Tanks of the interwar period

This article discusses tanks of the interwar period.

World War I established the validity of the tank concept and between
the two world wars, many nations needed to have tanks, but only a
few had the industrial resources to design and build them. During and
after World War I, Britain and France were the intellectual leaders in
tank design, with other countries generally following and adopting
their designs. This early lead would be gradually lost during the
course of the 1930s to the Soviet Union and, to a lesser extent, Nazi
Germany.

Panzerkampfwagen I Ausf. A on display at the

Deutsches Panzermuseum Munster, Germany.

Contents
1 General developments
2 United Kingdom
3 France
4 Soviet Union
5 Czechoslovakia
6 Germany
7 Japan
8 United States
9 Others
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References

General developments
The final tank designs of 1918 showed a number of trends. The joint US and British
Mark VIII tank was supposed to be a common heavy tank design for them and the
French. The design should have overcome the limitations of the earlier British heavy
tanks. The 34-foot-long (10 m), 37-ton armored vehicle was powered by a 300-hp
(224 kW) V-12 engine and capable of 7 mph (11 km/h) cross-country. Although 100
were built, it was the much smaller Renault FT that set the pattern for almost all
Mark VIII (Liberty) Tank
tanks that followed it; these tanks generally had lower track profiles and more
compact hulls, and mounted their weapons in turrets.

Worldwide, many sizes of tank were considered, and much of the development effort went into light tanks that were useful primarily
against infantry or for colonial police-type work. The worldwide economic difficulties of the 1920s and 1930s led to an increased
emphasis on light tanks as they were much cheaper to produce than medium or heavy tanks. However, the Spanish Civil War showed
that tank-versus-tank engagements and tank-versus-towed antitank gun engagements would now be a major consideration for the
future of tank warfare. It became clear that tanks would need to be heavily armoured and carry larger guns. Tank shape, previously
guided purely by considerations of obstacle clearance, now became a trade-off between a low profile, desirable for stealth, and
weight savings.

In Britain, a great deal of study on

the future of tank warfare was
carried out, and there were some
differences. Whilst both J.F.C.
Fuller and Basil Liddell Hart
foresaw a war where all arms,
infantry, tanks and artillery, would The British A13 Cruiser Mk IV tank.
The BT-2 tank of 1932 was the first be mechanised, Fuller's theories
modification of Walter Christie's looked at all-arms formations with
design. artillery, infantry and military engineers mounted on similar vehicles to keep pace
with the tanks. He foresaw armies using heavy all-arms formations to break through
opponents defences, allowing lighter, faster units to make rapid advances, thereby
not allowing the enemy to re-establish any defences. Liddell Hart considered that armoured vehicles would carry their own
supporting infantry, in much the same way as modern warships carry their own marine detachments; he also proposed using indirect
attack, effectively going around any defences. During the 1930s the British Army established the Experimental Mechanized Force, to
test these theories and look at the basic problems of managing, controlling and commanding all arms formations, including the use of
aircraft. Many of the units involved in this force were posted to North Africa, where their experience played a major part in the
British success in the East African Campaignand General Wavell's initial successes in theWestern Desert campaign. The British used
three classes of tank: the 'Infantry', for supporting the infantry; the 'Cruiser', for fast moving encounter battles and reconnaissance;
and the light tank, for reconnaissance, escort and internal security
.

In the U.S., J. Walter Christie developed a series of fast tanks, based on his revolutionary Christie suspension system. This was
combined with very high power-to-weight ratios achieved by fitting large aircraft engines in his tanks. Although his prototypes were
capable of very high speeds, and in some cases designed to be air transportable, disputes with the United States Army Ordnance
Corps and a high price (compared with what the US military was willing to pay) meant they were never produced in the USA.
Christie's prototypes were however purchased by theSoviet Union, and were to be developed into theBT tanks and eventually, on the
eve of World War II, the famous T-34. The success of the BT series, when observed by Fuller, at Russian Army manoeuvres,
influenced the British to buy a Christie Tank, imported as a "Tractor", which led to Christie's suspension incorporated into British
cruiser tank designs such as the A13 Cruiser Mk IV, Crusader, and others.

BT-7A artillery support tank was a
self-propelled gun variant of the
Soviet BT tank, armed with a 76.2
mm howitzer.
Today it may be difficult to understand why the tank idea found such resistance from
the leadership of several armies. Part of the explanation is that the entire automotive
industry was in its infancy. Tanks were rightly considered unreliable, troublesome
equipment as late as the early 1930s. Weak engines, poor transmissions, and fragile,
short-life tracks contributed to this reputation. The otherwise-incomprehensible
resistance to tanks from 'traditional' military leadership can be partly understood in
this light; a tank battalion that loses most of its vehicles due to mechanical failure on
a 50-mile movement is not a reliable asset in combat. The international success of
the Vickers six-ton tank is due more to its high reliability than any brilliance in the
design. However, as the decade passed, engines, transmissions and tracks all
improved. By the beginning of World War II, reliable engines and transmissions, as
well as high-speed suspension designs were all available.

A final trend in the between-the-wars period was changes in manufacturing methods. France pioneered the use of very large castings
to form gun mantlets, turrets and eventually, with the S-35, entire tank hulls. The widespread use of casting was copied by the US and
USSR, and to a lesser extent in the UK. Casting enables the fast manufacture of ballistically well-shaped components. Germany
never made much use of large cast components, limiting casting to smaller items such as mantlets. Welding gradually replaced
 riveting and bolting as a means of fastening rolled armor plate together. Rivets can
shear off when struck by enemy fire, resulting in additional crew casualties.
Germany and the USSR led the way with welding, although the US followed
closely. Riveting and bolting remained in use in some countries such as Hungary,
Japan, and Italy, and to a lesser extent in the United Kingdom right to the end of
World War II. Finally, the US and USSR led the way in rationalizing designs for fast
production, eliminating unnecessary components or manufacturing steps that added
little value. In contrast, French and German pre-war (and even wartime) tanks often
Soviet BT-7 tanks on parade.
incorporated features that added cost or manufacturing complexity out of proportion
to their combat value.

United Kingdom
Following World War I, many experiments involving armoured vehicles were
conducted in Britain. The most significant advances were made in the areas of
suspensions, tracks, communications, and the organization of these vehicles on the
battlefield. British designs, particularly those from Vickers-Armstrong, formed the
basis for many of the most common tanks of the 1930s and early World War II. For
example, the Vickers Six Ton Tank was the basis for the Polish7TP, the Soviet T-26,
Vickers Medium Mark Ison a
and was a major influence on the ItalianM-11 and M-13 series and the Czech LT-35.
manoeuvre somewhere in England,
The six-ton Vickers tank was not adopted by the British Army.
1930
Another notable design was the Vickers Medium Mk II, a pivotal design which
combined some of the best traits of World War I tanks into a much faster tank. It had
a fully rotating turret on top like the FT, but mounted a dual-use 3-pounder gun (that
could fire both high-explosive and anti-tank shells) with a coaxial machine gun. It
also had a radio, a machine-gunner position in the front of the hull, and some limited
use of sloped armour. Some of these tanks would go on to serve in World War II,
though most of the significance of the design lies in the amount of features that were
utilized in later tank designs.

The Vickers Carden-Lloyd machine gun carriers influenced the tankette concept
through export and similar designs such as the Soviet T-27, Italian CV-33, German
Vickers Medium Mark II Tank.
Panzer I and other copies.

A perhaps less significant but also notable design was the Vickers A1E1
Independent, which was a large heavy tank that was built in 1925. It had a large main turret and four smaller turrets. This design
concept was later used by the SovietT-28 and T-35 tanks as well as the GermanNeubaufahrzeug.

Exponents of the replacement of the cavalry function by armoured vehicles were

Liddell Hart and Fuller. Their opponents misinterpreted (either mistakenly or
deliberately) them as proponents of an all-tank fighting force, though their views did
specify that artillery and infantry should be mechanised to make them as fast and
manoeuvrable as the tanks they advocated, and experiments were curtailed.

An outstanding achievement of the British Army was the creation of the

Experimental Mechanised Force in the late 1920s. This was a small Brigade-sized
unit developed to field-test the use of tanks and other vehicles. The unit pioneered
A Carden-Loyd tankette towing a
the extensive use of radio to control widely separated small units. The unit was
howitzer.
short-lived, however.

Vickers A1E1 "Independent"
major design factor. Vickers-Armstrong built a series of light tanks, to be sold either to the British Army who wanted to keep costs
down or to foreign militaries.
Eventually, by the 1930s, British experiments and their strategic situation led to a
tank development programme with three main types of tank: light, cruiser, and
infantry. The Infantry tanks were tasked with the support of dismounted infantry.
The maximum speed requirement matched the walking pace of a rifleman, and the
armour on these tanks was expected to be heavy enough to provide immunity to
towed anti-tank guns. Armament had to be sufficient to suppress or destroy enemy
machine gun positions and bunkers. Cruiser tanks were tasked with the traditional
cavalry roles of pursuit and exploitation, working relatively independently of the
infantry. This led to cruiser tank designs having great speed. To achieve this they
were lightly armoured, and tended to carry anti-tank armament. The light tanks were
tasked with reconnaissance and constabulary-type colonial roles, with cheapness the

France
The French used a very wide range of tanks, including many unique types. France was the second largest tank producer in the world,
behind the Soviet Union (see French armoured fighting vehicle production during World War II). Their cavalry tank class filled the
role of what are now called MBTs. They also fielded a heavy tank design, and several lighter types for scouting and infantry support.
In addition to these types, they were also working on super-heavy breakthrough tanks (FCM F1). The French didn't have an
independent Tank Corps. All tanks belonged to either the Infantry or the Cavalry
.

Infantry Tanks (Chars)

Light Tanks (Chars Lgers), generally similar to other nations' light

tanks, though they were intended to be used more for infantry
support rather than scouting, and as such were better armoured but
slower than many other light tanks. TheRenault R35 was the most
common type; small numbers of the futuristicFCM 36 were built.
The R35 was also exported to several eastern European countries,
including Romania and Poland.
Medium Tanks (Chars de Bataille), these were in fact meant to be
specialised breakthrough tanks C ( har D1, Char D2, Char B1).
Heavy Tanks (Chars Lourds); only the World War I-vintage Char 2C
was ever operational in this class, being the reason why the The French Renault R35 tank
breakthrough role was delegated to theChars de Bataille.
Cavalry Tanks (Automitrailleuses). These classes focused on speed in
addition to the power and protection of other tank designs, and were intended for both anti-tank and anti-personnel
work. As by law all tanks (Chars) had to be part of the Infantry, the Cavalry called its tanks Automitrailleuses. These
included the Hotchkiss H35.

Armoured Combat Tanks (AMCs or Automitrailleuses de Combat), a medium tank that sacrificed some armour
for speed, and had similar armament to the infantry tanksAMC
( 34, AMC 35, SOMUA S35).
Armoured Reconnaissance (AMRs orAutomitrailleuses de Reconnaissance), essentially light tanks (AMR
33;AMR 35), but specifically intended for generalreconnaissance and maintaining a security screen. Specialised
reconnaissance however would be carried out by AMD's orAutomitrailleuses de Dcouverte, typically armoured
cars or half-tracks.

The Renault FT-17 had a long life and saw use in World War II and even later in Indochina. It was utilised as far away as in China,
during the Chinese Civil wars, and versions of the tank were used both against and by the Japanese during the invasion of China. A
large number found their way into both Republican and Nationalist hands during the Spanish Civil War. They were used in the
Russian Revolution by both the Bolsheviks and the White Russians, and later by the Finns against the Soviets. France exported the
FT-17 right up to World War II. The design was also developed by the Italians as theFiat 3000 and the USSR as the T-18.

By the mid-1930s the French Army was replacing the aging FT-17 fleet with a mixed force of light tanks both in the Infantry and
Cavalry branches, as well as medium and heavy tanks. The Infantry light tanks included the Renault R 35, which followed the FT-17
concept quite closely with its very small size, two-man crew, and short 37 mm gun armament. It was, however, heavily armored. The
R 35 was mostly used to equip the independent tank battalions, an armoured reserve
allocated at army level and intended to reinforce infantry divisions in breakthrough
operations. French infantry divisions normally had no organic tank component. The
R 35 was exported to Poland and Romania. The cavalry had the similar Hotchkiss H
35, armed with the same 37 mm, as well as light recon tanks such as theAMR 35.

France also produced what may have been the best tank of the 1930s, the SOMUA
S35. This tank equipped the armoured divisions of the Cavalry which had to execute
the exploitation phase of a battle and was probably the best combination of armour,
firepower and mobility prior to the appearance of the German PzKpfw IV Ausf. F2 French 13.2 mm-armedAMR 35s,
and Soviet T-34. The S 35 had a long 47 mm gun that could kill any tank then in belonging to 4e RDP, 1re DLM.
service, as well as heavy cast armour and good speed.

The French char de bataille Char B tank was a very formidable tank, with heavy
cast and riveted armour, the same long 47 mm gun as in the S 35, and a hull-
mounted 75 mm howitzer. All Char Bs were equipped with radio and the tank was
nearly invulnerable to most tanks and towed antitank guns. They equipped the
armoured divisions of the Infantry, which were specialised breakthrough units.

In general, French tanks of the 1930s were well-armoured, innovative vehicles that
owed little to foreign designs. However, the light tanks lacked firepower and almost
all French tanks were crippled by their one-man turrets. Even the vaunted Char B
had a commander who was tasked with commanding the vehicle, aiming the main A Char B1 bis at the Muse des
gun, and loading the main gun. If he were a platoon leader or company commander, Blinds at Saumur
he had the additional tasks of controlling his other units. Such a heavy set of tasks
was overwhelming, and greatly reduced the effectiveness of the tanks. The lack of
radios with the light tanks was not seen as a major drawback, since French doctrine called for slow-paced, deliberate manoeuvers in
close conformance to plans: the "Methodical Battle" concept, adopted because wargaming showed it to be superior. The role of small
unit leaders was to execute plans, not to take the initiative in combat. This was nearly the opposite of German doctrine, which
stressed initiative and decision-making at low command levels (Auftragstaktik). In 1939 a belated effort was made to improve
flexibility and increase the number of radios.

Despite the views of Estienne and later Charles de Gaulle, the French general staff failed in defining an effective military doctrine
regarding their use, due to the division of labour between infantry and cavalry tanks. In the Battle of France, despite an advantage in
number and armour against the Germans, the French tanks were not used to good enough effect. The infantry tanks were only
effective in executing the breakthrough phase of a battle; and thus useless as a mobile reserve. Ironically, cooperation with the
infantry was poor. The Cavalry units alone were ot o few in number.

After the Fall of France, work on new designs, such as the Char G1, officially halted, although there was some clandestine designing
done. After the liberation of France, the next tank to be introduced would be the ARL 44 heavy tank, which came too late to
participate in World War II, but was used post-war for a time.

Soviet Union
The Soviet Union's efforts in tank design and production must be understood in the context of the experience of the Russian Civil
War and the growth of Soviet industry. During the civil war, the use of armored trains and artillerytrains was common. This tended to
lead to a greater interest in tanks and armored cars compared to some western nations. The rapid growth of heavy industry in the
USSR under the Five-Year plans made a large tank fleet possible.

Initially, the tanks and armored cars in Soviet hands were a mix of FT-17 imports and a few British tanks left behind in the civil war.
The first Soviet tank, the T-18 (sometimes called MS-1) was a fairly close copy of the FT-17, but with improved suspension and a
larger turret. Stalin's enthusiasm for industrialisation and mechanisation drove an aggressive military development program, resulting
in by far the largest and broadest tank inventory of all nations by the late 1930s.

In 1926, under a secret annex to the Treaty of Rapallo, the Soviet Union and
Germany set up a joint tank school at Kazan, which was illegal under the Treaty of
Versailles. Both countries learned much about tank design and tactics in this co-
operative venture. The Germans provided advice on mechanisation of Soviet heavy
industry, and helped develop a sense of professionalism in the Red Army. From
1929, an experimental Mechanised Brigade was formed, training and developing
combined-arms tactics with foreign tanks, armoured cars, tractors, and lorries.
T-18 light tank
The Soviets also spent tens of millions of dollars on U.S. equipment and technology
to modernise dozens of automotive and tractor factories, which would later produce
tanks and armoured vehicles.

Based on a mixed force of foreign tanks and imported prototypes, the Soviets
developed an impressive domestic design and production capability. The T-26 light
tank was based on the Vickers E (as were many other tanks of the period), chosen
after it beat a Soviet FT derivative in trials. The Soviets purchased some U.S.
Christie M1930 tank prototypes, from which they developed the BT series of fast
tanks. They also developed the heavier multi-turreted T-28 medium tank and the
massive T-35, which followed the design premise of the Vickers A1E1 Independent.
Of the tanks produced between 1930 and 1940, 97% were either identical copies of
foreign designs, or very closely related improvements. Significantly, the major The multi-turreted T-28 medium tank.
improvement the Soviet designers made to these foreign designs was an increase in The T-28 was the first series-
firepower. By 1935, the Red Army ". . . possessed more armoured vehicles, and produced modern medium tank.

more tank units than the rest of the world combined." (Zaloga 1984, p. 107)

But from 1937 to 1941, the Red Army's officer corps, the armour design bureaux,
and leadership of the factories were gutted by Stalin's Great Purge. Approximately
54,000 officers were repressed. Military knowledge completely stagnated and
armoured vehicle production dropped drastically (though still remaining the world's
largest). Training and readiness dropped to very low levels. This repression
continued until the eve of the war.

The participation by Soviet

Soviet T-35 tank
'volunteer' tank units in the Spanish
Civil War was decisive in forming
Soviet tank designs for World War II. Soviet tanks dominated their foreign rivals in
Spain due to their firepower, but their thin armor, in common with most tanks of the
period, made them vulnerable to the new towed antitank guns being supplied to
Infantry units. This finding led directly to a new generation of Soviet tanks. By the The BT-5 Fast Tank; the BT series
eve of World War II, the Soviet Union had some of the world's best tanks (including led to the development of theT-34.
the T-34 and KV-1, which were basically a generation ahead, coming as a shock to
the Wehrmacht). However, the poor training and readiness status of most Red Army
units led to a catastrophic defeat of the enormous Soviet Mechanised Corps during the opening phases of Operation Barbarossa,
Germany's 1941 invasion of the Soviet Union. Despite their generally good equipment, the Red Army's operational capabilities and
motorised logistic support were very inferior.

Czechoslovakia
The Czech Army bought three Carden-Loyd tankettes and a production licence for
them in 1930, eskomoravsk Kolben-Dankbuilding four copies that same year as
prototypes for future orders. The Carden-Loyds were evaluated during the Fall
maneuvers and revealed numerous problems: the crews had very poor vision through
the narrow slits, the machine gun had a very narrow field of fire and the crewmen
had a difficult time communicating. Furthermore,they were slow, underpowered and
often broke down. One of the P-1 prototypes was rebuilt to address these issues with
additional vision ports in all directions, internal ammunition storage and the machine
LT vz. 35 tanks in the koda Works
gun's field of fire increased to 60. It was extensively tested during 193132 and a
few other changes were made as a result. The armor was increased from 6 to 8 mm
(0.24 to 0.31 in) and from 9 to 12 mm (0.35 to 0.47 in) and a fixed machine gun was added for the driver. Two of the other prototypes
were rebuilt to the same standard; all three were officially accepted by the Army on 17 October 1933. The order for seventy was
placed on 19 April 1933, all being delivered by October 1934.[1] The koda T-21 (original designation was koda -IIc) was kodas
contribution to the IIc army category (medium tanks for general use) and a direct competitor to Praga-8-H.
V

In the early thirties both Praga and koda (main competitors for both Czechoslovak army contracts but also with regard to export)
designed some successful light tanks (LT-35, later the LT-38) but both companies produced some unsuccessful infantry support tank
designs, notably the Praga P-IIb and koda -IIb. Subsequently, both companies worked together to design a joint infantry tank
project, designated P-IIb. Both companies however also continued to work on their own private attempts to build IIb/IIc category
prototypes. These private attempts would later become thePraga V-8-H and koda T-21.

The main design works on the T-21 began as early as September 1936. The first prototype was finished in May 1937 and first variant
from May 1937 was the original -IIc. The engine development was delayed and the prototype was fitted (in order to save time) with
a 190 hp 13-liter V6, originally intended for the -III breakthrough tank prototype. In September 1937, the V6 engine was removed
and the original koda engine intended for it was installed. It still failed it tests which were stopped in November, marking the end of
the 1st development stage of T-21. By that time the Ministry of Defence committee was looking for a suitable Czechoslovak medium
tank for the army but the -IIc did not to make the June 1938 army tests deadline and as a result this was the end of the T-21 as a
potential Czechoslovak army medium tank. In any case, after the German occupation of Czechoslovakia that was no longer possible,
not without German consent at least. During the early months of occupation German delegations visited the koda factory and tests
were performed with the -IIc prototype which, by 22.5.1939, had been renamed, to fit the German nomenclature principles to koda
T-21 (T = tank, 2 = medium, 1 = 1st variant). The Germans initially wanted to test it at Kummersdorf, but did not show too much
interest in the design and instead the Germans decided to produce an improved version, which was named-22.
T

The British Carden-Lloyd Tankette's Czechoslovakia had acquired led to the Czechoslovakia designed tank, the Tank vz. 33 which
was assembled from a framework of steel "angle iron" beams, to which armor plates were riveted. The front armor was 12 mm
(0.47 in) thick, the sides had a thickness of 8 mm (0.31 in), the top was 6 mm (0.24 in) thick and the bottom plates were 6 mm
(0.24 in) in thickness. This was deemed enough to deflectarmor-piercing 7.92 mm (0.312 in) bullets fired from distances greater than
125 metres (137 yd) from the front and 185 metres (202 yd) from the sides. Both were supposed to withstand ordinary bullets from
over 50 metres (55 yd).[2]

The 1.95 litres (119 cu in), water-cooled, 30 horsepower (22 kW), inline 4-cylinder Praga engine sat directly in the fighting
compartment. It had a top speed on the road of 35 kilometres per hour (22 mph). The suspension was a modified version of that used
in the Carden-Loyd tankettes.The Tank vz. 33 (literal translation Tankette model 33) was a Czechoslovak-designed tankette used
mainly by Slovakia during World War II. Seventy-four were built. The Germans seized forty when they occupied Bohemia-Moravia
in March 1939; there is no record of their use. The Slovaks captured thirty at the same time when they declared independence from
Czechoslovakia. In Slovak service it only saw combat during theSlovak National Uprising.

The AH-IV was another Czechoslovak-designed tankette which eskomoravsk Kolben-Dank was determined not to repeat the
problems of its earlier Tank vz. 33 tankette and gave the gunner a turret for better observation and all-around fields of fire for its
new AH-IV tankette. It was assembled from a framework of steel "angle iron" beams, to which armor plates between 12 and 6 mm
(0.47 and 0.24 in) thick were riveted. The 3.468 litres (211.6 cu in), water-cooled, six-cylinder Praga engine produced 55 horsepower
(41 kW) at 2500 rpm. It sat in the rear of the fighting compartment and drove the transmission via a drive shaft that ran forward
between the driver and commander to the gearbox.It had a top speed on the road of 45 kilometres per hour (28 mph) and a range
between 150 and 170 kilometres (93 and 106 mi). The semi-automatic Praga-Wilson transmission had five forward gears and one
reverse gear to drive the forward-mounted drive sprocket. The suspension was a smaller version of that used in the
Panzerkampfwagen 38(t).

The LT vz. 34, formally designated as Lehk Tank vzor 34 ("Light Tank Model 34")
Czechoslovak-designed light tank had been based on that of the Carden-Loyd
tankette, of which the Czechs had purchased three, plus a manufacturing license, in
1930. Dissatisfied with the prototypes of the Tank vz. 33 tankette, the Czech Army
decided that it would be easier to design a light tank from scratch rather than modify
a tankette chassis to carry a fully rotating armored turret. 50 were built, the last of
which was delivered during 1936.

The next major tank developed in A Czech LT vz. 34 in 1935

Czechoslovak service had the
formal designation Lehk (Light)
Tank vzor (Model) 35, but was commonly referred to as the LT vz. 35 or LT-35. In
German use it was called the Panzerkampfwagen 35(t), commonly shortened to
Panzer 35(t) or abbreviated as Pz.Kpfw. 35(t), and this Czechoslovak-designed
light tank ended up being used mainly by Nazi Germany during World War II. The
letter (t) stood for tschechisch (German: "Czech"). Four hundred and thirty-four
were built; of these the Germans seized two hundred and forty-four when they
A LT vz. 38 Czech LTL exported to
occupied Bohemia-Moravia in March 1939 and the Slovaks acquired fifty-two when
Peru and designated as LTP
they declared independence from Czechoslovakia at the same time. Others were
exported to Bulgaria and Romania. In German service it saw combat during the early
years of World War II, notably the Invasion of Poland, the Battle of France and the invasion of the Soviet Union before being retired
by 1942.

In 1935, the Czechoslovak tank manufacturer KD was looking for a replacement

for the LT-35 tank they were jointly producing with koda Works. The LT-35 was
complex and had shortcomings, and KD felt there would be orders both from the
expanding Czechoslovak army and for export. KD decided to use a suspension
with four large wheels for their new tank. It resembled the Christie suspension
outwardly, but was actually a conventional leaf spring unit. The resulting vehicle
was reliable and came to be known as LT vz. 38 in Czechoslovak service and
designated the Panzer 38(t) in German service. On 1 July 1938, Czechoslovakia
ordered 150 of the TNHPS model, which came to be known as the LT vz. 38, and A LT vz. 38 designated as LTH the
although none had entered service by the time of the German occupation those made export version to Switzerland
were taken over and used by Germany. After the German takeover, Germany ordered
continued production of the model as it was considered an excellent tank, especially
compared to the Panzer I and Panzer II tanks that were the Panzerwaffe's main tanks. It was first introduced into German service
under the name LTM 38; this was changed on 16 January 1940 to Panzerkampfwagen 38(t). Production of tanks for Germany
continued into 1942, and amounted to more than 1,400 examples. In German service the 38(t) was used as a substitute for the Panzer
III.

Germany
Germany, constrained by the terms of theTreaty of Versailles, was not allowed to produce tanks of any kind and only a few armoured
cars. In 1926 an unofficial program of tank construction was initiated by Von Seeckt, the commander of the Reichswehr. Built by
Rheinmetall-Borsig the firstgrosstraktor ("big tractor") was similar to the existing British Mk II medium tank, 20 tons with a 75 mm
gun. This, and other designs, were tested with Soviet co-operation at a tank school in the Russian Urals. In Germany proper dummy
tanks were used in training, apparently at the instigation of then-Major Heinz Guderian, a staff tactical instructor. Guderian had read
Fuller, Liddell-Hart and other tank warfare theorists and he had the support of his commanders toevelop
d his theories into reality.

In 1931 the German General Staff accepted a plan for two types of tank, a medium
tank with a 75 mm gun and a lighter vehicle with a 37 mm gun. While design and
then construction work was carried out, the German army used a variety of light
tanks based on the British Carden Loyd tankette chassis. The early tanks were code-
named Landwirtschaftlicher Schlepper (La S, "agricultural hauler"), a designation
that lasted until 1938. The first of these light tanks ran in early 1934. It was a five-
ton Krupp design which was dubbed the LKA1. The new government approved an
initial order for 150 in 1934 as the 1A La S Krupp. Around 1500 of these light tanks
Panzer I Ausf. A in combat during the
were built.
German invasion of Norway.
Later German tanks received a new designation, Panzerkampfwagen (PzKpfw or
PzKw), which means "Armoured Fighting Vehicle". The first machine to use this
was the two-man PzKpfw I Ausf A influenced by the Carden Loyd tankette, and was a 5.4 ton machine with a 3.5-litre 60 hp (45 kW)
petrol engine. It had 13 mm of armour and was armed with twin 7.92 mm machine guns. The more common Ausf B was a littleger
lar
to accommodate a 100 hp (75 kW) Maybach engine. Both models were sent to the Spanish Civil War for testing, along with other
new German weapons. From the experiences in Spain it quickly became clear that the next generation of tanks would need better
armour, greater range and much heavier weapons.

The PzKpfw II was around 50% heavier than the PzKpfw I. It had a 20 mm
Solothurn antitank gun as main armament, as well as improved armour of up to
30 mm. Also sent to Spain from 1937, the PzKpfw II proved more capable against
light infantry, but no better when faced with capable anti-tank guns or other tanks.
Despite these weaknesses, production continued until 1941. At the outbreak of war,
the German Army had 955 PzKpfw IIs and almost 4000 were built in total.

A major boost to German armour

came with the annexation of Panzer II tanks cross the desert
Czechoslovakia in 1938, giving
Germany access to the entire Czech
arms industry. The Czechs had two light tank designs later used by the Germans, the
koda LT-35 and the eskomoravsk Kolben-Dank (KD) TNHP. The koda was
a 10-ton machine with a 37 mm main gun and excellent cross-country capabilities;
the KD was 8.5 tons and also fitted with a 37 mm gundue to extensive tests it
Panzer 35(t) in France, 1940
was an extremely reliable machine with a top quality chassis. Both were taken into
the German panzer forces, as the PzKpfw 35(t) and the PzKpfw 38(t), and further
production was ordered. KD was renamed Boehmisch-Maehrische Maschinenfabrik AG (BMM) in 1940 and continued production
until 1942, providing the Wehrmacht with 1,168 PzKpfw 38(t) tanks. In 1940, Czech tanks made up around a quarter of the entire
German panzer force.

While lighter tanks formed almost the entirety of the German forces, heavier tanks were at least at the prototype stage. In 1934, a
number of heavy prototypes were constructed, based around either 75 or 105 mm main guns. Designated
Neubaufahrzeug (NbFz) and
very similar to contemporary Soviet and British designs, six were built by Rheinmetall and Krupp. Although they were mainly useful
for propaganda purposes because only a handful of the tanks were made, three were actually used in combat in Norway. The
knowledge of the NbFz and the experiences of the lighter tanks in Spain aided in designing the next generation of tanks, the PzKpfw
III and PzKpfw IV. The PzIII was the lighter of the two and was intended for use in anti-tank operations, whereas the heavier PzIV
was armed with a short-barrel gun and intended for supporting infantry
.

Panzer IV Ausf. C
limited production. This 19 ton machine was powered by a 12-litre 320 hp (239 kW) engine. It had a top speed of 25 mph (40 km/h)
and was fitted with 30 mm armour all round.
The Panzer III's 37 mm gun was
considered underpowered, yet it
was used in the interests of
standardisation with the infantry.
Contracts for the Zugkraftwagen
were issued late in 1936. Its weight
was limited to a maximum of 24
tons, because it was required to be
German Panzer III Ausf. D tank, in
able to cross existing bridges. Poland (1939)
Development work continued until
1938 when the Ausf D went into

By the outbreak of war, around fifty had been completed and some saw service in Poland. Full-scale production did not begin until
October 1939 as the Ausf E. Around 350 PzKpfw IIIs in the E variant were ready by the invasion of France.

Japan
Like the US Army, the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) did not have tanks of its own
in World War I, so initially it started out by purchasing foreign tanks for evaluation,
and then began developing its own designs. After the war
, a few Whippets (six) were
exported to Japan,[3] where they remained in service until around 1930.
[4]

In 1925, in addition to tankettes, the Japanese Army began to design tanks to satisfy
its own requirements. Before that year, as with most nations, all tanks in Japanese Japanese Whippets.
service had been of foreign design and/or manufacture. The first tank of Japanese
design, was finished in May 1926 and the prototype Type 87 Chi-I was completed
by February 1927.[5] After trials, the Type 87 was considered too heavy and slow to
be used as its main tank.[6] It was decided to create a new design modeled after the
Vickers Medium C which had been bought by the Japanese Army in March 1927.
By 1929 the prototype of the Type 89 Chi-Ro (Experimental Tank Number 2) was
completed.[7][8] The Japanese were among the first to use diesel engines in some of
their tank designs.

The Type 89 Chi-Ro tank was lighter (9.8 tonnes) and shorter than the Type 87. It Japanese Type 89 I-Go tanks moving
contained increased armour (6 to 17 mm) and an improved water-cooled engine. toward Manila, January 1942.
After success in initial tests, the Type 89 became the first mass-produced Japanese
tank. The Type 89 had a crew of four, and was armed with a 57 mm Type 90 gun and
two 6.5 mm type 91 machine guns.[9]

During the 1930s, the Japanese began production of tankettes and light tanks, which were used heavily in Manchuria and China.[10]
The Type 94 tankette weighed 3.4 tonnes and was generally used as either a tractor to tow an ammunition trailer, or as a
patrol/reconnaissance tank.[11] With a crew of two men and a single 6.5 mm type 91 machine gun, 823 units of the Type 94 were
produced[12] and they saw widespread service as late as 1945. Over twice as large as the Type 94 at (7.4 tonnes), the Type 95 Ha-Go
light tank had a complement of three crewmen, a 37 mm gun and the same 6.5 mm type 91 machine gun, and most importantly a
diesel engine which would later greatly influence future tank designs in the Soviet Army.[13][14] Over two-thousand Type 95 tanks
were built, and production continued until 1943.[15]
 By 1936 the Japanese Army started to look for a replacement for the Type 89. The
new medium tank, Type 97 Chi-Ha, was introduced in 1937. The Type 97 Chi-Ha at
15 tonnes was armed with a low-velocity 57 mm gun and had armour up to 25 mm
thick. Later, an improved version known as the Type 97 Shinhoto Chi-Ha remained
in production until 1943.[16]

The 1930s were the last time that the

Japanese military focused on production and
design of tanks before World War II. After
that period, they were largely preoccupied
with establishing naval control and their
focus was on production of ships and aircraft.
Furthermore, with the emphasis on expansion Type 97 Chi-Ha medium
southward into the Pacific Ocean region, land tank
Japanese Type 95 Ha-Go first battles would be largely replaced by naval
prototype, 1934 warfare, and thus, with the exception of small
islands, the domain of the Imperial Japanese Navy.[17] With the destruction of the
Imperial Navy, the focus on tanks returned when the Japanese military prepared for
orld War II.[18]
the defense of the mainland in the last years of W

United States
After World War I, and still using British and French designs, the United States Tank Corps was reduced in size. Renaults and the
new Mk VIII "Liberty Tank" were retained: http://www.ftmeade.army.mil/Museum/Exhibit_MarkVIII_Tank.html The Defense Act of
1920 restricted tanks to infantry use only; as a result, the Tank Corps was disbanded, with the remaining tanks distributed among the
infantry.

In 1928, at the request of Secretary of War Dwight F. Davis, the Army formed the Experimental Mechanized Brigade. It consisted of
a heavy tank battalion, a light tank battalion, a motorised infantry battalion, a motorised artillery battalion, an engineer company, and
a signals company. Due to the use of obsolete equipment, the experiment failed, and the force was disbanded after three months.

In 193435, at the request of the Cavalry, three prototype tanks, the T2, T2E1, and
T2E2 were produced. Under the terms of the Defense Act of 1920, tanks were
restricted to infantry units. To get around the Defense Act, these tanks were called
"combat cars".The M1 series entered service in 1937. The T2, inspired by the British
Vickers 6-Ton, was standardised as the M1 combat car. The T2E1, a single-turret
tank armed with three machine guns, was standardised as the M2A1. The T2E2, a
A M1 Combat Car. two-turret tank with two machine guns, was standardised as the M2A2.

Throughout the interwar period the

US produced only a few hundred tanks. From the end of World War I to 1935, only
15 tanks were produced. Most were derivatives or foreign designs or very poor
quality private designs. The Christie designs were among the few bright spots, but
the US Army acquired only three Christies and did not pursue the idea any further.
Budget limitations and the low priority given to the Army meant that there were few
resources for building tanks. The US Army instead developed and tested tank
components such as suspensions, tracks, and transmissions. This work paid off when
production needed to be initiated upon the outbreak of war
.
A M2 tank.
Immediately before and during World War II, U.S tanks and many other Allied tanks were powered by radial aircraft-type engines.
However, the massive production of aircraft caused a shortage of these engines. Because of this, many tanks, particularly the
Sherman and the Lee, were powered by as many as five different power-plant arrangements. In addition to Wright and Continental
radials, they were powered by Ford GAA, GM truck diesels, and the Chrysler A57 multibank (an arrangement of five 6-cylinder
automobile engines that ran as a single unit). After the war
, diesel truck-type engines replaced the gasoline-burning radials.

Others
Many other nations that desired tanks could not design or build their own. The 1920s
and 1930s saw a widespread export business as smaller or less-industrialized nations
purchased tanks abroad. Sometimes, the import of foreign tanks led to the birth of a
tank industry in the importing nation.

Poland imported the British Vickers Six-Ton tank and began production of improved
models. The pinnacle of this improvement program was the 7TP, which featured a
diesel engine and 37 mm gun. Poland also produced the TKS series of tankettes,
Polish 7TP tank.
similar in concept to the Vickers-Carden-Loyd machinegun carriers of Britain and
the UE of France. These vehicles had two-man crews, thin armor, and a single ball-
mounted light machinegun.

Turkey imported SovietT-26 and a few T-28 tanks but did not begin series production of any tank.

Sweden's Landsverk firm designed

several advanced light tanks,
including the 20 mm armed L-60,
which also had welded construction
and some sloped armor. The L-60
was adopted as the Toldi light tank
by Hungary. With its 20 mm gun it
Hungarian Toldi light tank based on
was roughly comparable to the
Sweden's Landsverk light tankL-60 Sweden's L-60
German Panzer II or Soviet T-60.
The L-60 was also the chassis on
which the Landsverk L-62 self-propelled 40 mm anti-aircraft gun was built. Although designed as tank destroyer, the vehicle saw
service with Hungarian forces on the Eastern Front as a self-propelled anti-aircraft gun under the name Nimrod. Six were used by
Finland after 1942.

Hungary produced the Toldi as well as a medium tank, the Turan. The Turan I was based on a prototype of Czech medium tank
koda T-21 (-II-c), had rivetted construction, and a 40 mm gun. The later Turan II had a 75 mm gun. During World War II these
tanks were supplemented by several dozen imported German vehicles.

Latvia and Lithuania imported a few light vehicles such asVickers-Carden-Loyd tankettes, FT-17s, and Six-Tonners.

Romania imported someR-35 light tanks from France, as well as somePanzer 35(t)s.

Italy imported the French FT-17 and produced a slightly improved clone, the Fiat 3000. A native
Italian design was the L6/40, a very small light tank with a 20 mm Breda cannon and rivetted
construction. A medium tank, based on the Vickers Six-Tonner, was the M-11-M13 series. This
tank had a very good 47 mm gun, but very thin armor. Italy also produced a large number of CV-
33 and CV-35 tankettes based on theVickers-Carden-Loyd concept. Close-up of Italian CV-
35-L3/35 in the Balkans.
In Latin America, the first war where the tank was employed was the Chaco War between Bolivia and Paraguay, in which the former
used a small number of British-built tanks and tankettes, whereas the latter had no tanks at all.

See also
History of the tank Comparison of early World War II tanks
Tanks in World War I Cold War Tanks
Comparison of World War I tanks Post-Cold War Tanks
Light tanks of the United Kingdom Cultivator No. 6
Tanks in World War II

Notes
1. Kliment & Francev 1997, pp. 4445. 10. Tomczyk 2002, p. 46.
2. Kliment & Francev 1997, p. 46. 11. Tomczyk 2002, pp. 46, 54, 55.
3. Ellis & Chamberlain 1972, p. 9. 12. Zaloga 2007, p. 10.
4. Crow, p. 2. 13. Tomczyk 2002, pp. 67, 74.
5. Tomczyk 2002, pp. 6, 7. 14. Zaloga 2007, p. 15.
6. Tomczyk 2002, p. 7. 15. Zaloga 2007, pp. 10, 17.
7. Tomczyk 2002, pp. 7, 10, 17. 16. Zaloga 2007, pp. 10, 11, 14.
8. Zaloga 2007, p. 5. 17. Zaloga 2007, pp. 15, 17.
9. Tomczyk 2002, pp. 19, 25. 18. Zaloga 2007, pp. 21, 22.

References
Ellis, Chris; Chamberlain, Peter Chamberlain (1972).Medium Tanks Marks A to D. AFV/weapons. Windsor: Profile
Publications. OCLC 220833240.
Kliment, Charles K.; Francev, Vladimr (1997). Czechoslovak Armored Fighting Vehicles. Atglen, PN: Schiffer.
ISBN 0-7643-0141-1.
Tomczyk, Andrzej (2002).Japanese Armor Vol. 1. AJ Press. ISBN 83-7237-097-4.
Zaloga, Steven J. and Grandsen, James (1984).Soviet Tanks and Combat Vehicles of World War Two. Arms and
Armour Press, London.ISBN 0-85368-606-8.
Zaloga, Steven J. (2007).Japanese Tanks 193945. Osprey. ISBN 978-1-8460-3091-8.

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