica-
::luided Cantilever Method, the stresses so obtained tion of the moment reactions actually present at
ue compared with the results of the General Analyti- the supports. In cases where the moment reactions
 .:
1 SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR FLEXIBILITY ANAL YSIS 101

govern design, this method is of use only as a pre-

liminary evaluation.
Centroid of Pipe from O to 1
The Mitchell-Bridge Method. Consider an
arbitrary piping system limited to two terminal
points, and subjected to thermal expansion; if all
restraint is removed at one terminal, this end of the Centroid of Enti,.
~onfiguration
piping would move out through a distance deter-
mined by the linear expansion. To restore the
actual fixed condition, end forces and moments are
applied to the "freed" end, of such magnitude as to
retum it exactly to its initial position. These forces
and moments can be expressed as a single force the
line of action of which is called the thrust axis. This Midpoint of tfte
.,...,loped .......
approximate method is based on the proposition
' J that on most piping systems the, tlirust axis can be
't located empirically with reasonable accuracy. Once
-._} Centroid of Pipe /
the thrust axis is established, the problem is rendered from 1 toA
statically determinate.
>>
1 thrust Axis Assumed by Bridge
Mitchell [4] originally assumed the thrust axis,
., ! which passes through the center of gravity of the Fm. 4.7 The modification to Mitchell's thrust axis location
' piping system, to be parallel to the line connecting
suggested by Bridge.
' the anchor points. This assumption, valid only for
1 f
' limited configurations, was subject to variable and to the anchor line) and the thrust axis is taken as
' i j
the line bisecting the angle between the "gravity"
{ extensiva error for the many shapes of piping lay-
outs encountered in practice. Figure 4.6 shows a and Mitchell axes. This sequence of operations for
'
1~
;: fl configuration subjected to thermal expansion, in locating the thrust axis is shown in the representa-
J;
''> which terminal moments are obvionsly present, yet tiva example of Fig. 4. 7 for a single-plane layout.

$
'
~.~
' the original Mitchell Method would predict them to
be zero.
To preserve simplicity, the centers of gravity for
the halves of the layout are located by eye. F or
.. _)
'l. Improvement of the original Mitchell Method single-plane systems of not too great complexity,
required a more reliable location of the thrust axis. usable accuracy can be achieved; for multiplane or
'
f Bridge [5] proposed that the layout be divided into inVolved one-plane systems, considerable error is
two halves of identical developed lengths. The likely to arise. For these latter applications Ran-
;
centers of gravity of these half portions are then dolph [6] proposed that the centers of gravity be
connected to form the "gravity axis,, the center of located by calculation. The labor involved, how-
gravity for the whole system lying half way be- ever, then approaches that of the General Analytical
tween those of the two halves. The Mitchell axis Method and since the results are still of unassess-
is now drawn (line through c.g. of system parallel able accuracy, the choice over the General Method
is decidedly questionable.
Once the thrust axis is located, the problem be-
comes statically determnate. There remains the
conversion of the evaluation of linear expansion to
the reaction resultant force along the thrust line
and subsequently the stress at any location, which
Centro id
involves conventional structural approaches, with
the conversion of thrust to moment usually accom-
plished graphically.
~ _ ~uif Axis Auum~ The basic limitations of the Mitchell-Bridge
\ ~ by M.itchell
Method are: (1) Two .terminal points; (2) Proper
orientation of the thrust axis is dependent on expe-
rience and ability of the user.
Fw. 4.6 Illustration of the error involved in Mitchell's Variation of the cross section of various runs of a
assumption regarding the thrust axis. system can be taken care of by assigning specific
102 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
weights (inversely proportional to the moments of
inertia) to the individual legs when locating the
centers of gravity of the half-systems. It is not
necessary that alllegs be in an orthogonal arrange-
ment. The f!exibility of bends can also be incorpo-
rated by means of the approximations of Section 4. 7,
one of which was advanced by Randolph [6].
The layouts investigated by the Guided Cantilever
Method in Sample Calculations 4.9, 4.10, and 4.il
were re-evaluated by an experienced designer using
the Miteheli-Bridge Method. While detailed cal-
culations are not reproduced,' a comparison of the
magnitude and location of maximum stresses with
those obtained by the General Analytical Method
is given in Table 4.3, which shows that the maxi-
mum stresses are consistently underestimated;
furthermore, the most highly stressed lo6ation is in
sharp contrast to the resulta obtained by compre-
hensive calculations.
It has been claimed [6] that the Mitchell-Bridge
Method gives results within 20% of an accurate
method, which is quite optimistic in view of the
limitations discussed above; also, the comparison
in Table 4.3 indicates an error of 26.1% for Sample
Calculation 4. 9.
Table 4.3
,Method
Modified Mitchell
Maximum Stress
Genera.lAnalytical
Maxim.um Stress
Layout ac<..-ording
to: Value Location Value
Sample Cal<. 4.9 12,350 2 16,750
Sample Cale. 4.10 8,3SO 4 11,650
Sample Cale. 4.11 6,580 4 8,900
4.6 The Simplified General Method for Square-
corner Systems
The solu tion presented in this section is a Jimited
form of the General Analytical Method, which can
be followed step by step by anyone accustomed to
routine arithmetical computations. This Simplified
General Method is applicable to single- and multi-
plane configurations subjected to thermal expansion
and externa! movement, which satisfy the following
conditions:
l. Two completely fixed ends.
2. N o intermediate restraints.
3. N o branches. 5
4. Straight runs only.
4
For a det.ailed description oC a systematic step-wise solu~
tion, the reader is referred to the available literature (4, 5, 6}.
'The effect of branches of the main system ma.y generally be
5. All legs orthogonal (at. right angles to each
other, with square-corner intersections).
For systems accurately represented within these
limitations, the accuracy is the same as that of the
General Method. Because of this accuracy and the
methodical attack, this method is highly recom-
mended over any approximate method involving a
comparable degree of effort.
Befare describing the actual procedure in making
the calculations, a brief discussion of fundamentals,
conventions, and terminology is in order.
First, the unrestrained expansion of the system is
determined; One end is then arbitrarily chosen as
the ji:red eru1 to reduce the analysis to a cantilever
system. The other end, the so-called free erul, is
imagined to be loaded with forces and moments of
unknown value. These unknowns can then be
found from the condition that they must produce
def!ections of the free end which nu!lify the dis-
placements of that end due to thermal expansion.
The coordinate system is standardized as:
X -axis~horizontal and positive to the right.
Y-axis-vertical and positive upward.
Z-axis-horizontal and positive towards the ob-
server.
The directional signs are consistently applied to dis-
tances, displacements (expansions or deflections),
and forces. Signs of angular displacements (rota-
tions) and moments will be positive in the counter-
clockwise direction facing the related positive axis. '
.
The orgin of the coordinate system may be at any
Location point on or outside of the pipe line. A location
4 toward the center of the system promotes accuracy
o by a more nearly uniform leve! of dimensional co-
5 efficients. Where members coincide with the axes
certain coefficients will be zero, and where symmetri-
cal adjacent runs are present, extension of this
symmetry to their placement with respect to the
origin will advantageously duplicate the coefficients.
The pipeline is subdivided into individual straight
!egs, which are called members. If a straight run
contains a change in stiffness, such as a size reduc-
tion, it must be treated as two members.
To assist the reader with the actual application
of the method, a step-by-step procedure will be
given, followed by sample calculations presented on
form sheets which are largely self-explanatory. The
use of a calculating machine is convenient although
not essential.
neglected if they are less than 50% of the size of the main run.
Of course, the necessary fiexibili ty of the branches themselves
must not be overlooked. ~---
I
J
J'
 .. , ....
' ")>.
SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS
The solution involves three more or less distinct
stages:
l
-' l. Setting up the problem;
2. Making the computations.
3. Interpreting the resulta.
The first and third stages require familiarity re-
spectively with the method and the general require-
menta of the Piping Code; the second is purely
routine computation.
The set-up procedure, following Forro Sheet A,
consists of the following steps:
Step 1. Gather prerequisite data. Include pipe
material, non:iinal size, design temperature, as well
as the dimensiona o the layout.
Step 2. Draw a working sketch. This should he
to scale, or at least to reasonable proportions, as an
aid in interpreting resulta. If simplifications are
made, show the piping as it is to he calculated.
Where there is significant expansion o the equip-
ment to which the line connecta, indicate the -dis-
tances to the anchor point as infinitcly stiff members
by the use o broken !ines. Designate one end as
the fixed end, denoting it 0 1, the other end as the
free end, denoting it A. Locate the originO so asto
n:iinin:iize computation. Number the remaining
points 1, 2, 3, etc. proceeding from the fixed to the
free end.
Step S. Enter the following:
Outaide diametcr D, in., from Table G-1, Ap-
pendix C.
Wall thickness t, in., from Table G-1, Appendix C.
:\1oment o inertia I, ln.<, from Table G-1,
_\.ppendix C.
Section modulus Z, in. 8 , from Table G-1, Ap-
pendix C.
Bend radius R, and bend characteristic h, not
used unless the approach of Section 4. 7 is used.
Flexibility factor k, and stress intensification
factor, (3, not used for curved members unless the
approach of Section 4. 7 is used. In such a case and
for other componenta obtain k and (3 from Piping
Code (see also Chapter 3 herein).
Hot modulus of elasticity, Eh(!bjin."), and cold
modulus of elasticity, E,(lb/in."), from Piping Code,
ASA B 31.1. 6
Stiffness ratio Q = EI/ENIN, which expresses
the relative stiffness o any member N. The product
El of a group o members is considered as unity,
&code values for modulus of elasticity and linear expansion
are not used in the sample calculations of this book as these
calculations were in preparation before the Code data were
adopted. The data used are given in Appendix. C, Charts c-3
and G-2 respectivcly.
103
and the shape coefficienta for members o different
moment of inertia are corrected by Q. The stiffness
ratio should be selectcd so as to keep the magnitude
o the coefficients within reasonable lin:iits.
Material and temperature as given.
Unit thermal expansion, e, ft/ft, from Piping Code
ASA B 31.1.
Cold spring factor, C.
Hot allowable stress, Sh, and cold allowable stress,
S" from Piping Code ASA B 31.1.
Step 4. Calculate the component free expansion
movements A,;, Ay, and -t11z. Include the expansion
o the equipment and o other members assumed to
he rigid. Prefix the sign in accordance with the
direction of the imaginary movement of the free end
with respect to the fixed end.
Step /J. Compute the producta EhU..,/144,
Ehlt!../144, EhlA,/144, being careful to use the
value of Ehl/144 for that size pipe for which Q = 1
was selected.
The work now proceeds to the second stage which
consists entirely o computations. The forro sheeta
involved depend on the problemas follows:
a. For a single-plane system with expansion in the
plane, Sheet B is used.
b. For a single-plane system with expansion nor-
mal to the plane, Sheet C is used.
c. For a single-plane system with expansion both
in and normal to the plane, the fores and moments
at the coordinate origin, O, are computcd on Sheeta
B and C. The remainder of the calculation, in-
cluding the transfer of moments to the various
points and the combining stresses, is done on Sheet F.
d. For a multiplane system Sheets D, E, and F
are nsed.
The steps of the computation stage are:
Step 6. Select Sheet B, C, or D depending on
the problem. ldentify the members as o'-1, 1-2,
etc. at the top of the page. List k, Q, and L from
Sheet A. Compute L 2 /12. lndicate the position
(1, Il, or III) of each member and detern:iine the
distances a, b, e for each in the position involved.
Enter a, b, e with the proper sign. Compute the
shape coefficients A, A., Ab, etc. for each member
in accordance with the formulas listed in the col-
umns at the left. Sum A, A., A., etc. across and
enter the totals in the last column at the right.
Step 7. Detern:iine the forces and moments at
the origin.
a. On Sheet B: This computation is made im-
mediately below the calculation of the shape coeffi-
cienta, and the symbols A, A., Ab, etc., refer to the
sum of these coefficienta shown in the last column.
104 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
First, the coordinates of the elastic center, x, and
y, are calculated. Second, the constants in relation
to the elastic center, m12, m 22 , and m 11 , are deter-
mined. Third, the constant n33 is calculated after
which N, and N" can be determined. The forces
F, and F" can now be computed in accordance with
the formulas given, and finally, the moment at the
origin, M~, is calculated.
b. On Sheet C: This computation is also made
immediately below the calculation of the shape co-
efficients, and the symbols ~. Bb, B C, C., Caa
refer to the sum of these coofficients shown in the
last column. The order of computation is the same
as above: Xy and Y:r. are calculated, B'bb and C'aa,
are computed, ma 3 is determined, after which F,,
M, and M are obtained.
c. On Sheet E: The symbols A, A A., etc.,. B,
B., Be, etc., and C, Ce, c., etc. refer to the sum of
the shape coefficients in the last column on Sheet D.
After the elastic center coordinates hav been cal-
culated the constants mu,. m12, m2 2, m2a, maa and
m 13 can be computed. From these a second set of
constants, n 11 , nu, ~2 1 n 1a, naa, and 1t:2a are calcu-
lated, and :z., :1:2 , N" N., N, are computed. The
forces are now determined followed by the moments.
Step 8. Transfer the moments obtained in Step 7
to the various points in the line. For a single-plane
system with expansion in the plane only, the com-
putation is made in the space provided at the bottom
of Sheet B. For a single-plane system with expansion
normal to the plane, the computation is made at
the bottom of Sheet C. For a single-plane system
with expansion both in and normal to the plane,
Sheet F is used as an aid in properly combining the
stresses. For a multiplane system, Sheet F is used.
Indicate consecutively from the free end A the
points at which the moments are required. Enter
the coordinates x, y, z of point A with their proper
signa in relation to the origin. Enter x, y, z for each
succeeding point in relation to the one preceding it.
Fill in at point A the moment M" M"' M" obtained
from Step 7. Perform the operations i.ndicated on
the next three lines using the F, F., F, from Step 7.
For example, on Sheet B, enter 111, (the moment at
the origin) under point A, multiply F, by the co-
ordinate y previously listed, and - F" by x. Add
M,+ yF,- xF, to obtain M',A, the moment at
point A. Enter the M',A in the following colmiln
on the M, line and perform the multiplications, yF,
and -xF"' using the x and y coordinates in that
column. Add to obtain 111, for the 2nd point.
Proceed in this manner to point 0'. A check at
point O' may be obtained by setting in the coordi-
nates x, y, of O' in rtaation to the origin, and trans-
ferring the moments directly from the origin to
point O', using the same procedurc as at point A.
Step 9. Choose the point of maximum stress.
On Sheet B where only the bending stress in the
plane is involved, this presents no difficulty, but in
Sheets C and F, it may be necessary to evaluate
the stress at severa! points in order to find the max-
imum. Once the position of the point. is selected,
the stresses are combined as indicated.
In all of these steps (6 through 9) in the compu-
tation stage it. cannot be emphasized too strongl~
that careful attention must be given to the algebraic
signs involved. Checking at the completion of each
step by a person other than the calculator himself
is strongly recommended.
Step 10. Complete the analysis by entering on
Sheet A the results for the cold and the hot condi-
tion in accordance with the formulas given in Sec-
tion 2.6 of Chapter 2. The signs given are those of
acting forces and moments at the terminal pointS
and are determined from the calculation as follows:
Cold Condition Hot Condition
Fixed End O' Opposite sign Same sign
Free End A Same sign Opposite sign
Also included in the summary of results is the
maximum expansion stress and the point at which
it occurs, and, for purposes of comparison, the allow-
able stress range.
The final stage, the interpretation of results, will qlJ'
be discussed in Chapter 5. The calculator is cau-
tioned to examine the results:
' .
t...:
a. In order to determine whether they are in gen-
l.el'
eral agreement with what is expected from the con-
figuration and the displacements. Calculations : 1
giving unlikely results should be inspected for sign
and arithmetical errors.
b. In the light of the assumptions made, to decide
whether the results are on the liberal or conservative
side and to make a judgment conceming the prac-
ticality of the layout.
The following examples are given to illustrate the
procedure:
Sampk Cakulation 1.12. A single-plane ystem
of uniform size wjth expansion in the plane only.
The infinitely stiff member 0'-1, normal to the
plane, is cold. It is shown only in order that the
numbering of the points may be consistent with the
examples which follow.
Sampk Cakulation 1.18. The single-plane system
of 4.12 above with expansion both in and normal to
the plane. The forces and the moments at the
;
Ll
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SIMI'LIFIED METIIOD FOR FLEXIBILITY ANAL YSIS 105

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,);-
every point in thesystem are those which have pre-
viously been computed on Sheet B or 4.12.
Sample Calculation 1,.11,. A multiplane system
similar to the single-plane one used in 4.12 and 4.13
above, but here the infinitely stiff member 0'-1 is
replaced by an equivalent length o 10 in. pipe.
Sample Calculation 1,.15. A second multiplane
system.
4.7 Approximating the Effect of Curved Pipe
and Other Components.
A principal factor contributing to the complexity
of accurate piping structural analysis is the di-
fering rigidity and attendant secondary stress dis-
tribution of local components (discussed in Cbapter
3). As pointed out, the increased flexibility (i.e.
deflection and rotation) which they introduce re-
sults in reduced reactions (forces and moments ),
while the concurrent localized stresses serve to limit
tbe fatigue life in proportion to the strain range at
tbeir location. Tbe Piping Code Rules provide ade-
quate coverage of flexibility and stress intensifica-
tion factors for curved pipe and approximations for
miters and corrugated pipe, but for the present
(1955) are confined to rough stress intensification
factors alone or other components whose flexibility
actors are either not satisfactorily established or
else- nOt reduced to- usable criteria_ The significance
o flexibility actors diminishes as the relative run
o curved to straight pipe or number of other com-
ponents is reduced; on the other hand a single stress
intensification at a location of maximum primary
stress constitutes the weak link on which the fatigue
life of the entire system is based.
Repeated reference has been made to the "square
comer" defined as a direct intersection between con-
necting straigbt runs, whicb allows no angular dis-
placement of one tangent with respect to the other.
It is commonly portrayed as a single miter in whicb
uniform stiffness exists without local effect. Actu-
ally this condition is never attained. A miter in-
volves sizable intersection stress with proportionate
inflnence on flexibility and local stress as explained
in Cbapter 3. Relatively heavy pipe fittings prob-
ably constitute a closer approacb altbough at the
expense of sorne local increase in stiffness. Tbis
subject is mentioned here in clarification of termi-
nology and notas a contributing factor for evaluation
in a.pproximate solutions.
The assumption of usquare corners" contributes
materially to the simplification of piping structural
108 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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fll 11 lmu - 9.9, mu + 11.34 "'u + 9. 99 mu +- S0.31 1m11 - Z,4'1
m~:~. ma _- S7C.S2. - ~- .
_m.,. mss z 74S. 42. .m11 ,mu ,; 18. 8?. "'r.-~ zs;t:87.t9
-~.,.- 99.80
... (m.,) c.eo
.. .. ..-
-{11111)1 99.20 '""'renq sei18.C

......... -
410. 72 .. 273'9.22 519.~2 :E, 20 448.53
fl\a .ma - 24.88 .miZ.mu - 99. so 24.80 318. o7
"\emu -S'0/.09 ma"'ze - 28.24
"\t_mA
'
+ S4S: IS 20448.53
""
mum,. ..
". -szs.'17 n"" -127. 74 5t:9. 95' "' zo,t3o.4C
. S4.70 "u
. 848.8'
H1 -~:o~~ -k-.II&'ZI ":~"r
N~'\e . -- JCZ. 91
NI
Nr.nu
"ae
.. + 11G.CZ
/,;/, 12 N,.~',, + 14.84
+ t?C.t:Z
.
. 6 . "r"u ..
-~ -f +.30189 Kz"ra - 39.59 Nz.nu H, "u t-/&1.03
"r
.
. -257.28 , . ri08t:.Co , .
Fz.Jx . - 79&3
~ 1 . +352.49
Hz "144000 ~~ f-.30'189
. F z, + a<' Fr,lz . -4748 .. .
F1 .r1

. .
Frla -t- 181 :G f:.Jir T/410 -G321
- C'/48 , r/79G Mz"' - 110&'9
"' M.W, ICEU.OII GOMPUIY
PII'INC FUX181UTY a
.MULTI ~LAME SYSTEMS
STRESS ANALTSIS
liLC. p~~
CHECI(ED l"f.J8
DAU: 7-Z.l-~3
-I:ORN NO. E
C.&LC. MO. 4,/S.

CONVERSION f'OUIT 4 3 o 2 1 O' OfCNEIZ)

!~- J;.s TO COOE RULES o o o. -15.00 o o -15.00
t
Eh . ' - 0.00
',, - 5.00 o .,..{ooo o -to.oo o - 10.00

--- --- --- ---

I .J5 .,.s.oo

---
' J _,_25.00 o o o + /.5.00
' -2S7.2R
.,
L - -2S7. Z8

.....
s, ft- sE
,,
Fy_ +!08"-.~ +IOB&..t;O
s, 9848 +352..49 2 49
~ .fi.. e -C./4 -15 GBB .,. 11 477 -l:./48 -~148 - 2~2.3 '- G/~8
A' Eh Fr.z -Z11f45 +27 165 o o o + lt;;z.:q + 1~299

~fr--~
Fz~ +17. C.25 o -n 2S o - o ' JSZ5
e '
.111CH['I[It IS tR[ATEII .,' -15 '-8
+ 17'1(4
+ 11 477
-4G3i
- ~14
t/79"
-C,/4
+17'1G -34ql
2 ,.,_,~7&,

-34'11
+136714
+179&
zl o o o - o -528_7_
ff-

.oz
tJt- (1: C1
/
..,,
fx.Z -
-4;, ;,
-JI 0149
F K-r +IZ 8C,4
-F r-K o
+1
+1
o
o
q;, +1

o

-12.8G4
;, - 4'11
-110149

tt&zqq
o
o
-
+.S
+ZS '3
o
1
o
' r3GB
+
o
o
o.
'
' ;,
-11 o&;q
+/!573
+1 2'1'7
R 1 CALCULATEO
REACTIONS
' .,.7q5 t-179.5 -1/0G'I +5Z30 + '80.3 t7B03 + 7803
BASEO ON Eh

I
m FITION. .ll[
., -
' .,
...,,
~ -15(,88 .

'
... ~ - 4G3C,
...
f'IP[
.,
z 1
1"/795
,4<1134
29.9 1
..
lO'
Sbl .,, c.z '1'-
s'b"' 18l.l
2Stl Mt 720
s~g+4S -~~6'Z. 000
Sb+ +451 s 1405
TK[ N W. JC[LLOGG COIIPANY
f'IPING FU:li81LIU, -'110 STRESS lofi4L.YSI5
loiO .. ENTS AOIO STRESS(S
CAU: J>1J(j
c,~~~11Eo~.1c.'"?M
1FORiol NO
C.ILC.. NO. '4.15
 112 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
analysis and permits the relatively simple applica-
tion of the General Analytical Method to problems
involving two points of fixation as covered in Sec-
tion 4.6 of this chapter. Itis continued in the further
approximations, i.e. guided cantilever and assumed
thrust axis approaches, of Sections 4.4 and 4.5. For
Schedule 40 or heavier pipe curved to a radius of
five diameters or over, f!exibility factors are neglected
with little error; however, the developed length and
disposition relative to the neutral axis differs from
that of tangent straight elements with a resulting
effect on the system stiffness.
There is fairly extensive successful experience
with the design of piping systems to the stress .
range of !CS.+ s.) (which was in.effect until the
1955 revision of the Code) on the basis of square-
corner analysis neglecting both flexibility and stress
intensification factors. These companion assump-
tions tend to offset esch other insofar as stress
evaluation is. concerned, provided details involving
high stress intensification are avoided. The reac-
tions obtained, on the other hand, are always on the
high side. Successfui past experience might be taken
to indicate that piping has operated safely at some-
what higher peak stresses tban norninally calculated.
This experience, however, has been predorninantly
with steel pipe of schedule 40 or hesvier thickness
which did not involve exceptionally high {3 factors.
With a grester trend toward use of thin walled
pipe, coupled with the recently increased allowable
stress range, there is increased need to take stress
intensification into consideration.
The Piping Code rules, as revised in 1955, require
that, when using approximate methods, the effect
of stress intensifications be taken into account.
This requirement would be satisfied if a correction
factor applied to the stress calculated by the square-
corner approach would always assure that the ad-
j usted stress is not less than would result from
application of the General Analytical Method. An
obviously safe means would be to apply the full
stress intensification factor to the stress at the
square corners. However, comparative calculations
show that this seriously overestimates the effect be-
cause of the neglected flexibility, and results in un-
economical and unnecessary provision of excess pipe
length. Much effort has been devoted toward
developing a simple guide for a safe, yet not unduly
conservative correction. Despite this effort no simple
rule has evolved, since the configuration of the line
and the location, as well as amount of curved pipe,
add up to a complex influence. In the majority of
cases no correction for stress is needed because of
the compensating inf!uence of the flexibility factor,
and because the maximum stress, before application
of a stress intensification factor, is sometimes not
located at a bend. N aturally, this is not a generally
safe assumption, since there will be many instances
where a correction is necessary. In such, an empri-
ca! correction factor of the order of v'i3 instead of {3
Will usually be ample. It is best, h~wever, for the
designer to explore typical configurations by com-
parative calculatons in order to reinforce his judg-
ment for specific applications. As mentioned previ-
ously, it is not necessary to apply the correction
factor to the reactions since they will be on the safe
side. Where the reactions so estimated prove too
high and a more accurate evaluation is desired, there
is no substituta for a solution by the General
Analytical Method.
Efforts have been made to reduce the inaccuracy
of the square-corner assumption by factors which
correct the def!ection contribution of the individual
.component and apply its inf!uence on the overall
piping system at the correct relative location. The
additional f!exibility which curved pipe exhibits
may be conveniently expressd as an increase in
length or "virtual length" which would be required
to .produce t!e same deflection on the basis of unit
flexibility, and may be extended to the square-
Jl
corner equivalent of a bend as follows:
,,
FB,
L = virtual length of bend, ft ..~
.:;
R = radius of bend, ft
k = f!exibility factor of bend
For a 90 bend the developed Jength of the square-
corner equivalent is 2R and
ll
L = 1.57kR
The additional virtual length to be applied to the
square-corner equivalent in simulation of bend f!ex-
ibility is given by
L - 2R = R(1.57k - 2)
The simplest locations for the application of this
additional virtual length are at the intersection
forming the square comer, or else at the center of
n
the bend to which the square comer is equivalent.
The first of these locations overvalues, and the sec-
ond undervalues, the stiffness contribution to the
piping system. A more accurate location would be
to apply this excess at the center of gravity of the
pipe bend; however, the considerable added effort
is unwarranted in view of the still approximate re-
sulte obtained. A further alternative would be to
J
 ,*,,
d ~---"~'}:';!('" YP 1-'-""-"J w \"''~-"~"-"" "
\ .,., --.-M ,-q ~

, ..
_~.._,..,
--~ ...,: .- > :)

.~----

Tahle 4.4 Comparison of Various Correctione Applied to a Square Corner Solution in Order to Approximate the Effect of Curved Memhers

rf L,--l 12-in., Sched. 20 (.2511) Value and location of maximum stress ranga, as calculated by

r
.
ASTM A-106 Grade B
pipe
Modified Squa~rner Solution. Stress intensification factor
Tmu: 630 F, Tmin General Squ~orner Solution considerad. "Excess virtuallength" of bend concentrated a.t

t 70F E 28.8 X 10'

psi
Analytical
Method
(StrasS1ntens. and fiexi-
bility tacOOrs ignored.) Comer
Center of gravity
of elbow
Distributed propor
tionally to members
Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Por Cent Per Cent
....
(Jl

L, L, R h k ~ Value Loo'n Deviat'n Value Loo'n Dcviatn Value Loo'n Deviat'n Value Loo'n Deviatq Value Loo'n Deviat'n 3:
f-- - - ---- ------- e:;.'"=
12 12 1.5 .12 12.7 3.35 22,700 b o.o 31,900
b, -40.5 19,500 b +14.1 29,300 b -29.1 15,000
b, +33.9
' '
j
r--- - - ---- - --- ---
b, b,

1
12 12 5 .38 4.3 1.52 49,100 0.0 31,900 +35.0 19,150 +61.0 31,600 b +35.7 16,000 +67.5

f-- - - --- - ---- - - ' ' ' .

'
12 12 12 .92 1.85 1.12 64,800
0.0 31,000
b, +50.8 21,600
+66.7 30,500 b +52.9 21,900
b, +66.2

f-- - - --- - - --- --- --- ' ' ' ' C1

l>l
18
- 18
12 1.5 .12 12.7
- - ---- - --- --- ---
3.35 29,800 0.0 37,800 -26.8 26,900 + 9.7 30,000 - 0.7 19,900 +33.2

- 18
12 5 .38 4.3 1.52
- - ---- - ------ ---
36,600 0.0 37,800 - 3.3 27,200 +25.7 37,300 - 1.9 21,100 +42.4
E
+45.4 ....
- 24
12

12
12

1.5
.92

.12
1.85
- - ---- ------- ---
12.7
1.12

3.35
50,900

38,100
'

0.0

0.0
37,800

45,200
+25.8

-18.6
29,600

35,200
+41.9

+ 7.6
32,800

38,400
+35.6

- 0.8
27,800

25,900 +32.0
=
....
..,e
- - - --- - - --- ---
24 12 5 .38 4.3 1.52 42,600 0.0 45,200 - 6.1 35,500 +16.7 45,300 - 6.3 27,200 +36.2 ><
- - - ---- -------

~
24 12 12 .92 1.85
r--- - - --- -- ------
1.12 40,300 0.0 45,200 ...,
-12.2 37,900 + 5.9 40,600 - 0.7 34,800 +13.6

60 12 1.5 .12 12.7

r--- - - --- - -------
3.35 89,000 0.0 93,500 - 5.1 85,200 + 4.3 89,800 - 0.9 68,100 +23.5

60 12 5 .38 4.3
r--- -- --- - - --- ---
1.52 85,700 o.o 93,500 - 9.1 85,600 + 0.1 95,300 -11.2 70,300 +18.0
th
81,100 -39.1
60 12 12 .92 1.85 1.12 58,300 0.0 93,500 -60.4 88,300 -51.5 81,500 -39.8
-
Layout and service conditions as
shown in Sample Calculation Nos.:
(Ailadjacent lega connected by ehort-
radiw welding elbows). 4.12

4.14

4.15
17,400

15,500

12,100
o
o
o
0.0

0.0

0.0
16,700

11,600

8,900
o
A

A
. + 4.6

+26.6

+26.5
12,900

11,600

9,300
o
o
o
+26.3

+26.6

+23.2
13,600

12,100

9,600
o
o
o
+22.3

. +22.4

+20.6
12,100

9,700

7,500
A

O'
A 1
+30.9

+37.8

+38.0

. Percentage deviation- 100 (Rt - Ra)/Re, where Re- exact result obtained from General Analytical Metbod, and Ra result obtained from approximate metbod. A positive value of the percentage
deviation denotes errors on the unsafe sida. -
;;
114 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
distribute the additional virtuallengths between the the General Analytical solution will prove no more
J1f
straight members representing the square-corner burdensome in the long run and will provide the
equivalent; this will generally also overvalue the ouly reliable results. ,,fJ'
:;
stiffness contribution to the system. Table 4.4 ~)
shows for a simple system the effect on the actual References
stress range of these alternate loGation assumptions
including the stress intensification factor of the bend,
l. E. A. Wert and S. Smith, Design of Piping for Flexibility
fl.1iiJ Flez..Anal Charts1 BlawKnox Co., Power Piping Div.,
JJ
~l
as compared with the General Analytical Method Pitt.<lburgh, Pa., 1940. i!.'
resulte and those of a square-corner solution with 2. S. W. Spielvogel, Piping Stress Calcula.tions Simplified,
both the stress intensification and flexibility factors Lake Success, New York, 4th printing, 1951.
3. "z-, L-, U-, .nd Expansion U-Bends," Paper No. 4.02 of
ignored. It also demonstrates the futility of attempt-
Piping Engineering, Tube Turns, Inc., Louisville, Ky.,
ing to get good correlation with the General Analyti- 1951.
cal Method by approximate methods, however 4. C. T. Mitchell, "Graphic Metbod for Determ.ining Expan-
refined. sion Stresses in Pipelines,'' Trans. ASME, Vol. 52, pp. 167-
It can be seen, therefore, that although approxi- 76 (1930).
mate analyses have a place in piping gystem analysis, 5. T. E. Bridge, "How to Design Piping with Required.
Flexibility," Heafing, PipingandAirCond., Vol. 22, No. lO, .n
the extent of their ntility depends strongly on the
experience and judgment of the designers. When
p. 94; NO. 11, p. 94 No. 12, p. 92 (1950); Vol. 23, No. 1,
p. 136; No:z, p. 107 (1951). ~~
nsed for final designs, by far the best resulte will 6. L. F. Ra.ndolph, "End Rea.ctions and Stresses in 2 and s-
be obtained throngh the simplified sqnare-corner Dimensional Pipe Linea: A Simplified Method of Caleula-
tion,'' Imp. Chem. Industries, Ltd., Billingham Div.,
method of Section 4.6, thns avoiding unassessable
Mareh 17, 1953.
errors in analysis. Added refinemente, such as dis- 7. W. A. Wilbur, "Thermal Stresses in Piping Systems,"
cussed in the preceding paragraph, are usually not
warranted, since where greater accuracy is needed
Pelroleum Rejiner, Vol. 32, pp. 143-148, 163--168, 174--181
(1953).
l.
'
..' .

.~
 - ~
~
'
'
' (
1
'j
Flexihility Analysis by the General
l Analytical Method
j'
I
i N the pre\'ous chapter, simplified. and approxi-
E mate methods were presented for the calculation
of stresses and reactious in piping systems sub-
' :1 ; jected to thermal expansion. The brevity and ease
] of application of these methods was achieved by
'
!l i the orilission or approximation of certain influences
on over-all elastic behavior. Such solutions have
n
: ~
their place in preliminary and rough analyses, but
for final checking of piping systems whose dimen-
' ' sions or sel'Vce performance are critica!, a method
i)J= ',;,
is needed which combines accuracy, versati!ity, and
j
comprehensiveness. These reqnirements are met
L~
by The Kellogg General Analytical Method.
5.1 Scope and Field of Application of the Gen-
;
' eral Analytical Method
OriginaUy presented in the first edition of the
Design of Piping Syst.em. in 1941 [1], and subse-
quently by Wallstrom [2], The General Analytical
:\1ethod appears herein in ite most recently extended
form. By this method, stresses, reactions, and
deformations of any piping system can be evaluated,
confined only by the conditions of elastic behavior
and static loading. The number of straight legs
and local Components, such as circular ares, miter
bends, corrugated tangente and bends, connections,
flanges, valves, is unlimited; individual elemente
may be oriented in any direction, arranged in any
arder, and may vary in stiffness, size, thickness, or
elastic constante. There s no restriction to the
number of pointe of complete or parta! fixation
either at the terminals or at intermediate locations.
The method is not confined to a consideration of
bending and torsion alone; the effecte of axial or
shear forces on the deflection, while usually of minor
115
CHAPTER
consequence, may be included for very stiff lines
where they assume significant proportions. In
addition to the effects attendant to restrained ther-
mal expansion, concentrated and uniformly dis-
tributed loads such as those due to gravity, static
pressure, and effect of wind may be included;
dynamic or impact conditions reducible toan equiva-
lent static loading can also be handled by this
approach.
N aturally, a method of such seope is not as readily
mastered as the simplified or approximate methods;
furthermore, the analysis of an elaborate system is
bound to be time consuming because of the large
number of variables involved in its geometry. It
has been demonstrated that, for equal accuracy, the
required effort cannot be reduced beyond that ob-
tained by the advantageous selection of the coordi-
nate system origin. On the other hand, accuracy and
speed are greaty improved by a universal systema-
tized approach with a high degree of organization and
carefully p!anned form sheets. Calculating time is
further reduced when the work is performed by a
group assigned more or less exclusively to piping
flexibility problems; for such use, the method is
ideally suited and has been widely adopted. The
organized approach which it provides is directly
adaptable to programmed automatic computing
machines and has been universally employed for
this purpose [3]. The economic attraction of auto-
matic machine computations has been .greatly en-
hanced by achievements on programming developed
by The M. W. Kellogg Company, which makes this
approach practica! for problems of virtual!y un-
limited complexity even with machines of limited
storage capacity.

ll6 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
The inherent accuracy of the method itself is
more than adequate for engineering design purposes,
and in sorne cases might be considered unnecessarily
refined in view of variations in piping dimensions
and tolerances. The significance of substituting
rigid square corners for elbows or tees is discussed in
Chapter 4. Omission of the so-called "secondary
term" and direct and shear effects is discussed in
this chaptsr along with the treatment of those
subjects.
Apparent errors may arise in the interpretation
of the results of a flexibility analysis. The assump-
tion of linear elasticity would appear to introduce a
gross error in systems wbich acquire self-spring
through operation under creep conditions. How-
ever, if the expansion stress limits are maintained as
proposed in Chapter 2, plastic action will practically
cease as soon as the full self-spring has been realized.
The piping wili then operate elastically with respect
to thermal effects, and the range of stress which the
piping undergoes in a single cycle of temperature
change will be dependably predicted. This is like-
wise true of the ranges of reactions and deflections.
Absolute values of reactions or deflections are not
predictable since the redistribution of stresses which
occurs in the process of acquiring self-spring is not
taken into account with present metbods. However,
maximum expected reactions, satisfactory for all
design purpo5es, can be establisbed by the method
given in Chapter 2 which also makes clear that the
range of stress and the range of reactions are the
important fatigue performance ndices.
Computational errors are a serious problem on
occasional calculations and can be equally so on
routine calculations in the absence of proper organi-
zation and care. While it is possible to check the
final results obtained when using any method, the
General Analytical Method is advantageous in that
it has been set up to permit the checking of calcula-
tions at progressive intervals in the progress of the
work, reducing the time lost to a mnimum.
The economics of accurate piping fiexibility anal-
ysis is greatly improved by the use of automatic
data processing machines. If manual computation
is employed it is advantageous for the work to be
performed by specialists who are able to save time by
memorizing many of the operations. The material
in this chapter is devoted exclusively to application
of the methQd so as to provide a convenient text
for the training of such specialists and can be readi!y
mastered by routine calculators without advanced
mathematical training. The supporting derivation,
which is presented in Appendix A together with a
1l
brief history and a fairly complete bibliography on
nh
u
the subject, does not haveto be mastered to perform n
the routine calculations described in the pre8ent
chapter. u
. '
5.2 Ca!culating Aids
In all but the simplest cases, computations accord-
ing to the General Analytical Method invite the use
of sorne kind of calculating aid. In sorne cases
slide rule restilts are not entirely dependable; hence,
for routine work, the ten place digitsl calculating
machine has become more or less standard equipment
and can be depended upon to maintain sufficient
accuracy. Actnally, as wi!l be apparent in the ex-
amples to follow, it is rarely necessary to use such
n
a machine to its full capacity throughout the com-
putation. Experience has shown that carrying two r.'JJL.
decimal places in the shape coeflicients, five decimal
places for multipliers .in the equations, and two
decimal places for the resulting forces and moments
will usually assure a satisfactory check of the equa-
tions. Naturally, the accuracy of the results will
only equal that inherent in the data entering the
calculation; hence, in the final tabulations the results
are rounded off.
Automatic programmed computing machines dras-
tically reduce computation time and thereby make
it practica! and economical to analyze piping systems
of any degree of complexity. 'The various computers
available differ primari!y in operating speed, and
in storage capacity or "memory,n with the Jarger
installations minimizing the need for intermedjate
manual operations. Even machines of relatively
limited capacity may be used effectively for complex
analyses by resorting to inversion procedures de-
scribed in Section 5.19.
At the present time most automatic computers
represent expensive installations the economic
n
utilization of which requires broad application to
many accounting and engineering calculations rather
than exclusive use for piping problems. Experience
with piping calculations at The M. W. Kellogg Com-
pany Electronic Computer Laboratory indicates
that with proper scheduling of the work the over-all
economies as well as delivery time are significantly
better than those of the most eflicient manual piping
computations. It is worthy of note, too, that th~
savings are accomplished, in al! but the simplest
piping configurations, in spite of the greater time
and care needed for preparing and checking informa-
tion fed to or processed by the machine. The outlook J
is for increasing application of computers in piping
fiexibility analysis. It would be a mistake, however,
- - - - - - - - - - - 1, .
.J
J
 FLEXIBIUTY ANALYSIS BY .THE GENERAL. ANALYTICAL METHOD
to underestimate the burden and responsibility
resting upon the engineer who must prepare and
interpret all sigoificant information and who orig-
inates the program of instructions which prescribes
the steps the machine must follow.
r:
5.3 General Outline of Operations
Before entering into the details of the General
Analytical Method, it may be advisable to outline
.l i briefly the complete procesa, and in so doing, to note
. '
the relationship with the Simplified General Method
covered in the previous chapter.
The first stage of the work consista of recording
the given data and setting up the problem so that
physical and geometrical properties of the piping
are expressed in numerical forro, which operations
are parallel to the set-up procedure of Section 4.6,
but are expanded to include elbows and bends and
the fiexibility and stress intensification factors of
these components. This is readily apparent in the
examples which follow. It can hardly be over-
emphasized that great care must be exercised to
-'r avoid sign errors. This is a particular source of
; difliculty to the beginner, who is advised to master
thoroughly the sign convention described in Chapter
4 before attempting any calculations.
Numerical calculations are performed in the
., second stage and although th General Analytical
'<!= if~ . ~--"\ Method and its simplified couhterpart involve the
- J same general principies, they differ to a marked
degree in execution. While in the Simplified Method
the approach is completely formulated, in the
General Method the work is performed in a number
of distinct steps, the basic procedures of which are
the same regardless of variations in complexity of
geometry, loading, constraints, etc. These steps
include:
a. Computation of the shape coefficients for each
member.
.j b. Summation of the shape coefficients (this opera-
tion may include a number of intermediate summa-
tions before the final coefficients are obtained).
.' . c. Solution of a system of simultaneous linear
equations in which the summed shape coefficients
become the coefficients of the unknown forces and
moments, while the known terminal displacements,
elastic constants, and moments of inertia are repre-
sented in the constant terms.
d. Transfer of moments to various points (the
moments computed are referred to the origin; hence
it is necessary to apply suitable transformations to
obtain the effects at the ends or in other desired
locations).
. l
1
"-J
'1 ,_
------------------------------
ll7
e. Calculation of stresses at significant points.
f. Adjustment of forces and moments to obtain
the anticipated initial and ultimate effects on equip-
ment, etc., taking into account cold spring if it is
employed.
g. Calculation of defiections at sigoificant points.
These are the principal steps, but special opera-
tions, discussed later in the chapter, are required for
the more complex problems.
The third stsge of the fiexibility analysis involves
the evaluation _of the results. Calculated stresses
are compared wi-th allowable stress ranges at signifi-
cant locations as discussed in Chapter 2, while
terminal and other local effects are considered in
accordance with Chapter 3. Rough comparison
with calculations of similar piping is advisable when-
ever possible to confirm generally the assumptions
and the reliability of the results. For highly critica!
piping, comparison by model testing is usually
desirable.
5.4 The Solution of Simultaneous Equations
One of the important steps of the General Ana-
lytical Method is the solution of the system of simul-
taneous equations which appear in every .problem_
Although such systems of equations can be solved
by severa! different methods, the one discussed in
this section has been found to be highly efficient.
Since experience has shown that the solution of
equations is one of the most difficult steps for a
beginner to master, it will be described here in
considerable detaiL
The equations are always first degree or linear.
The variables are unknown moments and forces, or,
in special cases, unknown rotations and def!ections.
Each equation is related either-to a certain rotation,
in which case it is called a moment or rotation equa-
tion, orto a certain displacement, when it is called a
force or displacement equation. In the case of a
single-plane line with two end points and with
expansion in the plane ouly, three unknowns, one
moment and two forces, must be determined by the
solution of three equations. If another branch in the
same plane is added, three more unknowns must be
computed and so on, the number of unknowns or of
simultsneous equations being 3(n- 1) where n is
the number of end points. For a line in space with
two fixed ends six unknowns, three moments, and
three forces must be evaluated. For branched
systems in space, the number of equations is
6(n - 1}. Stops or guides providing parta! fixation
require one additional equation for each component
of fixation
ll8 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
To simplify the explanation which follows, three
equations are used. However, the procedure is
general and applies to any nurnber of equations of
the type arising in piping analysis. If the unknown
process with these equations reduces the nurnber
of equations to one and permita the determination
ofF.
A complete solution with a description of every
n 4.l
moments and forces are written in a given order in step including the check is given in the following
each equation horizontally, and the equations cor- nurnerical problem. The equations
responding to the moments and forces are written
10F. + 20Fu- 30F, = 100
in the same order vertically, the matrix formed by
the coefficients of the unknowns will be symmet- 20F. + 100Fu- 90F, = 500
rical about the principal diagonal. In the procedure
-30Fz- 90Fu + 120F, = ...,-1200
described below, the top equation is always elim-
inated in such a way as to maintain symmetry in the are written:
remaining coefficients.
Given a set of three such simultaneous equations: Equation No. Fz F. F, Constant
1 +lO +20 - 30 - 100
A Fz + B Fu+ D F, = -Ell!..z 2 +20 +tOO -'90 ...500
B F.+ C F.+ G F, = -Ell!..u 3 -30 -90 +120 +1200
DFz+GF.+HF,= -EII!..,
The constante are transposed to the left-hand side
The complete solution is given in Table 5.2..
It will be noted that the coefficients to the left
of the principal diagonal fall out as the equations
'
n
\._
1
u
\

and the whole is written:

Fu Constant
are reduced. The form sheets presented Iater for use
in solving equations take advantage of this fact by
n.
omitting entirely that part of the solution. t!~
+A +B +D +Ell!..z
The calculator is. cautioned that al! coefficients
.
+B +C +G +EII!.. along the principal diagonal must be positive in > n
~

,[L,
.,

sign. A negative sign means that an error has been

+D +G +H +EII!..,
Table 5.1 illustrates the solution. The three
given symmetrical equations 1, 2, and 3 are reduced
to two which are likewise symmetrical, as shown on
lines 5 and 8 of the table. A repetition of the same
made either in the solution of the equations up to
that point, or in the calculation of the shape coofli-
cients.
A complete check by substitution of the unknowns
into each of the equations is essential for the method

Table 5.1 Method of Solving Simultaneous Equations

Line Equation No.
No. and Operation F, Fv F, Constant
l. Equation 1.......................... +A +B +D +Ell!..,

2. Divide eq. 1 by (-A) .............. -1

B
A
D
A
- Ell!..,
-A-
3. Equati<Jn $ . ......................... +B +C +G +Ell!..v
B B B B
4. Multiply line 1 by ( -B/ A) from line 2 .. --A
A
--B
A
--D
A
-A (EII!..,)

5. Add line 3 and 4 .................... o +C--

A
B'
+G--
BD
A +EI(a.-~a.)
6. Equation S .......................... +D +G +H +EII!..,
D D D D
7. Multiply line 1 by ( -D/ A) fromline 2.. --A
A
--B
A
--D
A
-A (El !J.,)

8. Add line 6 and line 7 ................. o +G--

BD
.1
D'
+H--
A
+EI(a.- ~a.)

J
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD
of solution presente<!. The sum of the products of
the unknowns times the coefficients in each equation
must equal the related constant with reversed sign.
It is recommended that the multiplications for the
check he performed as each unknown is found. In
this manner, the :products for the check are com-
plete<! as the final unknown is determined. When a
summation iildicates that a particular equation does
not prove, the error may he sought within that
equation. However, it kadvisable first to complete
the check summations for all the equations, since
ll9
the distribution of error in succeeding equations
may forro a clue asto the source.
5.5 Single Plane Calculations
When the General Analytical Method is applied
to a simple f!exibi!ity problem, the calculation is
brief and contains only the essentials to the case at
hand. A single-plane squar.:Corner piping system
with two. fixed ends is a problem of this caliber.'
1
This type of problem can also be solved by the Simplified
General Method presented in Chapter 4, Section 4.6.

Table 5.2 Complete Solution of Three Equations Using Simple Numerical Coefficients
Line Equa- Con- Operation Going Operation Going
No.* tion , Fv stsnt Down . Up
1 ! + 10 + 20 30 lOO
2 1.00 2.00 + 3.00 + 10.00 Divide line 1 by -lO
M;ultiply F, coeffi-
cient of line 2 by
-50.00 ...
Multiply F" coeffi-
- 100.00 + 40.00 150.00 + 10.00 cient of line 2 by
-20.00
F.= +40.00
-150.00 + 10.00
= -100.00
4 + 20 + 100 90 500
Multiply line 1 by
5 20 40 + 60 + 200 -2.00, tbe F" coeffi-
{cient in line 2
,.-' '
~

6 o + 60 30 300 Add lines 4 and 5

7 o 1.00 + 0.50 + 5.00 Divide line 6 by -60

9
~L:.F!!..."-=-.--~20::::.oo::Jo\

30
1
90
~

+
25.00

120.00
+

+ 1200
5.00

Multiply F, coeffi-
cient of line 7 by
-50.00
F.= -25.00
.

+ 5.00 = -20.00

Multiply line 1 by

l
10 + 30 + 60 90.00 300 +3.00, the F, coeffi-
cient in line 2
Multiply !ine 6 by
u o + 30 15.00 150 +0.50, the F, coeffi-
cient in line 7
12 o o + 15.00 + 750 Add lines 9, 10, and 11
13 o o 1.00 50.00 Divide line 12 by -15

\F, = 50.00\
Check Multiply Multiply Multiply
F =coeffi- F 11 coeffi- F z coeffi-
cients of cients of cients of
lines 1, 4, lines 1, 4, lines 1, 4,
9 by 9 by 9 by
-100.00 -20.00 -50.00 Constsnt
14 -1000 -400 +1500 - 100 o
15 -2000 -2000 +4500 - 500 o
16 +3000 +1800 -6000 +1200 o
Line numbers eorrespond to linea on standard three equation form sheet.
 126 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
' The foregoing procedure is exemplified in Sa.mple
Fta. 5.1 The JO-plane.
Single-plane systems are usually drawn and cal-
culated in the z-plane (Fig. 5.1 ). The sketch is
made and the given data recorded on Form A in
accordance with Steps 1 through 5 described for the
Simplified General Method. If there is eipansion
in the plane only, the following steps are taken.
Step 6. On Forro B-1 enter the following as
indicated:
Memher nwnber.
Shape (horizontal, vertical, or inclined).
Length of memher L, ft.
Distsnces a and b, ft, i.e. the x- and y-coordinates
respectively, of the midpoint of the straight member.
Value of L 2/12.
Step 7. Have Steps 1 to 6 checked.
Step 8. Compute the shape coef!icients for each
member in accordance with these formulas:
Shape Horizontal Vertical
Coefficient Member Member
S kQL kQL
s. axs axs
s. bXs bXs
s
b X s4 (or a X )
axs.+sL2 /12
b X s.(or a X )
a X Sa
s b X b X s + sL2/12 in Fig. 5.2, positive in counterclockwise and
Sum the shape coefficients, s, s., s, etc., across to
obtain the final coef!icients.
Step 9. Enter the final coefficients and the con-
stants into the equation as indicated on the forro
sheet. For complete fixation at the ends, end rota-
tion e, is zero and the constant in the moment
equation is therefore zero. The constants El*ll.,
and El*fl.o are transferred from Forro A, the terro
El* = Ehl /144 denoting stiffness expressed in lb-ft2
Step 10. Have Steps 8 and 9 checked.
Step 11. Solve the simultaneous equation and
substitute the values obtained back into the equa-
tion to check the answer, aS explained in Section 5.4.
Step 12. Compute the moments at the various
points, find the point of maximum stress, and tabu-
late resulta.
Step 13. Have Step 12 checked.
Calculation 5.1. The same system is calculsted in
Chapter 4 as Sample Calculation 4.10, and a
parison hetween the two shows that identical
are obtained. While the Simplified General Met!J9dj
has the advantage of ease of computation tJU'.
uninitiated, the method n the present. cbcap:ter,Js f
more fundamental and hence, mor<) versatile.
methods involve the' same amount of work.
A single-plsne system with expansion perpe11di.~
..i.'0
l ;
'LI
lar to the plane ouly, requires the soliutiion
rotation and one displacement equations.
equations are entirely independent of those. :
expansion in the plane. For a line such ""~!'' '
n
'
shown in Sample Calculation 5.1, if there is
sion in the z-direction, M,, M., and F, _,,.,. "h,
found. This case can he solved by foll.owing~thi u
procedure and nsing the forro sheets des1Cri1hed
multiplane systems in Section 5.12.
5.6 lnclined Members and Changes in
ness
The procedure for calculating a line h1ving ;trodgiJLt
members which are inclined to. the coordinate
departs but little from that described in SC<:tion 5,;5,;
The ouly difference lies in the use of ttlh~e:::~;
formulas in the calculation of the shape c
s = kQL 1 = (b X s.) + s(L /12) cosa sil.
2
~ =a X s = (a X s.) + s(L /12) cos" a
2
2 2
= b X s = (b X sb) + s(L /12) sin a
where a is the angle of inclination measured
the positive horizontal axis to the member as shc>wrt)
tive in clockwise direction.
Sample Calculstion 5.1 is calculated for 10 in. t!.J
standard pipe, A-106, Grade A material. It is
apparent that for the same expansion the magnitude, .''. .-r
of the moment and the forces is in direct proportion , . l
to the stiffness El. Hence, for any pipe with
stiffness of ENlN the moment and forces may
-
attained by dividing those shown in the exa.mple by
Q = El/EN! N, or multiplying the summation co-
U
.
ef!icients by Q and solving the equations.
y y
a
'------------L---x
b
'-_;_ ___
FIG. 5.2 Angle of inclina.tion of straigbt members.
,
LJ
 .'
1

FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 121

y
5:00'

-.-~-,--+<'----
-~ '
!i!
1-----} .

~~~ ij{
11,
lly
11,

~
r _,
~ 1 iiC.

''
. ~ psi

:::- ,

'"?

.. ~
]22 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
~.n]
L1
O'Z tA
n
lil
F./ 1~. j-.:l
y

M.u~
~~y u
1,1;~
5.00' /S.lXJ' {J.i>b'
J]f
~
o 8 X. 1

~
i._J
MP. 430,.

~
!,
~
li
1
l;,
n
ii
p
Ax
lly ~ ~
oa 17'
llz o
t1
~~,;-,;, ~ 1 ~ ~ Se~
~ /./JGOO ~ n
u
n
1

= ~ ~ ,,
i

"

n
' ps;
HM~ ~~,
.
TI-E MW KF1 r flht, COl
;
1

l
.l ) FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 123

-- -~ Sample Calculation 5.2 salves a system having b = vertical distance from origin to center of are,
two slopingmembera one of which is of smaller size ft.
than the remainder of the pipe. The shape coeffi- q. = are of member, radians (when used directly).
cients are computed from the formulas given above a = angle measured counterclockwise from posi-
using an inclination angle, a = +45 for member tive hozontal axis to the initial: tangent
0'-1 and a= -30 for member 2-A. It will be (more easily visualized as the angle between
noted that the membera for O' to 2 are of 8 in. pipe a negative vertical axis and the normal at
while member 2-A is of 6 in. pipe with a Q value of the initial point of tangency).
2.58. In evaluating the stresses, the reduced section
Tl;te calculations of the shape coefficiente for cir-
modulus of the 6 in. pipe accounte for the fact that,
cular membera are facilitated by the use of Form D.
while the maximum moment is at point O', the
This form has space for two different members and
maximum stress is at point A.
also provides for the calculation of the additional
5.7 Circular Members coefficiente needed for expansion out of the plane
or for multiphine lines.2 The ariangement of the
Members such as bends and elbows which are in
form provide8 for a convenient sequence of computa-
the form of circular ares reqnire more labor in the
tion. The procedure is as follows:
calculation of the shape coefficiente than do straight
The given constante, k, Q, R, a, .P, a, and b are
members. Hence, the substitution of square cornera
listed in the respective spaces and 2a, a 2, 2b, b2, and
is common practice in flexibility analysis. This
: (Lb ar alculatsd .'.The tgonometc constants .P,
matter was discussed at sorne length in Section 4. 7
in radianS~ ca,--C~, :c~,-caa, cbb _are entered. For the
wherein it was shown that, in many cases, square-
most commonly occurng shapes (.P = oo and
. corner solutions are not advisable.
a = o, 90, 180, or 270), numecal values of the
The calculation of circular members is introduced
trigonometc constante are given on the form sh"':t.
by means of another single-plane line. The pro-
A more complete tabulation of these constante Wlll
cedure of Section 5.5 again applies with a few excep-
be found in Table G-15 in Appendix C, which
tions. In the Pipe and Expausion Data on Form A,
includes additional values for both .P and a. The
it is necessary to enter the values of R, the radius
functions kQR, kQR 2 , kQR3 are then calclilated.
of the are, in feet.. The flexibility characteristic h, ted ,
The coeffiCients s, s1 111
a, s b, s _ab, s aa are. compu
the flexibility factor k, and the stress intensification
each succeeding coefficient being the cross product
factor f3 are determined in accordance with the
of column 1 by the adjacent tgonometc constant.
Piping Code (see also Chapter 3 herein). The shape
The multiplications 8 X a, 8 X b, etc., s'a X b,
coefficiente for the circular membera are calculated
s'a X 2a, etc., are performed and the summations
from thefol!owing relationshiis:
made vertically to obtain sa, etc.
s=kQR.P s"'= (sXab)+ (8 1.Xb) To illnstrate the solution of a system with curved
+
(s' 6Xa)+8' membera the line calculated previously with square
sa= (sXa)+s'. . = (sXa 2 )+('.X2a)+' cornera .:S Sample Calculation 5.1 is presented as
Sample Calculation 5.3. It is assumed that the
s6 = (sXb)+s', s66 = (sXb2 )+ (s',X2b)+' '' bends are made with long-radius welding elbows,
where since they are the most commonly used fittings.
1Multiplane shape ooefficients are given in Section 5.8.
s'a=kQR2ca '=kQR3c.,
'=kQR2c, s' =kQR'c y
s'.. =kQR3cbb
and e
c0 =cosa-cos (a+ .P)
c6 = sin a - sin (a+ .P)
Cab = 0.25[cos 2(a + .P) - cos 2a]
Cao = 0.54>- 0.25[sin 2(a + .P) -sin 2a]
Cbb = 0.54> + 0.25[sin 2(a + .P) - sin 2a]

As indicated in Fig. 5.3

a = horizontal distance from origin to center of
are, ft. Fio. 5.3 Angles for circular members.
 ... n.
124 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS ~ _j
u
y

t'+
...
J!i.OO'

-+4 X n
u
'

ll
~ 1--o- ~.

n
..
"
..

<><:>
~

unl
,\
.
zs:.oo J .'i
i
D
.
~.

~... 1 L] -. ~ . \] - fJ
e~' . .'

~F- 1

~- STRESS

ITHE MWK 1 nr..r. CO.I ~ F~~' H~A'~ ;r, ;ss ANALYSis ~ ilJli.

--u
 \_ ~
FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 125
The sketch on Form A shows the location of the e = perpendicular distance of the projected plane
curved membef!!.. The data are taken from Sample from the parallel coordinate plane, ft. (See
Calculation .5.1, with the addition of the R, h, k, Section 5.11.)
and (3. On F.orm. B-1, the a and b distances of the
To expedte the calculations, it is recommended that
members are Bet up in accordance with the instruc-.
the formulas for horizontal (a = O) atid vertical
tions given in. Section 5.5 and the straight members .
(a = 90) members be committed to memory.
are computed . Tbe circular members are computed
For circular ares in space problema, the shape
on Form' D,-1, . Sample Calculation 5.5, and the ,
coefficients to be calculated are as given in Table 5.4.
resulta are transferred to Form B-1. The rest of
The symbols k, Q, R, the trigonometric constnts
,the calc!!la~i~nis. ma.de as in previous cases.
c., e,, etc., and the distsnces a and b are defined
5.8 General Shape Coefficients in Sections 5.6 and 5.7. The distsnce e is defind as
-
' y
~ . for straight members.
When ..either the expansions or the members lie
1 outside a single plane, it.is necesssry to calculate 5.9 The Seeondary Term
additional shape coefficienta beyond those already
The shape coefficient q, . known as the secondary
given in th preceding sections. For straight mem-
term, representa the effect of a transverse bending
bers the complete set of coefficienta to be computed
. moment on torsional rotation anda torsional moment
l are given, togetber with their formulas, in Table 5.3
on transverse bending rotation. Ita magnitude is
.. 3
r,
The qllliJ.tity r..
denotes the mean radius of .the
relatively small when compared with the other
cross section infeet and. the distsnces a, b, and, e
shape coefficienta and varies with the transverse
are defined as follows:
'N fiexibility factor, becoming zero when this factor is
hori~ontal distance of tbe midpoint of tbe
1,

j ' 'a = equal to 1.3. It is also zero for vertical or horizontal

' ]
1
1 ii stra.ightmember concerned from the coor-.
dinate origin, ft.
straight members and for circular members if the
trigonometric coefficient c.,is zero.
1 b =vertical' distance of the midpoint of the The effect of omitting q in the calculations of a
1
ll
'

..
l

' f1 straight member concerned from the coor-

dinate origin, ft.
particular pipe line is illnstrated in Fig. 5.4. A
quarter-circular bend with equal tangenta is fixed
' ''
. tw.
~~-
Table S.S Shape Coefficlenta_ for Straight Members
' i !
Ll Coeflicient a=O a=a

kQL kQL kQL

..

.
'
2 1
'i
{
i ..
q
a
b X
o
xa aXB
bXs
o
a X
bXB
(1.3 - k )QL cos a sin a
cq o o eXq
}
j u 8 1.3QL (k cos' a+ 1.3 sin' a)QL
.
u.
cu

eX u.
aXu
eX u
(a X u) - (b X q)
ex u
'

V l.3QL (ksin' a+ 1.3 ces' a)QL

cv
bxv
cxv

eX v
(b X v) -
e XV
(a X q)

sL'
Bab + e 2g bX 8a b X a. b X +12eosasina +e X cq
cu, e X Uo e X Uo e X u.
cv. e X Vo e X Vo e X V0
L' sL'
s + cZv aX+12+eXcv axs.+cxcv a X s. + 12 cos' a+ e X cv

aw, + c2u bX+excu

. . L'
bX+l2+exeu
sL'
b X +12sin'a +e X cu

Uoo + Voo axu.+bXv,+

L' aXu,+bxv.+
sL' sL'
aXu.+bXo.+12
12 12
S 2.6Qrft'L 2.6Qr.'L 2.6Qr.'L
u 2.6Qr.'L 0.5Qr. 2L Qr.'L(2.6 cos'a + 0.5 sin'a)
V 0.5Qrft'L 2.6Qr.'L Qr.'L(2.6 sin' a+ 0.5 eos' a)
w o o Qr.'L(2.1 sin a cosa)
126 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Table 5.4 Shape Coefficients for Circular Memhers at both ends against rotation but one end is displaced
8 kQRil! relative to the other in a direction perpendicular to
' + (a X s) the plane of the line. The moments and forces

q ' + (b X s)
QR(k - 1.3)C:..
resulting from the displacement of end .A are plo,tte<L.<
for varim:is values of the hend radius. and
eq eXq
QR (kc., + 1.3e )
f!exibility factors k = 1, 1.3, and 5. The con1tinuouts
u, u'.+ (u X a) - (q X b) lines include the term q while the dashed ...
cu (e X u) neglect q. Inspection of these curves shows that if
V QR(kc + I.ae.. ) the circular memberforms a small part. f
v', + (v X b) - (q X a) Une, the effect of oinitting q in the calulatic>ns.is
(e X v)
negligible. However, if the circular member repre;-
' + (s'. X b) + (' X a)+ (s X ab) sents the entire pipe line, errors of , considerable
+ (eq X e)
cu. e X Uo magnitude will arise.. For most pipe lines, circular
cv. e X Vo members form but a small part of the whole; there'-
s.. + e'v
'" + e'u
Uoo + Voo
s'.. + (2a X s'.) + (s X a 2 ) + (cv X e)
s'" + 2b X ' + (s X b') + (cu X e)
[u'~+ '~1 + (2a X u',)+ (2b X v'.)
fore, the omission'of q is juStified. By so.
substantial amount of time is saved in manuale atcn-"''
lations because the solution ofequations imd tbe .
llll. '

+ (u X a 2) + (v X b')
-2abXq calculation of shape coefficients " l0 and (u.;.+ v..) n
S
u
2.6Qr.,'Ril!
Qr.,'R(2.6e" + 0.5c..)
is simplified.' . .
To show the effect of omitting q in, case of a nr>U>-~
!J
V Qr.,'R(2.6c.. + 0.&..)
tJ
tical pipe line, the well-known Hovgaa:d confignra-
w -.2.1Qr.,'Rc..
tion [4,5] has been calculated both with and without
where s'a-= kQR 2ca the q-term. The summary sheet of this calculation is
s', = kQR'c, :
1
8 ob = kQR 3c(l.b shown as Sample Calculation 5.4. It is seen that
s'... = kQR'c.. in this case the effect of the secondary term .is en-
'" = kQR'e" tirely negligible. . .
u'o = I.3QR 2c4 It should be noted that the secondary term is
v'o = 1.3QR 2cb neglected in aii examples given in suhsequent sections
u'.. + v',. = 1.8QR'il! +-J.
y '
'L'

r
~

'. .1
L

1
..J
!

~ ' 1
' '
i
' 1 ., FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 127
1

of thls chapter. In most configurations this modifi-

cation reduces calculating time without introducing
any appreciable error.
5~10 Effects ofi>irect llnd Shear Fo~
Direct tension or compression as well as shear
) coefficients, denoted S, U, V, W, will, like the sec-
::::'l ,':'-
ondary term, also be neglected in the subsequent
portions of thls chapter. These effects ordinarily
have little significance in ;practica! piping systems
and it would appear that their neglect would always
yield resulta on the safe side. Nevertheless, they
may be included readily when they are considered
of interest iri the calculation of abnormal layou ts.
The expresSions necessary to determine ~the shape
coefficients were given in Tablea 5.3 and 5.4 in
Section 5.8. These shape coefficients are added to
the shape coefficients previously describe<! as follows:
u.. +.v.. +.S; b+c"u+V; s +.~v+.U;
2
8a6+.c q +.W

5.11 Working Planes and Cyclic Pennutation

When the piping lies in more than one plane, the
solution of the fiexibility problem increases in com-
plexity. To introduce the tlrd dimension, each
member is assigned to a "working plane" for the 1. 2 3 4 5 6 7 e .o
calculatiori of the shape coefficients. 3 RAOIUS R (F'T.)

A working plane is designated by the. coordinate
axis to whlch it is perpendicular. That is, the x-plane
is any vertical plane at right angles to the x-axis;
the y-plane is any horizontal plane at right angles
to the y-axis, and the z-plane is any vertical plane
at right angles to the z-axis. The planes whlch pass
through the coordinate origin are called coordinate
planes. All other planes are identified by their
perpendicular distances, designated e, .from their
respective coordinate planes. For calculation of
the slape coefficients, the working planes are pro-
Fl:G. 5.4 Effect of the secondary tenn on a symmetrica190"
bend with various lengtbs of tangente.
jected on the coordinate planes which are orientad :
as shown in Fig. 5.5.
The counterclockwise sequence of the axes should
be noted. The transfer from one projected plane
to the next in succession is achleved by changing the
designations x, y; and z, in the order shown in the
following triangle:

.1\,
~hiS is in contrast to the Simplified General Method of
Section 4.6 where each member was considered in three
planes.

)------

x-Piane '
z-Pione

Fm. 5.b Projections of the working planes.

128
This is the principie of cyclic permutation which
permits the formulas developed for one plane to be
converted into formulas for the two remaining
planes by a simple change of subscripts. Thus, for-
mulas for the x-plane are developed from the z-plane
by substituting y for x as the horizontal axis and
z for y as the vertical axis. Correspondingly, F.,
F., and M, become Fy, F., and M, respectively.
Figure 5. 6 shows a pipeline sketched in the standard
DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
coordinate system with the working planes indicated.
Figures 5.6a to 5.6e show the projections of the
members on the coordinate planes. The c-values
give the distances from the coordinate planes, with
the subscript denoting the respective plane.
In the breakdown of a piping system, each mem-
ber, whether straight or curved, is assigned to a-
plane compatible with its location n. the line. No
member may be assigned to more than one plane,
nor changed from one plane to another. while the _ :
solution is in progress. This is mportant in con~-
nection with straight members running parallel to a
coordinate axis since there is always a choice of two
possible working planes to which any one of
members can be assigned at the option of the cru.---.-<'-
culator. This does not hold for sloping or curvM
members which define their own planes and leave
the calculator no choice. -
5.12 Multiplane Pipe Lines with Two
Ends
In order _that the reader may readily follow
somewhat more complex operations of the
plane calculations, a step by step procedure is again . -
given. _ .-.c,:u;;,;c.

---L, o'
Steps 1 to 5. Steps 1 to 5 dupl\cate those given in
Chapter 4. Multiplane systems are sketched on
FormA unless more space is required for the drawing
3 - in which case it is made on Form A--1. Form A is
o y f__-l
/ then used only for data and results. The vertical i ';
X
/ x-Piane
c.. =-c 1 legs of space systems are customarily representad u
() as parallel to the y coordinate axis.
Step 6. The calculation of the shape coeflicients
)---,.-- requires the lllisignment of members into workirig i
/s 7 planes. For the beginner, it is recommended that
y-Pione
/ c,.=o
y sketches. be made of the projections of the members ' '
e, in their respective planes; with practice they may -

")----
be mentally visualized. It is a practica! rule to
5

3
(b) (e),/
/
z-PIOne
C:r.=O
arrange the subdivisions so that a mnimum number
of working planes is created, and to favor the plane
]
J
~-

including the coordinate axes so as to reduce the

' number of operations required in setting up the
simultaneous equations.
Step 7. On Form D-2 enter the quantities k, Q,
R, a, b, e, L, L 2 /12 for each member. Since it is

.1
necessary to sum the coef!icients for each plane
7 y ' separately, the data should be arranged so that this
/
/
L.:::'. ,;
/
can be done smoothly.
y-Picme
Step 8. Have Steps 1 to 7 checked.
C1 =+C 2
e, Step 9. Compute the shape coeflicients for each
x-PICIMI
c.. =o (d)
A
(e)
member in accordance with the formulas given in
Section 5.8. When curved members are involved,
FIG. 5.6 Sketch of line showing working planes. auxiliary Form D-1 is used to compute s, sa, sb, Sab,
 - 1 1 : FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL .ANALYTICAL METHOD
.. 't
8 041 Bbb, u, v, q, U01 V0 and ( U 00 +V 00 ). These values
are then entered on Form D-2 where the coefficients
cq, cu, cv, cu., cv., and <
+ d'q), (s + c2v),
( + c u) are calculated.
2 - M 1r,=.M'.-cosa- M'vaina:
Step 1O. Sum al! the coefficients for the x, y,
and z planes separately.
Step 11. Have Steps 9 and 10 checked.
Step 12. Transfer the summations from Step 10
to Form. Dca, entering them as indicated according
to their planes. Sum the contributions from each
plane to obtain the final coefficients A,., A ..., etc.
for the equations. Enter these on the equation form,
Form E-1, together with the constants from FormA.
Step 13. Have Step 12 checked.
Step 1 +
Solve and check the simultaneous equa-
tions.
Step 15. Transfer the values obtained in Step 14
to Form F-1 and calculate the moments at the sig-
nificant points using the poinlrto'point. transfer
described in Step 8 . for the .Simplified General
Method in Chapter 4. . In the systems considered thus far in this chapter,
Step 16. Determine the m.axiiD.um stress. This is
done in a manner similar to that for the Simplified
General Method, but since it is now possible to
handle inclined members, a provision is made to find
the bending moment transverse to the plane, and
the torque.
The plane in which the point lies defines M,, but
M'b and M, are found by an application of the.
formulas in Table 5.5. . any combination of the six components of deforma-
The operations are performed on Form F-1 by
following the guide shown for the respective planes.
Points on members which are parallei"to the coor-
dinate axes (i.e. where a.= o or 90) may be said to
le in tw0 of the three possible planes. When no (3
factor is involved, both alternativas will give the
same stress. When (3 is involved, however, the point
in question mnst be placed in the plane which will
give the higher stress because (3 is applied to bending
stresses ouly.
Step 17. Enter resulta on Form A.
Step 18. Have Steps 15, 16, and 17 checked.
Sample Calculation 5.5 illnstrates the computation
of a multiplane system with two points of fixation.
. 129
Table 5.5
Members in the x-plane:
Mr, =M': . .
M, .~M'r~cosO:~M'.sin
Members in the y-plane:
M, = M' .
M'r, = M'sCOBa- M'~ sin a
Me = M'.cosa+M'ssina
Members in the z-plane:
Mb =M'.
.M'r. = M1rCOSa .;_ M'ssina
M, = M':cosa_+M'r~sina
. .
The reader will. note" that this line was computed
with square cornera in Chapter 4 as Sample Calcula-
tion 4.13.
5.13 .Hinged Joints ..md Partially. Constrained
Ends
the fully anchored connection was the ouly type of
terminal constraint .discussed since it closely repre-
senta the fixity of most piping. In sorne cases, e.g.
jointed systems as described in Chapter 7, open
ended lines, etc., different end conditions may exist.
The end may be fixed against translation but be
free to rotate; it may be free to move in one direction
but not in another; in fact, there may be freedom of
tion (three rotary, three translatory). These cases
can be handled with the aid of the equations in
Table 5.6, which lista the general equations of a
pipe line with two ends, A and O', subject to any
deformation. The shape eoefficients are summed
from A to O' to obtain the summation coefficients.
One of the simplest cases is that of the end which
is free to pivot, a practical example of which is the
system with the hinged expansion joint shown in:
Fig. 5. 7. When there is ouly one hinged end, tlie
simplest solution is to locate the origin of the coor-
dinate system at the center of the hinge.
Since the example is shown in the z-plane, the first,
second, and sixth columns and rows in Table 5. 6

. ~ Table 5.6 General Equations of a Pipe Line Subjeet to Deformation at Either End
},[, M. M, F, F. F, Constant
+A~: +A.., +As +Bss +B.. +Bs = +EI*(O.,.- O,o)
+A .. +A +Ars +B., +Bw +B., +EI*(o... - o.o)
+A:. +A.,. +A +Bu +B,, +B;-.. = +El*(O,.. - O,o)
+Bn +B +B.: +C.. +C +Cs +EI*[.,. - ,o -t. ... + (y.. o.... - ... o... ) - (yo O.o - Zo Ovo )]
+B:JI +Bw +B." +c.. +Cw +C,. = +El*[,.. - ,o -t. ... + (z.. o,.. -x.. o... )- (zo O,o- xo O,o)]
+Bs +BJI +B .. +C: +C., +C.. +EI*[,.. - ,o - t. ... + (x.. o... - YA O,...)- (xo o.o- YO' O.o )]
130 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

O'A

,_.., 15.00'
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~~My

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z ,o
X
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.
ll;\~ o
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8
r
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X-PLANE C.-- -.Js.oo

ANO FORC ; ILeJ AC TING ON

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HOT 1 -~ : ...-,_

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n-E Mw ~<~="1 1 nr,r:; ca F PING rg~

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. FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL. ANALYTICAL METHOD 131
i :
,- "'1'

, ,, , , ,,,, ,

7-1 1-z

, '
ILJ ,

mm~m~~~-I>B~~~-- 1?4 /05 ?8

o

L.:.rHE~M=.W'*~;L: :.l_QGca:_
=i~ e;~---"""' ll' _A_N-
 _j

_,_(!_

~
lL
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~ MW~LLOGl.i . Cl 1

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~
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lo
lo

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J
 1.
i FLEXIBILITY ANAL YSIS BY. THE GENERAL ANAL YTICAL METHOD 133

- j i .
i .
i '

/4 ""' o

THE "'-'"
s'o
1 nr.r.. coj PIPIN . !'l IT~NfT~~-"='S _;_~...la~f!i!
_

.
. . . ' .

~~;- ' .-
T}~~ :ooe -R~LEG ro
1
:. _ Jl '~- ;
;'--
,,'
- ~ ~ : ,_ __.: s, = fr s.
= PSI

~~
f
:- S'<

~- ~
1> (ti C)
~
....
~-
_
ib-i-"l.: :. ~..-~:-

:HE MWKFI 1nr.r.. COJ ,_,,,_,,N IT~Nf. RES SES

~
Fl
1
;1
'
 y
DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS.
y
n
u
l
i---------~o
~-u-;;-:-.-. ----fA
n.
K.l
f !
li
"'eq .. --. ~- n
o /e x H
o}---J
' ~ '
i
Fxo.. 5.8. System With two binge ioints.
~
_,,
'D'
Fxo. 5.7 Pipeline with one end hiDged. of the momen{eqatinfor line AB bythe __, .. _ ~ ;
!' __!
forces F and F .
:re omitt~ and since Mz, xA,- zO't a;A, uO', Bzo', Sample Calculation 5.6 covers a typical hinged
expansion joint system. In this simple case
fi
J.~
A, YA al! are equal to zero the equations may be
mtten thus: . F.= O, and F = El*A.!. .The ca8e.of
F.

F
-s~
Constant
-El*8,A
rotatio. joits where the flexibility 0f the' piping
not involved is co.;,ered in Chapter 7. :' ' -
It is also po.Sible to handle problems
il
.

1;
.

.
-Sab
~ +s(ui_'

+EI*A.A
+EI*Ai
el<ulticity of the termirud eonnedion haB a .gnificant
si'
''
-Bab effect. Of such c.Se8, the most m.poi1:.a.nt iS
tF and F are obtained by solving the deflection . of the rotation of a nozzle on a cylindclClil
[equations; the rotation at A m.9.y now be obtained In Section 3.14 it was.shown that the,rotation
!from the first equation. the nozzle dueto. shell def!ection could he~oressed n
i A more general case is shown in Fig.. 5.8. The in terms of a virtual length L, representig lJ
jpipe line has two hinge pints which are not located length of a fictitious extension with the ime gidit:r.~ B
!at the terminals. For convenience, the origin is as that of the pipe line. This value of L is nsed
i placed at a hinge point. . N oting that the moments
!>i>i,>t; are zer_o at both hinge po(nts, the following equations
the formulas of Table 5.7 to. calculate a set of shape
coefficients expressing the effect of nozzle rotation.
i"1.
.~are wntten: ' ., : The shape coefficientsobtained are
smply added ::

Equation M,(=O) F. Fv = Constants

1 + + -. = El*[(8,s - 81,s) + (8,.- 8'..)1
2 + = El*[- A.+ ys(8,s - 8',s)]

- + -Bab
3 -Bab +.. = EI*[-A.- zs(8,s- 8',s)]

where the shape coefficients are summed from O' toA. to those ordinarily calculated; hence a detailed ex". :
Eliminating the rotations in the def!ection equa- ample is not included. However, the resnlts of
tions: calculation made both with and without the effectt),
of nozzle rotation are shown in Section 3.14.
F.(zs- Ys.) + F.(yss - zss )
= El*(zsA. + YBA.) 5.14 Skewed Members
As F.ys = F,xs since M,= O, When a mem ber does not le i a coordinate
nor in a plane which is parallel to a coordinate plane ,
F = El*(zs 2 A, + zsy8 a_) it is said to be skewed. 'l'o calculate such a member
;e
2
;&a Sbb - 2XBYB8ab + YB 2 Baa or group of members, it is necessary to introduce an ,
auxi!iary coordinate system, one coordinate plane of .
F = El*(Ys 2 Au + znysA.)
which is parallel toa plane which includes the skewed
t1
2
XB Bbb - 2zBYBSab + YB 2Baa member, and the origin and one axis of which coin-
The rotation at B, (8,s - 81, 8 ), ca.1 be obtained 4If tbe piping is relatively stiff and the shell is rels.tively
from either of the eqs. (2) or (3), after which the flexible, the conventional assumption of rigid fixa.tion is
Ukely to lead to high ind.i.cated reactions and consequent
rotation at O, (8,. - 8' , 0 ), can he obtained from heavy nozzle reinforcement whereas recognition of the el..a.&-
eq. (1). The rotation 81,s is obtained by multiply- ticity of tbe sbell would show that rea.ctions are low a.nd rein-
ing the respective shape coefficients, ( and -s.), forcement is not required.
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 135

~.-1--"o!f--x

liZn'

Tahle 5.7 Shape Coefficients Expressing the Effeet of Nozzle Rotation

R

Position of
Nozzle
a b a b

L L L
aXL
bXL
a XL
bXL
a XL
bXL
q -Lsinacosa o o
cq eXq o o
LXcos2 a o L
.' "
" (a Xu) - (b X q) o e XL
.. ~ cu ex u o
V LX sin 2 a L o
v. (b X v) - (a X q) e XL o
cv eX v o
Bab + ct.q (a X ) + (e X cq) a X B a X Bb
eu. eX Uo o e X sa
'
cv(/ eX Vo eX Bb o
.
+ e'v (a X s.) + (e X cv) (a X s.) + (e X cv) aX Ba
+ (e X
'" + e2u
u~ + v..
(b X )
(a X u.)
where the virtuallength L is given by
+ (e X eu)
+ (b X v.) ...
b X (b X s,)

cu)

1
L=0.017-3
(R)lS
-
rm t
1 = momeni of inertia, in. 4, of the pipe in the system corresponding to Q = l.
r,.. = mean radius of nozzle, in.
R = mean radius o vessel, in.
t = thickness of shell with pad included, in.

1
136 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Table 5.8 Formulas for Plane Rotating about x-Axis
M, F,
+A.':u cosa +A':u: cosa +B'z11 COSO: +B'~~~cos-a:
+A' zz: -A' z: sin a +A' sin a
%V +B':~: -B'z sino: +B' %JI sin a
+A'1111 cos 2 a +A'11 zcos2a +B'11z cosa +B'1111 cos 2 a +B' 11 .-c~s 2 o:
+A' sin 2 o: +(A'u- A'u) sin2 2a -B'u sin a +B'usin 2 a -B'.11 sin2 a
-A'.,.sin2a - (B' + ~' ,.) sin22a . + (~,vv ._:_:_ B'...) sh~2a
+A'ucos 2 a +B'u cosa +B'su cos 2 o: +B'ucos 2 a:
+A'1111 sin2 a +B'":sino: -B'SJsin 2 o: . +B'w sin2 a
+A'Jiz sin 2a +(B'1111 _ B'1&/1. ) sin22a- + (B' + B'.,) sin22a
f1
+C':r:u cosa
-C'= sino:
+C':zCOSa:
+C' Zfl sin a H
+C'1111cos 2 a +C srecos2a
1
[]. '

F'z = F: +C':uBin2 a +(C' JIJI _ C' ) sin22a

F'11 F 11 cosa+ F. sin a -C 11111 sin2a
.;
:
;-,
.
.. ].
F'. = F,cosa- F11 sina
M':r. =M: +C':ucos 2 a t
M'11 = M 11 cosa+Mzsina
M'.= M .cosa- M 11 sina
+C'1111 sin2 o:
+C'11zsin 2a ,-.1
S
j

Tahle 5.9 Formulas for Plane Rotating about y-Axis :n1J

M, M., Fz F11 F,
+A':zcos 2 a +A'%1/cosa +A'zeCOS2a +B'u cos 2 a -t- B'z" cosa +B' z cos 2 a
+A'..-.sin 2
a +A'".,sina . ('
+Au-Azz- ')sin2a
- +B'u sin 2 a +B'~'~~sina -B'usin 2 a
2
, , sin 2a
+A'za:Bin2a + (B " + B ,.) - 2 - + (B ' :z
_ B' ) sin 2a
zz 2

+A'11 cosa +B'vz cosa +B'v., cosa

+A.' vu -A'z11 Bna +B' 11c sin a +B'w -B'vz sin a
+A'.., cos2 a2
+B'.,11 cosa +B'ucos 2 a
+A'usin a: -B'z11 sina +B'usin 2 a
-A'z sin 2a - (B 1,. + B .,) -sin2a
1

2
-

+C' zz ~os 2 a +C' z11 cosa +C' zc cos 2a

+C'u sin 2 a +C ' 11csina + (C' n -C' zz )~
2
+C'u sin 2a
+C'vcCOSa
F'z = Fzcosa:- F. sin a +C'1111 -C'zt~ sin a
F'" = Fv
F'. = Fccosa+Fzsina +C'n cos 2 a
J.Y'z = JfzCOBO:- M. sin a +C' zz sin 2 a
JI'u= M"
J.lf'. = ltf.,cosa +
lt{zsina -C' .... sin 2a
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD
cide with those of the principal coordinate system.
The shape coefficients are computed the regular way
in this auxiliary system and then transformed to the
principal coordinate system by means of the formulas
of Tables 5.8, 5.9, and 5.10.
Figure 5.9 sbows a pipeline in which members 2-5
are shown in a plane rotated a 1 off the standard
y-axis, and members 8-A are shown in a plane ro-
tated a 2 off the standard x-axis. The entire system
is shown broken up
into working planes. Since two
different skews are involved, they must be handled
separately. It is possible to set up skewed members
in each of two skewed planes. To illustrate this,
members 11 to 5 are sbown in both x'- and y'-planes,
depending upon the selection of the prime axes and
of the corresponding direction of the angle a 16
Members 8-A are shown ouly in a z'-plane, but
the reader will see they could have been set up in
an x'-plane also. However, the shape coefficients
are computed only once in one or other of the two
possible planes.
The c-value for members O'-2 is readily apparent
by inspection as K 1 For members 8-A, remember-
'The rotation of the planes follows the general rule: counter-
clockwise positive; clockwise negative; so tha.t a in Fig. 5.9e
is a. positive, and in Fig. 5.9/, a negative, angle.
137
ing that e is the perpendicular distance of the
projected plane from the parallel plane at the co-
ordinate origin, e is equal to K 2 sin a 2 shown on
Fig. 5.9g. The signs of K 1 and K 2 sin a 2 indicate
the direction of these distances from the coordinate
origin in their auxiliary planes. It will be noted
that member 2-3 could have been placed in the
z-plane with members O'-2 as an inclined member.
The choice is arbitrary. Likewise member 8-9
culd have been placed with members 6-8. Also
member 12-A could have been placed in a z- or
x-plane, but here, in the interest of keeping down
the number of working planes, it is most advisedly
calculated as part of the z'-plane.
Sample Calculation 5. 7 shows the main steam sys-
tem for a power station, calculated from the boiler
header to the throttle valve (at 0). The expansiona
of the turbine leads and connections and the super-
heater header (usually given by the manufacturera)
are included. The turbine leads as indicated by
dotted lines are assumed to be infinitely stiff. The
members 0 1 to 2 are calculated in the '-plane for
a = -45. Once the coefficientS are converted on
Form D-5 according to the formulas given in
Table 5.9, the procedure is the same as for the
previous multiplane systems, except that the co-

Table 5.10 Form.ulas for Plane Rotating about %-Axis

M, M, F,
+A'zz cos 2 a +A'z11 cos2a +A'u cosa +B'ucos 2 a +B'qcos2 a +B'= cosa
+A'vusin a 1 +(A'= - A'.,) sin22a -A'11.sina +B'wsin 2
a: -B'11:sin2 a ...:.B' 11 sin a
-(B'.Q +B'JIZ)sin2a , , sin2a
-A'~ sin 2a 2 +(B .. - B ) - -
2

+A'"11 cos1 a +A'"11 cosa +B'11:cos 1 a +B'1111 cos1a +B' 11 11cosa

+A'.usin1 a +A'::n sin a -B'"" sin1 a +B'::Bin2 a: +B':.sina
+A'.. sin2a ( '
+B_.- sin2a +(B'.. + B'.,) sin22a
B' )-2-

+B'.:cosa +B'~~,.cosa
+A'n -B'c"sina +B'usina: +B'u
+C'== cos 1 a +C'"" cos 2a: +C' ., cosa
+C'"" sin 1 a +(C':z- C' 11") sin 2a: -C'":rsina
2
-C'"" sin 2o:
M',= M.
F'. = F: cosa+ F11 sina +C'"" cos2 a +C' 11 cosa
F' 11 = F11 cosa -F=sina +C' :'ll sin1 a +C' = sin a
F'. =F. +C'11' sin 2a:
M'== M:cosa + M 11 sina
Af 111 =M" cosa- M:sina +C'u
133 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
o' 1 2 3

7

z

y
y-Plane :z-Pfone
e,.= o e,= o

"0"-------z
(b)
1

v
7
(e)

o~'
y
x'

. .j_.
sl=a:.::~

Ci,=O

(e)
3

2
1;.=- (90~a1 l"y'-Pio~
Cy'=O
(f)
8

'-----"'-------'
A
:r.'-f'loM . -;
C.= - K2 sln

(g)
cx2

3 2 FIG. 5.9 Multiplane. configuration with ekewed membera.

'[J
~--
(

$;/t"t!!f.HEATt!R HEI'I*R.
1 CoHNe<:rtON.

j
'.]
.

.]~-
 FLEXIBILITY ANAL YSIS BY THE GENERAL ANAL YTICAL METHOD 139

rl '""~f
z.-. .
..
~ 6'R
~ 4 1

"' 1 '~,;
1
1 14.2.S'r
_;. e~
..,

.l
n
 140 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

- -~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~---------~u!~
 --
n
i\
_)

l Cl
l
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FLEXIBILITY ANAL YSIS BY THE GENERAL ANAL YTICAL METHOD Hl

]
IPLANE
2-o
e
<' ;
'

'l '
l SHAPE LJ -._ D --~
i u
j r
' 10?
L 100
IC<
1"-"

r,
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 144 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEl\1S

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 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY 1HE GENERA-L A-l'.!ALYTICAL l\IETHOD 145
f
L, efficients from the skewed planes are added on Table 5.ll
Form D-3 above the spaces !or the x-,
y-, and ~~
r z-planes. M,p F,p F,p
. 1
.lf,s F,s F,s 1 ,tant
M,Q F,Q F,Q
e 5.15 BrS:nchoo Systems Ap
1
------i---------1
Bp Dp A.n Bn
i-----
DR ; A.r Br DT j O

f;
The procedure . for calculating a piping system Bp Cp Gp BR Cn Gn i Br Cr Gr 1 EJ*jzp
with branches follows that for a line with .only two Dp Gp Hp Dn Gn HR 1 Dr Gr Hr 12"'"
'' end points except for certain steps in obtaining the
An Bn . Dn AQ BQ DQ 1 An Bn Dn O
equations, ii particular, the calculation o! the Hn Cn Gn BQ CQ GQ Bn Cn Gn HE* "-Q
( movements, and the summation o! the shape co- Dn Gn Hn 1 DQ GQ HQ 1 Dn Gn HR El* "-vQ
i efficients. Only those operations which are unlike -----+----.1-----1----
~; ~; g; ~= ~= g: i ~: ~: g: 1 El~ "-S
r-l those for two point .systems, previously described
cj" r in Section 5.12, are discussed.in this section. 1
Dr Gr Hr Dn GR Hn Ds Gs Hs EJ*).!is
In calculating the movements, e.xpansion is con- '
re1 siderad to be directed from the fixed end, designated
, i<
O', to the end points o! each o! the branches, called Table 5.12
' '
free ends, which for the four-branch system' shown F,p F,Q F,s F,p F,s Constant
L in Fig. 5.10 are designated P, Q, and S. Therefore, .
Mzp llfzQ },fzs
.4p .{.Ar Bp Bn Br Dp
F,Q
Dn Dr o
the movement in the x- and y-directions from O' to AQ An Bn BQ BR Dn Do Dn o
o
F
! each free end and the products El* t.x and El* t.u As Br Bn Bi Dr Dn Ds
~ must be deternrined separately. Cp c. Cr Gp Gn GT EI*t::.%p
'

f'
1 1 In calculating the shape coefficients, it is good CQ c. G GQ
Gn
Gn EI*!l.,Q
El* j,::r,'>
Cs Gr Gs

"j
l~_;
-

i-ni
l
11
!
n practice to set them up and sum them separately
for each branch involved. The branch !rom the
first intersection between two free end branches to
the fixed end O' is called the common branch with
Hp Hn
HQ
HT
Hn
Hs
El*.;).up
El*D.uQ
El* j,yS

-; \ respect to the said free end branches. Hence, the
L common branch is O'R !or branches P and Q, O'T
' for S and P, and O'R for S and Q. In setting up
1
r
(
the equations for the free end branches, the shape
coefficients are summed from the free end under
consideration to the fixed end 0'. The coefficients
'
; thus obtained are multiplied by the respective reac-
tions at the free ends, designated as M,p, FzPo FuP;
M,Q, FxQ, F.Q; M,s, Fxs, F,s. The effect of one
free-end branch on another is obtained by multiply-
ing the reactions of the former by the coefficients o!
their common branch. Designating the shape co-
efficients as A, B, C, D, G, H and indicating their
r-----------~s
T~----------~P
~----------~0
0',1-----'
1 In setting up the coordinates for the calculation
FIG. 5.10 Four--hranch system.
sum from a point under consideration to the fixed
end O' with the corresponding subscript letter. the
system of equations given in Table 5.11 can be set up.
It is usually advantageous to arrange the equa-
tions so that the rotation equations first appear, and
then the def!ection equations, since the constants
for the former are O. This is shown in Table 5.12.
In this rearrangement the symmetry of t he co-
efficients is preserved. As in previous problems,
only the quantities on and to the right of the prin-
cipal diagonal, need be set up on the equation forro
sheet. Once obtained, the equations are solved in
the usual manner.
The moments are calculated on Sheet F-1. Here
again, each branch is grouped separately. The
!orces and moments obtained from the equations
are the reactions at the coordinate origin of the
branches P, Q, and S. Accordingly, these values
are entered on the form sheet for the appropriate
branch; thus the moments and !orces with the sub-
script S are for the branch 8-T, the moments and
!orces with the subscript Pare for the branch P-T,
and those with subscript Q are for branch Q-R.
For the branch T-R, the sum of P and S is used;
for the branch O'-R, the sum o! S, P, and Q.
of the moments at various points, a point-by-point
Wi DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
.--------1 p
~-----------io
ot-------'
FIG. 5.1la Three-branc.h system.
method is used, proceeding from S to T, from P
to T, T to R, from Q to R, and from O' to R. For
the junction point R the sum of the moments must
equal zero. This condition serves as a check for
t.he calculations.
When the results are entered on Sheet A, it must
be remembered that O' is the end assumed "fixed,"
and P, Q, and S are the ends assumed "free." The
guide for the signs given in Chapter 4 also applies
here.
As a suitable example, the three-branch system
given as Sample Calcu]ation 5. 7 has been enlarged
to include the flexiblity of the leads from the
throttle valve to the turbine. This calculation is
labeled 5.8.
The workng planes for these leads are shown on
Form A-L The computation and the summation
of the new coefficients are shown on Forms D-2 and
t.he summations with previous coefficients from
Sample Calculation 5.8 are shown on Forms D-3.
Since this is a multiplane system with 3 points of
fixation, 12 simultaneous equations are required for
the solution. These are set up and solved with the
standard procedure on Forms E-2 and E-3 and the
moments and stresses are determined on Forms F-L
The check of these equations is not shown but is
carried out in a manner similar to that shown for
six equations in Sample Calculation 5.5, Form E-L
5.16 lntermediate Restraints
Discussion of the details of the various stops and
guides used as intermediate restraints will be re-
served for Chapter 8. The present section will give
t.he procedure for including their effects in the flexi-
bility analysis. Although applicable to any type of
restraint the treatment will be confined for sim
plicity of presentation to restraints which prevent
t ranslatory but not rotary movement.
The problem of the intermedate restraint may
be approached from the branched system dscussed
in Section 5.15. Referring to Fig. 5.1Ja, the branches
0'-R-P may be considered a pipeline which is acted
upon by the restraint of branch R-Q. If the rnem-
bers of the branch R-Q are now. reduced to zero
length so that point Q coincides with point R, all
the coefficients with the subscript Q will become
zero. The moment, forces, and expansions with
that subscript may be given the subscrpt R. The
six equations which could be written for this single-
plane system would still be valid although, since
the point R is now an anchor, it would be simpler to
solve the system as two separate lines, 0 1-R and
R-P. Consider, however, that the _line is allowed
to pivot at point R, so that the moment at point R
caused bythe restraintiszero. AsshowninFig. 5.11b,
the system now becomes a single line with fixed
terminals of points O' and P and with no translatory
displacement permitted at point R.
The first six equations of Table 5.13 are written
in accordance with Table 5.11, based on summed
shape coefficients A, B, ---H for which the subscripts
P and R indicate suinmations from those points .re-
spectively to the iixed end 0'. The seventh equa-
tion expresses the. fact that there is no moment
restraint at point R. The unknown rotation at
point R, OzR, is eliminated by multiplying eq. 4
by -yR and +xR and by adding these equations
to eqs. 5 and 6 respectively as shown in Table 5.14.
Finally, to satisfy the relation expressed by eq. 7,
the coefficients in the MzR column are multiplied
by (-yR) and (+xR), and tbe products are added
to the coefficients in the F zR- and F R-columns
respectively. The equations obtained are given in
Table 5.15.
lt should be noted that if MzR = -yRFzR +
xRF yR is written out as illustrated in Table 5.14,
the correct signs are obtained for the constante by
which the rotation equation is multiplied for addi
tion to the two def!ection equations.
For a multiplane line the following moment ex-
pressions must be written:
.-------1
0'1--------'
FIG. 5.llb Intermediate restraints.
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL l\IETIIOD 147

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 FLEXIHILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 149

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,Vo. .5.8
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! FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL .ANALYTICAL METIIOD lfil
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 152 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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,!Jt}tl~~
Tahle 5.13
Equation M.r F,p F.P M F,. F Constant
1 +Ar +Bp +DP . +A +B +D o
2
3
4
+Bp
+DP
+A
+Cp
+GP
+B
+GP
+HP
+D
+B
+D
+A
+C
+G
+B
+G
+H
+D
+El*t.,p
+El*t.p
- El*Bzn
un
5 +B +C +G +BR +C +G +El*(+t. - yIJ,R)
6 +D +G +H +D +G +H +El*(+t. + x.e ) '.i. .l
7 M' .. R = }.f .. R + YnF:~:R- xnF11n =O ~7

Tahle 5.14
.Mr:n
Equation ]f:,p F,p FP = ( -yF + x.F) F,. F Constant
5 +Bn +CR +G +B +C +G El*(+t. - y.e )
-yuXEq.4 -ynA.n -ynBR -ynDR -yA -yRBR -yRDR El*( +y.e,.)
:L = s' +B +C +G +B +C +G El*(+t.. 8 )
-y A -yB -yD -yA -yB -yD
; +D +G +H +D +G +H El*(+t. + x.e )
+xu X Eq. 4 +xA +xB +xD +xA +xnBR +xD El*( -x.e )
:L = 6' +D +G +H +D +G +H El*(+t. )
+xA +xB +xD +xA +xRBR +xD

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~-------------- ;J
 l

1 ' FLEXIBILITY ANAL YSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 153

-1 ata point R with coordinates XR, YR, zn in reference elimination of the rotation equation at e is shown
l to the origin. on Fonn J, The equation solution is omittcd.
If the. stops are located at the coordinate origin,
5.17 Calculation ofDeformations at any Point
the eliminations are obviously unnecessary and the
'~ equations may be written directly. After the simultaneous equations have been sol ,ed,

..
Sample Calculation 5.9 uses the piping of Sample and consequently the mome~ts. and forces are knm~'n,
Calculation 5.8 with a z..stop at the origin and y-stop it is a simple matter to calculate the deflections and
-
'~ at point C. The summation of the shape coeflicients rotations at any given point in the piping. By
J - ! for 0'-C is shown on Fonn D-3; the other sum- summing ,the shape coeflicients from the terminal
!' mations are shown in previous examples. The to the point in question and arranging them in

- R
J Table 5.15

<
Equation J.fr.P F,p F,P F.R
7
._ l 1 +Ap +BP +DP [+BR
-yRAR
2 +Bp +Cp +GP [+CR
-yRBR
3 +Dp +GP +HP [+GR.
-yRDR.

5' +BR
[ -yRAR
J +CR
[ -yRBR
J
.. ) : 6'
[
\-DR J f+HR l
+xRAR 1_ +xRDR...I

. ~

1!1.00'

X
154 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

-;o;;;:;, dio."- 114a lt4'i: F./~ X

~,. f.j)

:"' --:q;

-,
1

1-fE M.W it:j 1 nf:r, COi P ?ING

1~ 1.14-
Mx

, 1-.-, r;:-qo
r ,. -..
l i lu 1+7>
1 Mv
on
o
1
1
!%mJ
lo
O.
o
-o
M,
1931
+o<!
.
Fx
lt~l9.i

,.
o ...
-.u:.
"
Fv
1; l/3.ilzi
l. 2 I717IM
l. 1
Sa

-~
"' 4
lm
~1:
2 ltc. L31

ll' ;;: ~ :
r.q
;;:
,."
I%WAI
-.: .,. l9.l ;s
--c<i -+cv
1+ 3 IJ. fst ).6. - 1-
IX y ;,..
IOT
" r:v:
-o
<cv f1
~~
-0

rz .u
~
-e~
~
~
II:' 1+1 ' 3 lO ~
1X
IY
1

1
+U
1+
1
14
10. ~4 1 +uo
70 :R1 1 +<V
117l
4 111e
r....,
' -e~
-v.
loO<liG7
5 .,.13.< 1 .cq
3 IBr l/9 -ce
1-
o
L
lz ) +S 1 , . -5.
ll' !.A ~ ;e;
~~i
;R 1- 175 loJ
. /9 L1m
-::.;;: -2'>B '"
~ r-=cv.,...
IX 1>5<117 lcv,
rY
lz
r.t6o
,.... ~l. ,;,,,

.. ~~~
1:!: t.c ..
lx 1~ :t4: 15< !lB
IY ~... ~ 155 14< .., /9 19~
+<'v '"'
STOP~ SUMMATION M~H~E,S- O~C
lz 1+<~
rr: =~ - I+Cn -148 133'
1M los:
lx 19. lt;
f7: 17.

ITHE M.W KELLOGG GO~ 1

ll!;11lA~RE
~

-----u
';
.U
 . ~. '

- ?

FLEXIBILITY ANAL YSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 155

equation form, the multiplication with the respective second point. This part of the pipe line is now con-
moments and forces and the proper summation of sidered as an independent line for which the ter-
these products will yield El*O,, EI*o., El*O, minal def ormations are those calculated for the
EI*(o*,- D.,), EI*(o*- D..), EI*(o*,- D.,) for previous point.
the point in question where *z, O*y, O*~ are the
deflections with reference to the origin. Any Since o*, = o, - zOu + yO,
extraneous movement at the terminal point must, * = o. - xO, + zO,
of course, be included in the summation. In other o*, = o, - yo, + xo.
words, the pipe line from the terminal to the point
in question is treated as an independent line whose the actual def!ections, o., o., o, can be computed.
free-end deformations can be determined since the A deflection calculation is conveniently made on
moments and forces are known. Form G. The summations of shape coefficients
For the next point for which the deflections are from the terminal to the point in question are entered
required the same procedure is repeated with the under the columns for the respective moments and
shape coefficients summed from the first to the forces, skipping a line between each row. The equa-

'

.,
'

"'
,,,,
156 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

1=-

il
l.J
iL

l-M',_ ~,_ -M

( '

: coc.. RULES.
1
,

u
!..

!J
.'

;"-
TO
p!
~~-=
Se=tS'< u n
lJ
= ... .
~ if" ... .
if. ,~ s~~s, .
:--,.,
i'
r- l-

n
!

~=
[t. c-fc)
n
u
::T H)~g;o

'

i
! b
' i
]
\
: .
\
']
:<.-"

1 J
 '
.. FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 157
'
. ,. tions are complete!y written out. _The moments and
y -~

.j
forces are entered at the heads of the columns, and t
~
the products of these and the shape coefficients are
,. placed in_ the _blank ,!ines, Extraneous movements_
~
r- or carry-overs from previous points are listed t the 1 X

.
' { extreme left .and the products at the right of the lo o
sheet performed, The thermal expansion constants
'!"'~-
are computed in accordance with formulas given on FI?, 5.12 Single-plane symmetriCal system:
f : the form. A summation hrizontally produces the three points of fixatiOn.
; indicated sum (EI*e., EI*o, for example) from ! ._;i. '
.' ;
which rotations in radians and defiections in feet are ,r. o~

found.
.. '"~
..

Consideratiori must be given to intervening actions

.] (branches or stops) between the end point and the
B
point in question: In Sample Calculation 5.10 the
. j deflections have been calculated for the piping shown
in Sample Calculation 5. 9. The rotations and deflec-
-~

t
tiorts at point O are calculated twice; by summation
from end A, .nd again from point 0 1 This provides

. j _FIG; 5.13 Multiplane symmetricalsystem:
a useful check when points from different branches ~ -points of fixation.

. are computed. From point A to O there are no

l ;
intervening stops so that the calculation proceeds
.. j ,
{{ as described in the preceding paragraph. Between
O' and O there is a stop at point C; ihe moment
Jl and forces due to this must be dropped out at C.
"1 fl
= It is a useful check to note that the at point e and
. ; ' i
' the S, at point O are zero because of the stops.
! t'
:i( t~ 5.18 !oyrnmetrical Pipe Lines
f S A
' One way of reducing the labor involved in flexi-
FIG. 5.14 Multiplane symmetrica;l system:
bility calculations is to take advantage of symmetry. four points of fixa.tion.
l The procedure vares somewhat with the system;
nevertheless, the following examples will illustrate eacb, having half themoment of ine~ia ofthe pipe,
the general approach. It should be noted that sym- and,consequently a Q-value of 2. .t\cordingly; the
metry must be complete, that is, the pipe size, tem- problem can be solved with six eqations for line
perature, and material must _be the same for corre- O'-O-A, using the aforementioned fsix coefficients
sponding branches. Also, the coordinate origin must for branch O'-O and al! the coefficients for branch
be located on the center line of symmetry. O-k !J.
Consider first a single plane system such as that In Fig. 5.14, the rotations Bu and e~and the trans-
shown in Fig. 5.12. Because of symmetry, no bend- lation s. are zero at point O. The~jsystem can be
ing or rotation occursin the common branch 0'-{). solved by setting up the following ni!_e equations:
Thus the moments and forces for the A branch can . ~

e;;
be obtained by considering line OA only, assuming 8~4 81/A OzA :tA A zA o~p Ozo zo
member 0'-{) infinitely stiff.
5.19', Inversion Procedures
''j
Next consider a multiplane system as shown in
Fig. 5.13. Due to symmetry, the only deformations AS previously stated, the GenJrai Analytical
of the common branch O'-{) occur in the x-plane. Method can be applied to the flexibility analysis
Thus, .~r., M, and F, are zero for !ine 0'-{). If of- any type of pipiug configurationJ However, the
the shape coefficients for this branch are computed number of simultaneous equation~. necessary to
in the x-plane, only s, Sa, sb, Sab, S4 a, and Bbb apply solve the problem increases as the ~egree of com-
and their values are doubled in order to account for plel<ty of the system increases, i.e. {as the number
the loading from the two branches. In other words, of points of fixation of the system increases. Fur-
the common branch may be considerad split in two, thermore, the time required to- solve a set of simul-
 ::'l;
;;t
1-$

....
~

Mx 1 -Mv Mz F, F, IEIJ,.. Efl /8/ Z68960I El" =1 /3160/8

loR-...:-RR.;' o::..'f.A - Z5 t,{,(4J - + + 3!70.~5
54.5~//////////// ' + 33.75 Y O < O POINT
Et" e.,.6. + !Bb.t' + r5.9zt+ 334Z.58- 790.54 = EI" a, + 78.75 y, + M.75 + 17.Z5 exJ o-3.
4 777983 + ~ !O~_t 10 598151 - 4 MO 1!33 + 1 ~80 31.t. x' - 45.00 y' - 80.75 <' - !7.Z5 +.009Z7
~ El e,o O + 198.ZO + 1104.39 0 El e 0 Bvl O!
o o - 30(, 850z + t. U4 141 '/// + 47143 >'/// 0< 0/// +.OOOZ6
EI'8zo' + .93 O /+ 188 ~r.o."- 75.9Z ~~.-0 EI" e. :;'? 0 e. o-4'
O - Z.l 89 1+ Z5 M(, 4Z 84 ""//~ 0////////////-
fjt-
- Z/8 707 -.OOIZ/
O
EJxo' + 75.9Z.- 40Z9.ti+ -231994.55 + I ex' +EI Ovz. -E.I 9.r.Y =E &r r l"'~u;a'
L- 1553 478 - 1 9485o3 + 101 _ 1 ' -59 ZZO 585 O O + 70 745!5 + .3
S.l O
~-
El'"o' + 334Z.58 O - -El&ocz. +Etey' +EP'Szx EISv
o -85790058 o -. 143ZI.z -!06 2~8 050 - 7 38!3M- 3 421 O
l El' zo' - 7 690.54 + 11046.39- ~+f.Ie!lv -EI" e X +Ete:z' EIs:r. S.r.- .15
O + 197 385 400 -JZB 508 933 - 10 .Jj o . - 1 591 07 - zz 701 2Z4 - z 194 334 -.012' 1 1:1
T+ 962.891- 1+ 0 0 0 POINT 0 j
[ EI'9.c
. / .-
+
Z5b-
43.88
!lb39--- -
~
1 9/5
i=EI e.
x y z
+ 78.75 v. 1+ 80.75 + t7.25 e. 1 o -11 m
....
1+ 1 80 3M, - !iZ ZZ4 .1+ 554142 x' - 78.75 . ~- 11.Z5 +.0030~
~
O - 80.75
El' 9~< O + IT:75 + 5 9 . 7 . -en e . 0,_o-.5
_ _47/43 o - - 39Z 8/ + 32!516 0 - Z4!570/// ""/// 0 -.000"
t- ~ W////'//'///-0 =Ere, %/////// 0 e, 1o-5
o
=f-
O
33.751
34 !55/
_J_ O
o
O
_J.
569.70
+ 5ZI8J4
O
o
O
O
0
+EIex'
0 V///
+El"_~_y_z.-
+ Z8 972 0/////////fi +.00141
-EI6zY cEtoc ,cl+/.7~
>:j

::;
O -!033OZ4 O O +Z63Z97ZI. +.145 "= ....
- 59.70 O + IZ8Z0.09 O .-El" 6.< EIoy' +El" e,, El"&v l'vl- .25' 2
O
1+ 59.70
30 738
+ 5753

O
O
O
O
O
-11 74Z94

O
O
O

+ 7 Z35/4
O

O
-lO Z8 050
+ IZ8Z0.09 +El"Q,y -El 9v +El u'
O
O

- Z2 701 ZU +
- 3 788 470 -.OZI"
=EI"S,
1/50
Sd O
O
(J
"
E!ByA
a
~+
/+
__+
o oo5 +

O
85.07
90Z/7
+
o
o
5893 +

8Z./8
+ 319 9Z7
O
o
O
O
IJnz +

-
8oo.sz -
O
o
409.M
- .327 933
+
-
8JZ.91 +
4Z5.Z -
34598-
O
O
-
-
Z4.58fL/2"////////,
88.01 El 6x
o

Z1'3.,. 5slo' .,. /4.00 y- 8.oo .

1.53.3 '//////
"OO %///0 -
El"Oy
v
x, - 14.00 y, + 8.00 <

~:W///~
Z4 O 0/fi
o

~
o
O
o
Po11
Bx 1 O'
. oo
Bv o-.5
-.00013
(J
i
IEI'GzA O O + JJ0./7 + 87.71 + 590.9 O W//, Wfi =El"6z ~...00'$..0: 610 5 _j
O O + 79 ZOO + 70 Z/4 - 480 397 O '//////////_..,;; + Z9 017 +.00148
IEI'"xA o - 409.0.5 + 87.71 + z,z9.49 + IZZ7.33 + .359Z.85 +EIeK' +Etevz. -EIez.v EI&~~. t,+/.74
/+ 7 553 478 O - 1 594 77 + 743 079 + Z !04 959 - 997 709 + 88 3/Z + 18 4Z4 /8Z O O + Z' ~Z/ 534 +.145
El y + 4Z5.Z O + 590.96 _,. IZZ7.33 _,. 9 249.77- 484.0 -El&, +El ov' +El 6z El 0 6y SJ;' .25'
/1' 3 775 832 + 4 509 882 O + 5 OO b/3 + 98Z 50Z - 7 519 Z31 - 11 898 O - 10 528 104 O - ~ 784 404
~El ZA - 88.01- &.53.3b O + 359Z.85- 484.06+ 83Z8.99 +El&,y -Et&,x +El e<' El 0 &z i6J"
O 9.3334- Z543530 O + Z87l48+ 393497+ Z047Z7 O O - Z504/ O
i y, Z COORDIN .....TE& OF' TME POINT x','"KIII. NOTE: U~E THE: ACTitoJG MOMENT.S ANO FORC'f:S ,._T THE: ORlO. IN IF THE CONSTAI>JT$ ARI! SUMMEO UP 1
x;,y,,'% 1 s COOROI..., ...TE.!!. O~ THe' fNC POINT FA.OM WtUCI-I Y.. Y-YJ f:ROM THE FIX-1!.0 ENO, U~E TMC:. REG-TRAihUNG MOMltNT~ ANO FOA:C:EIS r THE CON&TAI
THE C.Oto.~=-TANTS ARE SUNIMS.D UP, Z t.Z.e ARE SUMMII!:O UP F~M THE FR._&. liWD. _ -. '

THE MW KELLOGG CO. PIPING FLEXIBILIT AN STRESS ANALYSIS ~~~~""" ..c. FORM G
. . OEFLEC.TIONS OATK 112>53 CALC.NO. .10

~'~--~"'~:'-':J t . \f;'~~Tj)
~ r :.E::~'":J :::1:3''";::; :~E::,. ,. , ~==~;':: ~;~~;::J :::--~ c:::::::-":J '"
ce.-,,,,,,. .. , ''-,',"''''"'"-'"f"''f''"'''
 ;:
,_ ; '.' FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 159
Table 5.16
M.A M,A M<A FzA F,A F.A El*O, EI*O, El*O, El* o, EI*o, Efi''Oz Constant
A,. A,, A., B., B., B., -1 o o o o o o
A.. A,. B., B.. B,, o --1 ,O o o o o
A., Blf: B,. B~. o o -1 o o o o
c.. c.. c.. o o o -1 o o El*Az
c.. e,. o o o o -1 o El*!>,
c.. o o o o o -1 EIa"
r '
1 ' Table 5.17
i
M.A M,A Mtt F<A F,A F<A El*O, EI*e, El*O, El* o, EI*s, EI*o, Constant
"l!
-1 o o o o o a., a,. a., b., b., b:~:/ K,
-
- j
' -1 o o o o a,. a., b,, b,, K,
a.. b..
-1 o o o a., a,, a.. b,. b,. b.. K,
-1 o o b,. . bfl% b.. c., t, c.. K,
-1 o b, b.. b,. e,, c.. e,, K5
-1 b., b,, b,. c., e,. e,. K,

taneous equations ;,;creases greatly as the number of ;here Bz, 8~, Dza 0~, "11 , Oz are the unknown rotations
equations increases. Roughly, if the solution of six and defiections at the origin. Similar sets of equa-
1

'
'1 1 equations takes a given amount of time, it would
!1
' 1 1 t l! take four times longer to salve twelve equations,
nine times longer to so!ve eighteen equations, and so
' 1 1 on. Therefore, eighteen equations representing
- .i
1 n four points of fixation for a multiplane system are
1 ~ considered as an economic limit in manual calcula-
:.3 tions.
!~_ ~~
'_ '~ If equations numbering more than eighteen are en-
d
countered in setting up the calculations of a complex
\_j
piping system, it is generally advantageous to
-? use the inversion and re-inversion procedures dis-
1'
' Ea:z La:a:v La;~;.: L;b.. L;b., L;b .. -:K,= O
' i cussed below. In these solutions a complex piping
! system is divided into severa! simpler parts and
severa! sets of six or twelve equations are solved
' instead of one set of a great many equations. The
' ' time saved by this method increases as the num ber
of equations increases. In addition, the calculations
1 can be performed by severa! people at the same time
' J and checking is also simplified.
The inversion methods are very well suited for
automatic electronic computing machines which
have a limited number of storage units.' The time
element, which makes manual computations of ex-
ceedingly complicated systems prohibitive, is no
longer an important factor, because of the speed of
the machines. By programming the calculations in
accordance with the inversion procedures, there is
no limit to the complexity of the piping systems
which may be hand!ed.
To illustrate the inversion procedure, the branched
system of Sample Calculation 5.8 is used. The equa-
tion for branch OA can be written as in Table 5.16,
tions can be written for branches OB and 00'.
Inverting the above equations the set given in
Table 5.17 is obtained.
The equations for the branches OB and 00' are
similarly inverted. For equilibrium, the sum of the
individual moments and forces at the origin must
be zero, and the equation of Table 5.18 is obtained
accordingly.
Table 5.18
EI*O, EI*e, El*O, EI*o, E*Io, El*o, Constant
"L:a .. L,a.,, "L:b., "L:b.. "L:b,, -:K,= o
Eau L;b.. "L:b., L:b .. "L:K 3 =O
Ecz: Eczv Ec.zz -:K,= O
":Le.. ":Le.. -:K,= o
Ecu -:K.= O
After the above equations are solved, the rotations
and def!ections obtained are substituted in the in-
verted equations for each of the three branches, and
the moments and forces are obtained.
Sample Calculation 5.11 gives a detailed calcula-
tion of the system in Sample Calculation 5.8, in
accordance with the above procedure. Junction
point O, the rotations and def!ections of which are
to be determined, is selected as the free end of the
three branches OA, OB, 00'. (This selection is
important when intermediate restraints in any of
the branches are involved; the equations for the
restraints are placed befare the rotation and deflec-
tion equations and e!iminated first in order to sim-
plify the inversion.) Each branch is solved first

. i
 . :~~:

-
~

,. -
11 '
HXo

l.
- 90 lnz~
85
o o
Hyo

o
o
o
Hz o
o
o
o
Fxa
o
o
o
-'
-9
Fvo
42S
4 '191
...
9
46+

zo
0/ -181 2 96
8
/0.34 ~ rl/.3 821 20
/COC (J /000
o
o
8 /000 (J%
o
o
/t:JOO
o
o
J"x Joood...
o
o
/ooodZ
o
o
ONSTANT5
_Lo 1
Ei<JTER. 8ELOW
o
9 771 "
2 + 82 118 o - 140< 65 o - 65U o -181 261 9~ i) o o o
o
o
o o o o o o o o o o o
1r
?'
+
-
82 18
1.00 00
o
o
- 11o< l.,;
4 Ion,
o
o
-+ 7
(,53
'50
o
o
-/8 26
+221> JH 1
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
- a 2 o - 1 + o o
l ~ + 80 117 + 87 + l;q, % o
dO

o o ..e 2<8 96 o o o o
o o o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o o o o o
II: + 80 1 + 8 1 + 159' o o o -181 2~ '1' o o o o
1:1
- ,., o o o o o o

-
~ L 00 00 - 1 Otf-1- 05- 7/J~ -f226/ 057 tfj t"'l
-56 64 ()/ + " 1.5 -14 ~
o o w
1
.,,
.
C"l
+ 2 (,2q? + + o o o -181 2 o o + .25 1977 2

...
2 9<>
o o o o o o o o o o
- z o< oz o - " 25o d -9o3 lJ 70 o o o d o"'l
-
--..
IM< ~ o o f/<18 o o o o
1 +
4' -
95
491 1
l. 00 00 -
"' 7 +
1181 64-
IEH
683 lj'q
o
o
-9tJ.J1 '8 ~ t/?'8 1 3/ -181 2<1
('/836 9128 -91J3 ~ 1 +!168 &o :5
"' o o
o
25
~/~ 0 %%
7 X

-82 93 1'1 - 2!J 62 68- 5 76 " -52 '5 7'5

2
1
5 +9 77-
2</j 18< 06 o o o _, 8
o - "' 5Zb
~
'.
- 2 12518.< + 43 ~ -lftJt, /62 65 o o o o o o rf)
o o o o o o o o o .-:

. ...,
(f
o o o o o o
=+ ~ - 117 +1.33 /9.5 14 o

1
11 ' 2 0814-
28-

5' - l. 00 00 +
39: 02
441 12 190&. l$2 65 .,.()(. 716
211 ~ -4.35
.q 993 13 .,. 2 001
('//01 85,
64 -512 1 -529 36o -/OZ Ofj

. o
.J/4/.7 163 -2:J4 'J'l G7 +214 194 65
+214 /9
o
-Id! 2 96
+87
""
o
o
o
-&O
-_;
9M3<

r 17 99/ 3'
-"'
t"'l
r f)

; + 8 3Z< 99 o o o o o -181 261 96 o

-
... o o o o o
.
; 91 tJ5 -18 3362 o
- 5 19 o -1?41 151 t.8 o o o o o
o o o 1 o o o o o
- o +12.3 913 65
+617 z -135 .,; o o - 1 7.58 'li

1
-+ 2 9& 4
2
+19 04 93 -t22G
+
92 +23J 16 2.3 45 39 2
""
-,38 41< o "'
o 3/ -.59? 8 24 + 97 9"" 5o ../{..9 ao 2 38 416 .;13 -181 2~ 96
w -
-
?
~'"'
Z5 G9 52
-
1ZO
,,,:.
A- o BRANCH .
1
{;

'
l. 000 00 - 1 65(, " +21'1 250
3 """'
00 JI -62. :l3 01 +14 1ZI9< 63 92.
+ JS J"

PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANL ~TRI:.::>: NALYSI::> CAl.C. FO~M E2

THE M.W KELLOGG CO 12 EQUATIONS
CH~CKEO

CATE 1-2.3 53 CALC. NO. $.//

mm>m,.,,. , , ,
J.
,,,.,,,,, , , ,
.. ~:;,~:- _ _ ,J :::':::"""J
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G COJ PIPING FLEXIBILITY AN[ ~TRES~ ANALYSIS ~~~~;,.o e. FOR M E 2
THE M. W. KELLOG . . 1'2. E'QUATION.S DATE 11235 CALC. NO. S.//

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162 DESIGN OF, PIPING SYSTEMS

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164 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS_ BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 165
and checked as if it were fixed at both ends using where
+yO'~
1 1
the known thermal constants El*D..,.EI*D.u, El* D.,. *:z: ::;= x- z0 y
For the unknown rotations and def!ections (multi-
plied by 1000) the downward operations are _carried * 11 = 0
1
+ z0 x
11 - x0
1
,
1

out as shown on Form E--2. For the upward solu-
tions the prime equations on Form E--2 are trans-
ferred to Form E-4. A13 F, is expressed in terms of
the unknown rotations and def!ections only, eq. 6'
is multiplied by the _coeflicient for F, in the 5' equa-
tion and added to the same, whereby Fu is obtained.
F, is obt~ined by using the values for F, and F.,
and so on. It should be noted that symmetry about
the diagonal is obtained. Lack of it indicates_ an
error. Since the results from every column_ except
the uppermost left-hand one are used to produce
symmetry, only the latter column need be checked.
Since the OA and OB branches are symmetrical,
only the solution of the equations for OA branch
are shown; the difference in signs is easily visualized.
The results of the moments and forces by the in-
version of the three branches are no,;, listed on
Form J and added together, satisfying equilibrium
conditions. Thus a set of six equations for the un-
known rotations and deflections are obtained. These
are now solved on Form E--1, and the moment.' of
each branch are obtained by substituting the values
in the individual inverted equations as shown on
Form J-1 and Form J-2. The figures shown in
brackets are the results from Sample Calculation 5.8
given for comparison.
The above example is naturally solved in much
less time when done as in Sample Calculation 5.8.
However, if two more branches were connected at
point O the standard procedure would require the
solution of 24 equations; the inversion solution
would be less time consuming.
The inversion procedure is especially suitable
where many branches are j oined at one point. A
system shown in Fig. 5.15 which represents 42 equa-
tions when solved by the regular method is solved
by the inversion procedures in the following manner:
The rotations and def!ections at O are assumed to
be (}$J fly, (}~J x 1 y 1 ~ and at p0int 1 Rfe
-. *z =_ 'z ~ yO'x + x0' 11
and x, y, z are the coordinate_s at point J.
The above problem can also be solved by the re-
inversion procedure which makes it possible to
handle alinost any piping system, no matter how
complex it may be, without solving sets of equations
of more than six unknowns.
To iliustrate this procedure, the system calculated
in Sample Calculations 5.8 and 5.11 is used in Cal-
culation 5.12.' From Calculation 5.11 (Form J) the
inverted equations for branches OA_ and OB are
added together as shown on Form J, and these
equations are now inverted again as indicated on
Forms E--2 and E-4. The result from this reinver-
sion shown_ on Form E-4 representa aset of equations
for a fictitious line which replaces the two branches.
The coeflicients in these equations, multiplied by
El* X 10-6, are the shape coeflicients for the ficti-
tious line and can accordingly be added to the shape
coeflicients for branch 00' which are given in Cal-
culation 5. 7, as shown on Form D-4, and the problem
can besolved with six equations, shown on Form E--1,
since it is now reduced to an equivalent two-anchor
problem. The figures shown in brackets are the
results from Calculation 5.8, given for comparison.
By using these moments and forces, the rotations
and def!ections can be computed at point O, and the
G H
E F
0
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o'x, o' y,
o';::. r
The system OAB is set up as twelve equations
with A as the fixed end. The six equations for the
- .i B-branch are eliminated first and the remaining six 1
equations are inverted. The systems OCD, IEG, o ~
and IFH are treated the same way. A set of twelve
A o
equations can now be set up with the following
unknowns:

FIG. 5.15 Pipeline with eight points of fixation.

166 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
moments and forces for branches OA and OB are
obtained in the same way as in Calculation 5.11.
Applying this procedure to the system shown in
Fig. 5.15, the inverted equations for OAB and OCD
are added and reinverted. The same is done for
IEF and IGH. The reinverted coefficients are added
to the shape coefficients for OI and the six equations
are solved.
5.20 Cold Springing
The Piping Code's requirement that cold spring-
ing shall be governed by sound judgment leaves the
method of cold springing to the erection superin-
tendent nnless a definite procedure is set up by the
designer which will assure that the correct rotations:
and deflections are obtained at the closing joint.
The deflections are conveniently taken care of by
pulling the pipes together the amonnt specified. The
rotations at the closing joint, however, :are more
difficult to match becau8e they are a function of
couples to he applied rather than singleforces. For
a single plane line the closing joint can be selected
at a point where the moment is zero; even so; it
should be remembered that each free end of the line
must be sprnng exactly the correct amount in arder
to make the free end rotations the ~ame. Such a
point may also be inconveniently located, however,
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and for a multiplane line it is unlikely that a point
will exist where al! three moments are zero.
It is generally preferable to make the final joint
as elose as possible to one end of the line so that al!
but a small part of its flexibility is available in the .
longer part of the line. As no pulling is done of the
shorter line, its free end should be located and pref"
erably clamped in its design position.. By so doing
it is established that the longer Jine has to be pulled
in such a way that its end rotations are zero, and
accordingly, a convenient cold spring procedure cati
be prescribed since the necessary pulling of the
longer line can be computed. '
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Sample Calculation 5.13 illustrates .a procedure ~
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ried out by The M. W. Kel!ogg Company on severa!
occasions. In this calculation, the main steam line
of Sample Calculation 5.8 is assumed to he cold
sprung 100%. In arder to protect the turbine, the
final joint is located at the throttle valve, point O,
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permitt.ing the valve to be clamped down in its de- -L
. sign positioa Hence, al! the cold pul! is taken up
by the portian of the line ()0'.
The branch OO' has been computed for the full
expansion in Sample Calculation 5.7. Accordingly
.the moments and forces required for lOO% cold pul!
at point O are obtained by multiplying the resulte
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CALC. FORM 1:-2
co PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANL !::TRt.S; ANALYSIS
.

THE M.W KELLOGG CHitCt<EO

O~TE /Z.3 F.3 CALC. NO. .5./Z

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163 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANAL YTICAL METHOD 169 ~?.:,,.n.
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of this calculation, shown on Form A, Calculation
N o. 5. 7, by the ratio of the cold to hot modulus of
elasticity. In practice, however, it is not feasible
to apply a moment at a point. Therefore, three
unknown forces are introduced into the system to
replace t.he moments. The points of application of
these forces are rather arbitrary; since the purpose
is to prevent rotations at the pulled end (point O)
their magnitude will decrease as their distance from
that end increases. However, note that. this last
rule applies also as far as the other fixed end of the
line (point O') is concerned, so that the forces are
best located near the center of the line:
In Sample Calculation 5.13 an F.-force is applied
in the riser at a convenienthanger location, denoted
s F 111 This force will reate rotations around the
x- and z-axes, and by introducing another F.-force
..... .
at point e, these two rotations can be controlled.
An F ,-force at point e will control the rotation
around the y-axis.
The calculation is carried out as follows: The
shape coefficients from O' to 7 are summed on 1
Forro D-3, and the equations for the y-defiections u
at point e and 7 and for the z-defiection at point e ~:
are computed on Form J. The simultaneous equa- ~1
tions shown OJ,l Forros E-2 and E-3 are arranged as {j
follows: the three equations for the known cold pul!, f!
the latter given on Form A, Calculation 5.8, are
'.
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first entered; the constants are obtained by multi-
plying 11, = -0.75671 ft, "' = -0.54900 ft, J
i1
11, = -0.12524 ft by E.I/144 = 231,577,080. The
three equations for the zero rotations are then
entered, and finally the three equations for th<l un-
known deflections, 111, 011c, :c, are entered. The
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172 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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 174 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
c.'.','l'

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downward solution <?f these nine equations is now lation equations with subscripte indicating the com-
carried out, and the upward solution is done for the
known constant column only to obtain the momente
anda check. The 41, 51, 6', 71, 81, 9' equations are
now entered on Form E-4, and the solution gives
ponent. Written in the conventional manner, the
equations for a space pipe Jine with two ends are
shown in Table 5.19.
n
f,
~ ~
- 3
the momente and forces expressed in the unknown Table 5.19 fl
deflections at pointe e and 7. If the three momente Defor- 1. ffi!...'
::
~
are equated to zero, the deflections at pointe e and 7 Load. ma.tion
are obtained as shown on another Form J. These M, M. M, F, F. F, Constants Constante
deflections are now entered on Form E--3, and the A., A,. A., B., B,. -B~. R, El*8,
forces at e, 7, and O are obtained, using the second
A.. A B11 ~ B B., Rv El'8
A., B.. B,. B., R, El*8,
Jine for the upward solution on Forms E--2 and E--3. a., a.. a.. T, = El*O*~~:
The line can now be cold sprung either by measur- a a T. El**.,
ing the forces or preferably by measuring the re- e~. T, = El*O*.
quired movemente at the pointe of application of
the forces. Thus the hnger in the riser is lowered In determiuing the weight reactions, the line nsu-
7-ii in.; the force required is supplied by the weight ally is assumed fixed at the ends and, accordingly,
of the riser. The solid hanger ate is lowered 7 in. the deformation constante are zero. However, any
and as the force is positive this point is held in known end deformation can always be superhn-
e
place. Finally a z-stop is provided at point pre- .
venting the Jine moving more than 2! in. in the
. posed on the weight effecte. On the other hand, if
the weight reactions have been determined, the
f].
~
t j
minus z-direction. The forces to be applied at O . deformations at any point of the pipe line can be
are all less than 2000 lb. calculated by using the above system of equations
In orderto execute the above procedure properly with the shape coefficiente and load constante
it is desirable to have the line supported on adjust- summed from the fixed end
able constant support hangers to minhnize the weight Weight loading is either concentrated or uuiform.
effecta Although minor adjustmente due to errors The load constante for weighte such as valves,
in fabrication may be necessary, the method hs counterweighte, col!Stant support hangers, or true
proved te be helpful to the crecting crew, as al! trial vertical, pipe Jine members, assumed to be concen-
and error efforts are eliminated, thereby resulting in trated at a point N, are calculated according to
great time saving. Table 5.20.
The calculated stress for this condition due to the For uniform loads such as the weighte of pipe, ite
six forces, can be shown to be 16,750 psi. This insulation and contente, the load constante are sorne-
stress will remain until the final joint is finished and
the six restrainte hnposed on the Jine are removed. Table 5.20
After the hangers at pointe e and N and the restraint Load
at point O have been adjusted, the stress wiJl be in
accordance with Sample Calculation 5. 9.
M""
A.,
M.N
A.,
F.N
B,. =
Constants
R.
I1
A,. A Bv R.
5.21 Weight Loading A., A.. B R.
The problem of determiuing the effecte on piping B.. B.. a.. T,
systerns due to weight loading is similar to that of B B a T.
tbermal expansion; the inherent flexibility of the
B., B., a T.
piping is expressed by the same shape coefficiente, where A:u:, A:.~, Bey, etc. = sumroations of the sba.pe
coefficients taken from the
and accordingly the coefficiente of the unknown re- fixed end O' to the point of
actions in the equations of a given line are identical load application, N.
in either case. However, the constant terms of the F N = concentrated weight load
equations for thermal expansion are a function of (minus for pipe weights, plus
the fictitious end displacemente only, while those for counterweights).
Mz:N = -F'IINZN
for weight loading are also functions of the weighte M:N = +F 11 NXN
involved. These wad constants are denoted by the ZN, ZN = horizontal coordinates of the
letter R for the rotation equations and T for trans- point of load application.
l
l

)
 ';:
]
- ' FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 175
':-"';!
what more involved although they are computed Tahle 5.23 Shape Coefficients for Weight; General
; FormulaS for Straight Members ,_._,
i. ' along similar lines. For each member of the pipe
' line, t.hey are calculated in accordance with Table %
L'
'
1 5-2L The summation for all members of the pipe w0 = -kQ- sin a:
6

l
" -w

~
line gives the load constants of the equations in
..
Tabl~ 5.19. '
Wf>a =-kQL' .
-amacoea
24
,., -~
( Table 5.21
Load
7 b
J ' M,. M,w F,. w, Constants
,'el
A:~::r A,, B,, D., R. '-'------Y Wa = Wba- ' awo
1
1
A,, A,, B,, D,, R, ww. = w'w. + btob
- A .. A., B,, D,, R, x-plane
. .l B.. B,. c.. E., T. X
B.. B,, c E,, T,
': B., B.. c E., T, Wv = -kQ -coa
L' a
j 1 where w, = unit load, lb/ft (always negative),
6

r of s member whose length is L, ft. L'

. w., = +kQ-sina
1~ !i'
FJIU! = wuL, lb (always negative). 6
1
M,w= -F,.z}Mament s at ongm,
]t,f ,ID = +F'JIVIX
. - !'lb
1r L'
.j w 1u 11 = +kQ
1 X, Z, = coordinates of center of gravity of 24
' the member, ft.
An~ As,, B:ev etc. = summations of shape coefficients
for concentrated loads for all mem- y-plone
here from the fixed end up to but y
not including the member under L'
Wa =+kQ6cosa
consideration. Thus these summa-
re
. tions for the first roember will a
always be zero. w ' ob-= - kQL' sma:cosa:
.
DZfl, D 1111 , D:r 11 =shape coefficients for uniform load- 24
ing, ft 3 L'
Ez11 , E1111 , E: 11 = shape coefficients for uniform load- 1
w oa = +kQ cos 2 a
ing, ft''. 24
Wab = +w'ob + bwa
The expressions for the shape coefficients for un-
forro loading depend on the plane in which the mem- z-plane
ber is r.alculated (Table 5.22).
member and the positive horizontal axis. If the
Table 5.22 member is sssumed rotating around the end to which
x Plane y Plane z Plane the direction arrow is pointing, this angle is positive
D +w +w. o if the member rotates in the counterclockwise direc-
D,, o o o tion, negative if it rotates in the clockwise direction.
n o +w, +w. For a circular member, the direction is either counter-
E,, o +c w
11 11 +wao
clockwise or clockwise. The angle ~ is always posi-
E,, +w" +wutt +toca
E +tobo:~ -C 11Wu o tive. The angle a is always positive messured
counterclockwise from the negative vertical axis to
where c11 = distance of working plane to coordinate plan e.
the radius where angle ~ begins. The angles ~anda
These shape coefficients are given in Table 5.23 are illustrated in Figs. 5.16 and 5.17 for counter-
for straight members and in Tables 5.24, 5.25, 5.26, clockwise and clockwise directions respectively.
5.27, 5.28, and 5.29 for circular members. Form W" shows a convenient way to calculate the
It is of utmost importance in the calculation of load constants and also a key to the relationship
the w-constants that the proper direction be used. between the shape coefficients and the load constants
The direction always points from the free end to the in accordance with Table 5.19.
fixed end, and should be indicated by an arrow. The In Sample Calculation 5.14 a single plane system
direction determines the angle a between a straight is computed for w, of -280 lb/ft. The necessary

176 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Table 5.24 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: General Formulas for Circular Memhers
For Weight of Members in the x-Plane

Counterclockwise Direction
Wb = -QkR' {4>[sin(a + 4>) +sin a] + 2[cos(a + 4>) - cos al}

w'.. = -QkR'{~[l 2
+ cos (;+4>)]- i[sin2(a+4>)- sin2a]+[cos(a+4>)- cosa]sina}

w' = +QkR' { [4> +sin 2(a + 4>)] + i[cos 2(a + 4>) - cos 2a] + [sin(a + 4>) -sin a] sin a}

Clockwise Direction
Wb = +QkR' {4>[sin(a- 4>).+ sin a]- 2[cos(a- 4>)- cosa!} D
+QkR' {~ [1 + cos (; - 4>)] + ~[sin 2(a -
2
w' = 4>) - sin Z] - [cos(a- 4>) - cos a]sin a}

w' .= +QkR' { [4> - sin 2(a - 4>)] +ilcos 2(a - 4>) - cos 2a] + [sin(a- 4>) -sin a] sin a} n
i

Table 5.25 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: General Formulas for Circular Members
For x-Wind Acting on 1\fembers in the x-Plane
or z-Wind Acting on Members in the z-Plane
or Weight of Members in the y-Plane

Counterclockwise Direction

w. = -QR' {1.3 [ 4> cos(a + 4>) +~cosa - sin(a + 4>) + 1.25 sina --: 0.25 sin(a + 24>)]

+k[~ cosa - sin(a + 4>) + 0.75 sin a+ 0.25 sin(a + 24>) ]}

L

w. = +QR' {1.3 [ 4> sin(a + 4>) +~sin a+ cos(a + 4>) - 1.25 cosa+ 0.25 cos(a + 24>) J JJ
.

+k[~ sin a+ cos(a + 4>) - 0.75 cosa- 0.25 cos(a + 24>) ]}

w' = +1.3QR' (~'- 1 + cos4>)

Clockwise Direction

w. = +QR' {1.3 [ 4> cos(a - 4>) +~cosa+ sin(a - 4>) - 1.25 sin o. + 0.25 sin(a - 24>) J
+k[~ cosa +sin (a - 4>) - 0.75 sin a - 0.25 sin(a - 24>) ]}

w. = -QR' {1.3 [ 4> sin(a - 4>) +~sin u - cos(a - 4>) + 1.25 cosa - 0.25 cos(a - 24>) J
+k[~ sin a - cos(a - 4>) + 0.75 cosa + 0.25 cos(a - 24>) ]}
j
w' = +1.3QR' (~'- 1 + cos4>) 1
 FLEXIBILITY ANAL YSIS . BY THE GENERAL ANAL YTICAL 1\tETHOD. 177
Table 5.26 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: General Formulas for Circular Members
For Wcight of !\lembers in the z-Plane ,.....
Counterclockwise Direction
w. ~ +QkR 3 {<l>[cos(a + <l>) +cosa] - 2[sin(a + <!>) -sin a]}

w' ~ {i [1 - cos 2 (; + <l>)J + ![sin 2(a + <!>) - sin 2a] - [sin(a + <!>) -sin a] cosa}
+QkR'

w' ~ +QkR' { [<!> - sin 2(a + <!>)] - !feos 2(a + <!>) - cos 2p:] + [cos(a + 1>) - cosa] cosa}
' -:
i ClockwiseDirectiori' ,
'1

w. ~ -QkR 3 {<l>[cos(a- <!>)+cosa]+ 2[sin(a- 1>)- sinaJl
.j
w'., ~ -QkR'{i[l- cos 2 (; -<!>)]- !fsin2(a -<!>) -sin2a] +[sin(a -1>) -sina]cosa}
<

' ~ { [<!> + sin 2(a ~ 1>)] -

-
w' +QkR' ![cos 2(a - 1>) - cos 2a] + [cos(a - 1>) - cosa] cosa}

<

Table 5.27 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: Formulas for 90 and 180 Circular Men:-bers
j For Weight of l\fembers in the x-Plane
1
.: Shape w, W ba w'..
i
1 ' a~ o D +0.42920kQR 3 -0.39270kQR' -0.13315kQR'
-1 ! ~t
.:; go D

l ,:1
a~ -0.42920kQR' +0.17810kQR' +0.36685kQR'
1!
: : p go C'l +0.42920kQR' -0.17810kQR' +0.36685kQR'
~
tj a~

1 .'''~
a~ 180 C'l -0.42920kQR 3 +0.39270kQR' -0.13315kQR'
< i
)~
'\~
a~ 180 tJ -0.42920kQR' -0.39270kQR' -0.13315kQR'

'
'' a= 270 tJ +0.42920kQR' +0.17810kQR' +0.36685kQR'
i !
-
1 a= 270 ~ -0.42920kQR' -0.17810kQR' +0.36685kQR'

' 1
a~ o ~ +0.42920kQR' +0.39270kQR' -0.13315kQR'

a~ o DJ +4.00kQR' -2.35619kQR' +2.46740kQR'

a~ 180 Dl -4.00kQR 3 +2.35619kQR' + 2.46740kQR'

a = 180 (] -4.00kQR' -2.35619kQR' + 2.46740kQR'

a~ o (] +4.00kQR' +2.35619kQR' +2.46740kQR'

a~ go E:'J o -0.78540kQR' +0.46740kQR'

a ~ 270 L5, o +0.78540kQR' +0.46740kQR'

a == 270 Q o -0.78540kQR' +0.46740kQR'

go o

a~ +0.78540kQR' +0.46740kQR'
 178 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Table 5.28 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: Formulas for 90 and 180 Circular Members
For x-Wind Acting on Membei-a in the_.x-PI8.ne
or z-Wind Acting on Members in the z-Plane
or Weight of Members in the y-Plane
Shape. w. w. w''"'
a= oo g +0:21460QR 3 (1.3 + k) +QR'(0.09204 - 0.50k) +0.30381QR'

a= goo g +QR'(0.09204 - 0.50k) +0.21460QR'(L3 +k) +0.30381QR' n

i
a= goo ~ +QR'(0.09204 - 0.50k) -0.21460QR 3 (1.3 +k) +0.30381QR' r]
{
a= 180 ~ +0.21460QR 3 (1.3 +k) . -QR' (0.09204 - 0.50k) +0.30381QR'
l.:
n
a

a=
= 180
270
tJ
tJ
-0.21460QR 3 (1.3 + k)

-QR 3 (0.09204- 0.50k)

-QR 3 (0.09204 -.0.50k)

-0.21460QR'(1.3 +k)
+0.30381QR'

+0.30381QR'
y
a= 270 ~ -QR 3 (0.09204 - 0.50k) +0.21460QR 3 (1.3 +k) +0.30381QR'

~H~~-~
a=

a=
oo

oo Dl
~ -0.21460QR 3 (1.3 +k)

+ 1.57080QR 3 (1.3 - k)
+QR 3 (0.09204 - 0.50k)

-2.00QR'(L3.+ k)
+0.30381QR'

+3.81524QR'
n .
.

a= 180
Dl + 1.57080QR'(1.3 - k) +2.00QR 3 (1.3 + k) +3.81524QR' e..] ..

a= 180 (] -1.57080QR 3 (1.3 - k) +2.00QR 3 (1.3 +k) +3.81524QR'

a= oo ((] -1.57080QR 3 (1.3 - k) -2.00QR 3 (1.3 +k) +3.81524QR'

a= goo E:::," -2.00QR 3 (1.3 +k) -1.57080QR 3 (1.3 - k) +3.81524QR'

a= 270 E:::, +2.00QR'(l.3 +k) -1.57080QR 3 (1.3 - k) +3.81524QR'

a= 270 Q +2.00QR 3 (1.3 +k) +L57080QR'(L3- k) +3.81524QR'

a= goo Q -2.00QR'(l.3 +k) + 1.57080QR'(L3 - k) +3.81524QR'

l

'

_ '

L.
 FLJ<:XIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENEHAL ANALYTICAL METIIOD 179

Table 5.29 Shape Coefficients: for. Uniform Loading: Formulas-,for 90 and 180 Circular Members
For Weight of Members in the z-Plane
1 1
Shape w. W ab W oa

a= o g -0.42920kQR' +0.17810kQR' +0.36685kQR'

a= 90" Q +0.42920kQR' -0.39270kQR' -0.13315kQR'

.,;;
a= 90" D +0.42920kQR' +0.39270kQR' -0.13315kQR'
. -.. -.!:--;~-
a,=' 180" D ..:.o.42920kQR' ,-0.17810kQR' +0.36685kQR'

a = 180" tJ +0.42920kQR' +0.17810kQR' +0.36685kQR'

a = 270" tJ ~OA2920kQR' -0.39270kQR' -0.13315kQR'

a= 270" !;;] -0.42920kQR' +0.39270kQR' -0.1335kQR'

a= o !;;] +OA2920kQR' -0.17810kQR' +0.36685kQR'

a= o Dl o +0.78540kQR' +0.46740kQR'

a = 180
Dl o -0.78540kQR' +0.46740kQR'
~~

a = 180 (] o +0.78540kQR' +0.46740kQR'

a= o (~ o -0.78540kQR' +0.46740kQR'

a= go Q +4.00kQR' +2.35619kQR' +2.46740kQR'

. ' a = 270 E::, -4.00kQR' -2.35619kQR' +2.46740kQR'

a= 270 Q -4.00kQR' +2.356i9kQR' +2.46740kQR'

a= go Q +4.00kQR' -2.35619kQR' +2.46740kQR'

------~-~-------------- - ... - ------------------------

180 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
z,x,ory
a
Fra. 5.16 Angles <P and a in the counterclockwise direction.
data is given on Form A-2, which also gives the data
for Sample Calculations 5.15 and 5.16. The shape
coefficients for concentrated loads are as usual cal-
culated on Form D-2. The. shape coefficients for
uniform loading, in this case w4 , w' ab, w' aa, are cal-
culated according to formulas given in Table 5.29
for the circular member 2-4 and in Table 5.26 for
circular members 4-5 and 6-7, and entered on Form
W v The constants for the straight members 5-6
and 7-8 are computed from the formulas on Form
W v and are entered also on that form. For member
1-if the constants are zero. The sums of al! load con-
stants are entered as constants on the equation
sheet, Form E-1, on which the summation coefficients
from Form D-2 also are entered. Solution of the
equations gives the reactions at the free end, the
moment M, referred to the origin. The vertical
z,x,ory
a
l...-''--'-----;,_. y, z. or.x
Fm. 5.17 Angles <Panda in the clockwise direction.
reaction at the fixed end is the difference between
the total load of 29,150 lb and the F ,-force of 19,864
lb or 9286 lb.
The moment at any point N of the line is calcu-
lated in accordance with the fo!lowing general
formula: :]
.
M',N= L;(M,+M,w)+ L;F,yN- L;(F,+Fvw)XN
where L;F, and L;Fv are the sum of the reacting
forces at the free end obtained from the equation
sheet, and any restraint in the line between the free
end and point N. L;M, is the sum of the moment at
the free end referred to the origin, obtained from the
equation sheet, and the moment at the origin caused
by any restraint. Since no restraint is included in
the example L;M" L;F., L;Fv are the reactions
from the equation sheet. XN, YN are the coordinates
of point N. L;Fvw is the sum of the uniform load
.)
,.
1.1
'
27.38
 \.
]

'
1 FLEXIIULITY ANAL YSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 181
~

'

g
. ~C ,..
~

-'
-~

~
,.,
i
SHAPe
1 o \V ~SS' <O) f:

-1 ,.

~
y .

1
~
k

/8

!O
/lO<

t= o
~~ 1--
o
1-- ~~

! o
2

~~-o
1
j
31 " 3< 1~2 210

~ ~~
..

- '}
-
il

j
l
j

~
cq
u
Uo 115

~
1104
lO

1-- ~
1--
'- - -
18!9Z
17/ -
'
/IZ

_m
~
-
l1b5

.
,.,.

- r f' ;
-""~
~ or. 175
,

!457
... !715 ,
IZ! 9>7_ ~
173<

'
-~:

' .11-E ~ LW 1 ;cor i~~ .. -'- ~

n: fi .

;: Mft.4BER NO Z4 COORDINATE STRAIGHT M5.MSER DATA CURVE O MEMBER DATA Wy -280
IN z PLA.NE DATA k k 2.28 21o F w o:W L
SHAPE ANO 4 o Q &IN OC Q /.oo
H/S9 F,w l-/qZ7S.6l

~ ..
OIRECTION
o
.m.
b L c:os"" R 18.50 Rt:L SB./2 M,w =-ZFvw
e o !.kQL~ ~IN&CM; kQR 1M3r..l2 GR' M,w o
o bkQL"' co~ ""' kQR"' Z~ZO&tli GR"' M:w o:+XFvw
o o
" M,w
oUlCO~

..
FOFCMIJL..O.S FOR
PLAN E S:ORMUL..S FOR
STR .... IQHT
ME .... 6EI'll!lo eu,.,veo .... r .... eii!:R CONSTA.NTS FOR CURVE.D ~ STRAIGHT MEMBER.S
- tkQLcos"" se-e T"'&l.ES.
+3Wu, -ew..,
y w + 1k0t_'s1N"'- 5.25 t S.f8
-bw.,. +C.Wy
w',..,.+AkOL +w',..,.
+w._..,.
w + ~ k0L"co$ .. 5EE TABLE5 -51744.48 +bW.._ o -a.w.., o
z w",.b-z!k0L4 SINOC:COS""
S.ZG (.. .5.29 ........ b 65~~(.3. 98
-"29 2'3.33 + .... .....
w",..,+kOL"' co~oc: +Wcb _,zq t~W ........... .,.658 9&3.98

-
W't>.az-
kOL l
1
kQL 4
S<~ o:
~INOCCOGo<
5E'I!!. TA6L.ES
5. 2'4 4- .5:27
-awb
+IN't>.l
+bwb
+W'b~

w't>b + ik.QL SJ..,~QL +Wb.._ +Wbb

Mxw

""
MwwA,..
M,w
A"
MzwA.-z
Fyw
e,
::.,....S,..,
-t~Z73. ~o
... ..,........
.~

..... 1>
~
u
o
o
...., -t8o LOAD CONSTANTS

Rx
A,
11w"Azy
A,
A,.
MzwAyz
Au
frwB
B,,
s., - 55.SO
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
w, -!ZT-14.48
...
M11 w"AJ<z MzwA:r.z .,...B:r. ~ 'fO,! 185. o ., ....... ,...... ~16 168.<1.U. 'R:l: _j .,.n 11 1-J(/.
Bu e, e, o~-83-25 o +cw.,. ......... b -6Z9.26J.J~
.wB,.,.
a.,
zw"Bu
a,
vwC,.v
c.,
-'t'/t1ZG.
5., 777.
15
o
+Wot>
"Y'C.W
wu.,.
""Y-"W...I>
..........
#/7/f.J.U T ~
6Mf6MA
J +174 8~9SQ.

:owBxy Mz:w8zv F C.,,. -16 708 919. y''"'bb ....... ,....... -18.. 50~ Ty 1201218 830,
a, B., e,. +wbl -:c:w..._ o
M,..,...B":r. MzwBu F,,..Cv"' y""'l>z r''"' o Tz 1
1 c....... c. .. L~ F MW
rHE MW.KELLOGGCO "'~~~o>'cb'N'gt~NTl~'llR5 'J!P~ H~ALY '" t.CK~~2u'!J~
c ..TI!. AL N ./

L~
182 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEJ\15 J1
~''.1 '
,

MEMBER N04-5 COORDINA.TE STRAIGHT MEMBER DATA CURVED MEMBER DATA w., f-280
IN z
PLANE
SHAPE AND .. DATA
o
k
Q SIN
~

o< Q
k 2.Z8
l. 00

~ 305.
"087
F w EW L
F w l-J/64 rJJ
w M~
O!RE.CTION c.os
b o L O< R lB. so R ~:L 1/.30 Mow =-zFyw
e o ~kQL3 ~IN t:>< kQR~ f O
443&./2 O~'

',
M..cw
cos
z"
-11.37 lf.kQL"' O< kQR"" ~7;tJ6B. a~ M~w .,+XFyw
o SlNC"-(O~C<
M<w 5<1.1S8,
PUNE

y
.. . s.f~,.~~V",:~~~tR!'>
'kQLcose~~
-t- 1 kOL 1 s1N0<
FOfiMUI....O.S
<:OURVE.O
SEE TJ\&LE5
5.25 t
OR
ME>.4SE:R

s.es
CON5TANTS F'OR CllRVE.D


+'Jw,..
-bw..,
~ STRAIGHT ME M BE.~
-cw,~

+c.Wv
w ..,. ..... f-kQL" ...........
..........
+ ~ kQL-'"c.o.s 5EE TA13LE5
+/{d/.68 +bwa o -aw.,. o
z w'.at> - z!ikOL SINOC:COS
5.2~ t. 5.29 +w'ab - S?O.t6 +W'aa 1:_2,943- 09

. ikOL 3 SIN o:
w'aa+.r4 k.QL" co:;to<

w't>a.-- ~kQL 4 ~I.,O<CO$<><

5EE. TABLES
S. 24 4- .5!Z7
... +wb
-awb
... 550.16 .......,. ... Z.9'13 09
+bwb
f_l
~J

......
X +w't>.a +W't>t>
.
w'b,-=- i,kQL Sl .... atll. +Wb& ~wt>b

....
Mxw M,w +S4~~6B F w -.J.I(;4.oO

...
H u Wy -280 OAO CONSTANTS
,.1
..
MKWA,,
,
A,.
Mzw"Axr
A,.
Mzw~
e.,
FywB:.
By,
~ywB
o
o
+w.,.,
y'W,.

..
o
o
o
o
o
o.
R,

"
1 L
f ....i

n
Mllw"A:.v
An A,. + 1.35 .SI e., - ss.so o w '11"'68
M~twAJ<:r. MzwAu .,.z447. 451. vwBzv rns t::02... o y"W" "'y'W; -"!-S:270. 'R:r. _L +z 77 783.
c.,
Bu
xwB, ..
e., .,.I$S"G./6
MzwBz" WJS-524. 499.
e,
Fyw"Cxy
e,
,. 83 .. 25
-?~..40!1.
o
o
+CWy ......,1>
y'C.w. "'y"Wab
-sso.t~
+/54 04~
............. 2943,09
. <185, 4/S. 1<11.
:
L.
B.,
iM~twBxy
e_.
MzwB:r.y
-55.50
-.J.050 207.
+2Uo5.1111
Fyw"Cvr - 73'.005.f.d.f:
~wbl>

....,. ....!>
+Wuv
..... ,........ -ez4 o65. T, - 78.879 676 n
~~
e,. e,. ~
-c.w.._ o
M,....,Bx:r. Mzw Bzz Fyw"~ ,....., r'CW o T,
"'~~~~n>L ;!.))!~li,fY A~IJ.. Sl,l~ ~ ANALY 15 C.AI...C: . . . ~ MW
THE MW. KELLOGG CO LOAD CONSTANTS FOR WE HT C: ... \I.C.KE.O
o .....,.E:
"'-3;
12 2J- :3 CAL .NO. .1~
;i
.'.}
~.-

.ri. .
~MBER NO.J"~ l COORDINATE 5TRA1GHT MMBER DATA CURVED ME.MBER DATA w, 1-280
IN Z PLO.NE DATA k /.00 ~ -55 k ~ F w - Vllyl_ ,,
5HAPE AND
OIRECTION
S
a
b
-12. 98
-1.3. 73
Q
L
/.()()

7-~0
51.., O<
c:os ...
-.8/92
+.n.u.
Q
R R ~:L F w l-Uz8.
M.- --ZFvw
,;,_

~
e o !.kQL~ 7.1. ,, ~IN. +. /1
&,; kQR~ QR. 3 M,...,. 1 o
-tz. 98 lfikQt_"" kQR 4
"
z o
1.}_9(}/ C05 9'
SI>.!"'CQS<C
+. 32 9(}
-. 4~99
QR< Mrw :+xFyw
M<w 'Z762l"'f.
o
... .
F'OR MI.ILA5 I=OR FOf<MUL,O.S I=OR
PLAN E CONSTANTS F'OR CURVE. O STRA!GHT MEMBE.RS

...
STR. .... I "T MEM6E:R~ CUR.VE.O ...,E...,SR
'kQLc.oso< St::E TJ\I!>LE~
5.25 t s.zs +aw,. -cw.,
y ,. + ' kOL'sN e~. bW 0 +C:Wv

w ..... ,.~~kQL ..........

z
.. .. +
,..._" ...- i,kQL
i--kOL cos ..
SINO< COSO<
:5E'a TAB\...ES
S.ZG .t. .5.29
.. .,. 4/. 9~
+w,. 11
+-bw,~.

......... b
~-~576 .11
~ &.5 .IZ
-aw.,
+w'..,,.
,544.64
,. 4.>. n

X
.......... +to~kOL'"

.... ., ..
=- ~kQLJ
- -'kQL 4
C0$"'01

SIN IX

:>INo<COS 0<
5E"E TAB1...E:S
s. 24- 4- 5.?7
... +wab
-awb

~ ... Da
-5/0.79 ....... ,. ...
+bWb

+W'bl
t-59o. .37

... ,
2

..."
.... bb'"'+ ',k.QL 4 SIN .._ ..... b ... ... .... t>b

M.- F,. - ,. -Z/30 LOAD CONSTANTS

+ 27.t2/. 44 2128 ~
'~ "
M~..,A.o;
A.,
MzwAxt ""
I=~..,Oxy ...........
.. w ....

y'""
o
o ,.;T --
A,, A,. E, o o o

....
M%w"A.o;v

M~wA.o;z
Mzw"Ayz
An G/.2/3
'
MzwAzz 1-4-!1-54, 18(;..
['1 wB
e
T_.]_q 2. (0
F....., Bz.v -834 389.
o
o
o
... ...
o

y'W~
o

"y'W
r 41. tG
- ,, 74t!f.
"
,, .,.3.{008, 648.

..
s c., o +CW o.w,~.t>
Bl:." rl415 08 -2291. "1-'i SIO.J.9.
MwB .. Mt.wBz.o; ... 39. OBG 54Z Frw'C.xy r+,B7&. 291. o y'C"'
11
............ "'143 021. T, -=-
-t- 44 /OS, 859,
, e, "'.3'1Z .to e,. .,.3/.507.15 ~ .....1>1> +Wuv ............ .,..59o-.n
~wBxr MzwBzy .,.10830,367 Fv.., C.,.y -{,1 0'11. 215. ...,..... ..
~ ,....... ...,........ -IGSd04. Tv -56 382,152.
Bn e e, +wDol -.-........ o
M.,..B~z 'v1zwBzz ~='rwCvz "'y'WI>L y',Wu o T,
THE MWKELLOGGCO "'':'~~' L ~!)!)li,TY ANO ST,~~
LOAD CONSTANTS FOR WE GHT
ANALY515 :1f ~~~ ... E.t? 1(.5.
,o. TI!: /22J :S3
F.M
CAL::. ,0. .1

'.
'
u

--------1 ~--.Y

~ 1

tJ
 ' .

FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 183

li;j""Z."~ o~A k 2.28

DATA
83' F
w, 1- 280
, w,
~ -a ~ Q i" '.7~...4 Fvw l-1796&
'
IDoREC" N b
= <oOo< . 1 R
' 00
1/A.SO R iL 1'-St". Mvw =-iF,

11 e
1- .41 hk<
""'"
;coo'
kQR~

kQR
<>1<
. o"
M
M.,

IPLANE
'
-FOR -~ M';:,~
-;::-'
s;~."';~~.es +aw -cw.

-. -
y -:- 1
+w, +CWy
;;;:-= .. . +w",

z -:-- -
. :-;;-:-
>kQ
\kQ
....
'cos
1 ~~z;'tcl'.~. .... """ .. +Wuy
obw,
. 1+ 1928.1~ -
... .IR
<&. Q&.. ??

;;:---;;--=-
""'
~.,-
= 1-

~;;'-:;;-:- ' 1 s"s.ezJ't's~i7

=
...
+W

....
M. Mow Fvw l-.3: ...... 80 l a ~ lv 280 LOAD
~
A,. B,. 1 , o
M~Avv IM,.A.. IF-'B,, ~~- o IR,
---.::; --.:;;;: ~-
o o
;:;e. o o
--.:;;;:
=
;;;-
=
' .'"
o 1-42/0./4

s .. B,. 1.. 4QO."

>182
~Cvv ~-
o
1.. ... ... >2108.96
r,
Tv
.
l._ !
a;;- a .. -e: ..
:;;,
;;;;;
- o
o r
fHE A.W vr:-t , r ;co Pl':'~':.n' ..FoR W1'1~,_f 1ALY )1~

'-;

COOROINATE : 1- 80
DATA. '.w,
--.;: -::-:z.:-
~
Q
b l-34.94 L IRiL M,w =-i=vw
o 14.59 loo' '" >.9 ko 1 Mvw O

./1 1 B. 24 lnkC
o
'/2. 1cos'

l.o
. 12 o
<9 k lo~
1
Mow
Mzw l'l<Z94.S:
IPLANE ON FOR ~ S"RAt<:;o
1 s;~."';~~.es .....-;;:
y

...
........ ...
1-.-->kQ 'cos
~~~.;'tLn. - z.. . 72 1+828.18 195.4.5
z lw :-
lw":-;+
HC

"""
'
coo .,-
~1.98
1+1t".6.80 .... 1+
1-
7-C.3
/87.82
~
;;:---;;--=- !'kQ ~
r..;.-:;;-:- ;;;
5EE TASI-ES
s. 24 4- .s:Z7
w;;
-
...... ...,,
....
=
X

- lf
M
hki5 ...-~-
M~.- -,,. ... ,

~ 1-;;;,
-
1 '~ lz~ 1,- 280 ILOAO .NTS
- ......-;;- ~
= o

A,. A,, 6., o o o

-A .. A ce 1+ 150. 71 1
IM..A., IM,.A, 4854./05 IF- 8,.1-
.....,.-;;- Bu +591.21 e,. 1-9521.14
IF,.c,.l.
......-: B;; ~,?. 71 Cvv l.
~ .. Tv
--;:- ..,-;-;- e~. r;;;;;; 1-
= :;;c.. ;;;;;;;;, "
o
o r.
 Hz Fx

- ,,. ~ l7i
z (fSS

IT ~
IF
! '418& "''"
\3
-si ""
p
"'

. Fy6 >19B,<iA,B
Fy1 a+ tltB<.. o
~ +t1t5tJ.8

,....

1:>:

-~
jTHE--w; 1t nr..r. COl ~~~'N >L~~tB '<!r~N~rH'l;~s"t?s'
''
-
184 J
; }

----''fu'
"]
'\
LJ
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 185
from the free end to point N. L;M,w is the sum of Table 5.31 Shape Coellicients for z-Wind: General
the moments at the origin caused by L:Fyw F yw Formulas for Straight Members
and M ,w are obtained from F orm W The calcula- . L'
tion of the moments at the various points, and the w" = kQ - coa 2 ex
6
maximum stresses, are shown on Form F-1.
L'
w'~ = =FkQ-sinexcos 2 a
5.22 Wind Loading 24

The analysis of the reactions in piping systems due

to wind loading is similar to that for weight. The L - - . , -... y
wind is assumed to produce a load which is uniformly x-plane
distributed over members perpendicular to the wind
direction, and for other members, uniformly dis-
Waa = +w'=- aw 4

tributed over the projection of the member in a Note: upper signa apply
when cos ex is plus, lower
"
1 Table 5.30 Shape Coefficients for x-Wind: General
signa apply -when cos ex

'
j Formulas for Straight Members
is minus.

z L'
' w. = -kQ- cosa L'
,,
'J
ii
~ +a
6 X = =FkQ- sin2 a
6
i L'
~
:~ w, = +kQ-sina
6
'fi ' L'
Ji !' y w "" = +kQ24
i ( 1'
'

t!
!

j' q
. x-plane w., = w',n + awu- bw. '------
Y-plane
Ulbcl = +w'ba - atl.lb
'
'' L' Wbb = +w'bb + bwb
l X w. = kQ- cos 2 a
6 Note: upper signs apply
!\~
when sin a is plus,
w ' .,, = TkQL4
smacos t
a lower signs apply when
24 sin a is minus.
_.\ ~-a L'
' ' z
w' aa = kQ 24 cos 3 a y
}. ' L'
' Wu = -kQ-cosa
y-plan e Wab = +w'oo + bwa 6

w.. = +w'oa - awa L'

= +kQ- sin a
6
Note:. upper signs a.pply
when cos a is plus, lower
signs apply when cos a '-----:x
is minus.
:z:-plane Wuw = w'"" + aw~ - bw,. .-
y
L'
Wb = =FkQ-sin 2 a
6 plane perpendicular to the wind direction. The
equations given in Table 5.19 are applicable.

/::ia
L'
w'oo = =FkQ- sin'Zacosu
24 The formulas for the shape coefficients for wind
loading for straight members are given in Table 5.30
, L4
Wf1b=kQ-sin 3 a for the x-wind and in Table 5.31 for the z-wind. For

-
24
curved members, the formulas are listed in Tables
X
= +w'ba- awo 5.25, 5.28, 5.32, 5.33, 5.34 and 5.35 for both the
Wbb = +w'bb + bwb x-wind and the z-wind. The projected length is
z:-pfone denoted by L'. Thus F,w = w,L' and F w = w,L'
Note: upper signs apply
when sin a is plus, for wind loading along the x- and z-axes respectively.
lower signs apply when Forros IV, and W, are used for the computation ofthe
sin a is minus. load constants.

1- - --
 : -:,.,~-.

186 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Tahle 5.32 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: General Formulas for Circular Members
For z- Wind Acting on l\tembers in the y-Piane
or x-Wind Acting on ]\1Cmbcrs in the z-Plane
Note: Signs prefixed to formulas below to be selected as follows:
n
~
Use upper signs when are <P lies in the 1 and/or II quadrant.
Use lower signs when are c:l> lies in the III and/or IV quadrant.
Split the are into two members when <P lies in I and IV or II and 111 quadrants. :m: ][ n
dJ.,,
Counterclockwise Direction h
[q,4 (1 + sin2(a+<P) . . ] I
W, = QkR3 2 cos 2 a)+ - cosa sm(a+1>) + j sm 2a
8
QkR'{l[cos(a+<P)- cosaJ'I

w't.t. = QkR' {Msin 3 (a+<P)- sin 3 a]- ![sin(a+<P)- sin a]+ co~a [1> + sin(a+<P)cos(a+<P)- sin(a+<P)cosa]}

Clockwise Direction

w, ~ 'TQkR' [q,4 (1 +2cos a)- ~2~-~

2
8
. .
+ cosasm(a-1>)- tsm2a
]

w'"' ~ QkR'ft[cos(a-<P)- cosaJ'I

w',. ~ QkR' {trsin 3 (a-<P)- sin 3 a]- ![sin(a-<P)- sin a~- co~a [<P- sin(a-1>)cos(a-1>) + sin(a-1>)cosal}

Table 5.33 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: General Formulas for Circular Members
For z-Wind Acting on l\Iembers in the x-Plane
or x- Wind Acting on 1\lembers in the y-Plane
n ..

~=

Note: Signs prefixed to formulas below to be seleeted as follows:

Use upper signs when are <P lies in the I and/or IV quadrant.
Use lower signs when are q, lies in the II and/or 111 quadrant.
Split the are into two members when 1> Jies in the I and II or III and IV quadrants. :m: ][

Countereloekwise Direetion

W0 = =FQk R ' [q, (1+2sm. a)- sin 2(a+1>) +smaeosa+'*'

2 . ( ~) -ssm
, . 2a]
I

w'., ~ 4
QkR {i[sin(a+<P)- sin a]')
8
'.J
i)._

w' ~ QkR' {Mcos 3 (a+1>) - cos 3 a] - ![cos(a+1>) - cosa] - si~" [<P- sin(a+<P)cos(a+1>) +sin a cos(a+<Pll}
Clockwise Direction

Q R'
Wa=k [q,1+2sma)+
( . sin 2(a-1>)
2
8
. ( ~)
-smacosa-"S'+ssm~
, . "-]

w'., ~ QkR 4 {l[sin(a-<P)- sinaJ'I

w' ~ QkR4 {/[cos 3 (a-1>) - cos' a] - ![cos(a-<P) -cosa]+ si~" [<P + sin(a-<P)cos(a-1>) -sin a cos(a-1>)1}

u
 ..
""":1

FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY TIIE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 187

The pipe configuration previously given in Sample plus any restraint in the Jine between the free end
Calculation 5.14 is calculated for a wind load of and point N. The sum of the moment at the free
60 lb/ft in both the x- and z-directions, and shown end referred to the origin (obtained from the equa-
= -~ as Sample Calculations 5.15 and 5.16 respectively. tion sheet), and the moment at the origin caused by
A stop in the z- direction at point 4 is included. The any restraint is EM,. EF,., is the sum of the wind
load constant for this stop equation is milculated on load from the free end to point N. EM,., is the sum
Form S,. Sufficient explanation for the computa- of the moments at the origin due to EF,.,. F,., and
tion is given on the form . M,., are obtained from Form W,. The calculation
.. 1 The moments at any point N are computed in is shown on Form F-1. Since no restraint is included
accordance with the following general formulas: in the example, EM., EF., and EF are the reac-
For x-wind: tions from the equation sheet.
For zcwind:
M'.N= EM.+ EM,.,+(EF.+ EF,.,)yN- EF ,XN
where EF,, EF. are the suma of the reacting forces
M',N = EM, + EM,.,- (EF, + EF,.,)yN
at the free end (obtained from the equation sheet), M' vN ,;, EM. + EM., + (EF, + EF,.,)xN
Table 5.34. Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: Formulas for 90 and 180 Circular Members
..
. 'j
.For z-Wind Acting on Members in the y-Plane
or x- Wind Acting on Members in the z-Plane
1 1
Shape Wb W ba W bb

a= o p +O.l7810kQR 3 -0.16667kQR' -0.04793kQR'

}: a= go Q -0.39270kQR' +0.16667kQR' +0.33333kQR'

a= go o +0.39270kQR 3 -0.16667kQR' +0.33333kQR'

a= tso o -0.17810kQR 3 +0.16667kQR' -0.04793kQR'

a= 180 tJ -0.17810kQR' -0.16667kQR' -0.04793kQR'

. '
a= 270 tJ +0.39270kQR 3 +0.16667kQR' +0.33333kQR'

a= 270~ ~ -0.39270kQR 3 -0.16667kQR' +0.33333kQR'

a= o ~ +O.l7810kQR 3 +0.16667kQR' -0.04793kQR'

a= o DI +2.35619kQR' -1.33333kQR' + l.57080kQR'

'
.
a= 180 D; -2.35619kQR 3 + 1.33333kQR' + l.57080kQR'

a= 180 ((] -2.35619kQR 3 -1.33333kQR' + 1.57080kQR'

a= o ((] +2.35619kQR' + 1.33333kQR' + 1.57080kQR'

a= go o +0.42920kQR 3 -0.33333kQR' +0.57080kQR'

a= 270 {5, +0.42920kQR 2 +0.33333kQR' +0.57080kQR'

a= 270 Q -0.42920kQR 3 -0.33333kQR 4 +0.57080kQR'

a= go Q -0.42920kQR 3 +0.33333kQR' +0.57080kQR'

 188 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Table 5.35 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: Formulas for 90 and 180 Circular Mernbers
For z- Wind Acting on Members in the x-Plane
or x- Wind Actirig on Memhers in the y-Plane " {. i
n
f.
w.,
a=
Shape
o D
w.
-0.39270kQR' +0.16667kQR'
w
+0.33333kQR' n
.
e

a= goo D +0.17810kQR' -0.16667kQR' -0.04793kQR'

a= 90 C'l +0.17810kQR' +0.16667kQR' -0.04793kQR'

a = 180" C'l -0.39270kQR' -0.16667kQR' +0.33333kQR'

a= 180" tJ +0.39270kQR' +0.16667kQR' +0.33333kQR'

~ = 270 tJ -0.17810kQR' -0.16667kQR' -0.04793kQR' !J.

"'~

a= 270 ~ -0.17810kQR' +0.16667kQR 4 -0.04793kQR' .

'..'.'.]
(,_

a= o ~ +0.39270kQR' -0.16667kQR' +0.33333kQR'

~H!~t~
a= o Dl -0.42920kQR' +0.33333kQR' +0.57080kQR'

a= 180" Dl -0.42920kQR' -0.33333kQR' +0.57080kQR'

!
L.

a= 180 (] +0.42920kQR' +0.33333kQR 4 +0.57080kQR'

a= o (] +0.42920kQR' -0.33333kQR' +0.57080kQR'

n
u
a= 90 o +2.35619kQR' + 1.33333kQR' + 1.57080kQR'

a = 270 ~ -2.35619kQR' -1.33333kQR' +1.57080kQR' J1

a= 270 o -2.35619kQR 3 + 1.33333kQR' + 1.57080kQR'
1.]
a= 90" Q +2.35619kQR' -1.33333kQR' + 1.57080kQR' '

... !
j
;
'
 FLEXI8ILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL 1\tk.'THOD 189

~- .
.. 1 DATA )ATA w, 1+
k
"'"~ +_1 C <1: F"'w_ 1+ IQ
00 <O> 0 fi 'R>-L "'>, + 'w
I<_QI,!_ 1 ~ ,so' _+, 1 'kQR 'e>"-_' M_y-e 1
[jok(2C 38 <O>' O kQF ..,'Q'"or-1'4-f--f-CiM\= -i"""'''i'-Jw
<W-,.-
"""'''" _O_ :,.; ';E= ~.w [+ O
<S" 'NTS FOR JRvEo ~

"l

J X ..

o
+W,
y ..
o
r
o
~-J-5_
w, .,,.
..
- ......._ ~-~0.-
Q"O :O"'S]" n::s
o o o F, J

8,

Jo.
OI
.... -. 1+_8~

_6,_, '"""i.o o

o-~,~r-~-l~~

DATA w, 1 ;o
"""
. NO.Z-4 COORDINATE
IN Z PLANE DATA '17o F., -w,
.. o Q Q 1.00 <1: Fow
~. b o L R 111.50 1 R~L Myw -. F,,
~ < o ~kQL' [kQR' o~ Myw 1 O
4LJ__\t q,25 l;\:kQL [kQR' loR M,w -;>F., oi"
[PLANE
... -

'
'co
o

.. ~.;n'".f~s .. FOR ~
.50]
"'
'-IEMBERS

..
.
' ........ ...
,. .-.
-~~-
-
..-
y
-.-.~, s;;;t';;~;S
:...
- ;\<(

,co"
'3EI! TAbl..l!~

- o
+u
....
w, " .~"'"
-
f,.!l2. 4.- 5.!14- +w'
q,o21.81
' ob

o
'152, 44t.SI
'151, H2.51

...
M,w M, I-2Q53S.oo F,
B,
,6,
1+ xo.[ Y'!'

o
' " w,t~O

o
LOAO

A. Avo _o,. , +_w,_ ',"'_ _o-

.... _A, + s. oo B,. - .se

-: '3'1_0, .,...,
'_-, ,<!.so_ +
+
'.Oo
1.980.
,,
,,_,,.,.
e.. ' -ss. so + 83.25 -
1 +1 + w,<w, ~10, T.
8, 6, .... .... o

~ o
1

1 ". ------~-~----------" ........ ____ -----------------

190 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

No.4~5 DATA URV O w, 1

""- .z~ PLANE
COORDINA TE
DATA k 'TA
W,L'
(()

"--~~;:'!_:"'-':0 o Q 1 SON~ Q
R
.oc ., I.GI087 F w 1 G~b.
o Mvw >F,
{Jf7 <
b
o 1-l:kOL'
lo.
1 , lkQR'
18.50 1R4>
QJ>.S Mvw o
; -5.305 li.kOL' <os. lkOR do R.' M,w -;;F,
5
z ~'""'''' :-: ,~.
10.01 M,.
e
PLAN E

. 1... o
1 o
see TAI!>L.ES.
5.25 lf.. 5.28
...
ON'

...
FOR C URVED ME

.... ...
ow 0 ,

y
1
1: ,= + ' k .cos '
"k'
1 s~~~3,.."':~~~~
obw,

....
w'
-
~.
ow,, ....
:.;_ j
\kC 'co'

1
lo
lw' o
+,.q _., '~
"'~
lw',,-, C.<QI'>w'~
SEe TAei..E!>
5.!12 d.. 5.~4 - 4(,1. q,;
-
..... o obw 0
"ob
o
-f.24q.aa

v" ."'
b wbb - 1.>4q.aa
M. M, F,
'
>Y, '6 OAD
o

A., A,. e., .. .. o

A, A., 1 135.51 B,. 115sG. ~~ ... o o '4<

_B,
IM.-A" 1
8, 11551> 16
IM.-8,, 1. IF,.C
' .... ....
,GSI. 1 ~7.

74. '9J To l+lq,

1+1t".Z64. o
B, Bo 1 . zs <o .

8,
IM,
e,
IM.-8,
IF C 1;-
.C
.... o
1 .... o
o
1 30.9.5 . .

1
[f_HE MW KELLQGG_c;_O Pl~~~~n' 1
rn,o >1> _m

0 ~cM~c ~~~~~
COORDINATE
DATA
1
.o o
oR DATA
-55'
fA w, 1
.w
o
L.
n
.
.

"
~

S_HAP.E ANO b - IZ.qe Q .oo 1>< ~ .Biqt F w

..
1! 15.80
'S
w, e
;
z
- 13-73
o
- 13.73
o
7.<.0 lo ~ .57%
1-l:kQL' 13. IG ! ..110
l!ikQL 139.01 cos' .3>90
QR'
QR'
R
,.,.
c;.z
M <W -.-::;

~
F,w
F0 w

PLANE

. .. >R C JRVED ~ 51 IAIGH'

....
ME

. .. ..
w. o- ';k( '<o6 w. -cw
5.25 'f'za -bw,
_ w'
..
....... , ... 0
~~~' .~';;
,k . 'coo '
:s~~~;t~~~s -aw,

......-. -~
y
-~.-

o = ~e~ TABt.e::O .., 49.10 . 637.32 -

M,
' w'o
.,- '
+ kl
ikQL'oo'~
M,
5.!:12

513> . .,
4- s.~4-

F,w :+ 3B. Bo ... .., ..

+W'o.

Y"
53. so
.82.
w, .... 0
A, e, o o o

A,
M0.A,

e, .. .......
.....
o o o
o "
A.
M,.A,
A, 't<f .. 8 B,
;1ito ... ... o
o
49.10
R, 1

e. 8,
,8,
... ~ -.. .... .... ,
.<97.73
. R, I+1.3SO,G3G.

II<P87,q<.7.
J
l
e, B,,
:m;;" .,-..
3'2.10 o

Bn e,.
><,.Bu
2.0
:
IF. ,C,
.. .ol o

PIP~g Fi
0 :i~ gtLl~ lhANfo~TR~ ~INI
1 o.
rHE MW KELI< vV

J
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 191

DATA DATA w, f 60

'
1,~76.80 F,w 7C .ZG f o. i Y,. fw,
6,, o o o
o o o IR, .
A,, 8,, 1 . o
o R, 1
A., 1+1GB. "-"0:-,, -;-wol+ 8,., ..

a. l+i.o.
BB B. ,
~ = o
r.ol+53.72o. R, 1+..101,791.
1>751<:3: 11 -..; 1 1

- 1+ ~ l<i ;;;;;:; 1+ 4/. q24./9/.

o.
~-. o

-B. B. : .,.. .... o

~:;eMW k'I"IIIY:r.:r.r. PIPCg~DF~~~),' rlN?o~TRI:~~IN'

>.

ATA w, 1 <00
1- k ~ 1F .w, L
Q .P 1 F,w f<27
/9 IROL 1 Myw iF,w
lkC IR 1 Myw 1 O
lkGR' }R< 1 M,w -;F,w
S, ~ 1 M,w .v,..7
'
FOR CURV O ~ s d<;H
fw-;; o-: kQL'<o6
lC w.;-.= 1'<101
fso:zs ~ s.ze !--":.."'-."+----+..:.-b;:c.:,::...----1'-,,.=::!Oeeww",+-----1
. t ~ .....
1

;;;-.- f k L'eos '
r;;;:~
r;;;::-;;- "" [ 4 coo'o
r;;;::-;- ~oUSifil:"C.<.-
;;:::-;- F.kC ~
r;~;t~~ t-.::~~+------~~:.~.~.---+-:..:..~~~.+---~
~El! TA&l..e:~
"" 4- , ...
+W~ r+Q-,:-.,_-q
. ....
' -
1 +W'
1157 . 53
, <;1, <>
....
....
+W'oo 1+ :na BS
r;;:: ::-;- hkQi ~
+ >7. .;: 1 .-w
1Y,. 1+ "'"'
z ~.; +GO . . OAC
1-
o -0

IR
s

B. 1+.<<7.21 C,, 1 ....

=
1 ....

~ -:e;; o
B.
B. -e
= -,
~ 1;;;<;<1 ~ 91.08/.
-:;,.; 1 o

~ o
1
 J'l
:."
t.U

Fy

n
d
..s., "" -:ztot:._S'- . '\
F# =- 2703.04
;E = -480f.GO
1

1>

,-.1.'
. 1'
ii. .. .'

cM'. -M'. -M'

J, ..

'; 'f
LJ
ITHE MW KEI 1 nr.,r, COl PIPI~ . F! 1
ITXN~N~. RES-SES

192

;
------u'
:i
L
j
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY TUE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METUOD 193

1;;;-z~
~
COORDINATE

--..-
DATA

=
---;;;-
DATA
qo
--:
URVED
. :DATA

~-~
F,w
w, 1 l.O

;
e o
.DO ooo
' .. ~

+ kQR
L
,.
Mxw "+
1- ?70

i :
f'L,.>JE
.l y -
;o
.so
.38 .oo'
'"'
FOR
lR'
:~~ :'.'i".~;
'

e
vw

;;:--;-
lw: -;;-:;: ~
=
;-;- s.eTA=
5.25 .. 5.28 -=-
-=- ~
o i
c.;; "
-.C.. H
-e,
-.,w.
o
o

~= ... ...
1+w', + . ~

- -~
. 1w.--;-
lw:: 5.33
_ ,~
4- 5.~5
.. 1
+io.l!f
:a.;
1; '
lw;--;-
,,Q ... ;;;-,.
...
see TAe.&...e:t.
cf.
1"
1
.....
...
y ~~-~ ~ 5.3Z ~.:04 '

;;--,;;-:- -,;Q .;- -

1 i .w,,
--;: ;: F , xt 1 y t lw, +GO 'LOAD ON:
A.. -A: :e- -;:;,: 1 o +4.'<0
:-:8: o +270 <R, + 270
A.. A,
-o -... o
... A.,
:-:B.

,wBu
;-;;;
o
o
o

o
-~ o R.
-r
" -.
e;;- - 6, c 1-cw, o
1M: :;o:
......-;;-
IM.:-6.
B.
[w.cw
r~-~ ....
o 1
o
o
T 1

1
e. e. -.: -;:;;;;: 1 +WM 1.. 1+10.13
1 +GOB
~ ~ T~ ;-oj'T~~~ALY ~
'
\ 1' T",
ln-IE MW KEI 1x..r, ce ;t:;

lw, IGO
i.. 1f:i~~ ,;..- ; ' ~~~t COORDINATE
DATA Z.28
DATA
270' IF w,L
--..-

.m.
~ '"' Q l.oo t i IBO' 1 F,w
DtRECTION b
--;-
R IIR.sa 1 R~ Sll./2 1 M.w HF

~
~ lk< 1a.eJ IG33l6'1 INI 14/.079
1M.,. -xF
k( iR 1a.e
v 1+1 7A ' 58.12 1 "' 1 o

......
p:; 'NTS 'C IRVED e s
! T'e~ l+>w, o- r~z. -o'
5.'25 .. 5.28 ~ q 14-i 1-"'
i
o rc o

lw. !
1-~-;:-;;--;
Uco'o<
,,., :.",;~-~~
1
.. 1.
1
1+44t.B99
re
-6

.;>. 1-: --.;;:

;;;:~ ;. see .-...~es .~ 1.;;:
1 """
y ~ kQ 5.3Z f !5.!14-

--;: =
~
-,;;;>.;
= 'i77i liOi: ,-,.:
~ ;:-;; 1. 1 o +9747
o 1R, 1723, 741
.3 90 I+'??J~ lw.. o 1-
o o 1.~ o lw. 1R. 15691, 739
A., o . o o

.-..- IR, 1
o o o
..
'"'"" ' ,.....
6, 1--- 1~
F,_.( ' 1
--;;; B. l"'~ o
1
8 ---;;: e. ~ '
~ 56 "' -o
lfHE M.W ~<~= 1 1x..r, ce PIP~~~jl
~~~ ~

------"
194 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

1 < NO.fS CA_ :UR' D_ QAT~ '"' .<.Q

1N Z _c_P~N~ [)ATA ~ k 2.28 ~ 305'1 F,. w,L

."o~

.......'

.. '.
, 'o<

~
' ']'
:~
i!._
y
. }'
-"- _... , . _n<..8y ',. e!. ~8 --= , _ LOAD
A,

A,
+107.. 03

O
o
A,

A
IM, .,
o
o
1+ 107.93
1+1271. 076
6,,
.-6.
6,
-
1- <'00267
'+ 7Z-IS
1 48.918
1 +W,

1
1
1 +W 0

o
o
_ 5_22
o
1 _127
,..... . 7<;20
'R, 1-:JDI

R, l_m2,3J4_
Ji

'J
Bu o O o
o o
B, 1-<+. 1 ~-
h''" o , i' 1

o
o
880 f.J
o;.

JR~ !!
r_l_J
; e
L

/.00
. !-E_o_ SON o<_ 1 .8/9Z Q
7.<,0 _ coso< 1.S73(; R
!:....
1$.J6 1 '" lkC
QR'
FC URVI e
w, -
'" SEE TAe'-<5
5.25 ~5.2'8
1
z w,
.. ~ 1 +w', o09

~~
;~:
...__. !~oo:_o< 1 -

,,...
'
,.-_. 1 .... ,.

s:::. TA6t-E~

M,
y
.
,
, ,..
.,
+

....
~
1
S.32 of- ~.3.

'+S.918- 88 F,
f--='"''---1----+'1 ,,...
f----l----f-,.~
+ <5<>
,.::=.-"--'"b+----f-':.:7-bwb'-t----1
~-------+.~
zo
'
..'-+-------1
1 ' 1 '" ,+60 LOAD CONI
A, + 13/.52 A o 6, -8<>4 -91 1 59. 13
M,,A,
A, o
o
.90 -"
6.
.3<07
- 1113.
w,
o
o
1
,15
-- 96
1 R, i(l94,0.

o '733. 349. 8,475 1,. lw,w,-zsa. IR, 1

A,
-
-"~
.-6,
,.,...
o _.
-'-
-" 1

'801,

_____., :1
'_ j
'

LJJ

1
u
 . FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD . 195

-~~~! :DATA 1w; 1+<;,

.. ,':
COOROINATE
'" Z ~LAN DATA ~w
SHAPEA.Ni> 4: --:; ::9<: /.oo .1$.04, F 2 w
OIREqiON ~ 1coo~ 118.50 i Rt 14S& 1 Mw +' 'w

~l. 1so"'~ lkc

lkC R'
! o~
1o.<'
I~.3JI.J 1 M
1M_ -~F.
',f,f:.28 ' ~~ 11-',S M w
~-
-;-
f.~-~':'1,
~~s
ANTS FOI '"'''""T
-, s
5.25 "- S.Z/3

. ,,, 1
~
1 ......
.,...
1

1 ,

' SEE TA&I-E$

5.3Z ~.~4 f 1 -
1 ,
.....
. .
;,,
' z;:
1 ; ;

~-~= ~Bi...~ 1 1 yo< .OAO

-:

o o o
o o o
e ;. 1-cw.. o 1~
e lw.cw o lw,-..
r= ;;;,
" o
o

l~a1. ~ ~.4< r, loa..

THE ~.W Kf' 'r "f 00 PJ~"1,'}..{~ ~;~.<fNf~L--~

TA
DATA IF
1 SHAPE_ANO ~-
b- 1 .4.94
/ 1 S<" ~ 1 9925
l/o.s3 coo K ~,.,.1
" Q
R 1 RtL
9

' e- o l-l,kQJ II94.S9 1 so"'M lkQR' 1 ......

.
IB.t4 1='~ .lkQR 1 o,.
' :: o
~
o
'
IPCANE l- fCFOR <RS
iw: -;;-::e ' O ~ES
- ? z ~ --;- . ... .5.2.8
\'
;;;- ~
.. J

. 1 1
~ ' SEE TA&I-1!!$
1 - 1
y ~ kQ !'> 5.3Z f ~.!!4 1 ..... 1

.. ~l<Q+;,.M
liii: 1 1 yo<
r;:w: 1=. -.
lw~,-+~0 ILOAO CON
,_,
loo

IR
1~, ~7.10.

o o
o 1~
T, 1

IT. 1
T, 1 .310.
STOP IN X DIRECTION

STOP IN Y OIRECTION n
d
~.H.
'
~~ '

1- 1,..,

Mx Fz:

ll!i5
L.

J
L

Z WINO

~ z., (ror) +,u.: ,~.,

Fz 4
r r4 - -
"" - BII.SO
..7G4-1-44
s
1
ru .. - !750-70
::E -G24G.G4 1~

1~

11
,;_ __ .>

1
- - - - - - - . ) )t
' :)

IJ
 "
1!i
e l -,

\
" ,
'!
e

'
e FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL METHOD 197
'
j '
Ce

1
1 ;:;;; 'Rut:is To

" 1 1~
1 ;.:.Eh~-. .....
i
~~-~ s,:";,
1 ji'-=Et S'E
WHIC:HEVER '-""
1~-
1 ~-1'- (1-j e)

1~-
1 1\>T

'
''
;

n:!

THE IVI.V.. 1 1 ()('f.. COl ~~" . -

~. ,,

where L;F, is the sum of the reacting force at the References

free end, obtained from the equation sheet, and any
restraint in the line between the free end and point N.
L;M. and 'EMv are the sums of the moments at the
free end referred to the origin, obtained from the
equation sheet, and the moments at the origin caused
by any restraint. L;F,., is the sum of the wind load
from the free end to point N. M ., and !tfv., are the
.. ;
sum of the moments at the origin due to F ,.,. M""'
M .,, and F,., are obtained from Form W,. Since
a F ,-stop is included at point 4- in the example the
F,4-force from the equation sheet and its moment at
the origin must be included from point 5 to the fixed
end. The calculation is shown on Form F-L
!. The M. W. Kellogg Co. (by D. B. Rossheim, A. R. C. Mark!,
H. V. Wallstrom, andE. Sleaak), Design of Piping System.,
1st edition, 1941 (out of print-1!uperseded by 2nd
edition, 1956).
2. H. V. Wallstrom, uGeneral Analytical Method," Heating,
Piping andA ir Cond-, Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 69-74 (1947).
3. L. H. Johnson, "Solution of Pipe Expansion Problema by
Punched Card Machines," digest in Mech. Engr., No.
53-F-23, p. 1020 (Dec. 1953) .
4. W. Hovga.a.rd, "Stresses in Three-Dimensional Pipe
Bends," Trans. ASME, Vol. 57, FSP-57-12, pp. 401-476-
(1935).
5. W. Hovgaard, "Further Studiea of Three-Dimensional
Pipe Bends," Trans. ASME, FSP-50--13, Vol. 59, No. SJ
pp. 647-650 (1937).
For a further discussion of piping analysis, see Appendix Dt
Page 3591 uA Matrix Method of Piping Analysis and The
Use of Digital Computers."

CHAPTER
6 n
Flexibility Analysis by Model Test
P ROGRESS in the physical sciences has been
marked by the constant use of experiments
as a means of pioneering observation and a
confirmation of reasoning and mathematical predic-
tion. Following the establishment of basic "laws,"
the experimental approach has proved invaluable
for quantitative measurement of the physical con-
stante which implement applied science and m&ke
possible the practice of engineering.
General design principies and specific assumptions
can often be verified or their qualitative significance
determined by simple experimente. Although a
more refined approach is usually necessary for
quantitative measurement, significant data are often
achieved with minimum complexity by taking
advantage of basic phenomena such as yielding or
failure. Where the relative inf!uence of the variables
involved is not established, or when prototypes are
used for providing designs for mass production,
full-size specimens, where economically feasible, are
favored for positive avoidance of errors. However
in many fields, such as structures, increasing knowl-
edge of fundamentals and significant improvemente
in instruments for accurate measurement make it
possible to employ scale models with increasing
confidence for the direct solution of problems, partic-
ularly where overall rather than highly localized
influences are under study.
6.1 The Experimental Approach
As a pioneer contributor to high-temperature
piping design, The M. W. Kellogg Company, by the
employment of strain gages, made early use of
experimental verification of the load-deflection rela-
tions of so-called expansion bends and of the primary
and secondary stresses in curved pipe. Later effort
was devoted toward establishing f!exibility and
198
'.
b
~~)
J1[1
Jl
t~;
f
lf
n
''
il
}'
stress intensification factors for corrugated and
creased bends and corrugated tangente; also, to
load-deflection tests of both piping' assemblies and
large scale models of piping systems made of small
pipe. These combined experiences with the experi-
. mental approach led to the routinized solution of
piping flexibility by Model Test which is presented
in this chapter.
6.2 The Routinized Model Test
Much of the early urge for the evaluation of piping
expansion effects by model test was inspired by the
difliculty in handling other than simple problems ~
'!
-.rr. -
by the analytical methods then available. Experi- ' .
ence in structural and other fields had demonstrated
that reliable results could be achieved from scale
models; however, expense limited their use to occa-
sional important problems. Economic widespread
IJ
application required, first, acomprehensive analytical
development of the general irregular frame in space
for organization and evaluation of the accuracy of
the model test resulte, and second, rugged precision
equipment and organized test methods for obtaining
reproducible resulte with reasonable expenditure of
time. That these requiremente have been met by
the Kellogg Model Test Lahoratory is attested by
the demands for its services on critica! piping,
particularly for public utility installations. Al-
though the horizon of economic analytical solutions
has been broadened by programmed machined cal-
culations, the Model Tester continues in its useful- J
ness for complex problems. Most important, it
provides an independent check method which can
parallel manual or programmed machine calcula-
tions when double assurance as to the accuracy of
jl
design is desired.
Evolution of the Kellogg General Analytical _j
... J
~1
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY MODEL TEST
Method, in addition to benefits previously described,
provided the long-needed measuring stick which,
along with visualization and detail treatment, must
I, underlie dependable experimental solutions; in addi-
tion it accelerated the development of suitable test
-~ equipment, It was appreciated that extreme accu-
l'acy in model dimensions or reproduction -of cross
- il
section was unnecessary in view of the 12% thick-
, ness tolerance of sesmless pipe, and of the largely
indeterminate degree of fixation at terminal ends or
- intermediate restraints, and therefore, that solid
' rod models would give adequately accurate answers
j
'
where curved piping did not predominate.
A stiff adjustable mounting frame soon demon-
strated superiority over individualized support
,, ] because of the absence of harmful deflection and the
rapidity which could be achieved in accurately
-
l positioning models, applying movements, and resd-
'
] ing measuring equipment. The desirability of a
rigid arrangement with fixed model ends was appre-
~
ciated; however, its accomplishment was not imme-
i diately achieved, so that initial approaches resorted
Jl
'
to the application of loadsand measurement of move-
ments at the f.ree ends of a model, fixed at one end.
r Fred G. Hill brought this concept to its highest
-~ ', , development in an apparatus described in 1941 [1].
The free end of the model was fitted with a fixture
' '
consisting of three moment levers and four needle
l\). pointer position indicators aligned with a fixed
reference ring, In operation, the entire model was
L '
displaced in the three coordinate directions by a
micrometer movement device attached to the fixed
end. The free end was then returned to its original
position with respect to the reference ring by mesns
of shot-filled buckets attached to the arms of the
moment levers. This device was purchased by the
General Electric Company, but was never extensively
used, N one of such designs appeared satisfactory
for sufficiently accnrate measurement of rotations,
or for reproducible or rapid resulte,
Much of the practicable advance toward the model
testing of involved structures was pioneered by
Beggs [2]. In papers dating back to 1922, he de-
scribes methods and equipment for applying accu-
rate deflections and for measuring resctions. His
"Deformeter'' proVided a precise mechanical means
for accomplishing the former; and his micrometer
movement movable crosswires microscope provided
a useful measuring instrument in locations where it
could be applied. His use of lapped hydraulic jaks
for applying simultaneous multilocation loading of
varying magnitude is well known and such devices
are frequently employed in testing apparatus. It is
---
199
also believed that Professor Beggs first made use of
the principie of successively relessing and weighing
individual resctions by providing an amount of
freedom, small in comparison with the restraining
effect being messured, and then taking thereaction
off the supporting structures and onto the weighing
fixtures within _the movement limit established. He
snccessfully employed this approach on individual
tension .,and compression effer.ts and in various
combinations to suit more complex restraints.
Over a period of yesrs, many models of involved
structures, such as bridges, buildings, support
frames, floating dry docks, machine frames, etc.,
were successfully tested. Such tests were rela-
tively expensive due to the cost of the model, the
specialized equipment, and the number of man-
hours required. .
The .M. W. Kellogg Company closely foll(l\ved
much of Professor Beggs' work, and were endesvoring
to adapt his general principies of limited freedom
weighing of resctions to the routine model testing
of piping, when this end was accomplished by
Harold W. Semar [3]. It involved the use of small
plungers and struts to confine a fixture attached to
the model to 0.001 in. to 0.002 in. free movement at
individual messurement locations. Each load was
weighed by a movable c8.librated spring gage which
opposed the fixture resction passed to it through the
strut and plunger. - Each resction was balanced by
adjustment of the spring until the plnngers were
moved to the center of their free travel as indicated
by a dial gage, thus assuring that al! load was off the
frame and on the spring, and that the resding would
be taken at the same relative location esch t@e.
Movement -was accomplished by a micrometer feed
mechanism which was carefully set up along the
direction of the resultant expansion.
This method of load measurement was incor-
porated into The M. W. Kellogg Company's first
production model test equipment, which inchided
an arrangement of vertical posts and horizontal
arms, the latter adjustable in elevation and in plan.
Models could be mounted by simple fixtures to
measuring heads supported by displacement heads
which applied three-dimensional translation by
means of two slides, one of which could be rotated
about the axis of the other. In spite of certain
limitations, this arrangement was in successful
continuouS productive operation for several years.
It established general appreciation of the advantages
offered by the model test approach in the visualiza-
tion of complex configurations and in the economic
study and resolution of over-stiff runs in a system;

200 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
and it marked the successful establishment of the
present Model Test Laboratory.
6.3 The Kellogg Model Test
The Kellogg Model Test Method parallels The
M. W. Kellogg Company General Analytical Solu-
tion, substituting routinized tests on scale models for
organized mathematical operations in evaluation of
the shape coefficients and their summation into
deflection and rotation equations for simultaneous
solution of the terminal and other restraining forces
and momenta In establishing corresponding
stresses, including the critica! locations, both ap-
proaches involve the same conventional structural
calculations; although, in sorne ca:ses, strains and
hence stresses are obtained directly from electrical
gages either cemented directly on the model or on
reusable fixtures which are temporarily attached to
the modeL Horizontal and vertical deflections used
in designing supporta or in checking critica! clear-
ances, and which can be obtained in the analytical
method by supplementary calculation, are readily
measured on the model. The approach basically is
unlimited with relation to problem complexity; only
available equipment restricta the Kellogg Mode!
Test Method. Test equipment is presently available
for as many as 15 pointa of complete fixation.
In the model test, the terminal ends are usually
fixed, althougli completely hinged, guided, or other
parta! end restraints can be provided; and similarly,
any degree or manner of intennediate restraint can
be constructed to represent solid hangers or other
types of supports, stops, guides, etc. In testing,
displacements are applied to the ends or at inter-
mediate restraints, which are representative. of the
e.""<pansion of the piping or externa! movements, and
which are related to an initially assumed fixed
origin. The forces and couples resulting from these
displacementa, as affectd by the terminal and inter-
mediate restrictions, are read directly on the load
measuring devices.
As the end and intermediate restraints for the
model and the piping system which it represents are
assumed to be the same, and since both are struc-
tures obeying the conventional load-deflection
relationship, their mutual force and moment re-
lationships can be expressed as a simple ratio of
their respective dimensional and elastic proper-
ties and corresponding load-deflection relationship,
as follows:
l.:_'
i\
'J
J.
~;;
where F = force; 111 = moment; H = modulus of
elasticity; I = moment of inertia; Ll =-amount of
expansion (or displacement) of each "free" end with
reference to sorne fixed point; and L = length. The
subscripts m and p refer to the mOdel and the pipe,
respectively. .
Measured deflections are similarly eonverted in
scale and corrected for free thmmal expansion.
Thus, the end reactions and deflections of the actual
piping are directly proportional to the ratio of its
cross-sectional stiffness to that of the model; directly
proportional to the ratio of the expansions (or dis-
placementa) applied; and inversely proportional to
the exponential ratio of their lengt.hs.
The load-deflection relationship of a straight
circular tube, according to the el3.8tic theory and
neglecting secondary effects, is identical with that
of a solid circular rd, either curved or straight, of
equal moment of inertia. In curved pipe, ovaliza-
tion of the cross section occurs, which results in its
increased flexibility _in bending at the expense of
augmented local stresses, i.e. stress intensification
as discussed in Chapter 3. Torsional characteristics
are essentially unaffected.
In designing scale models of piping systems, it has
been impracticable, as a. routine procedure, to dupli-
cate the flexibility of the curved members by the use
of tubing as a result of the exponential relationship
between the wall thickness and pipe diameter in the
determination ofthe flexibility factor. Achievement
T]
"'-
of the desired relative flexibility characteristics often
resulta in a tubing model of impracticable propor-
tions which, combined with the dimensional limita-
tions and tolerances of commercial tubing, make the
n
u
correlation of severa! branches of different sizes and
thicknesses quite infeasible by this means. For
this reason and for economic considerations, rod, r.-.I
rather than tubing, is used for models. Rod sizes '
are available so that variations in runs and branc h
diameter and thickness, or in material or tem-
perature, are readily reproduced to reflect the
products of the moment of inertia and the modulus of
elasticity of the corresponding parta of the piping
system. The length scale is selected large enough to
promote accuracy within the dimensional limit-s of
the test frame. The basic rod size and movement
range are established to secure reactions within the
range of accuracy of the instrumenta.
For curved members of easy radius of five diam-
eters or more, flexibility factors are usually dose to
.J
_____:,
::. __ j,
 FLEXIBILITY A:\'ALYSIS ll) MODEL TE;iT 201

nnity, and tests made with xoJid rod models result. in

end reactions which are correct or which contain a
.'5mall ~afcty margin. If stress intensification faetorf'
are omitted in such cases, resulting combined stresses
\\'ill, in general, reasonably approximate analytical
results in which both the ftexibility and stress in-
tensification factors ha ve been applied to the curved
members. Weld-ells and similar short radius fittings,
where they comp~ise only a limited part of the total
developed length, may also be simulated by rod
models with satisfactory prediction of stress.
For more precise representation of curved p1pe,
where bends and weld-ells have significant effect,
their ftexibility may be simulated in alternate ways
of varying accuracy and suited to different con-
figurations. For single-plane bends with in-plane
loading 1 or in general where torsional effects of the
curved members are minar, reduced rod size at the
bends can accurately represent relative ftexibility of
curved and straight pipe. Where both bending and
torsional effects have significant inftuence, special
devices are required to provide the reduced stiffness
for bending on two axes, while maintaining un- FIG. 6.1 The model test laboratory.
diminished resistance to torsional deflection on the
third axis. This is accomplished by insertion of measurement heads represent the first complex
units which have been carefully calibrated against app!ication of electrical strain gages, and also their
analytical considerations. As the use of such special ini.tial use on a permanent installation demanding
devices increases the test time required, their em- consistent accuracy of long duration. They consist
ployment is usually restricted to cases in v:hich the of a ftoating fixture, carefully designed and precisely
influence of the ftexibility factors is morf' or less manufactured to develop the required six restraining
critical. reactions in three mutually perpendicular planes.
The model weight appears in ail the readings and, To minimize jnteraction, this eletnent is mounted
so long as there is no shift in weight reaction between through flexible struts to stiff constant-stress canti-
the restraints, is cancelled out by the use of differ- levers. Loads are measured by paired electrica!
ences to determine the loading corresponding to the strain gages; each load measurerrient circuit is
movement range, Where an appreciable weight prO\ided with an indiddual bridge to minimize re-
shift ocC1.1rs; counterseights must. be used. sistance variations dueto switching 1 a novel arrange-
ment specifically de,eloped for this equipment.
6.4 The Kellogg Modei Test Laboratory and The measuring heads are wired to a consol6 or.
Equipn1ent which spectalized measuring instruments of both
rhe mode test apparatu.::; proper COilSISt~ of a self-balancing and manual balancing t.ypes are
- j
eomplex but readily adjustable rigirl auppurting mounted for reading loads directly. Local stresse5
framework, to which removable units for accur:1tely may be evaluated by means of model-mounted
applying end or intBrmediat d.isplacement~- are straiu gages or through the use of instrument5
attached; the load measuring instrum2ntE are incorporating these gages. A variety of mechanicai
mounted on these units and the modei 1 in tun1 1 is and electrical instruments for measurement of
- j
attached to the load measuring heads by means of specialized loading, deftections, and for calibration
"pecial holding fixtures. purposes is also provided.
The movement heads are specmiy desgned and of All models are fabricated in the laboratory which
precision manufacture 1 to sccure individual mO\e- is equipped with special rod and tubing benders and
mcnt along three perpendicular axes by mean.s of equipment. for welding, brazing, burning, and local
hand seraped ways and mirrometer scre,\s '>dlich .stress relieving, as well as with machine t0ols, and
minimize rotational and axial backlash. The load special cutoff and grinding equipment.
 ..}
.....
.

202 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
-, '-
A general view of the laboratory is shown in
Fig. 6.1. A model of a central station main steam
system is shown mounted in the testing frame; on
the right .side of the photograph may be seen the
load-reading console which is shown in greater detail
in Fig. 6.2. The cables from the load measuring
instrumente pass into the overhead enclosure and
through the rectangular duct to the console. Above
-;
ilt
n
d
and bored riser simulated by a rt," rod. At the 1
lower end, the riser branches into two 10.50 11 OD X 11
l. 70" lines which continue to the two stop valve
from which extend the four 6.625 11 OD X 0.932" 1
wall turbine leads to the steam chest. The model
counterparts are of H"
and H"
diameter rod
respectively, and rigid blocks represent the valves.
n
1
The weight of the header and riser 'is carried by a
solid hanger tentatively located at the point of zero
vertical deflection. Variations from this positi~n
serve to redistribute the end reactions between the
n ~1
!iJ
superheater elements and the turbine inlet nozzles.
In order to prevent rotation of the header about
other than its longitudinal axis, four guides are
n
incorporated in the design as indicated at J, K, L
and M. Two stops are also required as shown at
O and I to protect the turbine nozzles. All of these
intermediate restraints are simulated on the model
by tie rods.
The rnodel for this system can be seen rnounted in j
the testing apparatus in Fig. 6.4. The solid hanger L:
on the riser is suspended from a small unidirectional
load measuring unit attached to the arm above the
superheater tubes. In this test, moments which are
ordinarily transferred mathematically from the
measured end reactions to the junction with the
single ris~r were checked experimentally by rneans
of strain gages cemented to the model and read wi th
a standard indicator. This procedure is occasionally
desirable to avoid accumulative errors.
As the end reactions occurring in a single super-
heater terminal element are disproportionately
small as compared to the other values being meas-
ured, it is necessary to group a number of these
together iu banks. Readings are taken at each end

Table 6.1 Piping System of t'ig. 6.3

n
u ;
the console may be seen a photograph of the meas- Moments and Forces for Operating Condition:
uring instrument with the cover remo,ved. N o Cold Spring

6.5 Typical Model Tests M, M, M, F, F, F,

Location ft-lb ft-lb ft-lb lb lb lb
Figure 6.3 is a sketch of the model of the main A ..... . + 625 -50 -1700 + 30 + 165 -135
steam system for a utility power plant designed for B........... . -1800 -900 -3050 + 60 - 755 +545
1990 psi steam pressure at 1050 F. As in the model C.... .. + 75 -250 -2650 - 135 - 275 +290
shown in Fig. 6.1, the last banks of tubes of the D ...... . +3475 -565 -4725 - 365 + 275 -665
E (one tube) .. .. + 20 +35 -360 + 30 + 15 + 1
superheater have been extended through the boiler F (onetube) ... . + 5 o o
-360 + 30 + 15.
arch, becoming a part of the piping system. Five G (one tube) .. .. - 15 - 45 - 395 + 25 + 15 - 3
sizes of 2i% chrome 1% moly piping are propor- H ............ .. -1275
tionally simulated in the model, viz: 2.125" OD X ! ............. .. + 45
0.375 11 wall superheater terminal element tubes J ............. .. -1650
K ............ .. -1805
represented by 0.067 11 diameter rod, a 14.0011 OD X -150
L ............ ..
2.65 wall distributing header represented by H"
11
Jf.. .......... .. +225
diameter rod, anda 14.0011 OD X 2.25 11 wall, forged 0 ............ .. - 30

.J
 e
-j
FLEXIBILITY ANAL YSIS BY MODEL TEST 203
-~-

-1
L- 4 TUB E HANGER MOVEMENT

r. ~ --~
te BOILER ROOF MOVEMENT
~
-
" 1
'
- l
.
~~71
,. FREE THERMAL
jj'
EXPANSION
. 1
2-
1 8 t.5
9POINT 1

16
l
-
.J
t
.l

.l
.l
[
.j \ i1
j
tj
l ~ i;
. 1 in' S

. " 1
J
f ~
i l::
:~!~
t~
i!
u
1
.
' FIG. 6.3 U:ntral statioQ main stea.m system operating at 1050 F and 1990 psi pressure.

bank and at the .middle bank; and the maximum
J;' ' average stress in ten or twelve- tu bes is thus found.
As the individual tubes are small and highly flexible,
such determinations have been quite safe. Where,
-'
FIG. 6.4 The model test set-up for the system of Fig. 6.3.
however, the tubes are not all of the same configura-
tion, strain gages are cernented, by means of special
attachments, to representative tubes to check the
resulta obtained. The end reactions, stresses, and
def!ections obtained for this piping system, for the
operating and cold spring conditions, are tabulated in
Tables 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3, respectively.
Typical of the piping systems for which the model
tester offers a clearcut solution at an important
saving in engineering cost is the 1250 psi main steam
line shown in the drawing of Fig. 6.5. The 12"
Schedule 160 piping connects two boilers with two
75,000 KVA turbines; and a 12" crossover connec-
tion permits the operation of either turbine from
either boiler. The two leads to each turbine are 8"
Schedule 160, and horizontal restraints prevent trans-
verse movement at the stop valves. The operating
temperature of the piping is 900 F, and the material
carbon-moly steel. 1 A free-f!oating system of six
1U nder present pract.ice, carbon-moly would not be recom-
me"nded for servict '1t this ~mperature.

1 1
 204 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
points of fixation is involved, carried entirely on 8" turbine leads by H" diameter rod, and the
spring supports. Compensating spring hangers are model length scale is ~" = 1'0", with the stiffness
assumed to match the weight of the piping without or El ratio = 1 : 1,580,000. The flexibility factors
restraining its fiexural movements; accordingly, they of the long radius bends were nearly unity and hence
involve negligible stress and are ignored in the test. were neglected. The factor for converting the
The model of this piping system is shown in the model forces to tbose of the actual installation is
testing frame in Fig. 6.6. The main run of 1211 4578, and that for the moments 9157. The full-scale
piping is represented by H" diameter rod and the maximum end forces and moments, as determined

EXTRANEOUS
MOVEMENTS FOR zv
;:SUPERHEATER

/
PQINTS C,F.

50.58'

r2 .. SCH.I60

o
~
o
!!
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o
."'o
:t
<)
U)

"'
' ~
!'! "'
,i~~~l:
"t::

34.oo
..J
) :

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11_'_9.-33.'. ~~-
54.50' 19.3 '

2.96 1 3.44'
.]
J

.;.e-

FIG. 6.5 Main steam system operating at 1250 psi, supplying two 75,000 KVA power generation units.
 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS BY MODEL TEST 205

- , from the model test, acting on the superheater from their respective boilers and the crossov~
header connections and the turbine nozzles are valves are open. This is the condition recorded in
shown in Table 6.4. Tests for alternate operating Table 6.4; the maximum stress of 10,250 psi appears
conditions show that this system is most highly in the 8' 1 turbine nozzle B.
'l stressed when both turbines are operating on steam For the determination of uniformly distributed
' weight load effects, tubular models which can
alternately be filled with mercury and emptied have
,, Table 6.2 Piping System of Fig. 6.3 heen used. Distributed loading. can also be achieved
l
. J Moments and Forees befOre Operation:
100% Cold Spring
M, F, F,
Table 6.4 Piping System of Fig. 6.5
M. M F
Location ft-lb lt-lb lt-lb lb lb lb Moments and Forces for Operating Condition:
A ............. -825 + 75 +2275 - 40 -220 +180 No Cold Spring
B............. +2400 +1200 +4050 - 80 . +1005 -725
M. M. M, F. F,
c............. - 75 + 350 +3525 + 180 + 365 -385
ftrlb lb
F
lb lb
D ............. -425 + _750 Location ftrlb ltrlb
+6275 +485 -365 +885
E (one tube)... 25 -,45
o
+480 40 - 20 - 1
o
A.......... -34,5(1()
B......... -21,050
+400
+2250
- 9550
-13,750
+ 390
-880
+1750
-1940
-1160
+360
F (one tubo).'.. 5 +480 - 40 - 20
,J G (one tubo) ... + 20 +; 65 .+ 525: - 35 - 20 + 4 c..-........ -ll,050 +3050 - 9000 - 410 + 70 +800
H ........... . +1695 D . .- ........ -33,600 -6650 +10,350 -480 . +1760 -1010
. :~; E. ........ - 4400
: J l. .......... ..
""' "i ' - 60 -2400 + 6450 +580 -320 + 440
/ ............ . +2200 ... F..c ....... -14,250 +2300 + 6150 + 170 -1320 + 570
K........... . t +2400 Gc ..... +2020
H ......... ~1390
! L ........... .. +200
M ........... . -300 Maximum stress ... 10,250 psi at Point B.
0 ........... .. +-40 Allowable stress range ... 20;3oo psi.
Maximum stress in 10" line - 6850 psi at Point 59.
q1. Maximum stress in tubes . -~ - 8150 pSi at Point G.
.l
a
'
Maximum. stress in 6" turb. leada -
Allowable stress ranga -
4500 psi at Point D.
20,200 psi.

Table 6.3 Piping System of Fig. 6.3

: ' !Deffeclins (inches) . ,

;;
/i j~~ .
From Cold to'H~t Posltion
From Design lo
100% Cold Spog Position
-'; Location ~~ ~. Loeation 8~ &p. 6z
' 8 -0.23 ,-1.09 +2.ll_ ' .. 8 .' o +0.15 +0.01
I o -1.09 +2.11 I O +0.15 .'0.01
40 +4.33 -3.54 +1.98 40 -4.72 +2.60 +0.15
-l 41 +4.60 -3:58 +1.31 41 . -4.61 +2.64 +0.43
,l 46
47
+4.95 -3.58 +0.88
+8.33 -4.71 +0.85
46
47
-4.57 +2.64 -0.70
-8.61 +3.78 -0.67
48 +8.62 -4.08 +0.79 48 -8.51 +3.53 -0.61
l 61 +7.59 -2.30 o 61 -7.24 +3.55 o

18 +0.27 -1.31 +1.81 18 +0.53 +0.38 +0.04
J ' o o -1.31 +1.81 o +0.53 +0.38 +0.04
50 +3.58 -3.60 +1.61 50 -4.19 +2.66 +0.24

'i
51 +3.90 -3.83 +0.91 51 -4.13 +2.89 +0.55
57 +4.10 -3.83 +0.4 57 -3.94 +2.89 -0.65
58 +8.00 -4.66 +0.38 58 -8.34 +3.73 -0.57
59 +8.35 -4.16 +0.38 59 -8.24 +3.61 -0.57
l 70 o +2.84 o 70 o -4.15 o
' j
80 o +2.84 +1.52 80 o -4.15 o
90 o +2.84 -1.52 90 o -4.15 o
H +4.69 o o H -4.70 o o
. ! o
L +1.05 +2.27 L -1.06 -4.15 o
i M +3.95 +0.53 o M -3.96 o o Fm. 6.6 The model test set-up for the system of Fig. 6.5.
.l

j
206 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

.. 1

Il '

D
u
l
i
L ..

;..;_-
u
u
,,
:,~~i1:

FIG. 6.7 Modela of marine piping. lJ

___~;. ~.....:t
ll
 j FLEXIBILITY ANAL YSIS BY MODEL TEST 207

J 1

:l

J- 1j
: j 1

< l!
' J
i
. J'
. 11
' l i
n
'
i '
~ 1 :!
:;<
j i '

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FIG. 6.8 Models of power plant piping.

~--
208 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

u
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~
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1..
,.:_

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D
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u
Fm. 6.9 !\-lodels of pctroleum and petrochemical process piping.
u
u

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