Conference Session B6
Steam Turbine Blade Design
Zachary Stuck (zas31@pitt.edu), Stanley Schurdak (sas312@pitt.edu)
Abstract- This paper addresses the issue of steam turbine
efficiency by discussing the overall design of steam turbine
blades with a specific focus on blade aerodynamics,
materials used in the production of steam turbine blades,
and the factors that cause turbine blade failure and
therefore the failure of the turbine itself. This paper
enumerates and describes the currently available
technologies that enhance the overall efficiency of the
generator and prevent turbine failure due to blade erosion
and blade cracking. In particular, this paper evaluates the
effectiveness of certain titanium alloys and steels in resisting
creep and fracture in turbine blades. The effectiveness of
chemical and thermal coatings in protecting the blade
substrate from corrosion when exposed to wet steam will
also be addressed. The stresses developed in the blade as a
result of steam pressure, steam temperature, and the
centrifugal forces due to rotational movement are
delineated; current designs calculated to counter the fatigue
caused by these stresses are presented. The aerodynamic
designs of both impulse and reaction turbine blades are
compared and contrasted, and the effect that these designs
have on turbine efficiency are discussed.
Based on the research presented herein, this paper
presents a detailed summary of what modifications to
existing steam turbine generator blades can be made to
increase turbine efficiency. Finally, the overall sustainability
of steam turbine generators is discussed and the impact that
the design of the blades has on the sustainability of these
generators is presented.
Key words- Blade, efficiency, corrosion, design, failure,
steam turbine, stress
INTRODUCTION
Electrical power has become an essential facet of life in all
spheres of modern society. In the home, electricity is used to
power water pumps that provide running water, and heating
and air conditioning systems that provide a comfortable
atmosphere; electricity is used to power the network of
computer systems used extensively in commercial inventory
organization, and in the computerized mechanisms that
govern manufacturing processes in the manufacturing
industry. These are just a few examples that indicate how
much modern society relies on electrical power and how
important it is to society that a reliable source of electricity
be established.
Currently, nearly 90% of the electricity produced in the
United States is generated using steam turbines, while about
80% of that produced worldwide comes from steam
generators [1]. With such a substantial amount of electrical
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energy being produced by steam turbine generators, it is in
the best interest of society to make these generators as
efficient and as sustainable as possible. One of the key
factors influencing the efficiency of these turbines is the
design of the turbine blades. It was through a century of
development and advancement in steam turbine blade design
that steam turbine efficiency rose from a mere 60% to 90%
or better [2]. Thus, the better the design of the blade, the
more efficient the turbine will be; and the more efficient the
turbine is, the more efficient the generator is and the better
off society is. Therefore, it is beneficial to society to
implement advanced blade technology that enhances turbine
efficiency.
BLADE MATERIALS
The type of material used for turbine blades is based on the
stage of the turbine in which the blades will operate. There
are three such stages: high-pressure (HP), intermediate-
pressure (IP), and low-pressure (LP), which are named
according to the relative pressure of the steam in the stage.
The pressures and temperatures of each stage limit the kinds
of materials that may be used in them. For instance, HP and
IP stage blades are generally made from 12Cr martesitic
stainless steels [3]. However, blades used in high-
temperature (> 450 C) HP or IP applications may be made of
austenitic stainless steels because they have better
mechanical properties at high temperatures [3]. For example,
stainless steel type AISI 422 (a martensitic stainless steel) is
commonly used for HP and IP turbine sections, while AISI
series 300 steels (austenitic) are used for high-temperature
applications [3]. LP blades are often, but not exclusively,
made from 12Cr stainless steels also. Common types of
stainless steel used in LP sections include AISI types 403,
410, 410-Cb, and 630; the exact type of steel chosen for a
particular LP application depends on the strength and
corrosion resistance required. Since the 1960s, titanium
alloys, especially Ti-6Al-4V, have also been used for LP
turbine stages [3]. These alloys are particularly suited to LP
stages for a number of reasons. First, the densities of
titanium alloys are generally less than the density of steels;
for example, Ti-6Al-4V has a density of only 4.43 g/cc
while stainless steel type AISI 410S has a density of 7.8 g/cc
[4, 5]. This lower density makes it possible to lengthen the
LP blades and thereby increase turbine efficiency without
increasing stresses in the blades due to centrifugal forces.
Second, titanium alloys have greater corrosion resistance
than steels; this makes titanium alloys ideal for use in LP
stages where there are greater levels of moisture. Finally,
titanium alloys are resistant enough to water droplet erosion
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that they can be used without erosion protection in certain
applications.
Overall, it is the material properties that make a blade
reliable or doomed to failure. The yield strength, tensile
strength, corrosion resistance, and modulus of elasticity all
play a role in determining whether or not a blade will fail
under operating loads.
BLADE LOADING
Steam turbines operate at similar speeds, usually in the range
of 3000-3600 rpm for fossil-fired plants and 1500-1800 rpm
for nuclear-powered plants [3]. Because the speeds are
similar, the stresses in the turbine blades, which arise
because of their movement, are also similar. There are two
main categories of stress that the blades experience: static
stresses, consisting of centrifugal tensile stresses, centrifugal
bending stresses, and steam bending loads, and dynamic
stresses, arising from non-uniform steam flows and
synchronous resonance of the blade with the operating speed
of the turbine. However, the majority of blade stresses are
due to centrifugal forces [3].
Centrifugal Tensile Stress
Centrifugal tensile stress is the tensile stress induced in the
blade as a result of its rotational movement. According to
McCloskey [3], the magnitudes of these stresses are
proportional to the square of the speed:
!ct = ("op/"100)2 !100ct
where !ct is the centrifugal tensile load, "op is the rotational
speed of the blade, "100 is the design rotational speed, and
!100ct is the centrifugal tensile stress in the blade at the
design rotational speed. However, blades in the HP and IP
stages are shorter than blades in the LP stage; therefore, the
centrifugal stresses in the HP and IP stages are relatively
small. Centrifugal forces have a greater effect on the LP
stage blades due to the longer blade length. According to
McCloskey, the steady-stresses in the last-row LP blades are
typically 0.5!y for about 50% of the blade length, and
greater than or equal to 0.25!y for 80% of that length, where
!y is the yield stress of the material [3].
To clarify the action of centrifugal forces, consider the
simple equation for the centrifugal force, F, acting on a point
mass m that is rotating with an angular velocity " in a
circular path described by the vector r, whose magnitude r
equals the radius of the path around a certain fixed point:
F = m"!("!r) [6]
The result of the first cross product, ("!r), is a vector in the
direction perpendicular to the plane of rotation. The result of
the second cross product, "!("!r), is a vector in the plane
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of rotation in the direction away from the center of rotation
of the mass m. The multiplication of m with the second cross
product returns a vector whose magnitude is equal to the
second cross product multiplied by the scalar m and whose
direction is the same as that of the second cross product.
This product is equal to the force vector F. This indicates
that the centrifugal force F acts on the point mass m in a
direction radially outward from the center of rotation.
Although this equation is reliable only for point masses, it
helps to illustrate the fact that centrifugal forces tend to
pull the objects out of their path of rotation. Figure 1
illustrates this point. If a turbine blade is thought of as a
finite collection of point masses, then the previous equation
may be applied to each point mass to find the resultant
centrifugal force acting on the blade. Thus, the centrifugal
force creates an overall tensile stress in the blade by
pulling on the blade as it rotates [3].
Fig. 1 Centrifugal Force Illustration
!
Centrifugal Bending Stresses
Centrifugal bending stresses arise if the centers of gravity
(centroids) of the blade cross-sectional areas at different
heights do not lie in a straight line with the blade roots
center of gravity. Because the centrifugal force acts on the
centroid of the area and in a direction radially outward,
bending moments are produced where the centroids do not
lie on the blades center of gravity line. This causes tensile
stresses on one side of the blades center of gravity line and
compressive stresses on the other. However, blade designers
have exploited the effects of centrifugal bending to counter
the effect of steam bending. For example, if a steam-bending
load tends to bend the blade axially in the direction of steam
flow, a blade designer can intentionally offset the centroids
of the blade areas that lie towards the tip of the blade in the
direction of the steam load. The centrifugal force acting on
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the centroids would then create a bending moment that tends
to bend the blade in the direction opposite that of the steam-
bending load [3]. Fig. 2 helps to illustrate this point [3].
Fig. 2 Steam-Bending and Centrifugal Bending
Steam Bending Loads
As the steam flows through the turbine blades, the steam
pushes on the blades causing them to bend, thus creating
what is known as steam bending. Like centrifugal bending,
steam bending causes the blades to be bent lengthwise,
creating regions of tensile and compressive stress in the
blade. Although the movement of the steam does induce
blade bending, the effect of steam bending in moving blades
is not as pronounced as the effects of centrifugal forces. In
fact, steam-bending stresses are typically only about 10% of
the centrifugal stresses [3]. The stationary blades of a
reaction turbine are more affected by the moving steam
because the force of the steam on the stationary blades tends
to move the blades in the direction of the force. Because the
blades cannot be displaced by the applied force of the steam,
they instead bend in reaction. Steam bending occurs in HP,
IP, and LP stages, but it is most pronounced in the HP stage
where the pressure difference across the blades is greatest.
However, steam bending is also significant in LP stage
blades because the LP blades are much longer than HP or IP
blades [3].
Dynamic Stresses
Dynamic stresses are induced in turbine blades when there is
some exciting force that causes the blades to vibrate.
Exciting forces can arise from sources of non-uniform flows
such as nozzle-wake interactions and structural features that
interfere with the steam flow, as well as turbine operating
speeds [3]. Blade vibrations lead to fluctuations of stress in
the blades, sometimes exceeding the yield strength of the
blade material. If the amplitude of the stress fluctuations is
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small, and the stress does not exceed the yield stress of the
material at a given amplitude, the blades experience high-
cycle fatigue causing them to fail suddenly after a large
number of cycles. Larger amplitudes of stress fluctuations
will result in greater stresses in the blades and cause low-
cycle fatigue with blade failure occurring only after a
relatively small number of cycles. Blade vibrations are most
dangerous when the frequency of vibrations coincides with
the natural frequency of the blades [3]. When this occurs, the
blades resonate and fail from high-cycle fatigue in a short
period of time.
Creep
Turbine blades are constantly subject to high temperatures,
predominantly in the HP and IP stages, which tend to soften
the blade material. This, in combination with the centrifugal
forces exerted on the blades, serves to deform the blades,
and cause creep (the slow and continuous deformation of a
material over time) [3, 7]. The rate of material deformation
(rate of creep) is highly dependent on both the temperature
of the material and the applied stress [7]. This is a
particularly dangerous phenomenon because the blades are
manufactured according to stringent specifications based on
the loading and environment that the blades will operate
under. Any change in the geometry of the blade due to creep
can result in catastrophic failure due to blade degradation or
sudden cracking. This is why it is imperative that the
materials chosen for the HP and IP blades retain high yield
strengths at elevated temperatures.
The above information applies mostly to reaction turbine
blading. Impulse turbines differ from reaction turbines in the
way that the blades are moved, which results in different
stresses in the different kinds of blades. In a reaction turbine,
the steam flows through fixed blades with no pressure drop
and then flows through the moving blades that are shaped so
as to form nozzles that serve to increase the velocity of the
steam as it passes through the rotor and in doing so cause the
rotor to turn. In an impulse turbine, the steam is directed
onto the rotor blades from fixed nozzles. The steam hits the
blade creating an impulse and causing the rotor to turn [8].
However, it must be noted that in practice, there are no pure
impulse turbines, but only some considered low-reaction
turbines [9]. Hence, with the possible exception of steam
bending stresses, the stresses found in impulse turbine blades
may be assumed to be similar to stresses in reaction turbine
blades.
All of the stresses listed above will propagate cracks in
the material, if there are any to begin with, or they will tend
to form cracks from dislocations in the material if there are
no cracks initially present. This is dangerous not only
because it damages the structural integrity of the blade, but
also because cracks serve as repositories for condensed
steam, which can then react with the blade materials and
cause corrosion of the blade [10].
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BLADE CORROSION
Blade fractures and surface roughness, even on a
microscopic scale, provide areas where deposits of highly
concentrated aggressive solutions of admixtures [11] can be
formed. The subsequent reaction of blade materials with
these admixtures is extremely detrimental to the blade
structure. These reactions propagate cracks by corroding the
material around existing cracks and in doing so weaken the
blade. In essence, corrosion only occurs because of the
presence of blade surface cracks. Furthermore, corrosion is
accelerated by impurities in the steam. According to
Ryuichiro Ebara, in his paper Corrosion Crack Initiation in
12% Chromium Stainless Steel, over eighty different
compounds including oxide, silicate, and sulfide have been
found in deposits on turbine blades [12]. These impurities,
depending on their nature and concentration, can lead to a
drastic decrease in blade fatigue strength. Ebara has shown
that NaCl and NaOH are very corrosive compounds and
therefore very effective in reducing blade fatigue strength.
For example, Ebara showed in his study, that even in small
(3%-3x10-2%) concentrations of NaCl solutions the fatigue
strength of steel is greatly (~75%) reduced.
Corrosion is of major concern mostly in the LP stage of
the turbine because of the lower temperatures, but it is an
issue in any area where there is a phase transition
(condensation) of the steam. This is especially harmful
during turbine downtime when high-temperature stages of
the turbine begin to cool, providing favorable conditions for
condensation. When the steam condenses on the blade
surface, corrosion pits and dimples are formed. These are
particularly harmful to the blade because they serve as stress
concentrators. In the presence of normal loading and stress
conditions, these concentrators often increase the local
stresses to many times the overall stress of the blade [13].
These localized increases in stress provide a means by which
dislocations in the materials crystal structure can be moved,
resulting in blade deformation and crack propagation.
Ultimately, stress, fatigue, and corrosion are inherently
related: Stress induces dislocation movement in the blades
crystal structure; fatigue fluctuates the levels of stress in the
blade, causing material dislocations to accumulate and form
cracks, thereby increasing local stress concentrations;
corrosion propagates cracks by reacting with blade material
around existing cracks, thus increasing the crack size,
spreading the stress concentrations, and lessening the blades
overall strength [13]. Under constant cyclical loading, these
three factors combine to cause blade failure. For example, a
blade experiencing cyclic loading and centrifugal force F,
will have a stress of !tot, equal to the sum of all the stresses
(centrifugal, centrifugal-bending, steam-bending, and
dynamic stresses) acting on the blade. The stress !tot will
tend to move dislocations in the material in the same
direction. As the number of cycles increase, more and more
dislocations are moved, and eventually a crack forms as the
dislocations reach the surface of the blade. This newly
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formed surface crack provides an area for condensed steam
to accumulate and a place for impurities carried by the steam
to concentrate. The concentration of impurities, if high
enough, will corrode the material, thereby lessening the
contiguous area of the blade. This will not only weaken the
overall strength of the blade, but it will also increase the
local stresses at the edge of the crack, thus propagating the
crack even further and presenting new areas for corrosion.
Eventually, if the crack grows to a critical size, the blade
will split at the crack location and fail. This example
illustrates the interconnectedness of stress, corrosion, and
fatigue, and indicates that the effects of crack and defect
accumulation are not insignificant.
ACCUMULATION FAILURES
Over the course of a turbines active lifetime, the cyclic
loading experienced by its components will build up areas of
defects that can severely affect the integrity of the
components. Such accumulations of defects increase the
possibility of component failure and, if accumulation of
defects occurs rapidly, the operating lifetime of the turbine
will be significantly shortened. A peer-reviewed case study
describes the failure of an 8.25-MW capacity steam turbine
[14]. Although the turbine was designed to operate for years,
it failed within three months of operation. A thorough
examination of the turbine components revealed the
presence of macropores and extended cavities having
branched cracks at their ends [14], as well as a build up of
salt deposits in these cavities. From this investigation, the
cause of failure was surmised to be a combination of
corrosion, from the concentration of salt in the macropores,
and stress corrosion cracking due to the concentration of
stress in the blade defects. In order to increase the reliability
of turbine components, this study recommended that the
steam be regulated to ensure a minimum level of impurities,
especially chlorides, and that the manufacturing process be
improved to reduce macroporosities, segregate
microporosities, and increase micro-structure uniformity
throughout the material.
Such catastrophes as this indicate the necessity of
improved component designs to ensure component
reliability and improve turbine efficiency.
BLADE DESIGN
Based on the information provided in the previous sections,
an efficient and reliable blade design will satisfy the
following requirements:
1. The blade material must have a sufficient yield
strength to resist plastic deformation, and must be
able to retain such yield strength, or at least most of
it, at elevated temperatures.
2. The blade material must be able to be processed
and worked with easily (this is one of the
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downsides of Titanium alloys as they are not easily
welded and they are expensive to produce).
3. Blade materials must exhibit a moderate elastic
modulus so that the blade neither deforms
exceedingly nor breaks suddenly under normal
operating stresses.
4. Preferably, blade materials should be low-density in
order to decrease the centrifugal forces, and
therefore centrifugal stresses, on the blades.
5. The blades must be corrosion-resistant, even in the
presence of aggressive ionic solutions formed by
impurities in the steam.
6. Blades must be manufactured in such a way as to
minimize initiation of cracks during the
manufacturing process.
Kiyoshi Segawa, et al, have developed a new rotor blade
for steam turbine plants [15]. The new blade design
optimized blade aerodynamics near the root section of the
blade, thus decreasing both profile and endwall losses.
Based on the results of 3-D stage and air turbine tests, the
new rotor blade was found to increase stage efficiency by
about 0.3%. In addition, the new blade design was found to
improve internal efficiency and reduce manufacturing costs
by reducing the blade number by 15% [15].
Walker and Hesketh have determined that improvements
in efficiency can be realized by the optimization of
aerodynamic parameters including stage heat-drop, blade
velocity distribution, surface finish, and three-dimensional
design [9]. However, in order to optimize these parameters
the constraints imposed by manufacturing costs and
mechanical limitations must be considered. For example,
reduction of blade stress can be realized with the
implementation of lighter-weight materials, such as
Titanium alloys. However, such alloys are not suitable for
use in regions of elevated temperatures and they are neither
easily nor cheaply manufactured. Thus, in order to improve
turbine efficiency, a happy medium between cost and
performance must be established.
A new blade design developed by Hideo Nomoto, et al,
allows steam turbine blades to be more resistant to
temperatures up to six hundred and thirty degrees Celsius
[16]. Thanks to advancements in computer fluid dynamics,
blade design has allowed for a more efficient steam path.
The blade is now designed to optimize root and tip area,
which in turn minimizes leakage from the steam path to the
blade. This allows for a more efficient system where steam
is not lost throughout. The introduction of integral snubbing
at the tip connects the blades circularly. This new blade
design aspect also reduces leakage, as well as vibration
control. Both add to the efficiency of the steam turbine
system. This new blade design reduces the impact of thermal
stress because of the improved efficiency of the system [16].
Effective corrosion resistance is key in improving blade
design. Although the materials currently used in turbine
blades have some degree of corrosion resistance, the
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presence or formation of cracks that allow corrosion is
practically inevitable. To this end, studies have been
conducted to determine whether certain chemical coatings,
when deposited on turbine blades, are effective in preventing
blade corrosion [17]. E. K. Sevidova, et al, determined that
among three coatings (Ti+TiN, Cr+CrN, Cr+(CrTi)N) tested
on 20X13 steel, the Cr+CrN coating proved to be most
effective in resisting corrosion when exposed to a 3% NaCl
solution [17].
Water droplet erosion is also an issue in steam turbines.
Erosion of blade materials will distort the geometry of the
blade and cause a decrease in efficiency due to aerodynamic
losses. In order to improve erosion resistance, coatings that
harden the surface of the blade have been investigated.
Shun-sen Wang, et al, tested five different boride coatings,
three ion-plating CrN coatings, and three thermal-spray
coatings on five different substrate steels [18]. They
concluded that the thermal coatings had negligible effects on
protecting the blade substrate from erosion when compared
to the other coatings tested; that the protective coating must
be a at least equal to some minimum critical value in order
to effectively protect the substrate from erosion; that
improving coating thickness reduces the erosion rate of the
coating; and that the erosion resistance of the coating is
strongly dependent on temperature.
Overall, an improved blade design consisting of strong,
erosion and corrosion-resistant materials with optimized
aerodynamic parameters will result in a more efficient
turbine.
TURBINE EFFICIENCY
Turbine efficiency is lost through defects accumulating in
turbine components. As the turbine blades significantly
impact the overall efficiency of the turbine [2], defects that
accumulate in theses components dramatically reduce the
efficiency of the turbine. At the worst, these defects can
cause the failure of the turbine and necessitate the shutdown
of the generator; at best, these defects will increase turbine
maintenance costs. When defects arise, such as blade
cracking and blade corrosion, the aerodynamic designs of
the blades are severely compromised leading to inefficient
interactions between the steam and the blades. This
consequently increases the amount of fuel consumed to
produce the steam, which increases operating costs, which
ultimately reflects increased the costs to the consumer.
Hence, to avoid, or at least diminish, elevated energy costs,
the implementation of an improved blade design in existing
turbines, consistent with the findings of this paper, should be
considered.
An increase in fuel consumption necessarily increases
the amount of emissions from the generator plant. In the case
of fossil fuel-burning power plants, this indicates elevated
amounts of carbon dioxide emissions. However, improved
turbine technologies that utilize cleaner, renewable fuels
have been developed, thereby lessening unwanted emissions.
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TURBINE SUSTAINABILITY
Sustainability, the ability of a technology to perform while
conserving natural resources and having no significant
adverse environmental impact, has become a major concern
as reserves of fossil fuels (on which modern society heavily
relies) begin to fall. Steam turbines have become a very
sustainable technology due to advances in cogeneration and
renewable fuel technologies. Cogeneration, the sequential
generation of two different forms of useful energy, typically
mechanical and thermal, from a single fuel input, [19] has
been utilized by various manufacturing industries across the
globe [19]. This utilization not only reduces operating costs
due to smaller amounts of electricity consumed by the
manufacturer from the grid, but it also lessens the
manufacturers impact on the environment. Coupled with the
use of renewable fuels, cogeneration provides an even more
sustainable technology, sometimes with additional benefits
over and above a smaller environmental impact. For
example, M. A. Mujeebu, et al, conducted a case study on
the utilization of a rice paddy husk-fueled cogeneration
system in a South Indian rice mill [19]. It was found that if
such a system were implemented rice production would
increase by at least 30 tons per day and that the system could
yield an annual savings of $0.12 million [19]. Aside form
the immediate monetary and manufacturing benefits of this
system, additional benefits could be gained from the burning
of the husk. As the content of the husk is mostly (91%)
silica, amorphous silica can be retained if the burnt husk is
heated up to 700 C [19]. From this, pure silicon, which is
used extensively in computer chips and other electronic
devices, can be obtained. Additionally, sodium and
potassium silicate, used in adhesive and detergent
applications, and furfural, used in pharmaceutical products,
can be obtained from burnt husk. Moreover, it was found
that 1 kg of paddy husk could produce the equivalent energy
of 1.5 kg of coal and 1.0 kg of oil [19]. This example
serves to show that steam-powered generators, whether they
are used industrially or commercially, can be classified as
some of the most sustainable energy-generating
technologies.
The combination of the two technologies (renewable
fuels and improved turbine blade design) presents a notably
efficient and sustainable method of generating electrical
energy in modern society. If this combination could be
implemented in generating plants around the globe, the
respective operating costs would consequently be reduced,
as smaller amounts of more expensive fuels would be
consumed. Ultimately, this decrease in operating costs
would reflect in a decrease in energy costs for consumers. In
fact, technologies of this kind, such as waste-to-energy (the
incinerating of commercial and industrial waste to generate
energy), have already been implemented in steam turbines
located in Europe [20].
Despite the convenience and relative cheapness of using
waste for fuel, there are some serious drawbacks associated
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with the incineration of garbage. Most prominent among the
problems resulting from the burning of trash is the release of
toxins to the atmosphere. This not only pollutes the air, but
also poses serious health risks to humans. It has been found
that waste incineration produces dangerous compounds such
as dioxin, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide as well as
many other substances of varying toxicity [21]. This has led
to strict emission-level requirements which, whether
intentionally or not, has caused the shutdown of some such
facilities [22]. However, advancements in emission control
technologies and incineration techniques have reopened the
door to the possibility of using waste as a major source of
energy production [21].
The implementation of robust turbine blades, designed in
accordance with the latest material technologies and able to
withstand the most trying of circumstances, in combination
with the use of clean, renewable fuels presents an efficient
method of generating substantial amounts of electricity. An
improved blade design, focused on resisting the effects of
stresses, corrosive agents, and creep-inducing temperatures,
will elevate the turbine efficiency, consequently leading to
an increase in the power plants overall efficiency, a
reduction of the amount of fuel consumed, and ultimately a
decrease in operating costs. The use of renewable fuels, such
as waste, in addition to a more efficient blade design, will
serve to reduce operating costs even further and lessen the
environmental impacts of steam turbines. Overall, such a
combination of technologies would benefit society by
providing an efficient, viable, and sustainable means of
generating electrical energy.
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[2] H. Termuehlen, W. Emsperger. (2003). Steam Turbine Technology in
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[10] J. Zachary, D. Koza. (Nov/Dec 2006). Steam Turbines. Power,
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Volume 150, Issue 9. pp. 40-52. [Online Article]. Available:
http://libproxy.mst.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
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[15] Kiyoshi Segawa, Yoshio Shikano, Kuniyoshi Tsubouchi and Naoaki ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Shibashita. Development of a Highly Loaded Rotor Blade for Steam
Turbines. JSME International Journal Series B, Vol. 45, No. 4 (2002),
pp.881-890. We would like to thank Lauren Schmeer from the writing
[16] Hideo Nomoto, Yoshikazu Kuroki, Masafumi Fukuda, and Shinya center, the staff members at the Hillman Library, and friend
Fujitsuka. Recent Development of Steam Turbines with High Steam Austin OKeane who have all helped us in our research and
Temperatures. JSME International Journal Series B, Vol. 49, No. 2
(2006), pp.218-223. [Online Journal Article]. Available:
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Available:!
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tt_main&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w

Twelfth Annual Freshman Conference 7 April 14, 2012