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Committed

to quality
we are the leading IJK based storage tanlc contractori backett by
more than 40 vears ex,errcr(.,
in this fielcl antl su\tported by a skiltert nnrt tletticate(l team ofengineers, wiih
the abititv to
handle the diuerse requirements of the rejining an.(r storage industries.

We pritle ourselues in our approach - we recognise eaclz customer's needs


are different nrtd tt,e
prouicle indiuidually tailored solutions to match and exceetl those
reqttirements.

Leading the way Expertise in


In tecnntcal servtceS technical solutions
As the UK's number one full service supplier of
Feasibility studies fixed and floating roof field-erected srorage
Detail design tanks. McTay has
Fabrication drawings successfully applied
E ngineering specification this knowledge to
a wide range of
O n -s ite i nspecti o n con su I tanc,
prolects and gajned
Complete e ng i neeri ng, procu re me nt a reputation for
& construction management.
excellence in
Emanating from McTay,s traditional oil engrneering
and (hemi(al storage activities, we have non-standard tanks.
developed a strong capability and expertise
As part of international construction and
In the design of tanks and vessels for the
support servrces 9roup, Mowlem plc, you
storage of iiquid and petroleum products.
can be confident ol a fir5t class servi(e,
These specialist professional services are which also gives McTay ready access to the
provided through Mclay's 85 EN 9001 vast resources and mu lti-discipline
accred itation. capabilities available within the group.

McTay - complete engineering solutions.

|ytclby

Regional offices: MOWLEM


Guideto

$ 0 NAB t t tt

I t il r$ a=
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U

The practical reference book and


guide to storage tanks and ancillary
equipment with a comprehensive
buyers' guide to worldwide
manufacturers and suppliers

Bob Long
Bob Garner
This plblication is copyrighl under the Berne convenlion and the International copyright convenuon. All rights reserved. Apart from any
fa|I deating for the purpose of
pfvate study, research criticism, or review as permitted lnder the copyright Designs. nd Patents Act 1 988: no pan may be reprodr.:cedl
stored in a-ny retrierial iystem,
transfitted.inanyform'byanymeans,e|ectfonic,e]ectrica|'chemicaLmdchanica-i,photocopying'recoroing,orbttren,vi(e,wito
owneI5'L,n|icensedmu|tip|e-copyingofthispubic"tion.isi||ega|,|nq!iriessh
Northgate Avenue, Bury St Edmunds. Suflolk. tp32 6BW, UK.

o Roles and Associates Limited


tsBN 1 86058 431 4
A CIP catalogue forthis book is available from the British Library

whilst every care has been taken in the prepara on of this publication, the publishers are not responsible for any statement made in
thjs pubtication. DaLa, djscussion,
and conclusions develooed bv the Editor are for informatioi onty and are nbtintended for use wiihout inu"riidulon on tn" part of potential
users. opinions expresied ar-e those of fte Editor and not nece;sarity those of tne 'ncepenai:niiuosLniiiinj
tnstitution-Jr'naec-rrin;;;i6;];;;;;ilil]i:t1g;:"*'
Printed in Great Britain by Antony Rowe, Chippenham, Wiltshire.

h
)b
Professlonal
Engineerlng
Published in
association with

Publlshlng FT-ilnE(q
LJIJIgEEEJ
Professional Engineering Publishing
Bury St Edmunds and London UK &t$stirh$

!E![-
Maior Contrastor of the Year 2003
Building Conlractor of the Year 2003

Stuart Driver
Chief Civil Engineer

stuart.driver@uk.taylorwoodrow.com
taylorwoodrow,com

llaa

tlttfi
Toylor Wo odrow
Foreword
Steel storage tanks are an important and costly part of oil refineries, terminals, chemical plants
and power stations.
They should function efficientlyand be trouble-free attheir maximum storage capacity to ensure
that these installations can have their planned maximum production capacity.
A sudden, unexpected loss of storage capacity due to accidents will cause a serious handicap
for the production capacity of these installations and result in serious financial losses. lt is
therefore essential that accidents with storage tanks should be avoided as much as possible.
For this purpose it is not only essentialthat designers have adequate knowledge and experience
of the design regulations and limits of storage tanks but also maintenance engineers and
operation-personnel should be efficiently aware of important and crucial details of the storage
tanks to avoid unexDected oroblems.
Thousands of steel storage tanks are operating at ambient temperature for oll and chemical
products in almost every country in the world. The reported accidents with those tanks are in
most cases caused by human errors or operational mistakes. Investigations demonstrate that
in many cases they could have been avoided through adequate knowledge of the personnel
involved.
Refrigerated steel storage tanks, for liquefied gases, eg. butane, propane and LNG are
operating at storage temperatures of respectively - 6 'C, -45'C and - 165 "C. Theirnumberis
limited. The design and construction of such tanks is complicated and cosfly. Many special
requirements are given, in addition to or deviating from the regulations of tanks operating at
ambient temperatures.
For these tanks it is highly essential that designers, maintenance engineers and
operation-personnel should have adequate and accurate knowledge of all requirements and
crucial details. For such tanks, losses of capacity due to accidents would have very serious
consequences.
This book will be most helpful in supplying the knowledge required and should therefore be
available for designers, maintenance engineers and operation-personnel
The guidance given is essential to ensure a trouble-free operation of the storage tanks. I
therefore sincerely hope that this book will find its way worldwide.

John de Wit

Ex-tank specialist of Shell, The Hague


Previously chairman of the tank committees of:
The British Standards lnstitution, London
The Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Assoc/a'on , (EEMUA), London
The European Committee for Normalisation, Brussels.

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STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPHEI{T


About the authors
Bob Long HND (N/echanical & Production Engineering), CEng, Eur Ing, Fll\,4echE

Bob Long attended Woodbridge Schoolin Woodbridge, Suffolk, before moving tothe Nofth East
to take up a student apprenticeship with Whessoe Heavy Engineering Ltd in 1961. A four-year
sandwich course provided an HND from Darlington Technical College and a sound background
in both the white and blue-collar areas of the companys activities.
At that time Whessoe was a vigorous and broadly based engineering company working for and
with the nuclear, petrochemical, power generation, chemical and sundry other industries, both
at home and abroad. So there was plenty of scope for a young man, and a good place to start
was in the development department. A thoroughly enjoyable five years was spent finding
technical solutions to a variety of problems that emanated from the wide range of company
activities.
A move to the storage tank department brought exposure, at first to tanks for the storage of
ambient temperature products and then to the more exotic tanks for the storage of low
temperature liquids. This was an interesting time jn the evolution of low temperarure ranKs, as
they moved from single containment through to double and finally to full containment systems.
l\y'any new problems had to be faced and overcome, in the design office, the fabrication shops
and on sites in various countries.
The company's range of activities narrowed as time went on, but fortunatelyfor Bob, the storage
of liquid products and in particular of low temperature liquids became the main thrust of the
bustness.
Bob became involved with the writing of British Standards, EEMUA guidelines and eventually
European Standards in the field of liquid containment systems. He rose to become Engineering
l\y'anager and a Technical Director of Whessoe. He now works as a part time consultant for the
same company.
A one-company man, a rare beast indeed these days!

Bob Garner HNC (l\,4echanical Engineering), CEng, N/llNilechE

Privately educated until the age of 15, Bob Garner left school and was taken on as office boy in
an engineering department of Lever Bros. He aitended day release and night school achieving a
Pre National Certificate Diploma.
Bob was then apprenticed as a fitter/turner with C & H Crichton, maintaining the Ellerman City
Line's shipping fleet. During this time he undertook day release gain ing an 0NC in Mechan ical
Engineering and subsequently a HNC. Vocational training covered operatjng lathes, boring
machines and shaping machines, and the final year of the apprentjceship was spent in ihe
drawing office. He was then asked to stay to assist with estimating for work required by local,
land-based companies (as distinct from shipping).
At the age ot 22, Bob was involved in the building of steel lock caissons for the new
Langton/Canada Dock passage from the River Mersey. Spells as a draughtsman with the l\,4obil
Oil Company followed, during which Bob was approached by a newlt-formed storage tank
company,,l\y'cTay Engineering, and asked to prepare tankage calculations and drawings at
home for 1lhr. Being a newly-married man with a mortgage, this was a golden opportunity to
earn extra cash to enhance his life style, and his relationship with McTay flourished.
Alter a couple ofyears however, Bob joined a completely d ifferent engineering organisation that
designed and built stone crushing machinery for the quarrying industry.
He continued with his moonlighting for l\,4cTay until 1969 when he joined the company full tjme,
being involved in designing tanks, draughting, estimating for new work, visiting potentlal clients,
purchasing steel and tank components and assisting with technical backup on overseas visits to
clients
Bob Garner was made Technical Direclor in 1972, responsible for estimating, design & drawing
office and purchasing and inspection. After continuing with further studies, in 1974 Bob becam6
an Associate [,4ember of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. (Associate Members later
became known as Chartered Engineers, which is the recognised tifle today.)
By 1977, expanding business opportunities took Bob to East Africa, The Falklands and America
as wellas much of Europe. His responsibilities during this time were principallyfor the operation
of the estimating and engineering departments. This work continued until 20d0 when. now as a
single man, he took early retirement.
He still works for McTay, on a consultancy basis as long as jt does not interfere too much with
holidays at home and overseas, cruises or qolf!-

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT \/


Tracte be I Fr'i, r..ri ns

LNG Exoori Terminal Ha


How to use this book
Storage Tanks & Equipment is a practical reference book written for specifiers, designers,
constructors and users of ambient and lowtemperature storage tanks. lt has been desjgned to
provide practical information about all practical aspects of the design, selection and use of
vertical cylindrical storage tanks. Other tank types are covered but in less detail. Although the
emphasis is on practical information, basic theory is covered.
The book is aimed at everyone who has technical problems as well as those wanting to know
more about allaspects oftank technology and also those who wantto knowwho supplies what,
and from where.
Storage Tanks & Equipment is not intended to be a comprehensive design manual, but
sufficient information is included to enable the readerto understand the design process and to
identify potential problem areas in tank type selection, fabrication and erection. The princioal
Standards are covered and detailed comparisons between the main ones are given. The main
Codes* include: BS 2654, BS 7777, API650, API 620, prEN 14015 and DrEN 14620. Other
Standards include those such as NFPA. DOT, tp, CEtrt, HSE etc.
Storage Tanks & Equipment can be used in a variety of ways depending on the information
required. For specific problems it is probably best used as a reference book. The deiailed
contents section at the front ofthe bookand in particularthe Reference index, Chapter29, atthe
end ofthe book, will simplify finding the appropiate topic. The introductions at the start of each
chapterwillalso provide valuable guidance. Technicaland other references are listed at the end
of most chapters. Consulting these will lead to more references and hopefullv sufficient
information to satisfy those who need to know more on any particular subjeci.
As a practical textbook, though, Sforage Tanks & Equipment may be read from cover to coverto
obtain a comprehensive understanding of the subject. Of course, individual chapters may be
studied separately. Storage Tanks & Equipment follows a logical sequence, starting with a
general history of storage tanks, the design of tanks for the storage of products at ambient
temperatures together with sections covering material selection, fabrication, erection,
foundations, layout, venting, seismic design and operation of these tanks. There than follows a
parallel series of chapters which concern themselves with tanks for the storage of products at
low temperatures.
The various formulae used in Storage Tanks & Equipment have come from a large number of
sources and many of the formulae are well known, as is their use of the variables contained
within them. Rather than use a single system of variables in the book, which could give rise to
confusion, it was decided in all cases to define the variables local to the equations themselves.
Please note also that all pressures referred to throughout Storage lanks & Equipment ae
gauge pressures unless otheMise stated.
The Classification guide in Chapter 2S is an invaluable and important part of Sfo raqe Tanks &
Equipment.lt summarises ambient and low temperature liquid storage tanks, class'ifying them
according to tank type, size or capacily, materials ofconstruction, products stored, mateiials of
conslruction etc. Companies are listed alphabetically here and in the other sections including
ancillary products and services, by their country of origin. The information and data is for
guidance only. lt is strongly recommended that direct contact with all comDanies be made to
ensure their details are clarified wherever necessary.
'Extracts faom Bdlish Standards are Eproduced with lhe permission ofthe British Slandards Institution
under licence number 2003SK075. BSI publications can be obtained from BSI Customer Services. 389
Chiswick High Road, London W4 4AL. Unitod Kingdom. Oet + 44 (0)20 8996 9001).
Email: cseNices@bsi-olobal,com.
Extracts from API Standards are reproducod courtesy of the American petroteum Institute. To purchase
these API publictions, please contact clobal Engineering Oocumgnts on the Web at
htto://www.olobal.ihs.com.

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPHEITT !"II


THINKTANK.
THINK MB ENGINEERING SERVICES.

Our areas of exDertise include:

mb
DESIGN ASSOCIATED GROUP ACTIVITIES
Engineefing Servics Ltd.
l\,,18 . RV Sizing and Selection . Welding & l,'letallurgical Services
Storage Tank Oivision . Storage Process Systems . llanufacturing of Tank Seals
Biggar Road, Cleland
l,4otherwell, [/L1 5PB
. Pipe Stress Analysis . NDT Testing
Tel: 01698 861332 . Finite Element Analysis . Inspection SeNices
Fax: 01698 860026 . Mechanical Equipment Selection . Provision of Skilled Labour
Email: storagela.ks@mbgroup.com . Storage Tank Design
. Failure Investigation MECHANICAL
. Repair & Maintenance . Storage Tank Construction
. Storage Tank Repair & Maintenance
. LPG Sphere Construction & Repair
. Turnkey Handling of Projects with
budgetary preparation & control
Contents
l lntroduction 1 3.'1.2.1 Pan 1 20

3.1.2.2 Part2 20
2 History of storage tanks 3
3.2 Design data 20
2,1 lntroduction 4
3.2.1 The BS Code 2654 20
2.2 Water storage 4
3.2.1.1 Information to be specified by the purchaser 20
2.3 Oil storage 4
3.2.'1.2 Optional and/or alternative information
to be supplied by the purchaser 20
2.4 Storage needs of the petrochemical and
other industries 6 3.2.1.3 lnformation to be agreed between
the purchaser and the manufacturer 21
2.5 Gas storage o
3.2.2 The API Code 650 21

2.6 Refrigerated liquefied gas storage 6


3.2.3 The draft European Code prEN 14015 -1:2000 21
2.7 Above ground and in or below ground 3.2.3.1 Annex A (normative) Technical agreements 21
storage systems o
A.1 Information to be supplied by the purchaser
2.8 Riveted and welded structures A.2 Information agreed between the purchaser and the
2.9 History of the design and construction contractor 25

regulations 7
3.3 The shell 26
7
2.9.1 American Standards 3.3.1 The design ofthe tank shell 26

2.9.2 British Standards 8 3.3.1.1 Failure around the circumference ofthe cylinder 26

2.9.3 The European Standards 9


3.3.1.2 Failure along the length of the cylinder 27
3.3.2 BS 2654 27
2.9.4 Other European national Standards 3.3.2.1 Principal factors determining shell thickness 28

2.9.5 Related Standards 13 3.3.2.2 Ptaclical application of thickness formula 28

2.9.6 The EElilUA Standard


'13 3.3.2.3 Exception to "one-foot" meihod 28

3.3.2.4 Maximum and minimum shell thickness 29


2.9.7 Company Standards
2.9.7.1 The Shell Standards 13 3.3.2.5 Allowable steel stresses 29

2.9.7.2 The Chicago Bridge Engineering Standards 13 3.3.2.6 Maximum and minimum operating temperatures 30

2.9.7.3 The Exxon basic practices 13 3.3.2.7 Specific gravity or relative density of the stored
pro0ucl 30
2.9.8 Standards for other products 13
3.3.2.8 Pressure in the roof vapour space 30
2.10 References 14
3.3.2.9 Tank shell design illustration
3 Ambient temperature storage tank design 15 3.3.3 Axial stress in the shell 31

3.3.3.1 Derivation and assessment of axial stress


3.1 European tank design Codes 19
in a cylindrical shell
3.1.'1 European Standard prEN 14015-l : 2000 19 3.3.3.2 Allowable compressive stresses for shell
3.1.1.1 Pressure rating '19 courses 34

3.1.1.2 Temperature rating 19 3.3.3.3 Actual compressive stress 34

3.1.'1.3 Materials 19 3.3.3.4 Axial stress due to wind loading on the shell 34

3.1.1.4 Floors 19 3.3.4 Allowable compressive stress 35

3.1.1.5 Shells 19 3.4 Tank Floors 36


3.1.1.6 Yield stress 19 3.4.1 Floor plate arrangements 36
3.1.1.7 Primary and secondary wind girders 19
36
3.4.2 British Code requirements
3.1.1.8 Roof-to-shell compression zone 19 3.4.2.1 Tanks up to and including 12.5 m diameter 36
3.1.1.9 Fixed and floating roof design 19 3.4.2.2 Tanks above l2.5 m diameter 37
3.1.1.10 Annexes to the Standard 19 3.4.3 American code requirements 39
3.1.2 The German storage tank Code DIN 41'19 20 3.4.3.1 Annular floor plates 39

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT IX


SN TECHNIGAZ

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Contenls

3.4.3.2 Floors formed from lap-welded plates only 40 3.7.2.1 Effect of roof slope on cross-sectional area 81

3.7.3 Compression zones 81


3.4.3.3 Lapped floor plates, or annular plates
>12.5 mm thick 40 3.7.3.'l Compression zone area to BS Code 81

3.4.3.4 Annular plates >12.5 mm thick 40 3.7.3.2 compression zone area to API Code 82

3.4.3.5 Shellto-floor plate welds consideralion 3.7.3.3 BS and API Code differences of
for specific materials
- 40 allowable compressive stress a2
3.7.4 Providing the required compression area 82
3.4.3.6 Tank floors which require special consideration 40
3.7.4.1 For the BS Code 82
3.4.3.7 Floor arrangement for tanks requiring
optimum drainage 41 3.7.4.2 For the API Code 82
3.4.4 Environmental considerations 42 3.7.5 Establishing the compression area 83

3.5 Wind and vacuum stiffening 43 3.7.6 API limitations for the length of the roof
compression area 83
3.5.1 Primary wind girders 43
3.5.1.1 Refining the design technique 43 3.7.7 Calculating the compression zone area 83

3.5.1.2 Design example 3.7.8 Practical considerations 83


3.5.2 Secondary wind girders 45
45 3.7.9 lvlinimum curb angle requiremenb 83
3.5.2.'1 Equivalent shell method
3.7.9.1 Minimum curb angle sizes for fixed roof tanks 85
3.5.2.2 Number of girders required 45
3.7.9.2 Cases where minimum curb angle
3.5.2.3 Worked example 46 requiremenb do not aPPly
3.5.3 Vertical bending of the shell 47
3.7.9.3 Effect of internal pressure and tiank diameter
3.5.3.1 Example 47 on required comPression area 85
3.5.3.2 Shellto-bottom connection 47 3.7.'10 Design example 86
3.5.3.3 Rotation and stress analysis 48 3.7.10.1 Roof compression area 86

3.5.3.4 Beam analysis 48 3.7.10.2 Shell compression area 86


3.5.4 APt 650 51 3.7, 1 0.3 Rationalising the calculalion 86
3.5.4.1 General 51
3.7.10.4 Economy of design 86
3.5.4.2 Shell design stresses 51
3.7.'11 Positioning the centroid of area 88
3.5.4.3 Use of shell design formulae 53 3.7.'11.1 The BS Code 88

3.5.4.4 Shell plate thicknesses 53 3.7.11.2 The API Code Appendix F 88


3.5.4.5 Choosing BS or API shell thickness 3.7.11.3 Guidance on the positioning the
design methods 53 centroid of area 88
3.5.4.6 Worked examples 56 3.7.12 Cost-efiective design 88

3.6 The "variable design point" method 56 3.8 Frangible roofjoint, or weak roof-to-shelljoint 89
3.6.1 "Variable design point" method development 56 3-8.1 Introduction 89

3.6.2 The bottom shell course 57 3.8.2 Frangible roofjoint theory 89

3.6.3 The second course 60 3.8.3 The maximum compression zone area allowable 89

3,6.4 The upper courses 60 3.8.4 Other factors affecting the frangible roof connection 90

3.6.5 Detailed "variable design point" method calculation 63


3.8.4. 1 Roof slope 90

3.8.4.2 Size of weld at the roof plate-to-shell connection 90


3.6.6 Comparison of the thickness results 63
3.8.5 Formula as expressed in BS 2654 90
3.6.7 Shell stiffening
- wind girders 76 3.8.5.1 Additional requiremenb to BS 2654 90
3.6.7.1 Primary wind girders to API 650 76 3.8.6 Formula as expressed in API 650 90

3.6.7.2 Secondary wind girders to API 650 76 3.8.6.1 Additional requirements to API 650 90
3.8.7 Difference between Codes 91
3.6.7.3 Comparlson between British and American
secondary wind girder requiremenb 78
3.8.8 Conflict of design interests 91

3.7 Compression area for fixed roof tanks 80 3.8.8.1 "Service" and "Emergency" design condilions 91

3.7.1 Effect of internal pressure 80


3.8.9 Examples offrangible and non-frangible roofjoinb 91
3.8.9.'l Tank designed for an operating pressure
3.7.2 Derivation of the required compression zone area 81 of 7.5 mbar 91

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT XI


Contents

3.8.9.2 Tank designed for an operating pressure 4.1.1.4 Determination of loads on the nozzle 106
of 20 mbar 91 4.1.2 The assessment of nozzle loadings 106
3.8.10 Tank anchorage a means to frangibility 92 4.1.2.1 Determination of allowable loads accordino
- to the API 650 approach 106
3.8.10.1 Ensuring a frangible roof connection
usrng ancnorage 92
4.1.2.2 Construction of the nomograms 107
3.8.'l 0.2 Determining anchorage requiremenb 92
4.1.2.3 Determination of allowable loads 108
3.8.10.3 Worked example 92 4.1.3 Concluding comments 108
3.8.10.4 Further design check 93
4.1.4 Method of analysis example 108
3.8.1 0.5 Other anchorage considerations 93 4.1.4.1 The problem 108
3.8.11 API 650 Code anchor requirements 93
- 4.1.4.2 The solution 109
3.8.11.1 Nlinimum bolt diameter 93
The stiffness coefficients: 109
3.8.11.2 Spacing of anchors 94
Unrestrained shell deflection and rotation at the nozzle
3-8.11.3 Allowable stresses in anchors 94 centreline 109
3.8.12 Further guidance on frangible roofs 94 4.1.5 Assessment of the nozzle loading example 109
3.8.12.1 EEMUA 94 4.1.5.1 Determination of the non-dimensional quantitiesll0

3.9 Tank anchorage further considerations 94 4.1.5.2 Construction of the load nomograms 110
-
3.9.1 Wind loading and internal service pressure 94 5 The design of tank roofs - fixed 113
3,9.2 Anchorage attachment 94 5.1 The design of tank roofs 114

3.9.3 Spacing of anchors 94 5.1.1 Basic types 114

3.9.4 Worked example 94 5.1.2 Differences between fixed and floating roofs '114
3.9.4.1 Completion of tank design 95
5.2 Fixed roofs 114
3.9.4.2 Shell wind girder calculation 95
5.2.1 Design basis 114
3.9.4.3 Maximum unstiffened height of the shell 95
5.2.1.1 Design loadings 114
3.9.4.4 Section size for the secondary wind girder 95 '115
5.2.1.2 Design methods
3.9.4.5 Shell-to-roof compression zone 95 5.2.1.3 Code requirements '115

3.9.4.6 Participating roof and shell plate area 96


5.3 Various forms of fixed roofs 116
3.9.4.7 Roof plating 96
5,4 Roofs with no supporting structure 116
3.9.4.8 Roof structure 97
5.4.'1 Cone roofs 116
3.9.4.9 Anchorage calculation 97
5.4.1.6 Folded plate type cone roof '118
3.9.4.'10 Overturning moment due to wind action only 97
5.4.2 Dome roofs 122
3.9.4.11 Overturning moment due to wind action 5.4.2.1 Simple dome 122
while in service 97
5.4.2.2 Umbrella dome 122
3.9.4.12 Design of the anchorage 98
5.4.2.3 British Code Design requiremenb
3.9.4.13 Check for frangibility 99 -
5.4.2.4 American Code Design requirements 122
3.9,4.14 Wind loading to API 650 99 -
5.5 Roofs with supporting structures, supported
from the tank shell 123
3.10 Tanks produced in stainless steel materials 99
5.5.1 Cone roofs
3.11 Semi-buried tanks for the storage of aviation fuel
5.5.1.1 Radial rafter type 123
100
5.5.1.2 Design example 123
3.12 References 101
5.5.1.3 Central crown ring 127
4 Nozzle design and the effect of 5.5.2 Dome roofs 136
applied loading 103 5.5.2.1 Radial rafter type 136

4.1 Nozzle design 'lo4 5.5.3 Other types 't41


5.5.3.1 Geodesic dome roofs 142
4.'1.1 The scope of the nozzles analysed 104
4.1.1 .1 The loading on the nozzle 105 5.6 Column-supported roofs 142

4. 1.1 .2 Definition of stiffness coefiicients 105 5.6.1 Column selection

4.1.'1.3 Shell deflection and rotation 106 5.7 References 1.1i!

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPIIENT X


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Contents

'183
6 The design of tank roofs - floating 153 6.5.14 Pontoon manholes

6.1 Introduction '154 6.5.1 5 Sample/dip hatch 183

6.5.16 Foam dam '183


6.2 The principal of the floating roof 154

6.3 External floating roofs 't54 6.5.1 7 Electrical continuity 183

6.3.1 Types of external floating roof 155 7 Tank fittings and ancillary equipment
6.3.1.1 Single-deck pontoon type '155 for ambient temperature tanks 185
6.3.1.2 Double-deck type 155 7.1 Tank nozzles 187
6.3.2 Other types of floating roof 155
tcc
7 nozzles
.1.1 BS 2654 requiremenis for shell 187
6.3.2.1 BIPM roof
7.1.1.1 Nozzles 80 mm outside diameter and above 187
6.3.2.2 Buoy roof 156
7.1.1.2 Flush type clean-out doors 188
6.3.3 Floating roof design 156
A cautionary tale '188
6.4 Internal floating roofs 156
7.1.'1.3 Nozzles less than B0 mm outside diameter 190
6.4.1 Types of internal floating roofs 173 7.1.2 API650 requirements for shell nozzles 190
6.4.'1.1 Pan roof 173
7.1 .3 European Code requirements for shell nozzles 190
6.4.1.2 Honeycomb roof 173
7.2 Spacing of welds around connections 190
6.4.1.3 Pontoon and skin roof 173
7.2.1 BS 2654 requirements 190
6.5 External floating roof appurtenances 174
7 .2.2 API 650 requirements 192
6.5.1 Roof support legs 174
7.2.3 Flush type clean-out doors 192
6.5.2 Guide pole 175
7.2.4 European Code requiremenb 192
6.5.3 Roof seals 176
6.5.3.'1 l\4echanical seals 176 7.3 Shell manholes 192

6.5.3.2 Liquidjilled fabric seal 176 7.3.1 BS 2654 requirernents 192


6.5.3.3 Resilient foam-filled seal 176
7.3.2 API 650 fequirements 192
6.5.3.4 Compression plate type seals 177
7.3.3 Eutopea^ Code prEN 14015'eqLrirenenb 192
6.5.4 Rim vents 178
7.4 Roof nozzles '192
6.5.5 Drain plugs 178
7.4.1 BS 2654 requirements 192
6.5.6 Fire fighting 178
6.5.6.1 Rim fire detection 178 7.4.2 API 650 requirements 193
6.5.7 Roof drains '179
7.4.3 European Code prEN '14015 requiremenb 193
6.5.7.1 A(iculated piping system 179
7.5 Roof manholes 193
6.5.7.2 Armoured flexible hose 179
7.5.1 BS 2654 requirements 193
6.5.7.3 Helical flexible hose 179
6.5.7.4 Drain design Codes 180 7.5.2 API 650 requirements 193

API Code 180 7.5.3 European Code prEN '14015 requiremenb 193

BS Code 180 7.6 Floor sumps 193


European Code 180
7.6.1 BS 2654 requirements 193
6.5.7.5 "The man who drained the floating roofs" 180
7.6.2 API 650 requirements 194
- A cautionary tale: 180
7.6.3 European Code prEN '14015 requiremenb 194
6.5.8 Syphon drajns 180

6.5.9 Emergency drains 181 7.7 Contents measuring systems 194

6.5. 10 Bleeder vents '1 7.7.1 Tank dipping 194


81

6.5.'1'l The gaugers platform 7.7.2 Level indicators 195


142
7 .7.2.1 Float, board and iarget system 195
6.5. 12 Rolling ladder 182
7.7.2.2 Automatic tank gauge 195
6.5.13 Deck manholes '183 7.7.3 Temperature measurement 195

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT XV


A MEMBER OF THE HSB GROUP

HSB INSPEcTIoN QUALITY LTD


NOTIFIED BODY EC NUMBER 0878

NOTIFIED BODY UNDER THE EUROPEAN PRESSURE EQUIPMENT DIRECTIVE


**APPROVED FOR ALL CONFORMITY ASSESSMENT MODULES**
WE PROVIDE A COMPREHENSIVE RANGE OF INSPECTION AND ASSOCIATED SERVICES
.
Design assessments
Pre and post commissioning inspections
.Quality assurance consultancy
. Audils
. Road tankers and tank container ceriification
. An approved body authofised by DETR and the United Slates Depadment of Trade
. Expediting
. welding certification services
SERVICES THROUGH GROUP COMPANIES
. Full range of engineering insurance products
. In-serviceengineeringinspections
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*"THE COMPLETE ENGINEERING PARTNERSHIP**

HSB Inspection Quality Ltd, Cairo House, Greenacres Road, Waterhead, Oldham OL4 3JA
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FOR DETAILS OF HSB lQ's FULL RANGE OF COST EFFECTIVE SERVICES Telephone 0161 621 5670
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mottlerrrell control

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


Contents
-l
7.7.4 High accuracy servo tank gauge 195 9.1 Rectangular tanks 216
I

7.7.5 High accuracy radar tank gauge 196 9.2 Spherical tanks zlo
7.8 Tank venting 196 9.3 Horizontal vessels 217
7.8.1 Free vents 196 9.4 Bolted cylindrical tanks 2'tg
7.8.2 Pressure and vacuum (P & V) valves . 197 9.5 Factory-manufactured tanks made from
non-metallic materials 2't8
7.8.3 Emergency vents 197
9.6 References 2',t8
7.8.4 Flame Arrestor 197

7.9 Tank access 198


{0 Material selection criteria for ambient
temperature tanks 219
7.9.1 Spiral staircase 198
10.1 General 220
7.9.2 Radial staircase 198
1 0.2 Brittle fracture considerations 220
7.9.3 Horizontal platforms 199
10.3 The design metal temperature 221
7.9.4 Vertical ladders 199
'1
0.3.'t Minimum temperatures ,t1
7.10 Fire protection systems 200
1 0.3,2 l\ilaximum temperatures 222
7.'10.1 Foam systems 200
10.4 The requirements of the tank design Codes 222
7.1 0.1.1 Base injection 200
7.10.1.2 Top foam pourers 201 10.4.1 API 650 requirements 222

7.10.1.3 Rimseal foam pourers 201 10.4.2 BS 2654 requiremenb 225


7.10.1.4 Foam cannons 202 10.4.3 prEN 14015 requiremenb 226
7.11 Water cooling systems 203 10.5 References 229
7.11.1 Special case - Floating rooftanks 203
11 Fabrication considerations for ambient
7.11.2 Tank cooling methods 203 temperature tanks 231
7.11.2.1 Water spray and deluge sprinkler systems
11.1 Material reception 232
7.'11.2.2 Fixed and trailer-mounted water cannons 204
11-2 Stainless steel materials 232
8 Tank venting of ambient 11.3 Plate thickness tolerances 232
temperature tanks 205
11.4 Plate fabrication 232
8.1 Introduction 206
11.5 Roof structures 234
8.2 The tank design Code requirements 206
'f1.6 Tank appurtenances 234
8.2.1 APt 650 206
11.7 Surface protection for plates and sections 234
8.2.2 BS 2654 206
11.8 Marking 234
8.2.3 prEN 14015 207
8.2.3.1 Evaluation of the venting requiremenb 12 Erection considerations for ambient
from prEN 14015 207 temperature tanks 235
Liquid movement inbreathing 208 12.1 The foundation 236
8.2.4 APt 2000 209
12.1.1 Foundation tolerances 236
8.2.4.'1 The evaluation ofthe venting requiremenb
of API 2000 209 12.1.1.1 BS 2654 236
8.2.4.2 Means of venting 212 12.1.1.2 APt 650 236
8.2.4.3 Pressure limitations 212 12.1.13 fhe European Code prEN 14015 - 'l 236
8.2.4.4 Relief valve installation 12.2 Building a tank 236
8.3 Typical relief valve equipment 212 12.2.'1 Laying the floor

8.4 References 213 12.2.2 Erecting the shell by the traditional method 237

9 Non-vertical cylindrical tanks and 12.2.2 foletances 238


other types 215 12.2.2. 1 Radius tolerance 238

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT XVII


THE CONCRETE SOLUTION
reduced site programme and management
cost from a fast track erection
o factory controlled quality
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o maintenance free solution
o optional wall height from 2m to 12 m
(increments of 0.1m)

optional diameters from 4.5m to 50m +

I I Please contact us for further information:

I I A Consutt - UK Sates Office


P.O. Box 4, Tuxford, Newark, Notts NG22 OeF
tl Tel:.01777 872900 Fax: O17i7 971122
-- TANK e.mail: info@aconsutt.co.uk www.aconsutt.co.uk
AQUA.

HMT Rubboglos Ltd


2o Newmon Rood,
Bromley, BRl 1RJ, Englond
II\.JI HMT Corporote Office
23832 Tomboll Porkwoy

Tef: +44 (O)2O 8464


Fox; +44 (Ol2O 8464 7788
7888
IITI I
"INNOVATIYE SOLUTIONS TO T.{\K i\IAINTENANCE"
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O Roof Droin Systems (Pivot Moster@) o Vorious unique & Stondord Volves
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Remember moke HMT your firsf coll for Tonk Products qnd Solulions!
For further informolion e-moil us ol
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or visil our website: www.hmttonk.com

XVIII STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


12.2.2.2 Peaking and banding 238 13.5 Site investigations 251
1 2.2.2.3 P late misali gnment 239 13.6 Soil improvement 252
12.3 Floating roofs 239
13.7 Settlement in service 252
12.4 Wind damage 239
13.8 Foundation types 253
12.4.'1 Safety measures against wind damage 240
13.9 Leak detection and prevention of
12.5 Shell welding sequence 240 ground contamination 254

12.6 Joints in wind girders 241 13.10 A cautionary tale 255


12.7 The roof structure 241 13.11 References 256
12.7.1 Roof plating 242
14 Layout of ambient temperature
12.7.2 Welding sequence 242 tank installations 257
12.8 Erecting the shell by the jacking method 242 14.1 lntroduction 258

12.9 Other forms of construction 243 14.2 Above ground tanks 258
1 2.9. 1 Column-supported roofs 243 '14,3 Fire walls 259
12.9.2 P te-fabticated roof section 243 14.4 Separation distances for small tanks 259
12.9.3 Air lifting a roof into position 243 14.5 Minimum separation distances for groups of
'12.9.4 Floating roofs 244
small tanks 259

12.10lnspection and testing the tank 246


14.6 Separation distances for large tanks 259

12. 10.1 Radiographic inspection


14.6 Separation from other dangerous substances260
246
12.10.1.1 BS 2654 246 14.8 Storage of flammable liquids in buildings 260
Shelljoints 246
Annular floor plate joints 246 14.9 Underground tanks 260
12.10.1.2 APt 650 246 14.10 Further guidance 260
Shelljoints 246
Annular floor plale joints 246 14.11 References 26'l
12.10.1.3 prEN 14015 - 1 246
15 The seismic design of ambient
Shelljoints 246
temperature storage tanks 263
Annular floor plate joints 246
12.10.2 Floor plate joint testing 246 15.1 lntroduction 264

1 2.1 0.3 Shell-to-bottom joint testing 247 15,2 The API 650 approach 264

12.10.4 Fixed roof plate joint testing 247 15.2,1 The basic seismic data 264
'12.10.5 Floating roof testing 247 15-2.2 The behaviour of the product liquid 269

12.10.6 Testing of shell nozzles and apertures 248 15.2.3 The overturning moment 270
'| 2.10,7 Hydrostatic tank testing 248 15.2.4 Resistance to overturning 271

13 Foundations for ambient 1 5.2.5 Shell compression 271


temperature storage tanks 249 '15.2.5.1 Unanchored tanks 271
13.1 Introduction 250 15.2.5.2 Anchored tanks 272
13.2 Design loadings 250 1 5.2.6 A!lowable longitudinal compressive stress 273

13.3 Foundation profiles 250 15.2.7 Slosh height and freeboard considerations 273

1 3.4 As-constructed foundation tolerances 250 15.2.8 Other considerations arising from seismic
loadings 273
13.4,1 API 650 requirements 250
15.3 The BS 2654 approach
13.4.2 BS 2654 requirements 251
15.4 The prEN 14015 approach 274
13.4.3 prEN 14015 requirements 251
15,5 References 274

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT XIX


From the start in 1944, Rodoverken AB has
grown into northern Europe's largest design and
assembly contractor for pressure vessels, LNG
tanks, atmospheric tanks, silos, misc. towers and
hot water accumulator tanks.

Rodoverken AB's unique working method


(Spiral jacking), enables tanks to be assembled
(or dismantled) from a fixed working station at
ground level. This method offers an extraordinary
safe, economic and controlled worksite/product.

Rodoverken AB can also offer a comprehensive


range of piping prefabrication and erection
services.

RODOVERKEN AB
P.O. Box 7
SE-444 21 Stenungsund
Sweden

Tel: +46 (0)303-897 00


Fax: +46 (0)303-897 97

Hot r:ater accunulator


info.iro@midroc.se Diametur 2a tn Height 67.5 n

XX STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


16 Operation of ambient temperature 16.7 Heated storage l6J
tanks 275 16.8 Tank and bund drainage 283
16.1 Tank type 277 16.8.1 Tank drainage 2.:
16.'1.'1 Fixed roof tanks 277
16.8.2 Bund drainage 2a?
16.1.1.1 Fixed roof tanks with internalfloating covers 277
16.'1.2 Floating roof tanks 277 16.9 Tank maintenance 2U
16.2 Product identification 1 6.9.1 Permilto-work systems 284
277

16.3 Operation oftanks 16.9.2 Notice of issue of a permit 284


277
16.3.1 Filling rates 277 16.9.3 Working in tanks 284
'16.9.4 Work on equipment in operation
16.3.2 Prevention of overfilling 278 284
16.3.2.1 Procedures 278 16.10 Personnel and equipment requirements 284
16.3.2.2 Communication 278 16.11 Maintenance 285
16.3.2.3 Tank gauging and sampling 278 '16.11.1 lsolation 285
16.3.2.4 Internal floating covers 278
'16.1'1.2 Entry to tanks 285
16.3.2.5 l\4ixing of products 278
'16.3.2.6 Slops tanks 16.11.3 Gas-freeing 285
278
'16.3.2.7 Rundown temperatures 278 16.12 Tank cleaning 285

16.4 The operation offixed roof tanks 278 16.12.1 Tanks which contain, or have contained
leaded products 285
'6.4.'1 Fixed roof tanks with internalfloating covers 279
16.13 Tank inspection 286
'6.4.2 Tank corrosion 279
16.14 Operational malfunctions 287
'6.4.3 Hazardous atmospheres 279
16.15 Further guidance 287
16.5 The operation of floating roof tanks 279
17 Low temperature storage tanks 289
-6.5.1 Rooftype
279
'17.1 The low temperature gases 291
16.5.2 Pontoons 279
17.2 General 291
16.5.3 Tilting roof 279
17.3 Historical background 292
16.5.4 lvlixers 279 '17.4 Tank sizing considerations 294
16.5.5 Access to the floating roof 279
17.5 Storage systems and containment
16.5.6 Venting 279 categories 295

16.5.7 Managing leg supports 28O


17.6 Single containment systems 297

16.5.8 Static electricity control 17"7 Double containment systems 298


280

16.5.9 Foam dams


17.8 Full containment systems 300
280
17.9 Membrane tanks JVZ
16.5.10 Floating roof seals 28O
16.5.10.1 Vapour saving 280 '17.9.1 Development history 303
16.5.10.2 Vapour loss 281 17.9.2 Detailed description of the land-based
16.5.11 Effects of roof type on drainage 282 memDrane syslem 304
'17.9.2.1 The metallic membrane 304
16.5.12 Overflow drains 282
17.9.2.2 The insulation system 306
16.5.13 Collection sump details 292 17.9.2.3 The outer tank 306
16.5.14 Roof drain plug 2A2 17.9.3 Comparison ofabove ground membrane tanks
and conveniional tanks 306
16.6 Static electricity ZB2
'17.9.4 The lined mined rock cavern initiative for
16.6.1 Precautions to minimise or avoid static charges 282 future LNG storage 307
16.6.2 Earthing and bonding 283 17.10 Spherical tanks 308

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT XXI


rrrsflqrE\I FLUID TRANSFER D IVISION

Storag Tank
Equpment

tt-wowlEEil\t
,,PERT.O\T
S!1lone Industfies LLC
2501 Constant Comme.t Pace
Louisville, Kenrucky, 40299 llSA
Tel,: +l 502266 8767 Fax +l 502 266 5873
ww.sylone.com sal6s@sytone.com

ErtlCO WHEATON GmbH


EnrcoslraBe 2 4 . 35274 Kirchha n Germany
Phone:+4964 22 84 0 Far:+49M2251Oa
vW mcowhealo. de . inlo@emcowheaton.de por\d
m^[\n4 A
Syltone France S A ' 'l
I 49 avenue Paul Va ant-Codurier, BP 50 OI drt\\uvurtvu
94251 Ge.ll y c6dex . Fnce
Phone +33i 4612414l Fdr+331461241 59
sles@sy tonefrance 1r

Setting the Standard for Storage Tank


Equipment
Fort Vale offer PED compliant
equipment across the full range of
relief valves and manlids.
'CE' Marked Relief Valves
. 1" Minnows
. 1 /2" & 2' Uniacts
, 1//' & 2/2" Twinacts
. 2%" Suoer Maxis
. 4" ADollo
Inspection Hatches & Manlids

. In/Out Oval (500 x 400mm)

XXII STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


Contents

'| 7.1 1 Concrete/concrete tanks 309 18.4.1.2 Nonliquid containing metallic tanks 340
'18.4.2 The API 620 Appendix Q approach 341
17.11.1 History of cryogenic concrete tanks 309
18.4.2.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks 341
17.11.2 Details of concrete/concrete tanks 309 '18.4.2.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks 341
17.11 .3 Arguments for and against concrete/ 18.4.3 The BS 7777 approach 341
concrete tanks 310 18.4.3.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks 341

17.12 In-ground tanks 3r0 18.4.3.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks 341
18.4.4 The prEN '14620 approach 341
17.12.1 ln-ground membrane tanks 310
18.5 Compression areas 342
17.12.2 Cave'n siorage systems 311
18.5.1 The API 620 approach (Appendices R and Q) 342
17.12.3 Frozen gtound systems 311
18.5.2 The BS 7777 approach 344
17.13 Novel systems 312
18.5.3 The prEN 14620 approach 344
18 The design of low temperature tanks 315
18.6 Roof sheeting 345
18.1 General 317
18.6.1 The API 620 approach (Appendices R and Q)
18.2 Tank capacity 317
18.6.2 The BS 7777 approach 345
18.3 Shell design 318
18.6.3 The prEN 14620 approach 346
18.3.1 The API 620 Appendix R approach 318
18.3.1.'1 Hoop tension liquid containing 18.7 Roof frameworks 346
metallic tanks - 319
18.7.1 The API 620 approach (Appendices R and Q) 347
1 8.3.1.2 Non-liquid containing tanks 319
18.7 .2 f he BS 7777 apToach 347
'1
8.3.1.3 Axial compression 319
18.7.3 The prEN 14620 approach 350
18.3.1.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening 324
'18.3.'1.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings 328
'| 8.8 Tank anchorage 350
18.3.2 The API 620 Appendix Q approach 331 18.8.1 The requirements of API 620 Appendix R 350
'18.3.2.1 Hoop tension liquid containing tanks '18.8.1.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks 350
-
1 8.3.2.2 Nonliquid containing tanks 334 18.8.1.2 Non- iquld containing metallic tanks 351

1 8.3.2.3 Axial compression 334 18.8.2 The fequirements of API 620 Appendix Q 35'1
18.8.2.1 Liquid coniaining tanks 351
18.3.2.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening 334
'18.3.2.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings 334 18.8.2.2 Non-liquid containing tanks 351
18.8.3 The BS 7777 requirements 351
18.3.3 The BS 7777 approach 334
'18.3.3.1 Hoop iension liquid containing 18.8.4 The prEN 14620 approach 352
metallic tanks -
18.9 Tank fittings 352
18.3.3.2 Nonliquid containing metallic tanks 335
18.9.1 The requirements ofAPl 620 355
'1
8.3.3.3 Axial compression 335
18.9.1.1 General requirements of API 620 section 5 355
18.3.3.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening 336
18.9.1.2 The particular requirements of
18.3.3.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation API 620 Appendix R 358
loadings 336
18.9.1.3 The particular requirements of
18.3.3.6 Addendum to BS 7777 on partial height API 620 Appendix Q 358
hydrostatic testing 336
18.9.1.4 The design of heat breaks 358
18.3.4 The prEN 14620 approach 337
18.9.2 The requirements of BS 7777 358
18.3.4.1 Hoop tension liquid containing
metallic tanks - 338 18.9.2.1 Outer contarner mountings 358

1 8.3.4.2 Nonliquid containing tanks 338 18.9.2.2 Inner tank and ouier liquid containing
tank mountings 358
18.3.4.3 Wind and vacuum stiffening 338
18.9.2.3 Connecting pipework between inner and outer
'18.3.4.4 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings 338 tank connections 359
18.9.3 The prEN 14620 approach 360
18.4 Bottom and annular design JJ6

18.4.1 The API 620 Appendix R approach 18.10 Suspended decks


338
18.4.1.'l Liquid containing metallic tanks 338 18.10.'1 The requirements ofAPl 620

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT XX


EBARA CRYODYNAMICS
THE PUMPING SOLUTION FOR LIQUEFIED CASES

tso 9001 - 1987


(ANS|/ASaC OS1 - 1987) SET OF INTANK
REGISTERED
AUAL]TY SYSTEM DISPATCH

EUROPE OFFICE EBARA INTERNATIONAL CORPORATION ASIAN OFFIC EBARA INTERNATIONAL CORPORATION
CRYODYNAI\4ICS DIVISION CRYODYNAI\,1ICS DIVISION
THE PAVILIONS. 1 WESTON ROAD. KILN LANE NISSAY AROI\4A SQUARE. 5-37-1 KAI\,,IATA
EPSOIVI, SURREY KT17 lJG U.K. OHTA.KU, TOKYO 144-8721 JAPAN
fEL +44(0)1372 739666 FAX: +44(0)1372 748290 TEL: +81(3)5714 6638 FAX: +81(3)5714 6892

EBARA INTERNATIONAL CORPORATION


CRYODYNAMICS DIVISION
350 SALOIVION CIRCLE. SPARKS, NEVADA 89434, USA
TEL: +1(775) 356 2796 FAX: +1(775) 356 2884
wwwebaracryo.com

.\ ) MIxntG The Key to Effi


r- ( soruilors Mixing Operati
The CutlassrM Mixer incorporating the LancerrM impeller.
. PredictableBlendingPerformance
. Maximisation of Storage Capacity
o Minimised Environmental Risk
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. Enhanced Tank Life
. ATEX Compliant
Fixed & Variable Angle for
. Product Blending & Homogenisation.
. Bottom Sludge & Water Control,
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Mixing Solutions Ltd, Venture House, Bone Lane, Newbury, England, RG145SH
Tel +44 1635 275300 Fax +44 1635 275375 e-mail sales@mixingsolutions.com http://w!vw.mixingsolutions.com/cutlass-ste/

XXIV STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


Contents

7777
'8.10.2 The requirements of BS 361 19.2.6.3 Polyurethane foam 387

'8.10.3 The prEN 14620 approach 362 1 9.2.6.4 Lightweight concrete 387
'l 9.2.6.5 Composite systems 387
18.11 Secondary bottoms 362
'19.2.6.6 Blast furnace slag 387
18-12 Bottom corner protection systems 362
19.2.7 Base insulation materials - peripheral area 387
18.13 Outer tank concrete wall and bottom liners 363
19.3 Wall insulation 388
18.14 Connected pipework 364
19.3.'l General 388
18.15 Access arrangements 365
1 9.3.2 General requirements 388
18.16 Spillage collection systems 365 '19.3.2.1 Insulation for the walls of single-walled
metallic tanks 388
18.17 Reinforced and prestressed concrete
'19.3.2.2 Rigid insulation for the walls of
component design 367
double-walled bnks 388
18.17.1 ceneral 367 Applied to the outer surface of the inner wall 388
'18.17.2 Tank bases 367 19.3.2.3 Loose fill insulation systems 388
19.3.3 Design Code requirements 389
18.17.3 Tank walls 368
18.'17.3.1 Above ground tanks 368 19.3.4 Wall insulation materials 389
Prestressed concrete wall 19.3.4.1 Polyurethane foam 389
Reinforced
- wire wound type
concrete wall with earth embankment
371
372 19.3.4.2 PVC foam 389
'1
8.1 7.3.2 In-ground tanks 372
19.3.4.3 Other plastic foam materials 389
'18.17.4 Bottom corner details 372
19.3.4.4 Cellular glass 389
18.17.5 The top corner details 373
19.3.4.5 Mineral wool 390
18.'17.6 Tank roofs 374 '19.3.4.6 Perlite loose fill insulation svstFm< 390
18.'l8 References 374 19.4 Roof insulation 352
19 Insulation systems for low temperature 19.4.'1 Genefal 392
tanks 377
19.4.2 External rool insulation 392
19.1 General 379
'19.4.3 Internal suspended deck insulation 393
19.1.1 Basic requirements of the jnsulation system 379
19.5 Insulation of heat breaks and fittings 393
'1
9. 1.2 Insulation categories 379
19.5.1 General 393
1 9.1.3 Installation considerations 379
'19.5.2 Heat breaks for roof connections 393
19.1.4 Basic design and material requiremenb 379
19.5.3 Heat breaks for tank sidewall connections 394
19. 1.5 Design Code requiremenb 380
19.5.4 Heat breaks for tank bottom connections 395
19.2 Base insulation 380
19.6 Internal pipework insulation 395
19.2.1 General 380
19.7 External pipework insulation 395
19.2.2 The central area 380
19.8 Heat leak calculations 396
19.2.3 The peripheral area 381
19.8.1 Basic calculation methods 396
19.2.4 Design methods 381
1 9.8.2 Thermal conductivity values 396
19.2,4.1 lnner area 381
'19.8.3 The influence ofdifferent interstitial gases 396
1 9.2.4.2 P etipherul atea 38'l
19.2.5 Detailed design Code requiremenb 384 19.8.4 Calculation of the hot face temperature 399
1 9.2.5.1 EEI\.4UA 147 requirements 344
19.8.5 Overall heat leak 399
19.2.5.2 BS 7777 requirements 384
19.9 Heat leak testing 400
19.2.5.3 Draft of new Euronorm prEN 14620 384
'19.2.6 Base insulation materials '19.10 The use of the infrared camera
- central area 384 400
19.2.6.1 Cellular glass 384
19.11 Insulation problems from the past and
19.2.6.2 PVC foam 387 their lessons 400

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT XXV


s
t
ilr for all applications
I
SEETRU

Cookson and Zinn


Premier manufacturers of above and
below ground storage tanks and yessels

FuelBank - bunded storage systems,


rectangular or cylindrical units from
5,000 to 80,000 lit.es, complete with
cablnet, valves, pumps and gauges.

LPG wssels - from 4 !o 30 tonnes


capacity, supplied with all necessary
v'alving.

Stainless steel tants and vessels - ior


ildustrial, chemical, {ood and

i"r5'"lx.a..1lg
Dhamaceutlcal use, From o.Ato 200

ISO framed tank - in mild and stainless


steel, for fuel. oils. chemicals and more.

Cookson and Zinn (PTL) Limked

i1'Hil;:ii1'5fJ'^ tA-
;.,.,;--nrnaon aYt
r,, ,nrozir
--
) i,.,",,"i d* ..*, -
-

XXVI STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


Contents

19.'l'1.1 Base insulation failure 400 21.3 Refrigerated storage of liquid ammonia 428

19.'l'1.2 External vapour sealing 409 21.3.1 Conventional systems 428

19.11.3 Bottom corners 409 21.3.2 An alternative storage system 430

19.11.4 Perlite settlement 409 21.3.3 Chemical Industries Association guidance

19.12 References 409 21.3.4 Recent developmenb 432

20 Ancillary equipment for low 21.3.5 Insulaiion systems


temperature tanks 411
21.4 Inspection and repair of liquid ammonia
20.1 General 412 storage systems 433

20.2 In-tank pumps and their handling equipment 412 21.5 Incidents involving liquid ammonia tanks 434

20.2.1 In-tank pumps 412 21.6 References 434

20.2.2 In-tank pump removal system 414 22 Material selection criteria for low
I 20.2.3 Pump columns 414
temperature tanks 437
22.'l General 438
20.3 Filling columns 4't5
22.2 The requirements of API 620 438
20.4 Base heating systems 4't5
22.2.1 API620 Appendix R 438
20.5 Tank cool-down arrangements 417
22.2.1 .1 Matetials for parts subjected to
20.6 Internal shut-off valves 4't7 ambient temperatures 438

20.7 Venting systems 419 22.2.1 .2 Maletials for parts subjected to


low temperatures 441
20.8 Fire protection systems 420 22.2.2 API620 Appendix Q 441
20.8.1 Detection systems 421 22.2.2.1 Matetials for parts subjected to
ambient temperatures 441
20.8.2 Safety systems
22.2.2.2 Matetials for parts subjected to
20.8.2.1 Fire water systems low temperatures 442
20.8.2.2 Foam systems
22.3 The requirements of BS 7777 i Part 2 443
20.8.2.3 Dry powder systems 422
22.3.1 Materials for parts subjected to
20.8.2.4 Local protection of vulnerable equipment 422 .dhia^i iAm^Ar.t' rrac 443
20.9 Instrumentation 422 22.3.2 Materials lot parts subjected to
low temperalures 443
20.9.1 Level measurement 422
22.4 The requirements of BS 7777 : Part 4 446
20.9.2 Pressure measurement 423
22.4.1 Parts subject to ambient temperatures 446
20.9.3 Temperature measurement 423
22.4.2 Pafts subjected to low temperatures 446
20.9.4 Level temperature density (LTD) measurement 423
22.5 The requirements of PD 7777 : 2000 446
20.9.5 Leak detection 423
22.6 The requirements of prEN 14620 446
20.9.6 lnternal cameras 423
22.6.'1 l\4aterials for parts subject to
20.10 Civil monitoring systems 424 ambient temperatures 448
21 Ammonia storage - a special case 425 22.6.2 Materials for parts subject to
21.1 General 426
low temperatures 448

22.7 An example of a material selection method


21,2 What makes ammonia storage speclal? 426 from the past 450
21.2.1 Flammability 426
22.8 References 450
21 .2.2 foxicity 426
23 Erection considerations for
21.2.3 Latent heat 427 low temperature tanks 451
21.2.4 Electrical conductivity 427 23.1 General 452
21.2.5 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) 427 23.2 Air raising of tank roofs 452

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT XXV

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XXVIII STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


23.3 Tank jacking (or jack building) 454 25.3.2.1 Otigin and Development of NFPA 59A

23.4 A fast track ethylene tank 454 25.3.2.2 lmpoundment 47e


25.3.2.3 The design spill 477
23.5 A fast track liquid oxygen tank 456
25.3.2.4 Thermal radiation 478
23.6 Spiral jacking 457
25.3.2.5 Vapourdilution considerations 478
23.7 The construction of tanks with reinforced
concrete roofs 459 25.3.2.6 l\,4inimum spacing requirements 479
25.3.3 EN1473: '1997 rules 479
23.8 Concrete wall construction 460
25.3.3.1 Scope 479
23.9 Wall and base liners 461 25.3.3.2 Scenarios to be considered 479
23.10 Modular construction and prefabrication 25.3.3.3 Design spill 479
techniques 461
25.3.3.4 Thermal radiation 479
23.11 Automated welding methods 461 25.3.3.5 Vapour dilution 480
23-12 Large in-ground LNG tanks 462 25.3.3.6 Minimum spacing requirements 480

24 Foundations for low temperature tanks 465 25.4 References 480

24.1 General 466 26 Seismic design of


24-2 Code requirements and guidance 466
low temperature tanks 481

24.2.1 APt 620 466 26.1 General 482

24.2.2 BS 7777 466 26.2 The basic seismic design data 482

24.2.3 prEN 14620 467 26.3 Damping 485

24.3 Some examples and problem areas 467 26.4 Directional combinations 485

24.4 References 468 26.5 The behaviour of the product liquid 485

25 Regulations governing the layout of 26.6 Natural frequencies 486


refrigerated liquid gas tanks 469 26.6. 1 Horizontal convective frequency 486

25.1 Introduction 470 26.6.2 The horizontal impulsive frequency 487

25.2 Regulations governing LPG storage 26.6.3 The vertical barrelling frequency 488
facilities 470
26.7 Ductility 488
25.2.1 NFPA 58 470
25.2.1.2 Refrigerated LP-Gas storage 470 26.8 Calculation of the design accelerations 489
25.2.2 NFPA 59 471 26.9 Product liquid pressures acting on
25.2.3 The Institute of Petroleum rules 471
tank shells 489
25.2.3.1 General 472 26.10 Tank stability under seismic loadings 490
25.2.3.2 LPG pressure storage 26.11 Tank sliding 493
(Volume 1, Chapter 2) 472
25.2.3.3 Refrigerated LPG storage 26.'12 Liquid sloshing 495
(Volume 2, Chapter 3) 473
26.13 Seismic isolation 499
25.2.3.4 Storage tank spacing 473
26.14 The design Codes 500
25.2.3.5 Vapour travel requiremenb 473
26.15 Conclusion 501
25.2.3.6 Bunding requiremenb 473
25.2.4 APt 2510 473 27 Miscellaneous storage systems 503
25.2.4.1 Pressurised LPG storage 474
27.1 Gasholders 504
25.2.4.2 Refrigerated storage 475
27.1.1 Wet seal gasholders 504
25.3 Regulations governing LNG storage
facilities 476 27.1.2 Dry seal gasholders 506

25.3.1 DOICFR rules 27.2 Silos 507

25.3.2 NFPA 59A rules 476 27.2.1 Materials of construction 508

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT XXIX


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XXX STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


27.2.2 Silo shapes 508 28.1 lntroduction 512

27.2.3 Product removal 508 28.2 Names and addresses 513

27.2.4 Silo design 509 28.3 Storage tanks 528

27.2.5 Codes and design guidance 509 28.4 Ancillary equipment and services 534

27.3 Elevated tanks 28.5 Trade names 540


509
29 Reference index 542
27.4 References 510
Acknowledgements 555
28 Classification guide
to manufacturers and suppliers 511 Index to advertisers 556

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XXXII STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1 Introduction

Storage tanks are a familiar pari oJ our industrial landscape. They are used to store a mu titude
of different products and come in a range of sizes, from small to truly gigantic.
The transport of fluids such as oil, gas and water from their places of Droduction or collection to
the end users is rarely a continuous process. Even in cases where there seem to be direct links
between the point of production and the point of use, such as gas from the United Kingdom,s
suppliers in the North Sea where there is a direct pipeline from the ofishore rig to the consumer,
the inability to match exactly production to consumption means that a pause in the overall
scheme must be introduced. Forwaterthe rate of collection isa weather dependent matterand
a pause is clearly a matter of necessity.
The ability to store large quantities of liquid and gaseous products was an essential element in
the development of a number of industries. The petrochemical industry and locally_based town
gas (i.e, gs made from coal) manufacturing facilities are those which most immediately come
to mind. The movement of crude and refined oil products from their places of origin to tne
vanous m-arkets would not be possible without the existence of economic and safe storage
facilities. similarly from the mid 1gth century onwards, the ability to store large quantities-of
towns gas in gasholders was an essential link in the industrial chain. More recen v the liquid
natural gas (LNG) trade, accounting for the bringing to markets of some 20% of ihe worid s
natural gas, would not be possible without the development of large scale cryogenic storage
units at both export and imDort terminais.
In a processing plant such as an oil refinery, a chemacal works or a food processing factory,
production pauses are often necessary at stages in the process, perhaps to allow reactions to
occur at different rates, or because products from differing intermediate processes must be
brought together for a finishing process. At the end of the production process. the oroduct
cannot be immediately delivered to the customer and a further pause may be necessarv io allow
a suitable batch of material to be accumulated tor transport. All of these pauses createihe need
for bulk storage.
Storage tanks are to be found constructed above ground, in ground and below ground. In shape
they are most usually of vertical cylindrical form, but also come in horizontal cvlindrical.
spherical and rectangular forms. products range from gases, liquids, solids and mixtures
thereof. Tanks for the storage of particulate solids are more usually known as silos.
Temperatures range flgrn high temperature heated storage ianks (for prooucts such as
bjtumen) through to -'163 'C for the storage of LNG and -196 .C for liquid nitrogen.
A wide variety ofstorage tank types exist, jncludlng those with fixed roofs, floating roofs, internal
roofs, with single walls, double walls and insulated tanks to name but a few.
It is important to distinguish between storage tanks and pressure vessels. This at first appears
to be a difficult t3sk, bul help is at.hand in the form of the European pressure Equipment
Directive (97l23lEc) and the united Kingdom pressure Equipment Regulations. Both of these
regulatory documents define pressure vessels as those vessels witfia maxrmum alowable
pressure greater than 0.5 bar.
Note: AII pressures in this book are gauge pressures unless stated otherwise.
Thus it is convenient to define storage tanks as vessers with a maximum alowabre pressure
(wtrich hs been loosely taken by the industry to mean a maximum design pressure) less
than
u.c Dar. r ne majonty ot storage tanks have design pressures much lower than this. For various
reasons which will be discussed later, low temperature tanks have increasingly tended to have
higher design pressures, but 500 mbar is still a sensible maximum. Various Uk and European
design codes share this view. The usA view is somewhat different and Apl 620 a ows a
maximum design pressure of 15 psi (approximately 1O0O mbar).
Pressure vessels are the subject of a companion vorume in this series of pubrications entifled
European Pressure Equipment written by Simon Earland, ISBN 1 860b8 34S g. pressure
vessels will not be discussed in this book.
The companion books in the European Series confine themselves to European practtces and
design Codes. In the case ofstorage tanks, this approach does not make sense. As will become
apparent, many of the major customers for the storage tank industry come from the
petrochemical industry which is very muchAmerican dominated. The majoriiy
ofstorage tanks,
including those constructed within the European Community, are speclfied and built to
lmerican Codes. Storage Tanks & Equipment lnercfore will seek to cover the practices and
Codes of the UK, Europe and the USA.
As mentioned above the majority ofstorage tanks are ofthe vertical cylindrical type, constructed
of steel or of steel ailoys and fitted with fixed or floating roofs for the siorage of liquids at ambient
or low temperatures. lt is to these tanks that this book will direct its main ;ffort. other tank types
will be discussed. but in less detail.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
2 History of storage tanks
Storage tanks in oneform oranotherhave been around fora long time. This Chapter includes a
brief historical background describing how and why the current types of tanks have evolved.
A few words are devoted to in{ rou nd tan ks and to th e transition from rivetted to welded tan ks.
The historical development of the relevant American, British, European and some company
specific design and construction Codes are reviewed.

Contents:
2.'t Introduction
2.2 Water storage

2.3 Oil storage


2.4 Storage needs of the petrochemical and other industries
2.5 Gas storage
2.6 Refrigerated liquefied gas storage
2.7 Above ground and in/below ground systems
2.8 Rivetted and welded structures
2.9 History of design and construction regulations
2.9.1 American Standards
2.9.2 British Standards
2.9.3 European Standards
2.9.4 Other European national Standards
2.9.5 Related Standards
2.9.6 The EEMUA Standard
2.9.7 Company Standards
2.9.7.1 Shell Standards
2.9.7.2 Chicago Bridge Standards
2.9.7.3 Exxon Standards
2.9.8 Standards for non-petrochemical products
2.10 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 3


_

2 Hist9!y9!:!989y!3!E

2.1 lntroduction
This Chapter provides a brief resume as to why the need for liq-
uid storage has come about and the driving forces which have
caused the storage systems to increase in size and change ln
form with the passage of time.

2.2 Waler storage


The need for the storage of water for domestic and other rea-
sons has played a relatively minor part in the developmeni of
modern storage tanks.
Water is easily stored in reservoirs making the best use of local
geographicfeatures, clay-lined excavations or indeed in under-
ground features accessed by wells.
Water storage tanks designed to provide a suitable pressurefor
local distribution systems are not uncommon. In the UK these
frequently take the form of concrete tanks on elevated support-
ing structures located at the highest point that the local land-
scape will allow. These are usually of relatively modest
capacrty. Figufe 2 2 Wire wound concrete water tank
Elevated rectangular steel tanks of the Braithwaite type are Cauftesy af Prelaad lnc

also a common sight in industrial settings and airfields, again


wiih the purpose of providing a suitable head of water l"_r.:6 .;EIeqF]rytr-"
In the USA and in particular in the flat landscapes of the mid-
west. water towers have been used to advertise the products
for which the particular town is best known. Hence watertowers
in the form of beer cans, pineapples and other unlikely items
can often be seen. Figure 2.1 shows a typical example of such
a water tower.

Fjgure 2.3 A 45 m diameter water tank


Counesy ofwhessoe

in the number and size of storage tanks lies elsewhere. Figure


2.3 shows a water tank of 45 m in diameter at the Peterhead
powef station in Scotland.

2.3 Oil storage


The first successful oil wells in the USAwere generally agreed
to have been drilled in Titusville, Pennsylvania in 1859. In Rus-
sia and Romania the first wells were drilled in 1860 and in the
Dutch East lndies in 1865.
Oil-based products prior to the drilling of wells came from a vari-
ety of sources and were used in modest quantities. In addition
to animal and vegetable sources, the distillation of naturally oc-
curring mineral oil, often in the form of oil bearing shales, and
the residual tars from gasworks, were the starting off point for
the lighter oil products required for domestic lighting amongst
other uses.
The drilling ofthe first wells in the USAwere driven by the needs
Figufe 2.1 An unusualwater lowef for cheaper sources of oil-based products, in particular kero-
cauftesy af chicaga Bridge & lron conpany (CB & l) sene, or paraffin as ii is known in the UK. The dramatic expan-
sion of the oil industry in the USA following the drilling of the
The USA is also the main home ofthe prestressed concrete wa- early wells is well recorded. The formation of Standard Oil by
tertank. Usually these are of the Preload wire wou nd type Fig- John Rockefellef in 1870, led to this company dominating the
ure 2.2 shows such a tank. industry from wellhead, through the refining process to the dis-
tribution and marketing of the finished products. Standard Oil
Water storage for industrial use is common, especially at power not surprisingly eventually fell foul of the US antitrust laws and
stations but despiie this ihe real reasons for the rapid increase was broken up in 1911 into 34 separate and independent com-

4 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


2 Histoty of storcge tanks

panies. l\.4any of these companies continue to exist to this day Site


as household names such as Exxon, Mobil, Chevron, Texaco to
1896 Hull 78 30
name but a few. 1394 30 30
1898 70 30
Oil from the early wells in the US was placed in whisky barrels, 1497 30 33
these being a readily available receptacle at the time. The 1A9T 7A 30
1897 80 3a
wooden barrels were not entirely suited to the storage of oil. laga 86 38
They were originally designed forthe storage ofaqueousfluids 1899 35
1901 LATHOL 3g
whjch caused thewooden staves to swelland become progres- 1901 LATHOL 77 29
sively more leak tight. Oil did not have a similar effect and de- 1901 LATHOL 6a 30
1901 95 39
spite efforts to coatthe insides ofthe barrels with glue, leakage 1902 30
caused by lack of tightness and mechanical damage was 1902 30
1902 110 33
always a problem. 1902 s0
1903 Consolrdaled Pelroleum 90 30
A report of the time records that at Vacuum Oil's Wandsworth 1903 70 30
works in the UK, barrels were stored in a field and during the 39
1907 :JO
summer they would dry out and leak. Eventuallythe ground be- 1908 85 30
came oil logged and pits had to be dug to recoverthe leaked oil. 1904 60 30
1908 LATHOL 39
Figure 2.4 shows the piles of wooden barrels at Vacuum Oil's 1910 73 24
Millwall works.
Figure e 2.5 A list of early storage tanks supplied by Whessoe
Coutesy of Whessae

Slte Heioht
(ree0
1904 2 90 37
1905 1 90 37
1907 90 37
1907 2 90 37
1908 90 37
1910 2 90 37
1911 4 90
1913 2 90
1913 2 90 37
1913 17 90 37
1914 l 90 37
1916 1 7A 30
1916 1 82 30
1916 2 93 30
1919 1 90 37

: gure 2.4 Wooden barrels al Vacuum Oils Millwall Works Figure e 2.6 A list ofeady iank suppliels to the Admiratty
Caurtesy af Whessoe
:aurtesy of Amadeus Press Ltd

lespite the drawbacks, wooden barrels were popularwith cus- teresting book on this subject is entitled Oil on the rails (Refer
:cmers providing a convenient means of storage; the general ence 2.1). Storage tanks of ever increasing capacity were an
-rle being that the barrel could be kept for one week before essential element of this business and the listing of early tanks
:narges were imposed. They were also of appropriate size and supplied by Whessoe (Figure 2.5) bears witness to this.
ure
neight for the transporhtion systems of the time. Up to the turn of the 1gth century most non sailing ships were
fuelled by coal. Apart from the fact that "coaling" was hard and
-arge depots included cooperages, barrelling sheds and stack- filthywork detested by all involved, it also ensured that around a
'g 9rounds where wooden barrels could be steam-cleaned, quarterof anyfleetwas in port coaling up at any one time. In mil-
':-glued and siacked prior to being returned to service.
itary terms this was a matter of serious inconvenience. The Bri!
-1e wooden barrels were eventually replaced by steel barrels ish Royal Navy prompted initially by Lord Fisher, the First Sea
led
us-
:'42 US gallon capacity. The barrel is to this day the most Lord, and later by Winston Churchill as First Lord of the Admi-
.', dely used measure of volu me for oil based prod ucts. One US ralty, changed the fuelofits majorships to oil priorto the start of
the
:arrel = 0.159 cubic metres. the First World War Oil fuelling gave the added bonus of ships
:s late as 1921 it was reported that "..the barrel remains the being able to refuel at sea. The appearance ofthis new practice
an- gave rise to the navalfuelling depots around the coast ofthe UK
:^e means of transporting and keeping oilin smallvolumes, al-
tion '.-3ugh they are far from satisiactory as regards leakage. and the need for substantial reserves of storage capacity. This
oc- is reflected again in the early list of storage tanks supplied by
rnd
- rglo-American alone have half a million barrels in circula-
_-1n......". Whessoe to the Admiralty, (Figure 2.6). Some of these tanks
for are still in service.
rgst -^e inconvenient fact that in general oil is found where there is
- r call for its immediate use, inevitably gave rise to the need to Increasing use of and trade in oil products gave rise to ever in-
:-ocess, store and transport the various oil based products. creasing requirements for transport and storage facilities. The
3dS -eiineries were originally located close to the producing fields early trade in oil and refined products was shipped in loads of
)ro- around 5000 tons, carried in wooden barrels on tramp steam-
an- =-C the refined products transported to their markets. ers or sailing ships. The earliest bespoke ships were barges
the : rginally the bulk of the demand was for "illuminating oil" (Ker- used on the Caspian Sea to transport oilwhich was poured into
by ::ene). As gas and elechicity took the place of this oil deriva- the hold. These leaked so badly that ballast was placed on the
the ' ,e. the demand turned to lubricating oil, fuel oil and motor decks to force the boat down and increase the water pressure
JIS- -r: it. The spectacular increase in demand forthe latter product to limit or reverse the leakage. Marcus Samuel of Shell ordered
oil :: to refineries being gradually moved to the market end ofthe eight bulk oil carrying vessels of between 5000 and 6000 tons
tnd -:-:Cly chain, where the various oil based products were pro- capacity each, the first one in 1892. The subsequent burgeon-
)m- :-.ed and distributed, largelybyrail in the first instance. An in- ing in the number and size of oil tankers brought in turn corre-

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 5


2 History af storage tanks

sponding changes in the number and size of shore-based stor-


age facilities.
1391 New@slle and Galeshead Gas Co 180

As refining activities moved from the producing end ofthe chain 1492 42
1493
to the supply end, refineries grew up. In the UK the flrst was in Durham Counly AssY um 60
19'16 at Shell Haven, producing bunker fuel oil for the British 3a
s6
1895 Blylh
Admiralty. Llandarcyfollowed in 1921 and in 1924 Shell opened 1896
45
refineries at Stanlow, Grangemouth and Adrossan, all refining 1396
1396
imported crude oil. 1496
1396 MaRet Weighlon Gas co. 42
The trend of increasing shipping capacity was for a while 1495

matched bythe capacities of land-based storage tanks, provid-


1897
1898
ing the convenience ofone ship filling one storage tank. The ar- 1903

rival on the scene of the Very Large Crude Carriers (VLCCS) of 1905
1914 119
up to 500,000 dwt brought this situation to an end.
The speed at which storage facilities were being required Figure 2.7 A list of early gasholders
Courlesy af Whessoe
around the world, particularly from the late 1950s up to the late
1970s gave rise the development of a standard range of tank
the last century would even have been considered a big tank
designs, an initiative by Shell. These pre-designed tanks
some 50 years later A 12 million cubic feet gasholder built in
speeded up the ordering, fabricating and erection timescale for
Sydney, Australia, during the First World War was considerable
the refinery builders and will be discussed later in Slorage
Tanks & Eauipment.
biggerwith a diameter of 300 feet. Wet and dry seal gasholders
are discussed briefly in Chapter 27 of Storage Tanks & Equip'
ment.
2.4 Storage needs ofthe petrochemical
and other industries 2.6 Refrigerated liquefied gas storage
The gradual appearance of the petrochemical industry around Products such as propane and butane were originally stored in
the world gave rise to the needs for storage of a much wider smallquantities in pressure vessels or spheres. As the require-
range of, mainly, liquid togetherwith some solid products. l\,4ost ment came to store ever larger quantities ofthese products, the
were stored above ground in vertical cylindrical tanks. The pressure storage option became increasingly expensive and
properties ofthe diiferent products caused the types oftanks to unattractive from a practical and safety pointofview Low pres-
vary widely. Hence the development of heated tanks for bitu- sure storage in refrigerated liquid form became the norm and
men storage, low temperature tanks for refrigerated liquid the development of these tanks in terms oftheir increasing size
gases, corrosion resistant tanks for aggressive products, clean and sophistication from a safety point of view witlbe covered in
tanks for water, food and pharmaceutical materials, silos for detail in later Chapters.
solids and special measures for toxic materials.
Natural gas is a methane-dominated mixture ofgases which is
often found with oil and used to be considered an inconve-
2.5 Gas storage nience to the oil industry Consequentlythe gas was often flared
at the discovery site. Apart from being an economic nonsense
The earlygas industryinthe UKwasbased onthe production of to waste such a useful and valuable raw material, it is now sen-
coal gas in gasworks. Rather than transport the gas for large sibly considered environmentally unacceptable to burn large
distances from producer to user, it was more convenient to quantities ofgas. The groMh of theworld's LNG trading from its
transport the raw material (coal) and manufacture the gas ciose early days between Arzew in Algeria, Canvey lsland in the UK
to the user. Hence the groMh ofthe gaswofks in most towns of and Fos sur Mer in France. will be considered in the low temper-
any size in the UK. ature section of this book.
As the production ofgas was at best a batch process and as de- As with the oil trading, the scale of activities has changed here
mand was on an uneven daily, and indeed often a longer term too. The first LNG carrier was Methane Pioneer which was a
cycle, there arose a need to provide for buffer storage of gas converted liberty ship with a liquid capacity of 5000 m3. This
There was also a need to maintain the gas in the distribution was folfowed by Methane Pflncess and Methane Progress
system at a small positive pressure and it would be clearly be each of 27,400 m3 capacity. The latest carriers are of up to
convenient to the user if this pressure could be relatively 140,000 m3 in capacity. Similarly the first LNG tank at canvey
consranr. lsland was of2000 m3 capacity whilst in Japan an above ground
These two needs were admirably achieved by the evolution of tank of 180,000 m3 has been constructed and even largertanks
the gasholder, once a familiar landmark of most UK towns, but are being discussed.
perhaps less so these days. lncidentally, the gasholder seems
to have become one of the very few forms of storage tank to
have achieved a measure of affectlon in the eyes of the public,
2.7 Above ground and in or below ground
several indeed to the point where they have become listed storage systems
buildings. The best known in the UK are perhaps the group The bulk of the world's storage capacity for liquids is in the form
which could be seen on leaving King's Cross Station in London' of above ground tanks of the vertical cylindrical type. lt is to this
although sadly only one seems to have survived the current type oftank that the majorityof Sforage Ianks & Equipmentwill
building developments in the area. be devoted.
The gasholders seem to have increased in capacity earlier and There are a number of areas where in ground storage is com-
faster than their liquid storage cousins and would have encoun- monly adopted. One of these is petrol station forecourt tanks
tered and solved the various structural problems associated storing petrol and dieselfuels for sale to motorists. These tanks
with size at an earlier date. togetherwiththe smallerabove ground tanks forthe same pur-
The list in Figl|Ie 2.7 of early gasholders designed and con- Dose are described in considerable detail in Wayne Geyer's
structed by Whessoe shows this, indeed the 180 ft diameter book (Reference 2.2). There seems little point in revisiting this
tank at Newcastle, designed and constructed around theturn of tvoe of tiank in this book.

6 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


2 i s:a-, a'a:a-.:: aa'. a

Another use for such tanks is for the storage of aviation fuel, involving modifications and revisions of Standard '124 ce s-:,
particularly at military air bases, where the above ground stor- pended". This was clearlythe end ofthe line for rivetea tan(s.
age of such flammable productswould represent unacceptable
The Standard was last issued in 1951 and any copy cure.:j
NSKS.
provided bears the legend "copy provided Jor historical pu:-
Various products including LPG are stored in below-ground poses only". The lengthy transition between the two metaljoin-
caverns. These caverns are conventionally mined in suitable ing techniques owed much to a suspicion within the more con-
rock and usuallyconsist of interlinked horizontal tunnels ofcon- servative operators of storage tanks that the newfangled
stant cross-section. These can have storage capacitiesofup to welding was an unsuitable technique. This was based on a
250,000m3. number of sudden failures of early welded tanks. Electric arc
In Germany, a substantial part of the Federal Fuel Reserve is welding was not the closely controlled and well understood
stored in caverns in saltdomes. Saltdomes are naturalgeolog- technique that it is today and the importance of toughness in
ical phenomena and can be mined by a technique known as preventing brittle fracture, particularly in the weld metal and the
-solution mining". These can be gigantic as illustrated heat affected zone. (HAZ). was not appreciated.
by
Figure 2.8. It is interesting that welded bottoms with riveted shells were al-
All of these in and below ground storage solutions are briefly lowed. This is perhaps a tacit appreciation that the tank bottom,
described in Storage Tanks & Equipment. with its very low operating stresses, is not susceptible to brittle
Ink failure in the same way as is the more highly-stressed tank
:in shell.
0te 2.8 Riveted and welded structures API 12C, first issued in 1935, covered welded tanks. This Stan-
:rs Most of the early liquid storage tanks were constructed from dard imposed a "nick break test". This was a welded specimen
'ip- steelwith rivetedjoints. API Standard 12Awas the specification which had a notch or nick made in it and was then subjected to
for "Oil Storage Tanks with Riveted Shells" (it allowed either riv- an unquantified beating with a hammer. Brutal though this
eted or welded bottoms) for tanks with capacities of between sounds, it was an attempt to ensure some measure of tough-
240 bbl (38 m3) and 255,000 bbl (40,545 m3). The maximum ness in the welded joint, something that would be done by
end ofthe capacityrange representsquite a big tankeven byto- Charpy V-notch testing today.
lin day's standards. Allowingfordead space atthe bottom and top,
re- this is a tank of 55 m in diameter and some18 m in shell height.
Although riveted tanks are now only of historical interest, the
he reader ol API 12A cannot fail to be impressed by the skills wh ich
NIuch of the technology came from the shipbuilding industry
nd must have been required atthe design, fabrication and erection
Welding progressively took overfrom riveted construction from stages bythe personnel involved with this type oftank. Even the
ls-
the late 1920s and riveted tanks became unusualfrom the late simple shelljoints appearcomplex and fittings must have been
nd
1930s. The foreword to API l2Astated "at the November 1941 a nightmare to produce. Caulking of the shell (outside) and the
meeting the tank committee agreed that all committee activity bottom (inside) is a requirement. Bottoms, as a matterof neces-
n
sity, had to be constructed at a height, and had the lower shell
course added and the whole assemblv water-tested whilst still
)ts suDoorted.
te-
ed
SE - 1030
2.9 History of the design and construction
)n- - 1100
regulations
ge
1124
its - The storage of large volumes of products which were in the
JK main highly flammable is a subject which was bound to attract
er- regulation and standardisation from a number of interested
partres.
- 1140

)re 1Zn
- 2.9.1 American Standards
'lis - 1220

rss Tank owners, tank makers, fire officials and insurers in the USA
to were the first to address this subject and an association oftank
1260
ey - manufacturers, later to become the Steel Tank Institute (STl)
no was formed in 1916. At or around the same time UndeMriters
ks 1300 Laboratories Inc (UL) was developing its safety standards for
-
atmospheric storage tanks.
- 1320
The first Standard for above ground steel storage tanks was
produced by UL in 1922. UL 142 was entitled Slee/ Aboye-
_ 1360 ground Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Llguids. The
same organisation published the first edition of lL 58 entifled
fm Standard for Steel Underground Tanks for Flammable and
'ris Combustible Liquids in 1925, a reaction to the increasing num-
vill ber of urban petrol stations in the USA.
The National Board of Fire UndeMriters (NFBU) published
NFBU 30 around 1904 with the unwieldy title Rules and Re-
ks quircments forthe Construction and lnstallation of Systemsfor
- 1430
Storing 250 Gallons or Less of Fluids Which at Ordinary Tem-
ks
4424O2040 peratures Give Off lnflammable Vapors, as Recommended by
tr-
Dianeter in m
its Committee of Consulting Engineers.
lis Figure 2.8 Saltdomes arc naturalgeologicaiphenomenatlhese can be Over a period of time the NFBU became the National Fire pro-
gigantic tection Association (NFPA), an organjsation which is familiarto

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 7


2 History of storage tanks

us today. NFBU 30 became NFPA 301 published in 1913, and E


today this document has become NFPA 30 (Flammable and ::
Combustible Liquids Code) first published in 1957. NFPA 4O,OOO-6ARREL CAPACITY

Codes are influentialworldwide in both the ambient and the low :l


temperature storage industries.
The American Petroleum Institute (APl) was formed in 1919
and wenton to produce two ofthe most influential Codes in the
areas of ambient tankage (APl 650, formerly API 12C) and low
temperature tankage (APl 620). These documents and their in-
fluence will be discussed in later Chapters at some length. API
12C is one of a family of Codes covering liquid storage tanks.
The full set contains the following:
. 124 : Specification for oil-storage tanks with riveted shells.
This covers matefial selection, design, fabrication and
erection requirements for vertical, cylindrical, above ground
steel tanks with riveted shells in nominal capacities of
240 bbl (38 m3) to 255,000 bbl (40,545ms) (in standard
sizes) for oil storage. l:

. 128 : Specification for bolted production fanks. This covers


the materialselection, design and erection requirements of
vertical, cylindrical, above ground, bolted steel production
tanks in nominal capacities of 100 bbl ('16m3) to 10,000 bbl
(1590m3) (in standard sizes) for oilfield service. lt also in- I
cludes appurtenance requiremenb.
. 1 2C : Specification for welded oil storage lanks. This covers
the material selection, design, fabrication and erection re- t_
quirements for vertical, cylindrical, above ground, closed
and open top, welded steel tanks in various sizes and ca-
pacities, for oil storage. lt also includes appurtenance re- Figure 2.9 Noded hemispherojds
quirements and recommendations for the use of low alloy
high strength steels, and aluminium alloys, in tank construc-
the noded hemispheroids shown in Figure 2.9. lt also contains
tion. The second edition of this part was published in 1 936,
two Appendices for low temperature hnk design. These are:
so it must have its origins at an earlier date.
. pressure ::
. 1 2D : Large welded production tanks.fhis covers the mate-
Appendix R
- Low
products. This
storage tanks for refrigerated
covers design metal temperatures from
rial selection, design, fabrication and erection requirements +40'F to -60 "F.
c
for vertical, cylindrical, above ground, welded steel, produc-
.
- LowThis coversstorage
tion tanks in nominal capacities of 500 bbl (80 m3) to 3,000 Appendix Q pressure tanks for liquefied hy-
bbl (477m3) (in standard sizes) for oilfield service. dfocarbon gases. design metal temperatures
down to -270'F
. 12E : Specification for wooden producfion tanks. This cov-
ers the material selection, design, fabrication and erection
requirements for veriical, cylindrical, above ground, closed 2.9.2 British Standards
top, wooden produciion ianks in nominal capaclties of
130 bbl (21 m3) to 1,500 bbl (239 m3) (in standard sizes)for The first UK Standard for welded steel storage tanks was
oil field service. BS 2454: Part 1:1956 Veftical Mild Steel Welded Storage
Tanks with Buft Welded Shelb for the Petroleum lndustrv:
. 12F : Specification for smallwelded production tanks.fhis Paft 1 Design & Fabrication.
covers the material selection, design and construction re-
quirements for vertical, cylindrical, above ground, shop- This was prepared for BSI by the Petroleum Equipment Indus-
welded, steel, production tanks in nominal capacities of 90 tryStandards Committee, which consisted of represeniatives of
the following organisations:
bbl(14 m3)to 400 bbl(63 m3)(in standard sizes uptoa max-
imum diameter of 12 feet)for oilfield service. Council of British Manufacturers of Petroleum Equipment
. 12G : Specification for aluminium a oy welded storage Engineering Equipment Users Association
fanks. This covers the material selection, design, fabrica- lnstitute of Petroleum
tion, erection and testing requirements for vertical, cylindri
cal, above ground, closed and open top, welded aluminium N/inistry of Fuel and Power
alloy storage tanks in various sizes and capacities. Oil Companies Materials Committee
The latest editions of the American Standards which interest Association of British Chemical l\4anufacturers
tank designers and builders are:
British Chemical Plant Manufacturers Association
. API650
- Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storaae: Tenth Edi-
tion. November 1998
British Electrical and Aliied Manufacturers Association
British lron and Steel Federation
. APf 620 and Construction of Large, Welded,
- Deslgn
Low-Pressure Storage Tanks: Tenth Edition, February Institute of Welding
2002 Tank and lndustrial Plant Association
API 620 provides rules for ambient tanks for pressures up to It seems perhaps a little unnecessaryto listallofthe participa!
15 psig and is not restricted to vertical cylindrical forms. lt has ing organisations in the preparation of this national Standard,
been used to produce designs for such interesting vessels as but it serves to illustrate the width of industrial knowledoe can-

8 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


2 Histoty of storage tania

. :ssed at that time and the size ofthe committee involved in the whilst the European Standard covering the same subject
: -oduction of the document. This is something which contrasts area was being prepared.
, :h the present day where it is often difficult to assemble a via-
For the storage of low temperature products, the British Stan-
: 3 committee to write or edit a Standard.
dards followed the practice adopted by API in providing sepa-
--ls Standard classified tanks into a number of cateoories: rate rules fortemperatures down to -50 'C and for temperatures
from -50 'C down to -196 'C. Rather than using the API method
. Non-pressure fixed roof tanks
ofhaving two appendices covering the specific requirements of
. Pressure fixed roof ianks (limited to 128 ft diameter) the two temperature ranges with the main bodyofthe code ad-
. dressing more general issues, it was decided to produce two
Ooen{oD tanks
separate codes. These were:
: also proposed standard shell plate sizes and tank diameters
.B54741 : 1971 Vertical Cylindrical Welded SteelTanks for
. . ing efiectively a standard range of tanks. This followed the low temperature service. Single wall tanks for tempera-
:-ell approach, which will be discussed later This standardi-
tures down to - 50 "C. BSI London
::i on was a reaction to the level oJ tank building activity within
(now superseded by BS 7777: 1993).
:-e petroleum industry at that time. A range of standard tank
: zes which had in effect been pre-designed was cleady in the . BS 5387 : 1976 Vertical Cylindrical Welded Storage Tanks
-:erests ofthe industry in speeding up the fabrication and erec- for low temperature service. Double Wall Tanks for Temper-
--:n process and opening up the business to companies who atures down to 196'C. BSI London
::fhaps did not have the facilities to carry out the detailed de- (now superseded by BS 7777 : 1993).
,: Jn aspects of this work. These Standards only considered single containment storage
-1e tanks were referred to by a coding system, which contained systems. As will be described, various events created the need
-'ormation on the tank diameter, shell height, pressure cate- for a Standard which provided a framework for double and full
trry and plate width. Hence the customer needed onlyto order containment systems for low temperature products. Following
:= BNPB 1608, for the tank manufacturer to know that a the work of the EEIV1UA storage tank committee described in
-on-pressure fixed roof tank of 160 ft in diameter with eight Section 2.9.6, a new British Standard was issued in 1993 which
-:'ell courses each 7.25 ft wide" was required. Extracts from addressed all of the low temperature products and all forms of
:^rs Code are shown in Figure 2.10, explaining the coding sys- containment. This was:
::m and show a few of the standard capacity/shell plate thick- .
-3ss tables. BS 7777:1993 Flat-bottomed, veftical cylindrical storage
tanks for low temperature service: Pafts 1 to 4.
-rljke the API Siandard of the same period, the British Stan-
:a.d required a design product specific gravity of 1.00 in all 2.9.3 The European Standards
NS :ases. Thjs was quite deliberate and allowed for the tank to be
): -sed for any product commonly encountered in the petrochem- Around 1993 the European Standard Committee TC 265 was
:al industrywithoutfear ofover-stressing the tank shell. lt is not
ed formed. The secretariat of this committee was given to the Bri!
)m -ncommon for tanks to change their service from one product ish Standards Institution (BSl) and most of the meetings were
:l another during the cou rse of their operating lifetime and hav- held at BSI headquarters in London. The work ofthe committee
''rg tanks designed "bespoke" for particular product gravities
-"ns the risk of misuse, particularly when records are not well was divided into:
ty-
es -'raintained or dimmed with the passage of time. . A Standard for ambient temperature tanks entitled:
-he allowable shell stress based on the available carbon steels Specification for the deslgn and manufacture of site built,
:i the time was 21 ,000 lb/in'z and the joint efficiency factor was vertical, cylindrical, flat-bottomed, above ground, welded,
:.85 in all cases. The two further parts of BS 2654 followedi metallic tanks for the storage of liquids at ambienttempera-
ture and above - Parl 1 - Steel Tanks ( prEN 14015-1).
AS
. BS 2654: Pan2: 1961 Site erection, inspection and testing
This covered tolerances, site welding, tank testing and in- Note: Part 2 is intended to cover aluminium alloy tanks and
spection in detail. Much of these Standards owed a great will possibly follow later. lt is currently suffering from
deal to the API Standards which Droceeded them. indeed limited industrial interest.
BS 2654: Part 2 gives a specific acknowledgement to this . AStandard for low temperature tanks entitled:
S- effect in its introduction.
of Specification for the design, construction and installation of
. BS 2654: Part 3: 1968 Higher Design Sfresses allowed the site built, vertical, cylindrical, flat-bottomed steel tanks for
use of stronger steels and higherjoint efficiencies. BS 4360: the storage of refrigerated, liquefied gases with operating
1968 was published in the same year and added to the temperatures between - 5'C and -165'C (prEN 14620 -
steels referred to in BS 2654: Part 1 (i.e. BS 13 and BS Parls 1l213l4l5)
1501- 101) a range of steels with differing strength grades
Note: The prprefix indicatesa provisional Euronorm, i.e. one
and toughness measured by Charpy V-notch impact test- where the committee responsible has finished its com-
ing. Figure 1 first appeared in this Standard relating the min- plete draft which is then issued for public comment. The
imum design metal temperature during operation, the comments received are reviewed by the committee
minimum water temperature during hydrostatic testing and and the draft edited prior to the Standard being issued
plate thickness to the required CharpyV-notch testtemper- as a full Euronorm without the prefix.
ature. The higherjoint efficiency of 1 .0 was accompanied by
The work proceeded slowly, not least because of difficulties in
an enhanced requirementfor radiographicweld inspection.
resolving strongly held views from the various national delega-
The three parts of BS 2654 were consolidated into a single vol- tions regarding differing practices in the countries which they
ume some time ago and the current version is: represented. Indicative of the rate of progress was the com-
. BS 2654:'1989:British Standard Specification for the Manu- ment by John de Wit, then chairman of CEN TC 265, that a final
facture of veftical steel welded non-refrigerated storage draft of the low temperature document would not be ready until
t- tanks with butlwelded shells for the petroleum industry. the end of 1995.
i. This Standard has not been updated since 1989 as may The group working on the ambient tank Code issued a draft for
t- have been expected because of the "standstill" imposed public comment in 2000. Comments have been received and

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 9


2 History of storage tanks

B.S. 2654: Part | : 1956

BRITISH STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR


VERTICAL MILD STEEL WELDED
STORAGE TANKS, WITH BUTT-WELDED SHELLS,
FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
PART 1. DESIGN AND FABRICATION

FOREWORD
ThisBritish Standard, prcpared under the authority ofthe Petroleum Equipment Industry Standards Commi!tee, isdesigoed
to provid the pelroleum industry with tanks of adequate safety, reasonable economy and in a mnEe ofsuitable capacities.
'ln the funher interasls of ec5nomy, suppty?nd iniformiti of practice it is srroigly recomminded
that the'sizes of
plates used for tanks of all capacilies shall be limit d to three (Clause 4). The slandard tank sizes vrhich result from the
adoption of this propolal are given ill Tables I to 8.
fhis.pan of the standard deals with design and fabrication of tanks; Pan 2 will deal with site erection, inspectioo
arld tcstinE.

SPECIFICATION
SECTION ONE: GENERAL
scoPE.

1. This British Slandard relales to tbe materials, design and


3. Standard rangs of tank sires basd od tho plate sizs
fabricatiod of vefiical mild steel cylindrical welded tanks specined in Claule 4 ar given in the fotlowing tables:*
for tho ptroleum industry, for enection above ground, of fTable I Capaciry in cubic feet
the fo[owing dsigns:- Ttpe A (Mz,'jmum J faUte z Cafacir! in cubic metrEs
plare width 6.00 ft) I
Table 3 Shell plate rhicknesses
4. Non-pressuro fixed roof ta*s (all sizes)-
LTable 4 Heights irl feet.
6. Pre$ure 6xed ioof tanks (up to I 28 lt diameier onlr. fTabte 5 Capaciry in cubic feer
Ttpe B <Ma.rJmum JTable 6 Capacity in cubic metres
c. Opn-top taDks (all sizes). piire widrh ?.25 fr) 1 Table 7 s
U ptale lhicknesses
This standard sDciies the us onlv of butt.wlded LTable 8 Heights iD fet.
shells and iDcludes ;ference to mountings, stairways and NOTE. Tabler of equivalent capacity in U.S. bancts and imD.riat
hardEilines. gallors are eiv.n in Appendics A, B, C and D.
This standard does not ioclude the oes,gn and con- In Tables I to 8 a maximum diameter of 200 ft and a
skuction of floating roofs, maximum height of nine courses ar given. Theee values
NOTE. Atlcnllon is drawn to Appcndix F *hjch rabul.res rhc may be exceded provided tle maximum shell plate thick-
information to bc suppucd by thc purctras.r on allcrnalives Der- nss OOeS nol eXCd l rl Ul.
mitFd by thi3 British Srandard.
SAANDAXI} PLATE SIZAS
4, a. GeneruL Tbe staDdard plate sizes. which fofm tbe
basisof the standard tank sizei and heighls in Tables t to 8,
are Prven Delowl
Z. a. Nonpresswe ran&s shall be suitable for \rorking at
atrnospheric pressure, but designed for an internal pressure
of 3 in, *ater gauge and a vacuuh as specified for shells in Thlclffst Lenerh
Claus l4lfand for loofs in Clause 26 (see also Clause 15). T!"e B

b. Pressure tanks sball be designed for an interDal prcs- Inches Fcet Fcl Feet
sure of 8 in. water gauga and 216 \n. water g uge vacuum 3Ao or r/a 15 ? (5 7E fr) 5.m 5.00
(see Claus 15 and 26). % up to br.rt
xcludins % 25.13 (8 ?! ft) 6.m 6.00
c. Tanks may be designed in accordance with this 25 ]J (8 ?! f0
speci-fication lo withsland higher pressure and/or vacuum
t{ and over 6.00 7.L5

conditions, provided the allowable stresses gi!n in this Tho above plale sizes ma, be rnodilied by agreement
standard are not exceeded. between tle Durchaser and the manufacturer.

F qJ-e 210 ExlracL fto'lr BS 2651 PadI.paqe1

1O STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


2 History of stotuge .."..

8.S,2654: Pa.t I : 1956

b. Rolling margins. Unless otherwise agreed betwecn calculated weight by more than the appropriate rolling
purchasr and manufacturer, no plate shall be under the weitht tolerance as shown io rhe followin8 table:-
specified thickncss a! any part,;or shall excled the jt
SCHEDULE OF PERCENTACE ROLLING WEICHT TOLERANCES FOR SHELL PLATES

widrt!
O.derd
Under
4t h. 60 ln. 12in 84 h, 96 in. IoE ln. lZ0lD.
{a in. 60 b. 12l^. t4 I'L 96 ln. t08 ln. 120 lt. 132 nL

Per Per Per Pcr Per Per Per


cnt ocnt
%.e irl. Lo l0 10 l0 10 t0
undr }/ in.

Y in. Io 5 5 5 7 I 12 L2
undr %6 io.

%s in. to 5 5 5 6 10 11 t2
under'9d in.

X in. to 5 5 5 6 t1
undcr hs in.
'ha in. to 5 5 5 5 6 7.5 T2
undcr ].4 in.

,4, ib, ao 5 5 5 5 6 6 75 9 l0
undcr % in.

% in, to 5 5 5 5 5 5 'l
undcr t4 in.

Y in, ta 5 5 5 5 5 7
undcr L in.

I in. to 5 5 5 7
lX i!,
CODINC b. Thc above plefixs to be followd by a type syEbol
5. For .asy refcrence to tank sizEs atrd typcs in cablcs and A or B dcnoting'thc rhaximum plat wia-O afbptfr, rec
corresponden@, etc., a coding systeor for ech rizc of Claus 4 a, toFtbcr with a nimber consisdn! ol thc
tank is siven below. diaEetcr of the-Bnk in feet and number of couies.
The-code system consists of a lettef prc6x derotiag th c, Examples.
three desigG 6f tanks as listed below: ^ roof, glaximum plate '/idth 6.00 ft 96 ft
Pr6sure

a. Prefx.
dianreter four courss deop : BLPA 964.
Non-prcssurc roof, mlximum plale width ?.25 fi
Fixed rcof tank, non-plessu.r : BNP 160 ft diaftc!r cight corllscs deep : BNPA 1608,
Fixad roof tallq prcssiire : BLP Opcn-rop, maximuE plato widrh 6.@ ft 80 fr dia-
Opcn-top tank - BOT metor slr courss dD BOTA 806. :

: gure 2- 10 Extract from BS 2654 : Pad 1 - page 2

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 11


2 History of storage tanks

B.S,2654rPanl:1956

s E

EF e
tl &

3
ll & B
I

n
t I I
I
n -l 4 s
..n
I
*l 4 s
a-6
FH
Ei zvte.F HI
t * I g I
-8 ,c

gFE al
al a g d,s
3 E3e tsI & +
^EtFt9 XX
EEEE HI
a
al E ts ff
II ''
3rf5 2l
ll
:EE* "l I r
E F $ g
FH
rE
H6
3Z
!.! s
I
li
TT ss
I g EE
I
iitt B
!c
I I
- E it g
I

I
R
F I I

I e I s B

I
= I I

pl a
l9

Figule 2.10 Extract from BS 2654 : Part 1 - page 3

12 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


2 History of storcge ia'..

3fe currently being reviewed and where appropriate edited into 2.9.7 Company Standards
:re final text. The document is hoped to be issued as a
:uronorm (EN) shortly. As is the case with all new EN Stan- Over the years, and for a number of reasons, some ofthe major
rards, the national Standards in the areas covered by the new
companies involved with the use oforthe design and construc-
Standard are subject to standstill. This means that they are in
tion of storage tanks found the need to produce their own Stan-
:ffect frozen at the point when TC 265 began its work. In this dards. This could be because they thought that the nationa
:articular case the standstill has been in force for much lonqer
Standards available at the time did not reflect their require-
:.ran was originally anticipated.
ments sufficiently, or for a need to standardise a range of tank
r terms of its contents the new ambient tank Standard will in the types or sizes. Some of these have become influential within
-ain follow the directions set by the earlier European national the industry and have attained the status of unofficial Stan-
3tandards, which in turn owe a great dealto the corresponding oaros.
-Pl Standards. The volume of fossilised experience in these 2.9.7.1 The Shell Standards
:aflier documents is both difficult and orobablv unwise to
lnore. The method ofcategorising and coding ofverticaltanks used in
-ne lowtemperature Euronorm BS 2654: Part 1: 1957, is almost identical to that used in the
following close behind its am-
is
:rent temperature counterpart and was issued for public com- Shell publication Standard Tanks, also first published in 1957.
-ent in March 2003. lt is hoped that the comments can be re- The closeness ofthe Shell and BS approaches in this matter is
, ewed and consolidated into this Euronorm rather more no realsurprise. John de Wit, the Shell tank expertfrom SlPl\,4 in
:Jickly than has been the case with the ambienttank Standard. The Hague, was Chairman of the British Standards Committee
CP12 (later PVE 15), which looked after ambient and low tem-
-gain, in terms of content it follows earlier European and API
S:andards as well as the EEUMA Standard discussed in Sec- perature storage tank codes. Shell always used BS Codes, un-
:.n 2.9.6. like much of the petrochemical industry which was firmly wed-
ded to Codes of US origin.
-re differences will be described and discussed later in Sfor-
.Je Tanks & Equipment. These Standards were updated and republished in three vol-
umes in 1962/3. They included standard desjgnsfora range of
sizes of fixed roof and open top vertical tanks, together with a
2.9.4 Other European national Standards
range of horizontal tanks. Notonlydid these designs coverthe
shell plating as the early BS, but they also included standard
','ost European countries have thelr own national Standards for designs for roofs, bottoms and a range of standardised tank fit-
i-nbient tanks (e.9. Germany has DIN 4119 Parts 1 and 2). tings as well. The roof types used were the folded plate cone,
-s these Standards are now about to be replaced by the two radial rafter cone, truss-supported cone and internally-framed
-ew Euronorms, there seems little point in discussing them fur- dome. An example of a 96ft diameter trussed cone roof tank is
shown in Figure 2.11.
Although these Standards were prepared for the exclusive use
2,9.5 Related Standards of the Shell Company to procure large numbers of tanks for the
refinery expansions ofthe 1960s and 1970s. The needto issue
-rere are numerous Standards covering a wholevariety of sub- the documents to tank building contractors ensured that they
:cts such as materials, site layout and tank spacing require- rapidly spread throughout the industry and were shamelessly
-ents, safety issues, etc which are necessary for tank design- copied and used byothers. Consequently they became an "un-
:'s and manufacturers and which will be mentioned in this official" Standard and are used as such to this day. Whilstthis
: lok. These come from organisations such as APl, ASTM, The may have been annoying for the company, it is a tribute to the
'.atronal Fire Protection Association (NFPA), European Stan- authors of these documents and to the sound and practical
:afds, British Standards Institution (BSl) and bodies such as engineering that they contain.
-re Institute of Petroleum (lP).
2.9.7.2 The Chicago Bridge Engineering Standards
-rese will be discussed as and when required.
Chicago Bridge & lron Company was responsible for numerous
significant developments in the storage tank field and licensed
2.9.6 The EEMUA Standard
its technology to a number of other companies over the years.
Its floating rooi designs were encapsulated in a series of partic-
- r to about 1976 refrigerated gases were stored in single con- ularly well-produced documents, which through the licensing
ra nment tanks surrounded by a low remote bund. An event in process filtered out into the tank building industry and were
'376 caused the industryto reviewliquid containment systems
again shamelessly plagiarised, becoming in effect the "unoffi-
':: these products from a safety point ofview The Standards in cial" Standard.
':'ce at the time (APl 620, BS 4741and BS 5387) considered
-'rly single containment systems and there was clearly a need 2.9.7,3 The Exxon basic practices
=ri a Standard which encompassed other forms of containment
The Exxon/Esso organisation published its own Standards cov-
:: avoid misunderstandings and misinterpretations. ering a wide range of subjects including storage tanks for a
-re Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association number of products. These Standards were based on US Stan-
:EN,4UA) is a UK-based equipment users association and was dards and practices adjusted to suit the perceived needs ofthe
':rt to be an appropriate bodyto propose and draft a set of rules company.
:r coverthis regulatory shortfall. In 1987 EEMUAl4Twas pub-
shed, and after a period of time sufficient to allowfor the indus- 2.9.8 Standards for other products
:JS views of the document to be known, was given to the
lritish Standards Committee PVE/15 to form the basis of BS
-777 The foregoing has concentrated somewhat myopically on the
_

storage of flammable products, mainlyfor the petrochemical in-


-:re subject of the various containment systems for the safe dustry Indeed a number of the Standards discussed above
::ofage of refrigerated liquid gases will be discussed at greater have "petrochemical" or "oil jndustry" in their titles.There are
;.rgth later in Storage Tanks & Equipment. other products and some of these have their own Standards.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 13


2 History of storage tanks

The American Water Works Association (AVVWA) has pro- A\ /wA D100 has a particularty good seismic design section.
duced a number ofStandards on its own and some of these are This is not surprising as the chairman of the DIOO Revision
listed below: Task Force is Bob Wozniak, a tu/orld guru" in the area of seis-
ANSUAVWA Dl00-96 mic tank design and someone whose workwillbe discussed in
Welded Sleel Tanks for Water goraae detail in later Chaoters.
ANS|/AWWA D103-97
Factory-Coated Bofted geel Tanks for Water Storcge
ANSI/AM /A D110-95 2.10 References
Wire and grand Wound Circular prestressed Conuete
Water Tanks
ANSYAWWA D1I5-95 2.'l Oil on the rcils, Alan Coppin, The HistoricalModelRaif
way Society and Amadeus Press Ltd of Huddersfield.
Circular Prcstressed ConTete Water Tanks with Cir-
Published 1999, ISBN 0 902 835 17 3.
cumferential Tendons
These are all interesting documents and theywill be discussed 2.2 Handbook of storage tank systems, Edited by Wayne
in later Chapters of Sforage Tanks & Equipment. B. Geyer, Marcel Dekker Inc., ISBN 0 8247 8589 4.

14 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


fon.
ision
seis-
3 Ambient temperature storage tank
ed in
design
The design of vertical, cylindrical tanks for the storage ofliquids at ambient temperatures can be
divided into three basic areas:
. The shell
Rail- . The boftom
fild.
. The roof
The design of each of these is discussed in detail in this Chapter.
ayne
4. Contents:
3.1 European tank design Codes
3.1.1 European Standard prEN 14015 - 'l :2000
3.1. 1.1 Pressure rating
3.1.1.2 Temperature rating
3.1.1.3 Materials
3.1.1.4 Floors
3.1.1.5 Shells
3.1.1.6 Yield stress
3.1.1.7 Primary and secondary wind girders
3. 1.1.8 Roof{o-shell mmDression zone
3.1.'1.9 Fixed and floating roof design
3.1.1.10 Annexes to the Standard
3.'1.2 The German storage tank Code DIN 4119
3.'l..2.1 Parl 1

Pan2
3.1.2.2
3,2 Design data
3.2.1 The BS Code 2654
3.2.1.1 lnformation to be specified by the purchaser
3.2.1.2 Optional and/or alternative information to be supplied by the purchaser
3.2.'1.3 lnformation to be agreed between the purchaser and the manufacturer
3.2.2 The API Code 650
3.2-3 The draft European Code prEN 14015 - 1 : 2000
3.2.3.1 Annex A (normative) Technical agreements
3.3 The shell
3.3.1 The design of the tank shell
3.3.1.1 Failure around the circumference of the cylinder
3.3.1.2 Failure along the length ofthe cylinder
3.3.2 BS 2654
3.3.2.'l Principal factors determining shell thickness
3.3.2.2 Practical application of thickness formula
3.3.2.3 Exception to 'ons-foot' method
3.3.2.4 Maximum and minimum shell thickness
3.3.2.5 Allowable steel stresses
3.3.2.6 Maximum and minimum operating temperatures
3.3.2.7 Specific gravity or relative density of the stored product
3.3.2.8 Pressure in the roof vapour space
3.3.2.9 Tank shell deslgn illustration
3.3.3 Axial stress in the shell
3.3.3.1 Derivation and assessment of axial stress in a cylindrical shell
3.3.3.2 Allowable compressive stfesses for shell courses
3.3.3.3 Actual comDressive stress
3.3.3.4 Axial stress due to wind loading on the shell

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 15


3 Ambient temperature sto@ge tank design

3-3.4 Allowable compressive suess


3.4 Tank floors
3.4.1 Floor plate arrangements
3.4.2 British Code requirements
3.4.2.1 Tanks up to and including 12.5 m
diameter
3.4.2.2 Tanks above 12.S m diameter
3.4.3 American Code requirements
3.4.3.1 Annular floor plates
3.4.3_2 Floors formed from lap_welded plates
onlv
3.4.3.3 Lapped floor plates, or annular plates <-12.5
= mm thick
3.4.3.4 Annular plates >i2.5 mm thlck
3.4.3.5 Shell_to_floor plate welds _ consideration
for specific materjats
3.4.3.6 Tank floors which require special
consideration
3.4.3.7 Floor arrangement for tanks requiring
optimum drainage
3.4.4 Environmental considerahons
3.5 Wind and vacuum stiffening
3.5.1 Primary wind girders
3.5.1.1 Refining the design technique
3.5.1.2 Design example
3.5.2 Secondary wind girders
3.5.2.1 Equivatent shell method
3.5.2.2 Number of gjrders required
3.5.2.3 Worked examole
3.5.3 Vertical bending of the sherl
3.5.3.1 Exampte
3.5.3.2 Shell-to-bottom connection
3.5.3.3 Rotation and stress analysis
3.5.3.4 Beam analysis
3.5.4 APt 650
3.5.4.1 General
3.5.4.2 Shell design stresses
3.5.4.3 Use of shell design formulae
I
3.5.4.4 Shell plate thicknesses
3.5.4.5 Choosing BS or Apl shell thickness design
methods
3.5.4.6 Worked examoles
3.6 The "variable design point,, method
3.6.1 "Variable design point" method development
3.6.2 The bottom shellcourse
3.6.3 The second course
3.6.4 The upper courses
3.6.5 Detailed ,,variable design pojnt" method calculation
3.6.6 Comparison of the thickness results
3.6.7 Shett stiffening wind girders
-
3.6.7.1 Primary wind girders to Apl 650
3.6.7.2 Secondary wind girders to Apt 650
3.6.7.3. Comparison between British and American
secondary wind girder requirements
3.7 Compression area for fixed roof tanks
3.7.1 Effect of internal Dressure
3.7.2 Derivation of the required compresston zone
area
3.7.2.1 Effect of roof slope on cross_sectional
area
3.7.3 Compression zones
3-7.3.1 Compression zone area to BS Code
3.7.3.2 Compression zone area to Apl Code
3.7.3.3 BS and Apl Code differences of allowable
compressive stress
3.7.4 Providing the required compression area
3.7.4.1 For the BS Code

16 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient tempetaturc storage knk tusrgn

3.7.4.2 For the Apt Code


3.7-5 Establishing the compression area
3.7.6 API limitations for the length of the roof compression area
3.7.7 Calculating the compression zone area
3.7.8 Practical considerations
3.7.9 Minimum curb angle requtrements
3.7.9.'l Minimum curb angle sizes for fixed roof tanks
3.7.9.2 Cases where minimum curb angle requirements do not appty
3.7.9.3 Effect of jnternal pressure and tank diameter on required compression
area
3.7.10 Design exampte
3.7.10.1 Roof compression area
3.7.'10.2 Shell compression area
1 0.3 Rationalising the calculation
3.7.
3.7.10.4 Economy of design
3.7.11 Positionjng the centroid of area
3.7.1 1.'1 The BS Code
3.7.11 .2 The APt Code Apoendix F
3.7.11.3 Guidance on the positioning the centroid of area
3.7.1 2 Cost-effective design
3.8 Frangible roofjoint, or weak roof-to-shell joint
3.8.1 lntroduction
3.8.2 Frangibte roofjoint theory
3.8,3 The maxjmum compression zone area allowable
3.8.4 Other factors affecting the frangible roof connection
3.8.4.1 Roof stope
3.8.4.2 Size of weld at the roof plate-to_shell connection
3.8.5 Formula as expressed in BS 2654
3.8.5.1 Additionat requirements to BS 2654
3.8.6 Formula as expressed in Apl 650
3.8.6.1 Additionat requirements to Apl 6SO
3.8.7 Difference between Codes
3.8.8 Conflict of design interests
3.8.8.1 "Service" and ,,Emergency" design conditions
3.8.9 Examples of frangible and non_frangible roofjoints
3.8.9.'1 Tank designed for an operating pressure of 7.S mbar
3.8.9.2 Tank designed for an operating pressure of 20 mbar
3.8.10 Tank anchorage
- a means to frangibility
3.8.10.'1 Ensuring a frangible roof connection using anchorage
3.8.10.2 Determining anchorage requirements
3.8.10.3 Worked examDle
3.8.10.4 Further design check
3.8.10.5 Other anchorage considerations
3.8.1 1 American Apl 650 Code _ ancnor requrrements

3.8. 1 '1.1 Minimum bott diameter


3.8.1 1.2 Spacing of anchors
3.8.1'1.3 Allowable stresses in anchors
3.8.12 Further guidance on frangible roofs
3.8.12.1 EEMUA
3.9 Tank anchorage further considerations
-
3.9.1 Wind loadjng and internal service pressure
3.9.2 Anchorage attachment
3.9.3 Spacing of anchors
3.9.4 Worked example
3.9.4.1 Completion of tank desrgn
3.9.4.2 Shell wind girder calculation
3.9.4.3 Maximum unstiffened height of the shell
3.9.4.4 Section size for the secondary wind girder

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT J7


3 Ambient tempenture stonge bnk design

3.9.4.5 Shell-to-roof compression zone


3.9.4.6 Participating roof and shell plate area
3.9.4.7 Roof plating
3.9.4.8 Roof structure
3.9.4.9 Anchorage calculation
3.9.4.10 Overtuming moment due to wind action only
3.9.4.11 Overtuming moment due to wind action while in service
3.9.4.12 Design of the anchorage
3.9.4.13 Check for frangibitity
3.9.4.14 Wind toading to Apt 650
3.10 Tanks produced in stainless steel materials

3.11 Seml-buried tanks for the storage of aviation fuel


3.12 References

18 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3!!99!! 9!!:E!Ejg u,k d""is|

3.1 European tank design Godes mulae. This is similar to the Apl 650 ,,one-foot,, method excepi
-.re European Codes whlch will be discussed that:
here are as fol_
:,vs: . In the first formula, the design stress is
% of the material
. European Standard prEN 14015 -1 :2000 minimum yield stress and the formula includes the design
pressure (in the roof space) which can be neglected if < 10
. German Standard DIN 41i9 parts 1 & 2 mbar, and the corrosion allowance (if any).

3.'1.1 European
. In the second formula, the test stress is % of the material
Standard prEN 14015-1 :2000 minimum yield stress and this formula includes only the test
pressure (in the roofspace), which js higher than the design
-- s is a draft document which has been through the public pressure.
-: rlment procedure and will soon be issued as a full European
::3ndard. The content ofthe final version is not expected t,o dif- For both of these formulae, the maximum permitted design
-:- significantly stress is 260 N/mm2 (as is the case in BS 2654).
from the draft. The fulltifle ofthe Enqlish version
: Specification for the design and manufacture;f site built, The API 650 "variable point" method of shell thickness calcula_
:iical, cylindrical, flat bottomed, above ground, welded, me_ tion is not included in the Standard.
= c tanks for the storage of liquids at ambient temperature and 3.1.1.6 Yield stress
:: rve - Part '1: Steel tanks,.
- -: Standard appears to The yield stress shall be the minimum value specified for:
be based on BS 2654 and Apl 650, to_
.::rer with some informative Annexes and all together js a
:: rprehensive document. Some interesting aspects of certain
:::s of the Standard are ouflined below:
: 1.1.1 Pressure rating Yie d or 0.2 % prootsftess

--: Standard allows posjtive design pressures up to 5OO mbar


- -f,ur categories:

. \on-pressure, up to 10 mbar 3.1.1.7 Primary and secondary wind girders


r -ow-pressure, up to 25 mbar The requirements here are similar to that of BS 2654 and Apl
. 'ligh-pressure, up to 60 mbar 650 except that, for negative pressures more than -g.S mbar, a
design methodology has to be agreed between the tank pur_
. ./ery high-pressure, up to 500 moar chaser and manufacturer.
--: maximum negative pressure which applies only to Very 3,1.1.8 Roof-to-shell compression zone
-
:^-pressure tanks is -20 mbar. However the requirements
: . ^ n the Standard for shell stability are only valid for nega_ The requirements here are similar to ihat of BS 2654 and Apl
: : f,fessures upto-8.5 mbar, beyondthisvalue a suitablede- 650.
: :- .nethodology has to be agreed beiween the tank pur- 3.1.1.9 Fixed and floating roofdesrgn
r -:ser and the manufacturer.
The requirements here are similar to that of BS 2654 and Apl
: ' '1.2 Temperature rating 650.
--: :emperature range is from 300.C down to -40"C. For tem_ 3.1.1-10 Annexes to the Standard
::-::Jres above 100'C, the elevated temperature Vield stress The following annexes to the Standard are worthy of mention:
- - i j of carbon and carbon manganese steels sh;ll be certi_
'r: ry the steel supplier. The Standard gives a table ofsteels to Annex B. Opemtional and safety considerations. Gives ouid_
:=-:ard EN 10028 - 2 & 3 for use at;levated temperatures. ance on the selectron of tank type. bunding requirementiand
::' :anks constructed in stainless steel materials, the vield fire Drotection.
,.s ,s raken as the ,l % proof stress for tanks subiect;d to
Annex E. Requirements for floating roof seals. Gives details of
i -: ent and elevated temperatures.
the type of roof seals, which are available.
:' 1.3 Materials
Annex F. Alternative steel specifications. Gives on the selec_
- : -: f,n and carbon manganese steels for use in the manufac_ tion of other national standard steel specifications and the re-
-': :'tanks are tabulated in the Standard. There is also a table quirements, which govern their use withjn the parameters
ofthe
: :-steniticand austenitic-ferriticstainless steels to Standard tank Standard.
- , ' :088-1. l\4artensitic stainless steels cannot be used.
Annex H. Recommendations for other types of floors. Gives
:' 1.4 Floors recommendations for the thickness of floor plating, which is
--: ':quirements
for tank floors is similar to BS 2654 and Apl supported on a grillage. Also gives methods for constructing
:: -',1inimum plate thjcknessforstainlessfloors is given as 5 double containment floors.
- - '3. Iap-welded floors and 3 mm for butt-welded floors. For Annex K. Design rules for frangible tanks. The rules here seem
.: -:: 'r steel floors
this are 6 mm and 5 mm respectivelv to apply principally to unanchored tanks and hence appear to
:' 1.5 She s be limiting in scope. Where frangibility cannot be achieved us_
ing the standard method given jn the annex, then the,,soecial
|, - r'num nominal shell thickness. The table of minimum
arrangement" is recommended where a weak upper sheil
': - -a shell thickness
for carbon steel tanks is similar to that rs proposed (as shown in Figure 3.71 , Section 3.9.12).
loint
. :S 2654 except that at the larger tank diameters, thinner
: :- -::han BS2654isallowed,althoughthisisstillthickerthan Annex L. Requirements for venting systems. Gives detajled
* :: - API design parameters forventing under normal product imoorvex_
650. A table of minimum nominal shell Dlate thick_
-i': : nctuded for stainless steel shefls. port and climatic conditions. fof tanks with and without
ihermal
jnsulation. Emergency venting causing
:.::ulated shell plate ihickness. Each shell course thjck- very high outbreathing
';:: : establishedfrom the greatervaluederivedfrom twofor-
capacities is considered, as in the case of a fire local to a tank.
or due to operational malfunctions, which cause a rapjd rise in

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 19


3 Ambient temperature stomge tank design

internal pressure. The possible requirement for emergency tory) then, presumably DIN 4'119, together with any other Euro-
vacuum venting is also considercd. pean national Codes, will become historical documenb.
Annex P Heating and/or cooling systems. Gives advice on
heat transfer fluids and types ofheat transfer devices, together 3.2 Design data
with their insbllation.
At the commencement of a project it is important that the tank
Annex R. Surface finish. Gives general recommendations for purchaser clearly defines his exact requirements to the tank
the preparation ofthe internal and external surfaces of carbon constructor, in order that there can be no misunderstandings
and stainless steel tanks. between the two parties. To assist in this initial process, the de-
It must be remembered that the above information is based on sign Codes each devote a section, which addresses this topic,
the draft Standard and may be modified as and when the Stan- and they are discussed in the following Sections.
dard is finalized and published as an adopted document. Some of the terminology used in the following lists and data
sheets may not be familiar to those who are not fluent in tank
3.1.2 The German storage tank Code DIN 4119 technology but such terms will become apparent on reading
Storage Tank & Equlprnenf and Codes to which it refers.
DIN 4119 is issued in two Darts:
3.2.1 The BS Gode 2654
. Part 1 - Fundamentals, design and tests.
. Part 2 - Calculations. Clause 3 ofthe Code lists the appropriate information together
with references to other relevant clauses in the Code. to be ex-
The Codes does nottake the sameform as the BS, API or Euro-
pean prEN 14015 Codes, as it does not give specific formulae changed prior to implementing the requirements of this Stan-
dard and inspections by the purchaser during erection, and is
for designing the various elemenb of the tank.
oresented as follows:
3.'1.2.1 Pafi 1
3.2.1.1 Information to be specified by the purchaser
This advises on rules, which applyto: corrosion protection, ma-
The following basic information to be specified bythe purchaser
terial selection, fabrication, erection, welding and venting for
shall be fully documented. Both the definitive requirements
fixed roof tanks. There are also directives forfloating roofs. This
specified throughout the Standard and the documented items
part ofthe Code also lists many other related DIN Codes, which
shall be satisfied before a claim of comoliance with the Sian-
are referred to in the text of the Code. which are to be used for
dard can be made and verified.
designing the tank.
(a) Geographical location of the tank.
3.1.2.2Paft2
(b) Diameter and height or the capacity of the tank, including
This is an elaboration of Part 1 and defines: ullage. Where only the capacity of the tank is specified
1) The mathematicalsymbols, which areto be used in the de, ground conditions shall be included.
srgn process. (c) Whetherfixed orfloating roof isto be supplied and the type
2) Design loads, including wind loads and test loads. of roof if the purchaser has specific preferences, i.e. for
fixed roofs (cone, dome, membrane, etc.) or ior floating
3) The principles for designing the shell, with minimum allow- roofs (pontoon, double deck, etc.).
able thickness Iimitations but does not oive a method for
the design of the shell. (d) Allrelevant properties ofthe contained fluid, including the
:
relative density and corrosion allowance (if, how and
4) The principles governing shellstability underwind condi-
tions, stating safety factors, which shall apply, but with no
where reouired). t
(e) The design vapour pressure and vacuum conditions in
method for the calculation of shell stability.
side the tank (see 2.1). It
5) The principles governing the design ofthe shell-to-bottom
(f)
area, the shell{o-roof area and the requirements for The minimum and maximum design metal temperatures
frangibility. (see 2.2).

6) Rules for the design of fixed and floating roofs. (g) The size, number and type of all mountings required
showing locations. Maximum filling and emptying rates
7) Advice on the design of the tank foundations and any specialventing arrangemenb (see 9.9).
Again, this part of the Code does not give any formulae for the (h) The minimum depth of productwhich is always present in
design ofthe various areas ofthe tank but provides references the tank (see 10.1(b)).
to many related DIN Codes and learned papers on the subject.
Also included in the list are the tank Codes API 650 and API
(i) lf the tank is to be thermally insulated (see 12).

620. 0) Areas of responsibility between the designer, the manu-


facturer and the erector ofthe tank when these are not the
The heading to both parts of the Code includes the following same.
statement "The design, calculation and construction of the
structural steel parts for tanks require a baslc knowledge of
(k) Quality ofthe water (particularly if inhibitors are to be pree
ent) to be used during tank water test (see 1a.4.2).
steel construction and tank construction and the accepted
codes of practice. Hence only companies employing experts (l) Expected maximum differential settlements during water
having such knowledge and ableto ensure proper construction testing and service lifetime of the tank (see AppendixA).
may carry out such work." (m) Other specifications which are to be read in conjunctio,'
This statement leads to the conclusion that any recognized with this Standard.
tank design code methodology could be used in conjunction 3.2.1.2 Optional and/or alternative information to be suF
with the stipulations regarding: loadings, stress values safety plied by the purchaser
factors etc., which are contained within DIN 4119.
The following optional and/or alternative information to be su}
However, as and when the draft European Code prEN 14015 plied by the purchaser shall be fully documented. Both the d-
becomes universally adopted (to which Germany is a signa- finitive requirements specified throughout this Standard arE

20 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient temperc:,.a s:a.aa: .-. .::
:. Euro- :-e documented items shall be satisfied before a claim of com- (a) Aliernative maierials selection other ihan i^._i: ::: .
--
: iance with the Standard can be made and verified. in the Code (see 3.1).
a) Whether a check analysis is required (see 4 3.2). (b) Precautionsforavoiding brittlefracture durtng -. :-':':: :
3) Whetherthe weight of insulation is excluded from the mini- iesting (see figure 1).
're tank mum superimposed loadings (see 5.3.2). (c) Alternative bottom plate layouts (see 6.'1.2).
)e tank :) Whether significant external loading from piping, etc. is (d) Spacing of the roof-plaie-supportjng mernbers io- ::- -
ndrngs present (see 5.5). roof (see 8.3.1).
Ine de- r) Whether seismic loading is pfesent requiring specialist (e) Any increase in roofjoint efficiency for tapped and !..: :::
s 10prc, consideration jncluding methods and criteria to be used in roof plates (see 8.3.6).
such analysis (see 5.7 and Appendix G).
(f) Alternative loading conditions for fioating roof des:-
r0 data : r Whether a fixed roof is required and if so: other than those specified in the Code (see 9.2.1 .4l
N IANK
(1) if cone roof slope is other than 1 in 5 (see 8.2.2); (g) The operating and cleaning positjon levels ofthe suppc:
eadtng ing legs (see 9.10.1).
(2) if radius of curvature of dome roof is other than L5
times tank diameter (see 8.2.2); (h) Proposed method to hold the plates in position for we din 3
(but see 14.5.1).
(3) whether made as a double-welded lap joint or a
butt-joint (see 8.3.5); (i) The location and number of checks on shell tolerances
during erection (see 14.6.2).
gethel (4) whether particular venting fequirements are specified
ce ex- (see 8.6.'1 and 8.6.2). 0) Methods of protecting the shell during erection against
iStan- wind damage, etc. (see 14.9).
..
ano ts (k) lf fixed roofs are to be erected in the tank bottom, and
' Whether a floating roof is required and if so: raised into position by an air pressure or suitable means
whether floating roof is designed to land as part of the
( 1) (see 14.10).

rnaser
normal operating procedure (see 9.1.1): (l) Sequence in which joints are io be welded (see 15.2).
ments (2) whether floating roof is designed for wind-excited fa- (m) lf previously approved appropriate wetding procedures
tems tlgue loading (See 9.3); are acceptable (see'18.1.3).
Stan- (3) whether top edge of butkhead is to be provided with (n) Test procedures to be used dufing the tank water test (see
continuous single fillet weld (see 9.S): 18.1.1).
(4)iloating roof ladderdetails (see 9.6.1 , 9.6.2 and 9.6.4);
u0rng (5) type of primary roof drains (see 9.7.1); 3.2.2 The API Code 650
)cified
(6) requirements for additional roof manholes (see 9.11); Appendix L of the Code gives four data sheets which should be
(7) for selection of seal materials-whether maximum aro- completed, these are shown jn Figure 3.1. On completion of
e. for rnatic content of the product is greater than 4A% @lm) tank erection, the purchaser shall recejve from the manufac-
)atrng (see 9.13); turer a copy of these sheets, filled in to show the ,,as built,'
(8) requirements for the design
details.
ofgauge hatch (see 9..j4);
'g the An alternative type of manhole cover (see 11.3).
, = 3.2.3 The draft European Code prEN 140,15 -1:2000
and - Details of flange drjlling if not in accordance w jth BS 1 560
(see 11.7). AnnexAofthe Code
-s in
lists the appropriate jnformation together
Details of painting requirements and whether pickling, grit with references to the relevant clauses in the Code, and is pre_
or shot blasting is required (see ,13.6.1, 13.6.3, and sented as follows:
iures 14.12).
3,2.3.1 Annex A (normative) Technical agreements
D-etails of erection marks for plates and sections (see A.1 Information to be supplied by the purchaser
-rred 13.7.1).
The following information shall be fully documented:
' Wheiherwelding electrodes and/or key plating equipment
are to be supplied by the tank manufacturer (see .14.1). the design pressure and the design internal negative pres_
rqt in sure (see 5.1 and Table 5.1);
Alternative arrangements for provisjon of tank foundation
(see 14.3). the stainless steel grade, and the risk of corrosion (see
- 6.2.1.2\;
- Whether a welder making only fillet welds is required to be
anu- approved for such welding in accordance with BS EN the requirements for ihe surface finish of stainless steel
)t the 287-1 (see 16.3.2).
- (see 6.2.1.4);
Whether tack welding of shell, roof and bottom is permit_ the value of the seismic load (see 7.2.11);
te^d-to be carried out by non-approved operators (see
-
the bottom type if not single (see 8..1 .1);
16.3.2).
the bottom is to be butt-welded (see 8.4.1);
: Whether pneumatic testing of reinforcing plates is re_ -
quired (see 18.3.1). the side ofthe roofthat is welded and the size ofthe over_
- lap (see'10.3.5);
)iion :2.1.3 Information lo be agreed between the purchaser
i'1d the manufacturer the venting requirements (see 10.6.1);
-
rup- - - e foliowing information to that emergency pressure relief is not to be included (see
be agreed between the purchaser - 1O.6.2):
: - l manufacturer shall be fully documented. Both the definitjve
lJp- -; ru rements the provision offloating covers (see 10.7);
specified throughoui this Standard and the docu_
-. rted items shall be satjsfied before a claim of compliance -
the provision of floating roofs and floaiing roof seals (see
:r the Siandard can be made and verified. - 11);

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 21


3 Ambient temperature stonge tank design

API STANDARD 650 DATE


BY
STORAGETANK FILE NO
DATASHEET PACE ----------LOF

II{FOR AIION ITO BE COIPLEIEO BY PI,RCHASERI

1. PIIRCHASB/AOEI'IT

SIAIE-AP @OE P}NE


2. lrsER
3. EFECnON$re N^MEOFPI,ATiIT
LOCAtrt
4. rAtKllO. MAXlirJi, CAPTATY {325.1) (!!0 NEIITVOFKINGCAPACrV t"3 (tt0
OVERFIIL PROtEcTld{ (APl-23stl- .n(bbD OR (n.}
PI'MP|iIG BATE$ II{ nfih (urr) oul rtf,h (bbl,lr)
'
O
-ms
MAXMI'M OPEAANNG IEIiPEEAIUNE 'c cD
7. PFDUCT STOBEO DEStGit SPEC|FC GaAv|TY_ Ar _ lc fF)
-
DESIGIMETAL'E PFAIUFE- TCCO VAFON PFESSUT -
& CoFFGION AL!o/VANCE: SHE[- nn (n.) ROOF

EOTIOT mn(n,)
STR CrUF^lfi nm(n)
9. $Cr!OESIGN: EI 8A6|c ATANDTNDASO O APPEITDO(A CI APPBDUF -nun
OES|G PNESS'|NE kPh (6f/nq
10. FOOF DESIGN: o EAgcsrar{)aFD6S0 o AITFENE|XC|EfiEATALnOAI Gl
q AFPE|{DTX G{AlUU|l{Ji ItOilE) 3 APFEI{D{X H oMfEn
'lAl
F.oAllXc)
FR r\GIBIER@FJOINT? O YEs O NO

1r. nooF OCSICIN liFoFl'rAllolt


ur\{ffit uvE toao rPa (ttP)
sFECtAt LOADA (Pftyv|O g(ErC$ |tr. &fiC)
IN$'IATION LOAD l@a (tdtlc,
MA}II/T.iI OESIGN R@F IEMPEFA'TURE 'c (f)
G SES ITI lHE VAPF SFACE
12. EAFIIII(IJA(E DESIGN? ] YES C IIO (APPENDIX E n@FIE RG (ar0.a.5)? C YES O Mt
gEISMC ZONE ri!,iPoRTAllcE FlcrclR
zol{E FAcToR (TABLE E-2) slrE coEfflclEl{T (TABLE E-3)
lAWND IOAD: VEL@ITY
PrcVDE INIEAi'EDIATE WIND GIFDER (3.9-7}'? ] YES 5 NO

Ia.ENVIROIIIIEIVTAIEFFECTS: MAX!!,|JMIlAlNFAtl
lorasNow AcclJt rLAItoN nm (h.)
15, SZE FESTFEIEI{S: r4A)ort M t)|Ar,EIEri - m O) MAri&ir HExr m(r!)

i6.FCIJM}AIIO'I TYFE EABI}' O @iICBETE RNGWAII ] OftGN


EEIIIAFXS
'

Figure 3.1 Storage tank data sheet - page t


Fron API 650, Appendix L

22 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient tempenture storage tank &silp

API STANDARD 650 DA'E

STORAGE TANK F|LE lto,


DATASHEET PAGE 2 OF

CON9.rR'CTX'I{ DETALS fiO AE COWLETED BY XAITUFACTURER AI{OIOR PURCHASEEI

T. MAN'FICruRGF

sraTE _ zt? @oE_ PHotE


sEa[L l'|O.
FAarc toa
IDOFSS
c|IY sT IE _ ZP@O_ FHo{\|E
SErui|(l
9. MAIE TLSPECI:E IOn6:9lEt!
mc
BOfIOtl
sBUCru [,8
1. ro.G$Er
PIAIE lrnDn$D1}mtC{ESSES OGiuD| O @mo6ni lU-OrvANCE}, N rEn (|l,)
t_ 4
2-5
3-.*c
TA|{KE}IIOI* PLAET}ICI
PLAIE1}|q(NESS qtlAP o qJrt aE^lrs
A IO O Ft{I' CEI'IER
7- MD&I{,u WIOIHiI{0 I}IC(NESS dF Eorr[, ANNU-IIR FtfiEa FS), tN |rlln trl]
8. mF-r(>$G[oT [(F|eUEEFtt
9. |MIEMCDIAIE!{IiDINOEF? O YEg O |{) FOA USE AS lYrrxvt^w
IOP IyI'IEO|EEA O YES O ito
t0. R(bfIYPEr E g,PFOFIED O SEIfr9I,PFORIED q A-0ATII.16
6LCE OR RTDI'S (n)
ll. Roof RrrE: lHtq(NEss
'Y"n
dllnIh.) f IAP O BT'TI 3 JC'MT
12. P efi;
sltg'!- DqER|oF? O YES f ito INTEfIIOR? C YES ANO
SNFACE FREPAMNON
ETICI'- uroEagnE? !t YEs 3 NO |N'EAPB? O YES ONO
SI'RFACE PAEPAMTIOT\I
SITIJC'UAAT STEEL_ EXIEIIOA' 3 YEE f I{O NTEfNOF? C YES fiE
sGcstcaTroN
13, IAt{raOTItt COAIt|'tq: |MTER|OF? t YES f {O MATEBiAL
AfPrrc^lbN siPECiFrCAIor{
ta. lit6:PEcTtcN gv: 880P RCT.D
!5. I4ELO E(^t t{aTK|N,r FIDPGAAPIT
gjfFtlrrE I Sf uouo PEtIR^r{roa ttrrB soiltc
16. F|LMS Pfl(FEBlY.OF
1Z IEAXIESn e ETTOII
sHs.r
|a. MtI.lEStFEFdATe aFqrnEm
PI.AIE flBuqruRal.g fEs
I8. P|JnCHASEA REFEm\EE r'fiAV{iE
{} TAIIKSEE OlrrtTEn n (10 tEtel{T m (n)
21. DA1EOF SI M) tO6soCfirEfl/AEVEtO.l
FE:M[AI(s

qrte 3.1 9orage tank d eta sheel - Ngo 2


r',n El 650, Appendix L

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 23


3 Ambient temperature storage tank design

API STANDARD 650


STORAGE TANK FILE No.
DATA SHEET PAGE 3 OF

APfl'BTE{ATCES ('o g CO||PIETED EY I&US'FACII'REA AIOOS Purcrl^sE8}

I.SIANWAYSTYLE: O CIBCULAR O SIF^IGi{T ANGLEIO I.IOR@O tAL DBOFEES

IIDOEF
-
nft{tr} lFflGlH _ n(n)

coaAt/oFFs(arft srrldtato SPECTAL

4,E4TED D@F srET? Cr YES O I,b(APPEIIOXAT4fIKSOXIY) o FArsEo I fursH


5. CAFFOIO H|Tql
5. NTENML PIPING: sirclroN UNE
HEA'NG COI 9UFFACE AFEA fif (NC)

7. AOOF DRAIN: HOa Joll\ttED

& iK). Al,lo SlzE of SHEI! M l[!Ol-ES -


9. NO. AND gZE OF ROOF MANHOTES

lo sflEl! llozlEs (sEE FrernEss{8.3-5. AXO 9.? AND T ArES 3{.3{. AND}iO}:

FI'NCED IHAEADEO
oaitNT^lo{ !IGHT rual
l'lArFi( SEE ael o8t- SPL a D BOITOM sEBVtCf

1 R@F l{ozztEs lt{cLtSNG vEitTlNG @n'{EcrloN (sEE nqJREs 91'l attlo }15 aJ\D T sLEs }16 aI'iD !l17):
1
I
oe|ENrAnOt{ DISTAiICE FFOM I G
SEE ETNGED TTfiEAOD AS||FOaCEMEIfT CENIEA I SEFVEE
|!
a
tl
al
tl
al
ll
D
.r
g(E
li
TIOIEI C*ES AND/Of, SEPABAIE S}GEIS UAY AE ATTICHED TO Gq'EF 6FEqA! NEOT'FEMHTs'
ar
(r
a
|l
al
t
t
t
I
Figure 3.1 Storage tank dala sheet - page 3
F
Fron API 650, Appendix L k

24 STOMGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient tempercture storcge tank design

API STANDARD 650


STORAGE TAI\IK
DATA SHEET

.- Top ol sh6ll highl

I
! mw opdlng &lume dmhing h *tr ta.Ic

{bDl) d {ir)

-nr3 -mm
t, Overitl petetion ld.l (or volun.) dqliffttrli c API ll50.o
* Ss 16J,2.

ttre 3.1 Sto.age tank data sheet - page 4


Fan API 650, Appendix L

the amount of product to be always present in the tank the range of operating temperature (see Q.2.4);
- (see 12.1); -
the procedure, qualification and acceptance tests for ad-
the roof manhole cover (see 13.3.1); - hesive (see Q.3.3.1);
-
if the roof plates to be welded to the roof structure (see
- 15.8.4); - the insulation thickness or heat loss requirements (see
4.6.1);
the position of floating roof (see D.3.1)
- - the tank's external appearance and finish (see R.2.1).
the floating roof design and type (see D.3.4);
- - the painting system used (see R.2.2).
lhe additional roof manholes (see D.3.6);
- A.2 Information agreed between the purchaser and the
contractor
the support leg operating and cleaning positions (see
- D.3.13);
the additional requirements for roof plating and nozzle re-
the gauging device (see D-3.14); - inforcement (see Table 5.1)
-
if a rolling ladder is not required (see D.3.15);
- - the design methodology and fabrication tolerances for de-
sign internal negative pressures above 8.5 mbar (see
the roof main drain if not a hose or articulated pipe type
- (see D 3.8.1): Table 5.1);
if a trial erection and inspection of a floating roof is re- the steel to be used it not from Tables 6.1.1-1 to 6.1.1-3
- quired (see D.4);
- (see 6.1.1.1);
if floating roof rim seals are required (see E.1); the mounting materials, when different to the shell plates
- - (see 6.1.7.1);
the evaporation rate (see L.3.'1.1 c));
- the live loads (see 7.2.6);
- the maximum gas flow under malfunction conditions ofthe -
gas blanket (see L.4.3); the mncentrated live load (see 7.2.7);
-
the emergency flow capacity for other possible causes the value ofthe wind load ifthe wind sDeed is more than 45
- (see 1.4.4); - m/s (see 7.2.10);
the emergency vacuum flow capacity (see L.5); the anticipated settlement loads (see 7.2.13);
- -
STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 25
3 Ambient tempemture storage tank design

the emergency loads (see 7.2.14);


-
the bottom gradient if more then 1:100(see8.1.1);
-
the guaranteed residual liquid level to resist uplift (see
- 8.2.3);
the incorporation of annular plates (see 8.3.1);
-
the option to be used if the SG exceeds 1.0 kg/f (see
- 9.1.3);
the shell thickness for stainless steel tanks of diameters
- greater than 45 mm (see Table 9- 1.5 NOTE 3);

- whether the underside welds of stiffening rings shall be q


continuous or intermittent (see 9.3.1.11);
the design methodology and load combinations (see
- 9.3,3.9); u
the span of roof suppoding structure for dome roofs (see
- 10_3.1);
the joint efficiency if different to the standard values (see
- 10.3.6);
Figure 3.2 Example of a tank imploding
the minimum size of manholes (see 13.1.1);
-
the details of non-standard nozzles (see '13.3.2);
- painting, had not been removed and the tank imploded wher
the method of heating or cooling the fluid (see 13.10); product was being drawn from it.
-
the non-standard distances between an oDenino and a
- plate edge (see 15.5);
The various stresses to which the shell of a tank is subiected
are as follows:
non-standard types of floating roofs (see D.2)
- Hoop tension
non-standard floating roofs (see D.3.1);
- The majorstress in the shellis hoop tension which is caused by
the specific requirementfor a floating roof (see D.3.2.4); the head of product in the tank, togetherwith any overpressure
- in the roof sDace of a fixed roof tank.
the alternative valuesfor live load when restino on its suo-
- port legs (see D.3.3); Axial compression
the method of assessing frangibility (see K.2); This stress is made up of the following componenb:
-
- the safety coefficient for frangible roofs (see K.4); . The self-weight of the tank, comprising the shell, the roof
the design offlush-type clean-out doors (see 0.1.1); the superimposed load on the roof and any attachments b
- the tank.
the proprietary system of insulation (see Q.1);
- . The compressive load due to any internal vacuum in llE
the insulation system to be used (see Q.2.1);
- tank.
the basis for the wind load calculations (see Q.2.3);
- . Wind load acting on the shellofthe tank causes a overturF
the type of foam insulation (see Q.8.2);
- ing effect and hence induces a compressive load on the lee-
the sequence offoaming and cladding (see Q.8.2); ward side of the shell.
-
- the means of checking the quality of foam (see Q.8.2); . Where a tank is located in a geographicalarea which issLS
the type of foam and its physical and thermal properties ject to earthquakes, then compressive stresses due to ti!
- (see Q.8.3). seismic action can be transmifted to the shell. This lattsf
stress component is dealt with separately in Chapter 15 or
26 where seismic design is covered in debil.
3.3 The shell
Vertical bending
3.3.1 The design of the tank shell The natural elasticitv in the shell materialallows the shellto
pand radially when under service loading, but this expansior.
Storage tanks are often disparagingly referred to by construc- restrained at the shell-to-floor junction and therefore the
tors and users as "tin cans" and to some degreethis is true in as suffers vertical bending stresses in this area.
much as there are similarities in the ratios of the shellthickness 3.3.1.1 Failure around the circumfurence ofthe cylindet
to diameter of both items.
In orderto demonstrate how iank shells are designed, some
For example a typical soup can is 75 mm diameter x 105 mm sic engineering design principles must be considered.
high (d/h = 1/1.4) and has a wall thickness of 0.15 mm. A stor-
Figure 3.3 shows a cylindrical shell having a shell, whici"
age tank of 10 m diameter x 14 m high has a wallthickness of 5
comparatively thin, compared to its diameter, the ends
mm. lt can be seen that the thickness-to-diameter ratio for the
capped off and it is subjected to an internal pressure'p'.
souD can is 0.002 and for the tank is 0.0005. The tank ratio is
four times less than that of the soup can, which demonstrates D = diameter
how relatively flimsy the shell ofa tank really is particularly if it is
subjected to a partial vacuum condition as is demonstrated in
t = wall thickness
Figure 3.2. L = length
The scaffolding around the tank in Figure 3.2 was erected to al- n = intarnrl nrac.,
'ra
low the shell to be painted. lmmediately after the painting was
completed, the tank was put back into service but a plastic bag,
P = horizontal load on the cylinder
which had been put overthe roof vent valve to protect it during F = tangential load in the wall ofthe cylinder

26 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Anbient temperaturc storage tank design

specific gravity of tank contents (non-dimen-


sional) - but never taken as less than unity for
desrgn purposes
design pressure in the vapour space above the
product level (mbar)
corrosion allowance which, at the discretion of
the tank customer, may be added to the de-
sign thickness (mm)
H = distance from the bottom ofthe course under
: t-:e consideration to a predetermined height at the
3.3 A cylind calshell
top of the tank, which is the limit of the fluid
height (m)
::nsider a failure around the circumference of the cylinder:
_:adP=pressurexarea The predetermined height at the top of the tank is either:

=pxnl4xD2 equ 3.1


. The top ofthe shell.

: to a circumferential failure= stress x area ofthe cy-


. The level of an overflow designed to limit the fluid height in
"sistance
-irical the shell.
wall.
. Whentheheightof theshell includes a wind skirt with over-
=f xrixDxt equ3.2
flow openings and/or seismic freeboard, the maximum
::Jating equations 3.1 and 3.2 product height for calculation purposes shall be the over-
pxnl4xD2=fxr.xDxt flow height, or the height less the seismic freeboard.

--en
. (H - 0.3) - The explanation of this term is given later in Sec-
lion 3.3.2.2.
r=ltD equ3.3 For the moment however, consider a tank having a shell of con-
4 xt stant thickness over its full height, based on the full head of
product in the tank represented by the simple term H (m).
: 3.1.2 Failure along the length of the cylinder
Note: The tank diameter D is generally taken as the diameter
-:lsider a failure along the length of the cylinder: measured to the centreline of the shell plating. How-
::-ceF=pressurexarea everforfloating roof tanks where it is preferable to have
a smooth internal surface for the roof seal to act
=pxDxl equ3.4 against, the diameter may be measured to the inside
: stance to a longitudinal tear in the cylinder wall surface of each course of shell plates thus avoiding
-=s
steps beiween adjacent courses.
= ::ress x area of the cylinder wall.
Equaiion 3.6 is re-arranged for t as foliows:
=fx2xlxt equ3.5
equ 3.8
::-ating equations 3.4 and 3.5 2xS
3xD xL =f x2xL xt Where stress f is represented by S and p is the internal loading
in the tank, which is made up of two components as shown in
Figure 3.4.
' PXD equ36 The flrst component is due to the head of product in the tank H
2 xt
expressed as a height in metres.
:. :omparing equations 3.3 and 3.6 it can be seen that the
The second component is the pressure in the vapour space 'p'
- ; ^est
stress is given by equation 3.6 and therefore a cylinder
- which is due to the natural gassing off of the stored product, or
- :er pressure will fail by tearing along a line parallel to its axis
from the use of a positive pressure inert gas "blanket" over the
perpendicular to its axis.
=:-er than on a section product. This pressure is controlled by the use of pressure and
--: gasic equation 3.6 is used in the tank design Codes for de- vacuum relief valves fitted to the roof and these are covered
:*ining the thickness for the tank shells. later in Chapter 8, Section 8.2.4.2.
--: way the British, American and European tank design In order for the above formula to work, the input data has to be
- ::es apply the above basic principles differ in approach. Ini- expressed in acceptable units as follows:
a
-: , the British Standard 2654 will be considered, then later,
: I fiering aspects of the other Codes will be discussed. P = N/mm2
D=mm
: 3.2 BS 2654 S = N/mm2
a'a
:: 2654 gives the shell thickness formula as: The first component ofthe pressure is converted from metres of
product liquid head to mbar by multiplying by 98 and added to
n.
: - 20.s(
-- _ {98.(H
\ 0.3)r'tr'p} .c.a. equ3.7 the second component, which is already expressed in mbar.
This combination is then converted to N/mm'? by multiplying by
-
_::e: 0.0001.
D is converted to mm by multiplying by '1000 and S is already
: = shell thickness (mm)
expressed in N/mm2
I = tank diameter (m)
S Equation 3.8 is therefore transforr"6 lror 1 PI! 1o,
= allowable design stress (N/mm,) SXS

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 27


3 Ambient temperaturc storage tank design

thickness but with each successive course being thinner than


the one below exceptthat for practical constructional reasons.
the top courses are governed by minimum recommended
thickness rules given in the Codes.
The use of courses with diminishing thickness has the effect
that, at the joint between two adjacent courses, the thicker,
lowercourse provides some stiffening tothetop, thinnercourse
and this causes an increase in stress in the upper part of the
lower course and a reduction in slress in lhe lower part of the
upper course.

Figure 3.4 Loading on a tank shetl The design Codes assume, on an empirical basis. that the re-
duction in stress in the uppercourse reaches a maximum value
.t- Dx 1000 rr,.,
" -_ii:" xw xsB)- o]o.ooor) , c.a.
at one foot (300 mm) above the joint and it is at this point, on
tL(H each course from which the effective acting head is measured.
This method ofcalculation is known as the "onefoot" method or
n v lr)nn - rule, (having evolved in an era when the lmperial measurement
t - -;=" {(0.00s8 xwx H)+o.oo01p} Fc a. system was in vogue).
The above explanation can be shown diagrammatically as in
t--D^{(g.a.*.t-t)r o.1p} - c.a. Figure 3.5.
zs(
The displacement of the shell courses is shown diaqrammati-
t-"^D.{1oe.w.u;*p}r.ca. cally in Figure 3.6.
equ3.e
zu.s '
'
The adoption of the "one-foot" method means that the shell
Earlier editions of BS 2654 limited the maximum allowable thickness formula given in BS 2654 is written as setout in equa-
stress in the shell plating to 21,000 tbs/in, (145 N/mmr) and tion 3.7:
also included a welded joint efiiciency of 85%.
.
I=
D r^^... _-_
The limitation on allowable stress has now been suoerseded. 20S lv6 {H-u.3)+P}+c.a.
as shown later in Section 3.3.2.5. Also, due to imoroved mod-
ern welding technology andjoint inspection techniques, as long 3.3.2.3 Exception to "one-foot,, method
as thewelding and inspection procedures given in the Code are
adhered to, the joint efficiency is deemed to be 1OO%. For ex- There is an exception to the "one-foot" rule and this comes into
ample, the welded joints are considered to be at least as strong use when steels ofdiffering strengths are used in designing the
as the parent plate. Due to this increase in joint efficiency, tank shell courses. In such cases, when the ratio of:
shells are now 15% thinner than their earlier counterparts.
height (H - 0.3), used forthe computation ofa given course.
3.3.2.1 Principal factors determining shell thickness divided bythe allowablestress forthat course, is equalto or
It can be seen that the principal factors, which determine the more than the (H -0.3) + S ratio for the course beneath,
thickness of the tank shell, are: then the advantiage of the "one-foot" method is deemed not to
. the internal loadings due to the head of liquid and applyto the upper course and this course shall be desioned us.
ing H instead of (H - 0.3). The mathematical form of iis is ex-
. the pressure in the vapour space. pressed as:
Adjustment may be required when axial, wind and seismic When:
loads are considered but there is no allowance made for anv
other external loadings whatsoever. lt is importantto remember Hu -0.3 H, 0.3
this, because on occasions, designers and constructors may suq,_
be asked to impose additional external loads on the shell, or to
allowfor externalpiping loadsto be transmitted to the shellnoz- D t.^^
zles, particularly those in the bottom course of the shell where ,n"n r = w,Hu) + pl +c.a.
2o.ar r,ro,
more oiten than not the thickness of this course is a design
thickness rather that a nominal thickness (the exolanation of wnere:
this difference is given later in Section 3.3.2.4).
Where additional loads are requested, separate consideration
Hu = distance from the bottom ofthe upper course
to the maximum possibte filling height (m)
must be given to their effect on the stress in the shell. The
American Code API 650 addresses the effect of nozzle load- Su = allowable design stress for the upper course
ings in Appendix P of the Code but its application is limited to (N/mm2)
tanks over 36 metres in diameter This subiect is dealt with in
Chapter 4. Hr = distance from the bottom ofthe lower course
to the maximum possible filling height (m)
3.3.2.2 Practical application of thickness formula
Having established how the shell thickness formula was de-
SL = allowable design stress for the lower course
(N/mm'z)
dved, the practical application of the formula to a storage tank
can now be discussed. There is a further very important stipulation, which must be re-
membered during the shell design, and this is that, no course
From Figure 3.4 it can be seen thatthe pressure varies with the
shall be constructed at a thickness less than that ofthe course
head of liquid and therefore the shell thickness varies from al
above, irrespective of the materials of construction.
most zero at the top, to a maximum at the bottom. As it is im-
practicalto have a shellwith a tapering thickness, it is instead, There are otherfactors, which govern the use ofthe above for-
constructed of a number of plate courses each of a uniform mula, and these are now discussed.

28 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


:_.4-
>..r

(9'
,-:

I -'-
.3_

c:r
Pressure Shell thickness Stress in
diagram Shell
diagram
s-
:+::3.5 Diagrammatic explanation ofthe thickness formula orthe'one-fool" method

=- --r
'1,)
:
-z-
/,ti; --/tt!
'rt1 " I tr
drspra4ne / / I

/.$i

-:
l:- l^
t::
L:. l
et-
^l
Discontinuity lorces @qulrd Final displac6mnt3 whe.
UnGstricled di5p'acenenre
ol a tour coorse rlnk for conP:tibility at each compatibllity is catored
change h courso thlclness

: l,_: 3.6 Displacement ofthe shell courses shown diagtammatically

L3.2.4 Maximum and minimum shell thickness No|nlnal tank diameter Minimum allowable shsll plate thickness
D {m) t{mm)
-',:< plates are known, under sub-zero temperature condF
12
:.s. to be susceptible to brittle fracture. Tests made by the
",= s Wide Plate test method in 1964 concluded thatforopera- > 100

:c.: safety, storage tank shell plates should be limited to a


Figure 3.7 lvlinimum plate thicknesses according to Table 2, BS 2654
-aLTUm thickness of 40 mm.
::-:re uppercourses ofshell plating the formula willgive quite 3.3.2.5 Allowable steel stresses
:- - 3late thickness which are impractical for constructional To keep the selection of shell plate material within the band of
:,-.=oses. The Code therefore specifies minimum plate thick- carbon and carbon manganese weldable steels the maximum
-'".s. which must be used, and Table 2 in BS 2654 gives these allowable design stress which may be used is 260 N/mm2 or two
r': s shown in Figure 3.7. This minimum thickness may in- thirds of the material, specified minimum yield strength at room
:,-,:e any specified corrosion allowance, provided thatthe shell temperature, whichever is the lower. This limit of 260 N/mm'
: :-Jwn by calculation to be safe in the corroded condition discourages the use of steels with a minimum specified yield
strength in excess of 390 N/mm2, because of their increased
|iominal tank diamater Minimum allowable sholt Plate thickn6s
hardness and reduced weldability.
D (m) t (mml

< 15 5
However, steels with higher yield stresses than this have been
used and this came about in the late 1960s and early 1970s,
6
when the impetus in the petroleum industry gave rise to a de-
30 io < 60 a
mand for larger tanks with a capacity of 1 million barrels
10 (159,000 m3) and greatet BP developed tankage on Das ls-
land, offshore from Abu Dhabi, where the largesttankwas 96 m

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 29


3 Ambient temperature storage tank design

diameter x 25 m high, having a capacity of 1.18 million barrels. future, unwittingly, being used for a product having a higher
This was possible because ofthe advances the Japanese had densaty.
made in the production of strong notch tough steels for their
growing building programme for seagoing super tankers. 3,3.2.8 Pressure in the roof vapour space
These steels were produced mainly in Japan in controlled roll_
ing and on-line quenching and tempering facilities. The design pressure in the vapour space is limited to a maxi_
mum of 56 mbar and a maximum vacuum of 6 mbar.
Also, much more was known at this time on the subject of ,,brit_
tle fracture" and whilst the 4O mm maximum thickness rule was In the interests oi standardisation BS 2654 classifies tanks into
maintained, the allowable design stress was allowed to be % of three categories:
the yield stress but not to exceed 7: of the tensile stress. A
quenched and tempered carbon manganese steel, Welton 6O
. Non-pressure tanks
having a specified minimum yield strength of 441 N/mm2, was . Low-pressure tanks
used for the siell. Using % of this value allowed a design stress
of293 N/mm,, which did not exceed SO% ofthe specified min! . High-pressure tanks
mum tensile strength of 588 N/mm2. For more details see Ref_
erence 3.1. Non-pressure tanks
Also, it limits the radial expansion and rotation of the shell. Non-pressure tanks are suitable for working at atmospheric
which is especially undesjrable in the area close to the pressure, but are designed for an internal pressure of 7.5 mbar
shell-to-bottom junction where there is the added complication and an internal vacuum of 2.5 mbar. Howeverfor tanks with col_
due to nozzle loadings. This aspect is developed further in umn supported roofs an internal pressure of4 millibars shall be
Chapter 4. assumed. 4 mbar equates approximately to the weight of S mm
3.3.2,6 Maximum and minimum operating temperatures thick roof sheets and at this pressure the roof plates willjust
start to lift off their supporting structure.
The Code limits the tank operating temperature to a maximum
of 150'C without any reduction in design stress. However, Note: When using equation 3.7 for the design of non-pres-
above this temperature consideration must be given to using a sure tanks, BS 2654 does not require the pressure of
lesser design stress due to the elevated temperature havino in 7.5 mbar to be used for p in the equation.
effect on the yield strength of the steel. Low-pressure tanks
BS 5500 contains tabular information on allowable stresses at
Low-pressure tanks are designed for an internal pressure of20
e{evated temperatures for a number of steel specifications. mbar and an internal vacuum of 6 mbar.
The minimum design metal temperature is based on official
weather reports for the tank site over at least the last 30 years
High.pressure tanks
and is the lower of the lowest daily mean temperature, plus High-pressure tanks are designed for an internal pressure of56
'10'C. and the minimum temperature
of the tank contents. mbar and an internal vacuum of 6 moar.
BS 2654 states that for a tank constructed for service in the UK
Note: BS 2654 limits the internal working pressure to 56
where the shell temperature is controlled by ambient condi- mbar, but it is possible to design tanks for higher pres-
tions, the minimum metal temperature shall not exceed O"C. sures by using the alternative Codes listed here:
For a storage tank constructed outside the UK and where no
long term data or weather reports are available, the desiqn 857777 (incorporating BS 4741 & 5397- Storage of
metal temperature shall be the tower of the lowest daily me;n products at low temperatures) and pressures
temperature plus 5"C and the minimum temperature of the up to 140 mbar. This pressure may be ex_
conlents. ceeded subject to agreement between the pur-
The minimum design temperature for the tank shall not take chaser and contractor but for large diameter
into account the beneficial effect of heated or thermallv insu- tanks the design of the roof-to-shell joint and
laied tanks. anchorage might be limiting.

It is interesting to note that the proposed European Standard API 650 Pressures up to 2y2lbs/in2 c (172 mbar)
prEN 14015 - 1, states a maximum design temperature of Appendix F
100"C. Design temperatures above this value have to comolv
with clause 6 ofthe Standard which states that the steel suooiie;
shall certify the yield stress values for steels used at elevated
API 620 Pressures up to 15lbs/in2 G (1034 mbar)
temperatures. Alternatively, a list of appropriate steels is given
in the text. For design temperatures above 250.C, steels which
As is the case for BS 2654, these Codes also only allow for a
small internal vacuum to be present in the tank.
are proven to be unaffected by ageing shall be used.
3.3.2.7 Specific gravity or relative density of the stored prEN '14015 Pressures up to 500 mbar, and vacuum up to
Droducl
20 mbar. Except that for a vacuum condition
The specific gravity or relative density of the stored product for above 8.5 mbar, the design methodology is not
design purposes shall not be taken as less than unity (regard- given in the Code but it shall be agreed be-
Iess that the actual specific gravity (SG) of the stored product tween the purchaser and the manufacturer.
may be less than unity). The basis ofthis requirement is the fact
that the tank, on completion, is required to be hydrostatically A synopsis of the requirements of this Code were covered ear-
tested with water prior to being put into service. Also, as many lier in Section 3.'1.1.
petroleum and chemical products have a SG less than unitv
this gives an additional safety factor to the shell plating. Note: Whilst BS 2654 gives maximum values for internal vac-
ua, these values are not actually incorporated into the
Also, experience has shown that designing to a SG of 1 .O gives design formula for the shell thickness, this is because it
flexibility of usage and guards against a tank, which may have is assumed that the thickness derived from equation
been designed fora particular product density, sometime inthe 3.7 will be adequate enough to withstand the low vac-

30 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient temperaturc storcge knk desg.

Desion melhod fof Calbon Stet StoEoe TantG to BS 2654 : 1969 + amd.i ii997.
Cone roof Tanks

Client: A. Another Lld.


Site: Livrpool

) Let:
Est. or ConlEct No : C / 001
Tanksize : 30.00 m. dia. r 16.00 m. high
Tank No : 001
Oale: 5/05/02
r(s -::
Omler D= 30.000 n shtt- t2
Height H= 16.000 m
Specificgravit w= 0.900 1 oo io be .lsed fo. s hel design.
Inlernalprss. p: 7.50 m.bar Intematvac 2.50 ft.bar
corosion allowances :- Shellplates 0.00 mm
Floor plales 0.00 mm
Roofptates 0.00 mm
Shellangles 0.00 mm, Totat. 0.oo mm off each flange thks
Dosign lemporature . lvsr. 90 OO .C
lv,n 0 00 .C
Steellyp :- BS EN 10025 S275
l,,linimumYield Stress =275.000 N/mm,for,t'<= i6mm
i r:a- Oosign slress =183.333 ri.hrn? (2/3 x min. yietd)

shell thickness D20.s t98.w ( H, 0 3 ) + p) + 6a ( isnore p, if =< 7.5 m.bar )

The Code requiresa min. thickness 8.00 mm

Desion oflhe Shell.

Oesign Height'H
heioht (m) thks. (mm)
l 2.000 183.333 16.00 12.59 12.6
2 2.000 183.333 14.00 10.98 11.0
3 2.000 1E3.333 12_00 9.38 9,4
2.000 183.333 10.00 7.74 8.0
5 2.000 163.333 8.00 6.17 8.0
6 2.000 163.333 600 4.57 8.0
ol2a 7 2.000 183.333 4.00 2.97 E.0
8 2.000 183.333 2.00 1.36 8.0
I
'10
1t
OI 5. '12
Shell ht.. 16.00 \,,lin. lhks. = 8.00

r56 This shellcalculation demonstGies howrhe rormuta poduces very ihin upp6r couFes.
TheCode rsqui@s a minimum thicknss of 8 mn tor this rank djameler.

:,"_- 3.8 Tank shelldesign illustration usjng equation 3.7

uum ratings, providing that suitable stiffening js pro- snow load, vacuum, wind and seismic loads, as applicable and
vided see Section 3.5.2 Secondary wind girders. also the possibility of uneven setflement of the foundation.
-]s
1.3.2.9 Tank shell design illustration Also any tank which has to carry high roof loads for example
=,3ure 3.8 demonstrates the use of equation 3.7. The followino due to heavy snow falls, as is the case in say, Canada, should
f have the shell checked for stability.
g assumptions have been made:
A non-pressure cone roof tank 3.3.3.1 De vation and assessment ofaxial stress in a cy-
lindrical shell
Pressure rating +7.5 mbar and -2.5 mbar
The tank wall thickness has been determined using onlythe in-
Dimensions: 30 m diameter x 16 m hioh ternal pressure to which it is subjected together with a limiting
circumferential stress of260 N/mm2 or % ofthe applicable ma_
Number of courses: 8
terial yield stress. The axial stress should now be calculated for
Shell corrosion allowance - nil each course because the existence ofcompressive membrane
stresses in the shell could cause it to fail by buckling. The fol_
Design temperature: + 90.C and O.C lowing theory is, in part, taken from work bV the late professor
Steel specification: BS EN 10025 5275 having a minimum A. S.Tooth, Professor of Mechanical Engin;ering. University of
yield of 275 N/mm, Shathclyde, Glasgow.
-T is shell calculation demonstrates how the formula The theoryforthe critical buckling stress in a thin walled circular
Droduces
'rot shell subjected to longitudinalcompression is given by Roark &
'ery thin upper courses. The Code requires a minimum thick-
-ess of I mm for this tank diameter. Young (Reference 3.2) as:

^1Et
DC=.-X:X- equ 3.10
3.3.3 Axial stress in the shell J3 Jt-v'? r

-he design of the shell to cater for jnternal pressure loadino Taking E = 207,000 N/mm2 and v = 0.3 for carbon steel, then

tc- ,\ hich produces a tenslle circumferential stress in the


shell ha;
f,een discussed. However, for large diameter tanks with low
Sc = 125.235 x ! equ 3.'11
f
)it shell heights, the lowest shell courses mav be rather thin and
)n :nerefore the stability should be checked taiing into accountthe
c- /ertical loads resulting from the roof weight, shell self- weight, t is in (mm) and

STOR,AGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 31


3 Ambient temperature stotage tank design

MAP OF UNITED KINGDOIVI


SHOWING BASIC WIND SPEED
lN m/s
Maximum gust speed likelyto be
exceeded on fte average only once
in 50 years at 10 m above the ground
in open level country

Lines are drawn at 2 nvs intervals

NATIONAL GRID IDENTIFICATION

60 mis

70 80 110 130 mile/h


FigLre 3.9 Basic w nd speed for uK localions
From the Met Office, United Kingdan

32 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient tempenture storage tank design

49

4A 51

45 46

50 38

Edinb!Ah 50 52 45

46 43 46

51 45

45

40 45

43 43

43 45

A5 45

52 52 52

lh.3. valqes .pply to dU6 .nd lown. only and not tr.@larlly !o ih. .urcundlng .re.i
::--e 3.10 Basic wind speed in metrcs per second for some UK cities and towns

'':- Bntish Standard CP3

Topography factor sl
The basic wind speed, V given in Figura 3.9 hkes account of the general level of lhe site above sea level. This does not allow for local topographic fea-
tllles such as hills, valleys, cliffs, escaDments or aidges which can Bignificantly affect the wind speed is theif viciniiy.

Near the summib of hills or lhe crests of cliffu escrpments or ridges the s/ind is acclerated. In valleys or near the foot of cliffs, steep escarpmenis oa
ndges, the wind may be deceleraled. In all cases the vafation of wind speed wilh height js rlodified from tbat appropriaie lo levl terain.

Where the average slope of the mound doe6 not exceed 0-05 within a kilometer radius ot th site. the tenain may be taken as level and the topography fac-
lcr 51 should be taken as 1-0.

Ii lh vjci.ity of local topographic features lhe faclor Sr is a function of the uplvind slope and the posilion of lhe site relative to the summit or crest, and will
De wjthin the range of 1 .0 < Sr < 1 .36. lt should be noted that 51 will vary with height above ground level, at a maximum near to the ground and reducjng to
-1 0 at higher levels.

ln cedain steep-sided nclosed valleys, wind speds mgy be less than in level tenain. Caulion is necessary in applying q values less lhan 1.0 and special-
'st advlce should be sought In such situations.

(1) Op.n country y/ith no obrlnctions


(21Op6n counlry wlfh 3cano.ed {3) counlty wllh many wlndbroak6, (4) Su.races wlt$ large and lrequent
snall toM3, outskirts o{ larg. cili.B ob3t ucdons, o.q. ciry contro.

a c B c B c
0.E3 o7a 0.73 o.72 0.67 063 0,u 060 0.55 056 0.52 0.47
0.8{t 0.43 0.78 o79 o74 070 0.70 065 0.50 0.60 0.55 0.50
-0 't.00 0,95 0.90 0.93 0.88 o83 o.7B 0.74 0.69 o67 0.62 0.58
-5 1.03 0.99 0.94 1.00 0.95 0.91 o89 0,83 0.78 o74 0.69

?, 1.06 1.01 0.96 103 0.98 0.94 0.95 0.90 0.85 079 0.75 0.70
.1.03
1.09 1.05 100 107 0.s8 1.01 o97 0.92 0.90 0.45 0.79

1.12 1.@ 1.03 1.10 1.06 1.01 1.05 1.01 0.96 0,97 0.93 089
1.10 1_06 112 1.@ 104 108 1.04 1.00 1.02 0.98

1.15 '1.12 1.08 1.14 1_10 1.06 110 1.06 1.02 1.05 '| 02 0.98

1.18 1.15 1_11 1.1-l 1.13 1.09 1.13 1.10 106 1.10 1.07 1.03
'-4 '1.20 1.17 1.13 1.19 1.16 1.12 1.16 1.12 1.09 1.13 1.10 1.47
':.: 1.22 1.19 1.15 1.21 1.14 '1.14 1.18 1.15 1.1',l 1.15 1.13 1.10

'1.24 1.20 1_11 122 1.19 116 1.20 117 1.13 1.17 1.15 1.12
1.25 1.U 1.19 1.24 1.21 1.18 't.21 1.18 1.15 1.17
..,: 1.23 1.20 1.25 1,U 't.20
1.19 1.23 1.17 1.20 1.19 1.16
:,:a 127 1.24 1.21 L26 1.24 1.21 1.24 1.21 1.18 1.22 1.21 1.18

:ss A = All unlts of cladding and rooUng and their immediate irxings and Individual rnedbers ot unclad structures.

:ass B = All buildings and struclures where neither lhe greatest horizontal dimension nor lhe greategt vertical dirnension exceedg
50 m (165 fi)-

less C = All buildiogs and struclores whose greaiest horizonhl dimension or lhe geatesl vertjcal dimnsion exceeds 50 m (165 ft).

:3ciors S1 and 52
Siandard CP3

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 33


3 Ambient tempercture sto@ge tank design

r is in (m) The axial stresses due to the wind load and any seismic load -fi
Tests indicate that actual buckling occurs at between 40% and are a little more complicated to calculate. Seismic analysis is f
60% of the value obtained using the above theory dealt with later in Chapter 15 and the resulting axial stresses
can be derived from there.
{
3,3.3.2 Allowable compressive stresses for shell courses
!
3.3.3.4 Axial stress due to wind loading on the shell It
BS 2654 makes reference to BS 5387 "SDecillcation for vertical
The axial stress due to wind load is now discussed and this is
cylindrical welded storage tanks for low-temperature service
based on the "Engineering Bending Theory" where the circular
down to -196"C" and in particularto Clause 9-2-3 ofthat specifi-
shape is assumed to undergo smalldisplacemenb. This is con-
cation which gives a method for calculating the allowable com-
pressive stresses for the shell courses, measured at each sidered to be a reasonable assumption, in that the aim of the
horizontal weld seam as:
design approach is to maintain a circular cross section at all
heights ofthe tank. This is certainly achieved atthe base, where

s"
(t*") the axial stress has a maximum value. r!,1
= rz.s equ 3.12
"cn The axial stress'ol due to the wind load, causlng a bending
where: moment'l\il' is therefore expressed as: .|!ll
4.M
Sc = the allowable compressive stress (N/mnf) -- - n. D2 t
equ 3.14
t = the shell plate thickness at the point under
The moment M produces a stress d'z which is approximately
consideration (mm)
uniform across the wall thickness. On the windward side this
c = the corrosion allowance, if applicable (mm) axialstress is tensileand on the leeward side it iscompressive.
.f
t(
R = the radius of the tank (m) The value of M in equation 3.14 is determined from the wind all
loading on the tank. In following the BS2654 approach, this is I
G = the factor for increase of the allowable stress
derived by determining:
for the loading combinations given below 4d
(a) The geographical location ofthe vessel and from this the
I = the joint efficiency factor which is 1 .0 for basic wind speed, V which is the 3-s gustspeed estimated
butfwelded shells to be exceeded on average once in 50 years.
The following loading combinations decide which value of 'G' is (b) Four wind speed factors, 51, 52, 53 and S4 defining the to.
used in eouation 3.12 as follows: pography(Sl ), ground roughness (S2), a freak wind proba-
bility factor, (S3) and a directional factor (Sa).
(a) Dead weight above point under consideration + insulation
+ 50% pipe loads + superimposed load. Values of basic wind speed for UK locations and values for the
For this condition G = 1.0 above factors are given in British Standard CP3, Chapter V
Paft2,1972. They are reproduced in Figures 3.9 to 3.12.
(b) Dead weight above point under consideration + insulation
+ pipe loads + wind load + 50% of superimposed load. For areas outside the UK, the wind speed information can be
obtained from local meteorological sbtions.
For this condition G = 1.25
lf
c) Dead weightabove point under consideration + insulation t!"t
+ pipe loads + earthquake load + 50% of superimposed tt
toao. cs
For this condition G = 1.33 fE
Note: The superimposed load = 1.2 kN/m'7 of projected roof ts
area which includes vacuum, snow and live loads. :
There is apparent similarity between equation 3.11 and equa- =t
tion 3.12 but equation 3.12 recognises the limitations ofthe the- '!ce
oreticalformula and also allows forthe various loading possibil-
ities given above and thus limits the allowable compressive
T'
stresses to well below the theoretical values which would be
7-
obtained from equation 3.11.
3.3.3.3 Actual compressive stress
4
Equation 3.12 gives the allowable compressive stress for each
cou6e and the actual compressive stress due to the various
factors given in Sections 3.3.3.2 (a), (b) & (c) must be com-
pared to this.
The actual stresses due to dead weight, insulation ioad, pipe
loads, and superimposed load are fairly straightforward to cal- 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50
culate as: Factor 53

equ 3.13
n.D.t
0 3t 60 1m 160 't80 2to 2& 270 300 330

where; 0.78 0.73 0.73 o.74 0.73 0.80 0.a5 0.93 1.00 0,99 0,91 o_42

q.84 o.7B
oz actual compressive stress 0.74 0.79 o,7a 0.86 0.91 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 o.88

summation of these loads (Coastal values of S. arc appliceble within 5 km of the cuast ior on-shore wiM
directions.)
D tank diameter
Figure 3.12 Factors 53 and Sa
t thickness of the course under consideration

34 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


3 Ambient tempercturc stoage taak ces,j-

--ere is nowa alternative Standard which is used forwind load-


/SiS S ',;s
and this is BS 6399 Part 2. But as CP3, ChapterV Part 2
?s5s 'as been used successfullyfor many years and as BS 2654 still
to it, its use will be continued here.
==e's
--e design wind speed Vs is given by:
M1S S
Vs = VSjSrS3Sa(m/s)
.cula- equ 3.'15
-- s is converted to a dynamic pressure by using
1-
a= equ 3.16
2PVs'
vie' Figure 3.14 EfJect ofihe horizontalwind force acling on the tank roof
._ere:
'tdln: i s ihe density of air. The figure is the density ofair at 15.C and Fs =Cf q.D.H equ 3.20
-..:er atmospheric pressure, viz., r = 1 .227 kglm3. and:
-is:
Fr =Cf .q. fiD.h(for a cone roof tank) equ 3.21
q = 0.613vs'z (N/mr) equ 3.17
--e pressure varies round the tank in such a way that on the 3.3.4 Allowable compressive stress
^... r -dward side only t 40' the circumference of the tank is sub-
F:: to a radial inward pressure. The rest ofthe tank is subject to Using the data from the earlier tank design illustration in Figure
i-:tron i.e. an outward pressure. Details of this variation are 3.8, the axial stress in the shell bottom course, which is due to
the vertical loadings, and the wind load can be analysed.
: .en in British Standard CP3, ChapterV part 2. In view of this
.aiation the totalhorizontalwind load on the shellisgiven by: The allowable compressive stress from equation 3.12 is:
F= CiqA" equ3.18
s"
(tn4 rcrr
= rz.s
._ ere:
Cr = the force coefiicient for the tank and takes into Where in this case:
consideration the pressure variation. lt varies
from 0.5 to 1.2 depending upon the heighudi- t = 12.6 mm
rr lne ameter ratio, the velocity of the wind and the
smoothness o1the tank, i.e. pipe projections,
c = omm
etc. (see CP3 and Figure 3.13). R = 15m

Ln b &= the effective frontal area. i.e. the area normal = '1.25 (using the loading combination (b) in Sec-
to the wind. tion 3.3.3.2 for this examDle)
:.her component parts aftached to the shell mav have a differ- r = 1.0
:-t factor. i.e. ladders, piping and equipment wilihave Cr = 1 .0.
= -Jre cross-section changes,
Then:
then the effective frontal area var-
:s throughout the vessel length. Each section of the tank Sc = 13.125 N/mm2
::ould therefore be considered and the wind load calculated.
The actual compressive axial load on the boftom course ofthe
:s generally assumed that the dynamic wind pressure is con- shell is made up of the following componenb:
:?nt with the height ofthe tank so that the resuliantwind force.
: acts at mid-height or alternatively it may be considered as a
The weight of th_e roof plating: = 29.000 kg or 284.40 kN
(assume to oe b mm thtcl( and
-:ilormly distributed force up the shell. Also it is general prac- the roof to have a 1:5 slope)
--:e to allowforthe effect ofthe horizontalwind
force, which acts
:1 the tank roof. Therefore the overall moment M on the tank The weight of the roof supporting structure:
Assumeto
Assume to be be 2F A
25,800 kg or 253.02 kN
=n be shown with the help of Figure 3.14 as:
M = + h/3)] equ 3.19 50% of the supe^rimposed roof
[Fs.H/2]+ [Fr(H load of 1.2 kN/m' 424.12kN
Ahere:
The completeweightof the shell 1059.31 kN
Weight of thermal insulation Nil

vs
Piping loads Say20.00kN
Total load = 981.54 kN
From equation 3.13:
qAl 54
q ror hsight / breadth ralo
oz= -:-: l::=0.827 N/mm'z
7r'JU.1Z.t
3o
Ur
1 2 5 10 20 x0 Referring to the design illustration in Figure 3.8, the compres-
sive axial load due to the wind load on the tank can be found by
using data from CP3, Chapter V Part 2,
o.7 o7 0.7 o.8 0.9 l.o 1.2
where:
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 06 0.6 = basic wind speed for the tank site in Liverpool
is taken from Figure 3.10 and is 46 m/s
:13ff#"4"X11i""?i,.1iien1s crfor clad buildinss of uniform section (actins in
Sr = topography factor will be taken as 1 .0

STORAGE TANKS & EQUTPMENT 35


1jlttiglt tS.p:,"ty.:lyggg t t@t,
Sz ground rcughness factor is interpolated
from The floor plates, which are remote from the
column 2 class B of Figure 3.11 and is found shell, will not be un_
duly stressed unless there is an abnormalamount
to be 0.96 ofsetflemen:
in the foundation under them.
s3 statistical factor will be taken as 1.0
The area oJ the foundation immediately under
where the shel
directional factor will be taken as 1.0 meets the floor is particularly critical, because
differential set e-
cf menr nere can cause the tank to try and ,.bridge,,the
= forceTcoefficient is found from Figure 3.13
to tlement,.thus inducing undesirabie
area ofset-
additio;l ;;;;
shell-to-bottom area of the tank. "tr;";;
From equation 3.15:
Out-of-plane, or differential set ement at the
The design wind speed Vs = 46 x 0.96 bottom edge of
= 44.16 mls th tank can also cause flat areas to develop in
the shell o;tjno
which in turn can affect the conne"ting nojzf"s
From equation 3.17: pip!*oikl
giving rise to additional stresses in rnese
areas. "nJ
The dynamic pressure q = 0.613 x 44.16,
= 1195.40 N/m' Floating rooftanks can also suffer a jack ofcircularity
From equation 3.20: at the top
of the tank, which can cause damage to the
seal and in severe
cases cause, the floatjng roof to jam.
Tlg]ged 9! the shelt Fs = 0.7 x j195.40 x 30 x 16
401,654.40 N =

From equation 3.2.1; 3.4.1 Floor plate arrangements

The load on the roof Ft = O.7 x 1.i95.4 x 15 The floor plating may be one of two types:
x3=
37,655.10 N 1) A.serie_s.of flat, generally reclangulat plates
with laooeo
Using equation 3.19, the total wind moment loints. fillet-welded on the top sidL only.
on the tank is:
This type of floor is used for small tanks and
N,4 = 401,654.40 x
.16/2
+ 37,655.10 x .16 + 3/3 in the areas
where the tank shell passes over the outer lapped
ioints.
rne raps are Joggted and any gap at thejoggte is
l\.4 = 3,853,371.90 Nm hushed-- off
-
with wetd metat to form a Rii surface ioitie
From equation 3.14: 2) A,ring of peripheral plates known as floor annular
"i,eti
olates.
o,- 4'!i99!Il,-9o .t3z.astza N /m: _ 0.433
which have a circular outside circumferen""
unO u"i.,ufiu
regular potygonal shape inside the tank, ur"
nx30. x 0.0126 N/mm, Ortl*JOiri"
together using backing strips. The inner floor ptatlnq-is
qescfloed aJ
above. but in this case loggiing G not
The.actual axial compressive stress due to
vertjcal loads and
necessary
wind loading is:
This type of floor is used for larger tanks where
the annular
plares allow the weight of the;hell t"
0.827 + 0 433 = 1.26 N/mm, b" ;i;;;
which is well within the allowable stress of 13.125 l9!n99t'ol "p;J stresses
and.atso to carry the radiat bending
N/mm2 for resu[rng trom the dlscontinuity of the shell_to-]loor joint.
this tank. This is discussed in Section 3.3.6.
of.any seismic toading on the axjat compressive The requiremenls for floor plating. especially
ll9
srress:ff""t
rs considered in Chapter 15.
with regard to an_
nurar ptates. differ between the British and Americ;n
l:-r
Codes,
and these are explained as follows.
3.4 Tank Floors
3.4.2 British Code requirements
Seciion 3.3.2.1 explains how the shell is desjgned
for a given
set of conditions and therefore other conditioni,
which ma"y im_ 3.4.2.1 Tanks up to and including 12.5 m diameter
pose additional stresses jn the tank, must
be avojded.
This being the case then the successful construction The floors oftanks up to and including 12.5 m diameter,
and oper_ unless
ation of a storage tank relies on the tank belng sp/ecified otheruise try the purchaser, shall Oe
bullt on a iirm as f) in bection .'-..:
foundation, which will not sufer undue
differen-tial setflement.
The foundation may take several forms and may Th arrangement and details of the floor is as shown Froo. I
be: in Figures
3.15 to 3.17. -'? -
. Flat
Floor plate joints , -: ^!
. Rise to the centre, allowing drainage to the periphery
of the
Referring to Figure 3..17. At the ends of the cross joints fil iniml
IANK in the
. rectangularand sketch plates where three thickness
occu( the ^er_'
Fall to the centre, allowlng drainage to a centre upper ptate shall be hammered down and welded as .CSS,i
sump indjcated
. Fall in one plane lrom one side ofthe tank to the
other, al_
in detail 'A or 'B'.
Floor F
owing drainage to the low point atthe periphery ofthe The ends of the joints jn the sketch plates under the
tank bottom -he |n:
--: B.itsn and American tank Codes give recommendations course.of shell plating shall be joggted anO wetOeO
tor a mini_
':' ihe construction of tank foundationsln Appendix A a;; Ap: mum drstance of '150 mm as shown in Figure 3..16
to ensure a :.veen
::"trix B of each Code respectively. flat surface on which to land the shell olatino.
3ralrng (
--e iank floor is generally formed by a thin steel membrane, Welded joints arity o'
::-s strng ofa number of plates welded together. Thjs mem_ 3.4.2.2
All lappedjoints in the rectangularand sketch plates
:-a-e has little inherent strength shall be futl
':-. s oaded and will conform to totheresjst distortion when the
shape of the underlying
Trrer-wetded on the top side only. Care must be
taken that the Floor a
_:2: weros are continuous to ensure that there will be no leak paths
': - on. The floc
through the joints particularly at the weld pjck_up polnb.
erwtse:
:a STORAGE TANKS & EeUtpMENT
3 Ambient temperature storage tank design

Inot be ur-
settlemef: i'n
*r-
the shei
ntialsetfle.
)rea ofset-
ses In the Jr
e'.]; l Jf,
n edge o. -------,4\; L 60 360 50
)ellplating
pipework Seclion E_E

-_T
at the top
rn severe
se.tion S-S

::-_e 3.15 Typicalfloof arrangement for tanks up to and including '12.5 m di Flgure 3.18 Typicalfloof arrangement for tanks over '12.5 m diameter

n lappec
Annutor
]e areas
)d joints.
rshed off
l.

r plates.
rsuaity a 5ection Z-Z
-welded ,Alldimemions dre in m'limelres
ng ls as
is not :;,'e Eqcking
3.16 Joggled outerjoints !nder shell plaiing srr|p
annular
nto the
Uesses
)r joint.

i to an- -
Seciion F F
lodes.
All dimensions are in millim6trs
)t
o"torr g
Figure 3.19 Joints between annular plales

The arrangementand detailsof theflooris as shown in Figures


3.18 and 3.19. The detail shown in Figure 3.17 also applies to
rnless this type of floor.
3ctton : ,:-.e 3.17 Joints in floof plates where lhree thicknesses occur Minimum thickness of annular plates
Floor plate minimum thickness The minimum thickness of the annular plates (excluding any
9Ures
-le minimum thickness for the floor plating shall be 6 mm, ex- corrosion allowance) shall be:
:. Jding any corrosion allowance, which may be required.
. 8 mm whenthe bottom course of shell plating is 19 mm thick
Yinimum lap in floor plates or less.
n the
r. the
--e minimum lap in the floor plates shall be 5 x the plate thick- . 10 mm when the bottom course of shell plating is over 19
-ess i.e. 30 mm for 6 mm thick floor plates. mm and up to 32 mm thick.
Eted
Floor plate extension beyond shell . 12.5 mm when the bottom course ofshell plating is over 32
ttom -re minimum extension of the floor plating beyond the shell mm thick.
nini- : ating shall be 50 mm. In practice designers usually allow be- Tanks up to and including 12.5 m diameter, if required by the
rre a :,', een 60 and 80 mm to allow for possible shrinkage in the floor
purchaser, may be provided with a ring of annular plates, and in
: ating during welding and also for any irregu larities in the circu- such cases the thickness ofthe annular plates shallnotbe less
aity of the shell plating during erection and welding. than 6 mm (excluding any corrosion allowance).
3.4.2.2 Tanks above 12.5 m diameter
;tull Annular floor plate welding
the Floor arrangement
The radial seams connecting the ends of the annular plates
rths -.e floors oftanks over 12.5 m diameter. unless soecified oth- shall be full penetration butt welds using backing strips as
.'wise by the purchaser, shall be as 2) in Section 3.4.1. shown in Figure 3.19.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 37


3 Ambient tempercture storcge tank design

ts.) 6
JT

Trt

l!t-
ful
ts >tA ts =tL ts ( tL ts < bL
I
!
Figure 3.20 Leg lengths for shelflo floor welds

J
Group I Group tr Crclp Ifl Gm{p IIIA
As Rolled,
Smikilld
As Rolld, A! Rolld, Kitled Nonnalized, Kill.d fll
Killed or Sernikilled

Mautul
A 283M C 2 A ISIMB 7 A 573M,400 A I3IMCS :r
A 285M C 2 A 36M 2,6 A5l6M-3m A573M,4{n r0
A I3IMA 2 G40.2 rM-260W A 5l6M-4t 5 A5l6M-380 r0
A 36M Cmd 250 5.E G40.2 r M-?60W 9 A5t6M4t5 l0
Cl"dc ?35 Gade 25{) G40.2IM-260W 9, r0
a'
CEdc 25o Gradc 250 5,9. lo

Group Vl
Nonnalizcd or
Grolp IV Qoenchd ed Tempercd,
As Roled, Kilted As Ro[.d, KilLd Nomrlized, Killd Xilld Fulc-Crdn Practic. t.
Reduced Cirb6

A 57lM-450 A 662M C AJ73M4E5 IO A 13IM EH36


A 573M4IJ5 A573M4E5 ll A5t6M450 r0 A633MC
,.
g
A 5t6M-450 G40.2IM-300W 9. rr A516M485 IO A 633M D
au
A 5l6M-485 c40.2,M-350W 9. G4O2lM'3mW 9.I0 A 537M Clisr I
A 662M B 6,t0.21M-150w 9.10 A 537M Class 2
c40.2lM,]oow 9 A 678MA
".1
Gzn-zlM 350W 9 A 678M A l3
E2'15 4,9 A 737M B
!r_
El55 9 A 841 12,l3
Gtade775 5,9

Noles:
L MsI of rh. listd roledal spccifcatios numbeF rcfer io ASTM spe.ific"tions (incloding Grad. or Class): tt're alr, how-
r
vr. som .xeFiors: C,10.2IM (including cd.) is a CSA spc.ifiorid|: Gndes E 2?5 ard E 355 (inclrding Quany) atE
contaired io ISO 63Ot and Gmd 37, CEde 41. atrd Grade 44 @ related to national $lrdards lsee 2.2.5).
2. Must bc smikrlled or killed
3. Thickless < 20 trun.
4. Marinum megane* conrenr of 1.5%.
5. Tbictness 20 lnrn manm m whr onuolled-rolhd sle.l is used in pl.c. of no.malizd scl.
6. Megares. cont shall be 0-80-|-2% by bst analysis forthickrEs*s gnllerthar 20 |M,erceprlhar foreach |tdrcoon
of O0l % blow dr speined carbon mar.inum. .n imre.se of 0-06Q mangatlese abo! thc sFcificd mriihum will be Fr-
miud up to lhe maxittlum of t.35%. Thicknesss < 20 nrn shall have a nlngmes. co e$tof0.&'1.?% by lEat analysis.
7. Thickrcss s 25 mrn-
E. Mu$ b kild.
9. Must be killd and made to fine-glain p@ti@.
l0- Mu$ be mrmalizcd.
i l. Mult have chenistry (hal) modified ro a m&dmum calton conrent of 0-20% and a ilaximum mangoes cmtnt of 1.60%
(s 2.2.6.4).
12. Prodrced by thc lhermo-rEchanical conuol process (TMCP).
13. Se 3.7.4-6 for tcab on simulated tsi couDons fo{ mac.ial used in st Ess-reliered assemblies.

Figure 3.2'1 Sample from table 2-3a

38 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambtenl lemperatute sto.ogc z. ^!

Arnular floor plate material


SI Unib
--e material for the annular plates shall be of the same specifi- No6in.l Flelc
:.=: on with respectto strength and impact requlrements as that Thictness ofFirst
Hldr6rllic TLet SrEss in Fir$r Sbll Coor
-':ne lower course of shell plating. She[ Cflrie
(man, < t90 s2t0 s230 s254
{rnular floor plate width
tslg 6 5 7 9
--? minimum width of the annular plates shall be 500 mm and l9<rs25 6 'l l0 1l
:-: fequirements shown in Section E-E of Figure 3.'18 shallalso E<ts3Z69t2ta
:E'Itet. 32<,<38 8 ll t4 l'l
38<r<45 9 l3 16 19
-ap of inner floor plating on to annular plates
--: rectangular plates and sketch plates forming the inner area
:':re floor shall
be lapped over the annular plates by at least 60
* and
- welded on the top side only with a full fillet weld. (See
:;rre 3.18, Section E-E.)
Figure 3.22 Annularfloor plale thickness
Fran API 650, table 3-1

l:tachment of the lower course of shell plating to the floor (H


: ating ^ 4.9. D. 0.3)
t
--: following requirements applyto all sizes oftank.
--: attachmentofthe lowercourse ofshellplating to the annu- where
:- -:oor plates, or in the case oftanks up to and including 12.5 m
: = 1leter, the outer floor sketch plates, shall be by a continuous
D = nominal tank diameter (m)
' :: weld on both sides of the shell plating. H = height from bottom of course under consider-
--: leg length ofeach filletweld shallbe equalto the thickness
ation to the top of the shell, including the top
:':"e annular plate angle, if any; to the bottom of any overflow that
or sketch plate, except that where the lower
limits the tank filling height; or to any other
:: -.se shell plating thickness is less than the annular, or sketch
level specified by the purchaser, restricted by
: ::e thickness, then the following weld leg length shall apply
an internal floating roof, or controlled to allow
: r shellplating which is 5 mm thick, theweld leg length shallbe for seismic wave action (m)

::'shell t = nominal plate thickness (including any corre


plating which is 6 mm or thicker, the weld leg length sion allowance) for the bottom shell course
:-a be 8 mm. (mm)
--:se requirements are shown pictorially in Figure 3.20. The above thickness are a minimum and exclude any corrosion
allowance.
: 4.3 American Code requirements
Annular floor plate width
--: American Code does not classify the floor design bythe di- Annular floor plates shall have a radial width of at least 600 mm
: -3:er ofthe tankin the waythat the Brjtish Code does. The cri- measured between the inside face of the shell and any
--: which determines whether or not a ring ofsegmental annu- lap-welded joint in the remainder of the inner floor plating.
:''oor plates is required is based on the value of the allowable
..-=ss in the material of the bottom course of shell plating. However a greater radial width is required when dictated by the
following calculation;
--- Code collects the various grades of similar quality steels
-::
groups ranging from Group I to croup Vl, the complete ljst- 215. tb
-:s given in Tables 2-3a and 2-3b in the Code and a sample
r - .. is given in Figure 3.2'1.
The detailed analysisofthe width ofannularplates is dealtwith
: 1.3.1 Annular floor Dlates in Section 3.4.3.
-en the bottom shell course is designed using the allowable
The annular plate must also project at least 50 mm outside the
::=ss for materials in Group lV, lVA, V orVl, then butlwelded
outer face of the shell.
:--.rlar bottom plates shall be used.
-:n the bottom shell course Annular floor plate welding
is designed using the allowable
:--:ss for materials in Group lV lVA, V orVl and the maximum Floor annular plate radialjoints shall be butt-welded by having
: -: rrct stress 'Sd' (see equation 3.34) for the
bottom course is their parallel edges prepared for butlwelding with either,
::> than or equal to 160 Nimm, (23,200 lbf/inr), or, the maxi- square, or V grooves. lf square grooves are used, the root
- --r hydrostatic test stress'St'(see equation 3.35) for the bot- opening shall not be less than 6 mm. The butt weld shall be
: - course is less than or equal to 172Nlmm2 (24,900lbf lin2]l, made by tack welding a backing strip at least 3 mm thick to the
-:- lap-welded floor plates may be used instead of underside of the annular plate such that it is centralised under
: ---,velded annular plates. the joint. A metal spacer shall be used to maintain the root gap
l.:nular floor plate thickness between the adjoining plate edges to prevent shrinkage during
welding, although other methods may be employed at the
-:.e annular plates are used their thickness is determjned purchaser's approval.
tub," 3-1 of the Code and thjs is reproduced in Figure
:'ar, Spacing of ioints
-- rydrostatic test stress in the bottom course ofthe shell olat- Three plate lap joints in the inner floor plating must be at teast
-.= s found from: 300 mm from each other, from the tank shell, from butt-welded
annular plate joints and from joints between annular plates and
the inner floor plating.

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 39


3 Amb;eFl lemperatue storage lank design

Inner floor plating Nominal thickness of the shett ptate Minihum size offiltet wetd
The inner floor plating, which is lapped on to the inner edge of (mh,
the annular plates, shall conform to the requirements given be- 5
low for "Floors formed from lap-welded plates only". >5to20 6
3.4.3.2 Floors formed from lap-welded plates only >20\a32 8

Without annular plates '32to45 tO

Where it is found that annular plates are not required, then all
lap-welded floors can be employed. 3.4.3.4 Annular plates >12.5 mm thick

Minimum thickness of lapped floor plates The following requiremenb shall be observed:

The minimum thickness lor all floor plates is 6 mm, excluding The attachment welds shall be sized so that eiiher the leqs of
any corrosion allowance, which may be required. the fillet welds. or the groove depth plus the leg ofthe fi et,lor a
combined weld, is of a size equalto the annular plate thickness,
Minimum width of floor Dlates but shall not exceed the shell plate thickness. See Fjgure 3.23.
Unless otherwise agreed by the purchaser, all rectangular and 3.4.3.5 Shell-to-floor plate welds consideration for spe-
sketch plates shall have a minimum width of 1800 mm and cific materials -
should be reasonably rectangular and square-edged.
Shell-to-floor fillet welds for shellmaterials in croups lV lVA, V
Minimum lao or Vl shall be made with a minimum of two passes.
The overlap in lapped floor joints shall be a minimum of 5 x the 3.4.3.6 Tank floors which require special consideration
floor plate thickness.
The floor arrangements shown in Figures 3. 15 and 3.18 work
Three plate laps well for the range of shapes listed above. They may be:
Three plate laps in tank floors shall be at least 300 mm from . Flat
each other, from the tank shell, from butt-welded annular plate
joints and from joints between annular plates and the inner . Rise to the centre, allowing drainage to the peripheryof the
floor. IAN K

Note: The lapping of two inner floor plates on to the . Fall to the centre, allowing drainage to a centre sump
butlwelded annular ring does not constitute a three . Fall in one plane from one side of the tank to the other. al-
olate lao.
lowing drainage to the low point at the periphery ofthe tank
Floor projection
The floor slope required to give a smallfall or rise in the founda-
The lap-welded floor plates shall project at least 25 mm beyond tion to the centre ofa tank can be accommodated by the lapped
the outside edge ofthe outerweld attaching the shellto the floor rectangular floor plates, as they will "scissor" at the edges to
plating. give a varying lap width down the length of the plate. However
Welded joints when the slope is more acute the "scissor" effect becomes
more pronounced due to the conical form of the floor In these
Lapped floor plates are to be welded on the top side only, with a
cases the solution is to make the floor out of sector shaped
continuous full fillet weld on alljoints. Care must be taken, dur-
oetal plates.
ing welding, to ensure that no leak paths are left through the
joints, particularly at the weld pick-up poinb. Also, if annular plates are required, these will theoretically take
on a conicalform, but as these plates are relatively narrow and
Joints under the shell plating if they are made in shorterthan the normallength, then in most
The ends of the joints in the sketch plates under the bottom cases they will be found to accept the foundation shape and will
course of shell plating shall be joggled and welded for a mini- not require to be developed, or rolled to a conical shape. For
mum distance of 150 mm as shown in Figure 3.16, to ensufe a large diameierfloors it may be found more economical, in terms
flat surface on which to land the shell plating. of area of plate used, to make the floor petals in two pieces. lf
Attachment of the lower course of shell plating to the floor this is the case, then as an aid to erection and welding, the
plating for all tanks pieces forming one petal should be butt-welded together to
form a flat plate thus avoiding another lap joint in the floor.
This attachment shall be by continuous fillet welds on each side
of the shell plating.
The requirements ofthe American Code are more detailed than
the British Code.
The American Code applies two sets of requirements, one for
lapped floor plates or annular plates which are equal to or less
than '1 2.5 mm thick, the other for an n ular plates which are more
than 12.5 mm thick.
3.4.3.3 Lapped floor plates, or
annular plates >12.5 mm thick
The following requirements shall be observed:
1 ) The size of the fillet welds shall not be less than the thinner
'\:
ofthe two plates beingjoined (i.e. the floor or annular plate
under the shell, and the shell plate).
2) The maximum size of the weld allowed is 12.5 mm. A - Filtet$.U si&,linii.d to 13 mts oarinln
A+ a =Thinnerof shlloramutarfl6rpbtethickness
3) The minimum size of weld shall not be less than that Gr@ve weld B h.y rced fillt sie A onty uhe. th annutar I@r plale is lhicker rhar 25 mn
shown in the followino bble:
Figure 3.23 Deiaii ofdouble flletgroove weld for annular floor plates wilh a
nominalih ckness > 12 5 mm

40 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


3 Ambient tempeaturc storqe 8* qr

egs of
for a
rt,
kness.
3.23.
{ spe.

ion
, work

ofthe

et al-
tank
unda- Section 'B - B'
rpped
The adjoining trppd petal pletes are joggled al ih
les to oqter.nd ior at lest 150 mfi. similar to Figurc 4.16
trever
omes :SUre 3.24 Floor plate anangementfor steeper
stoping floo6
lhese
raped -re outer ends ofthe lap joints in the petal plates should bejog- The lap atthe outer end ofthe petal plates is reversed. That is to
j ed to give a smooth transition on to the face of the annular say the annular plates lie on top of the petial plates. This is to
:,ates. prevent the retention of water at the lap joint.
/take
I ano :lgure 3.24 shows the arrangement of such a floor.
Care has to be taken to ensure that there is continuity of the
most
3.4.3.7 Floor arrangement for tanks requiring optimum backing strip for the butt joints between the annular plates, as
d will drainage this strip comes up against the outer edge of the petal plates.
r. For
erms
-}e presence of water in some stored products is highly unde- This joint between the petal plates and the annular plates can
es. If sr'.able. However as most petrochemical products are not mjs-
be madeas a butt-weldedjoint on to backing strips thus giving a
l. the f,ble in water and the fact that they are generally lighter than smooth transition atthejoint. The welding sequence and proce-
er to rater, any moisture in suspension in the liquid, tends to gravi- dure for this approach needs careful consideration to avoid
r- :te to the bottom of the tank. locked-in welding stresses, which can lead to distortion of the
f,ne of the best ways to collect this water is to have a steeper plates.
sloping cone down floor, with a central collecting sump from
f,hich a suction drainpipe can be bken. This latter type offloor construction is often favoured for tanks
storing aviation fuel where it is of paramount importance to
To ensure thatthe droplets of water d rain to the sump it is impor- have "dry" fuel. Water in aircraft fuel lines at hiqh altitude will
ant for the surface of the floor to be smooth, with no lap joints, freeze thus cutting offthe supplyto the enginesriith disastrous
liscontinuities or pockeb for the water to lodge in. results, as airliners are not known to glide too well!
-ihe
arangement of such a floor is similar to that shown in Fig- To keep the fuel clean, these tanks are very often inlemally
Jre 3.24with certain alterations to the construction as follows:
lined with some form of epoxy coating. Also it is a common fea-
The radial lap welds between the inner floor petals is accep! ture to make the relatively small-bore drain line from the sump
able butthere must be nodistortion due to weldingwhich would out of a stainless steel material, because the successful inter-
allow the floorjoint to lift in places thus forming pockets where nal coating a small-bore pipe is difficult. The problem with doing
ryater could lodge. this is that if at some time the coating ofthe bottom of the sump
is damaged or it perishes thus exposing the carbon steel plate.
A means of preventing this, is to design the foundation as a
an electrolytic cell can be set up between the two dissimilar
solid concrete plinth into whjch are set radial steel members at
metals in the aqueous solution in the sump causing the ca.bon
ie joint lines of the petal plates, the flanges of these members steel plate to erode and eventually perforate causing a leak_
f,eing flush with the conicalsurface ofthe foundation. The radial
edges of the petal plates are welded to the flanges (either by This problem can be overcome by making the ma.jor pan of lhe
apping or by buft welding, using the flange as a backing strip) vertical section of the drainpipe in a fibreglass or composite
and hence the conical shape is mainbined. pipe material, which is compatible with the fuel. The connection

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 41


3 Ambient temperature storage tank design

between the stainless and composite pipes may be screwed or ?,


sleeved and clamped.
Se@ndary lank bottom ':-
3.4.4 Environmental considerations

The effects of a leaking tank floor can take a long time to be-
come evident and during this time a great deal of pollution to the
surrounding substrata and watercourses can take place.
Nowadays the protection of the environment is of paramount
importance, and therefore steps must be taken to contain any
product leakage from storage tanks, which contain noxious or
toxic products.
Fioufe 3.25 ExamDle ofdouble bottom with leak detection
It is fairly common for aged tanks to suffer corrosion of the bot-
tom plates, which can result in a hole in the bottom, allowing the
release of the stored product. lt can take a long time for such a :5
leakto manifest itself and during this time a great deal of pollu-
tion ofthe foundation, as well as the substrata and adjacent wa-
tercourses can occur, resulting in a serious ground con-
tamination problem.
In order to minimise, or prevent this occurrence, several con-
struction methods have been devised and these are given in
detail in API 650 Appendix I and in EEMUA 159 and 183.
A few of the methods are outlined:
A) The tank is constructed with a double bottom, which has
leak detection points situated between double plating as
Fiqure 3.26 Vaiation on double boltom conslruction
shown in Figure 3.25.
The space between the double bottom is shown filled with pea
gravel but other materials may be used, i.e. structural sections
or steel reinforcement in bar or mat form as shown in Figures
3.26 and 3.27 . However it is important to ensure that the filling
material gives adequate support to the upper tank bottom
plates.
The drain oipes can be used as follows:
. As a visual indication of any leakage.
. For inserting a hydrocarbon sensor.
. For holding a vacuum in the interspace. The loss ofvacuum
indicates a leak. Figure 3,27 Further variation on double boltom construction
In the event of a leakage, the disadvantage of the double bot-
tom is twofold.
- 1
) Dealing with the contaminated interspace in the confine-
ments ofthe tank and withoutany hotwork being allowed.
2) lf the tank needs to be jacked vertically off its fou ndation
at anytime, then the additionalweight of the double bottom
construction makes this difficult.
B) Two further examples of double bottoms (taken from the
draft form of prEN '14015 -1: 2000) are show in Figures
3.26 and 3.27 .
c) A membrane is introduced in the foundation between the
tank bottom and the underlying substrate as shown in Fig-
Fioure 3.28 Use of membrane in foundation
ure 3.28.
D) The tank is supported off a grillage on a concrete raft foun-
dation as shown in Figure 3.29.
This arrangement is often used for acid storage tanks or
tanks storing very toxic or noxious products where an early
visual indication of a leaking bottom can be detected and
dealt with without delay.
The spacing between the support beams, together with
the height ofthe tank and the density ofthe stofed product,
will dictate the required thickness for the bottom plates.
This thickness is very often more than the minimum Code
requirements and in many instances the thickness is such
that lap-welded construction is impractical and the plates
have to be butt-welded. Figurc 3.29 Concrete raft foundation

42 STOMGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient temperature stotage tank design

carried by the girder, and the allowable design stress is 103.42


3.5 Wind and vacuum stiffening
Ni mm'?(15,000 lbflin2), which is increased by 25% because the
::rihe case ofclosed, flxed roof tanks, the wind load is only ex- load is caused by the wind, then, by referring to formulae by
E-al, whereas in open top or external floating roof tanks the Roark & Young, the required section modulus for the girder can
r'^o also acts on the inner surface which can cause the effect be shown to approximate to equation 3.22 above.
:t. vacuum load. The roofofa fixed roof tank assists in keeping
:E shell rigid and the wind forces are transmitted to the bottom 3.5.1.1 Refining the design technique
:t ---'re tank as axialstresses as mentioned eadier. Open top and The above design procedure has been challenged over the
:r:emalfloating roof tanks do not have the benefit ofthis shell years by a number ofacademics (e.9. Adams, Morton, Zick and
-q,:ity and therefore a circumferential primary wind girder is Mccrath) and the use of more analytical computer methods
:r: /ided at or near the top of the shell to give it the necessary have enabled the design technique to be refined.
;:-ess (see Figure 3.30). This girder is normally attached to
: externalsurface ofthe shelland in many cases is also used Morton found, for instance, that taking the example of an 84 m
platform. diameter x 12.5 m high tank subjected to a 100 mph wind
= an access and maintenance speed, current practice using equation 3.22 suggests a primary
girder having a section modulus of 2610 cm3 which can be
3 5.1 Primary wind girders shown to equate to a girder as shown in Figure 3.3'1, "Detail E",
with a width dimension'b'of 1050 mm.
r.oowledgement is given to the late Professor A. S. Tooth,
>:'essor of Mechanical Engineering at University of Strath- Using a method based on design against plastic folding of the
r'::e, Glasgow for most of the theory that follows. tank, which allows the determination of the girder dimensions
for a given wind speed of 50 misec. (111 .8 mph)it can be shown
-- equation to determine the section modulus ior the primary
that a girder width of 432 mm is adequate, this is less than half
r'-d girder is by: that predicted by equation 3.22.
z 0.58 D'? .H (cm3) equ3.22
\ = Further research conflrmed that a modest girder section pro-
r-ere duced a dramatic increase in the buckling pressurc and that
D and H are in metres.
subseouent incremental increases in the dimension 'b'of the
--. equation is simplistic to say the least and was first pub- girder produced a very small increase in the buckling
rs.ed in the early API tank Codes but is still used today as the pressures.
-s's of primary girder design.
Generally it has been found that for large diameter open top
.:rerallyit is thought that the equation is an approximation for- and externalfloating roof tanks, say over 60 metres in diameter,
-- ated ata time whentanks under construction were less than equation 3.22 is over-conservative and that at, or over this di-
:i: Tetres in diameter. The equation is based on a wind speed ameter the girders calculate out to be unnecessarily wide. Ac-
r13.7 m/s (100 mph) although otherwind speeds may be used cordingly, the present Code states thatfortanks over 60 metres
:, Tultiplying the equation by (V/43.7)'zfor Sl units, or (Vi100)'? in diameter shall, for girder calculation purposes, be consid-
x. mperial units. ered to be of this diameter when determining the section
--e equation may be derived, in Sl units, using the above wind modulus of the primary girder
together with the dynamic wind pressure from equation However, as mentioned earlier, these primary girders are often
=eed
\ :'7.The horizontalwindload, usingtheierms Dand H can be used as access pladorms and therefore. although a narrow
:c?ined from equation 3.18, using a Cr value of 0.6. girder may be found by design this may be increased in width to
r:suming that the girder is loaded by a uniform pressure form a platform having a minimum width to Code of 600 mm.
3::Jss the tank d ameter and is supported by tangential sheaf,
For tanks where the primary girder is located 600 mm or more
r,: that the oressure load on the toD 25% ofthe shell has to be below the top of the shell the Code requires that the shell be
provided with a top curb angle of the following dimensions:
For a top course thickness of 5 mm, the angle shall be 60 x
60x5mm
For a top course thickness of 6 mm or more, the angle
shall be 80 x 80 x 6 mm.
3.5.1.2 Design example
Using the principal dimensions tor the tank in the earlierdesign
illustration in Figure 3.8, but in this case assuming it is a exter-
nal floating roof tank, and using a design wind speed of 46
m/sec, then:
D = 30mdiameter
H = 16 mhioh
= 46 m/s
From equation 3.22:
The section modulus for the primary girder is:

- rd,ai
Z =0.058 30'?16. -" =884.5 cm3
\44.7 )

Referring to Figure 3.31 which is taken from BS 2654 it can be


seen thata "Detail E" type girder willbe sufficient and this has a
horizontal web dimension 'b' of 500 mm when attached to a
:':--e 3.30 Pdmarywind gnder shell having a thickness of mm. I

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 43


br
-l
{rl
F
{
-rE
d
qt
GOX 60X 5 4.84 4.17
-Ii
bd
0x 60x 6 5.50 5.84
Sx 6ox 8 7.13 7.8 -31
,0x 70x 9.70 e90
80x 8ox 12.68 tz92
--f-O
@x anx 6 23.35 vt's tct
70x ?0x 6 3i.84 ll.2{
80r 80x
gox
6 41.fit !|3,/|3
90x 6 6250 54.$ 452
gox $x 8 35.86 47.?4
t@x tox I 66.80 42.41 Tbc
-s
rlsl
t t5f r'|c
I 50x 2a.a 25.1e bbe
Y 60x
t6x
Ig 29.t0 31.06 crd|
68.t0 7t3t
?gxl0 70.26 83.4t rbG
76X S
75Xt0
gL84
r06.38
95.29
112m
Er
?5xt0 r38.r2 143,t0 BS 2f
90x t0 t53.00 t61.a6 !Hh
rit
a eqr
ktt
drs
178 x ?6 120.84 kdml r7250 176.62 FSSJ
N x ,6l?,8rkalml 2rs.s 2,43p
229 X t8 {28.6 ks/rn} ?art8 26&66 -r|]
fhei r
54 x 76 118.29 k3 tnl 36.62 3r3.94
t4 X A9 t35.t4 tdml ag|la {t2.ao !i[en
361 gg l4lJS *tlrnl 52t,30 5:t4.61
3(l x l(lt li08.rg rg/h) 53e.E 6to.a
qr:

ds[
E

341.&t 51451 L
4n22 r'3.ot
314.75 67t rE
ar5.{6 88649
7lr.R 802.18 t
a24.4l 82za
*rG.56 r0a9l}e R
r63.ao fiq).50
1175.t2 t3t7.40 The ir
flBso lr|lt'ts trEfis-
t{5.91 t66rt 323, u
t673.4:l t?5s34
l7163. r917.ot pfessu
t3dt'63 ?o79.$
rt8.t3 22{4.04
ilence
2t70.'A 2421.24
ItE res

l-le '
.t p.r unit aqrn E|sn In prrlrld|rrt. $hn .f,[o!rts!e.
6

Dkridont ia in nlllhatr!|. unllla otha ri:a rtatad.


Thb eq
He

Figure 3.31 Wnd girder sections t


From BS 2654
tni
44 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
This type of girder is normally shop-fabricated in several sec- Note: The coutse thicknesses are to be t-e aa--aaaa:- :,.
: onsand is made offolded plate. In this case there would prob- nesses if a corros,on altowance 1as 3ee- -..t t-: : t: : : .
ably be 12 sections (the same number as the number of shell the tank purchaser.
ates per course). The external flange of the girder sections
3:: -:
3
The total height of the equivalent shell. HE. s founr:_.
.vould be polygonalwith the inner edgeofthe web matching the
-adius of the tank shell. together the equivalent heights of each course .e.

his being the case, then to ensure the desired section


HE = IHe
'nodulus, the minimum width of the web will be 500 mm at the
3.5.2.2 Number of girders required
lentre ofthe section, which will increase, reaching a maximum
.vidth at each end of the section, which by geometry will be The dynamic wind pressure on the shell is obtained Jfcn- :-:
'ound to be 1047 mm for this example. lfthe girder is to be used British Standard CP3, Chapter V Part 2, Wind Loads. pa.3-
:s a platform then the minimum width increases to 600 mm graph 6, and in Sl units this is given as:
naking the maximum width 1151 mm atthe extremities of each q = 0.613.Vs'? eqL, 3 2a
section.
where;
3.5.2 Secondary wind girders q = dynamic wind pressure (N/mr)

3.5.2.1 Equivalent shell method Vs = design wind speed (m/sec)

The shell of a storage tank is susceptible to buckling under the The design vacuum in the tank Va must be added to this, whefe
nfluence of wind pressure and internal vacuum, especially Va is in mbar and the equation becomes:
.vnen rn a near empty or empty condition. Accordingly the De- q = 0.613 Vs'? + 100.Va equ3.27
sign Code recognises this and requires an analysjs of the shell
:o be made in order to ensure that it is stable under these By equating the actual pressufe q in equation 3.26 with the
aonditions. pressure q'to cause buckling in equation 3.23 it is possible to
determine a value for the maximum permitted spacing L of the
The fact that the shell is made up of courses of diminishing
circumferential secondary wind girde(s) on the equivalent
:hickness, makes analysis difficult, so the method adopted in
shell.
BS 2654 converts the multi-thickness shell into a equivalent
shell having a thickness equal to that of the top course, with the Noie: L is given the notation Hp in BS 2654.
reight reduced in such a way that the stability ofthe actual shell
s equal to that of the equivalent she... 0.6.13.vs, 1oo.va_0.8ofjl. 1, rl,
'.rr'orkpresented by Saunders and Windenberg (Reference 3.3) L t_v l',* Rr "qus.za
shows an approximate relationship for the uniform external Then
pressure q'at which elastic buckling occurs in a shoft tube L,
/r'ith ends held circular, or along tube held circular at intervals L. o8?7 E 1 '* t^'
Their relationships have been simplified by Roark and may be l-rp-, .
written as: (0.613 Vs'+100 Va) 1-v' Rr, "ou3.zg

q-. 0.807.E/ 'r \to ro, Taking E = 2.07 x 1011 N/m2, v = 0.3 and expressjng t in mm then
,L -1"
\'_v ,l/ -,
equ3.23 the equation becomes:
R2
wnere: -'= 16,016 I tt J',
equ 3.30
(0.or vs'r 1oo vu,;loll
E = modulus of elasticity for steel (N/mm2)
L By multiplying the top and bottom of the equation by 5.e the re-
= maximum length of shell (m)
sult approximates to the form given in BS 2654 as:
v = poisson's ratio for steel
t 95,OOOltmin' 2
= constant shell thickness (m) -'j |
(3.563 Vs'+5B0.Va)\ D' ,
equ 3.31
R = radius of shell (m)
The individual shell course heights are derived using the di- BS 2654 further simplifies this equation into two equations. The
mensional analysis method and in conjunction with equation first equation being given the constant value K thus:
3.23, with R constant in the equation, an equivalent buckling 95,000
pressure q'is achieved when L ." equ 3.32
tl!. (s.so:.vs'*sao.va.;
Hence an equivalent height of each course can be found from
the resulting equation; BS 2654 stipulates nominal values for Va in equation 3.32 and
these are as follows:
, .25
,, .llmtnt
rle=nl .
_
\t,/ equ3.24 5 mbar for open top tanks irrespective of the design wind
speed.
This equation is used in BS 2654 where: . 5 mbar for non-pressure, fixed roof tanks.
He = equivalent stable height of each course at . 0 8.5 mbar for all other fixed roof ranxs.
thickness t min (m)
The second equation then becomes:
h = actual height ofeach course in turn below the
- 1^
primary rjng (m)
sHo KJ
tmif 'I' ecL 3.33
t = thickness of each course in turn (mm) l D'l
t min = thickness of the top course (mm) Which isthe maximum permiited heightof the unstifiened srel

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 45


s A^ bi. lJ ls!p94!!9!9899!!!i9 9!
For any given tank, the results given by equation 3.25 and Determine how many secondary wind girders are required, 1:.
equation 3.31 are compared and if Hp > HE then the shell is suf- their size and their position on the shell.
ficiently stable and does not require any secondary wind
girders. Vs = 60 m/sec and

lf Hp < HE then one or more secondary wind girders are re- Va = 5 mbar
qurred. Then from equation 3.32: :'_e
For instance if Hp < HE < 2Hp then one secondarywind gjrder is ,, 95,000 ::--
requrred. ^=-=o,u.ll
3.563 60' + 580 5
This girder is positioned at HE/2 down from the primary wind and from equation 3.33:
girder, or in the case of a fixed roof tank, down from the top of
the shell. | r:_
'tts \'z
'
Hp =6.041. | =3.203 m
lf 2Hp < HE < 3Hp then two secondary wind girders are re- le6'l
quired, and are positioned at HE/3 and HE/2 down from the pri-
mary girder, or top of the shell, as applicable. The total height ofthe equivalent shell HE is found as follows:

The comparison between Hp and HE is continued and hence Heforeach course is given byequation 3.24 and is tabulated as
the number of girders is established for each given tank. follows:
.i )_,
In the event that multiple girders are found to be required, and h (m) t (mh) He {m)
this can happen on large tanks having a heavy shell corrosion 1 1.375 12.4 1.375
allowance, then consideration can be given to increasing the
upper course thickness in order to reduce the number of gird-
2 2.375 12.4 2.375 -::.
ers. This then becomes an exercise combining prudent design l 2 375 14.0 r:l
with construction costing to arrive at the most economic shell 2 375 18.9 0.763 :::._
oesrgn. 5 2.375 2J.7 0.433 :"=,
For the method described above to be valid, the secondary 6 2 375 24.6 0.271 :.:.-
wind girders must be located on shell courses having the same 2 375 33.4 0 184
thickness as the top course. lf this is not the case then adjust- 8 2.375 t8.3 0.131
ment to the position(s) has to be made by converting back the ':,-_
equivalent course heighb to their actual values.
Alsothe Code requires thatthe girders must be at least 150 mm As 2Hp < HE < 3Ho ie. 6.406 < 7.147 < 9.609
clear of the hodzontal weld seams, but any adjustment for this
Then two secondarywind girders are required and these are lo-
must ensure that the maximum permitted height of the unstiff-
ened shell, Hp is not exceeded.
cated on the equivalent shell at % HE and /, HE which is
2.382 m and 4.765 m down from the primary girder.
Again, Nilorton found through his research, that secondarywind
Both rings are more than 150 mm away from a horizontial we,:
girders are required on the shellwhen underthe influence ofa
seam and in this respect their position is acceptable. But it ca-
uniform external pressure caused by sufficient wind pressure
be seen that when positioning the rings on to the actual she
and internal vacuum. However. his research showed that the
the top ring is on a course of minimum thickness but the lowe'
use of quite small ring sections produced a dramatic stiffening
ring as on the third course down which is 12.4 mm thick.
effect on a unreinforced shell. And that by increasing the size of
the section did not significantly increase the buckling strength This lower ring will have to be repositioned on the 12.4 mm thic.
of the shell. course by converting back the equivalent shell course heigl"'
He, to its actual value. This is accomplished by taking the se:,
BS 2654 does not require the designer to calculate the section tion of the thicker course, measured from its top edge, down ::
modulus for the secondary wind girders but instead tabulates the position of the girder and multiplying it by the reciprocal :'
the required angle ring girder section size against the tank di- the thickness as shown in equation 3.24 to the power 2.5.
ameter in question and these are given in Table 3 of the Code
which is shown in Fioure 3.32. This is performed as follows:
The section of the 14.0 mm course in this case =
Angle ring girdr (othe. shapEs may b
p.ovided having an equjvalent sectlo. 4.765 -(1.375 + 2.375) = 1 .015 m
modulus) {mm)

100x65x4 This is adiusted to 1.015 x|\12.0-


1A O\25

20<D<=36 125x75 \8
' )
= 1.492 m

16<D<=48 150x90x10 Then the new position for the girder measured down from'.-E -:rs,f
48<O 240 x10O x 12 primary girder is:
1.37 5 + 2.37 5 + 1.492 = 5.242 m
Figure 3.32 Dimensions for shellcircumferenlialsecondary wind giderc
The complete mathematical eouation can be shown as:
It will be shown later in Section 3.6.7 that the American Code
has a different approach to sizing secondary wind girder sec- , | 14.O \2 5 a. _,:
tions. 14.7 65 - (1 .37 5 - 2.37 5) [, x y1.2.0
,^; )
3.5.2.3 Worked example +( 1.37 5 + 2.37 5\ = 5.242 m
An external floating rooftank 96 m diameter and 19 m high hav-
ln this position the girder is also more than 150 mm clear o::-E
ing eight, 2.375 m wide courses of thickness: 38.3, 33.4, 28.6,
adjacent horizontal weld seams.
23.7, 18.9,14.0,12.0 and'12.0 mm is to be designed for a wind
speed of 60 m/sec. The primary girder is positioned at 1 m from The spacing between girders on the equivalent shell is, 2.j.::
the too of the shell. m, 2.860 m and 1.905 m, which total 7.147 m (HE). These s:a:.

46 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambtent temperau'rc sro,age :a'. :: :
.ed rgs are all less than the maximum permitted spacing of 3.203 3.5.3.2 Shell-to-bottom connection
r (Hp) and are therefore acceptable. The stresses in the tank shell have been dealt with ear ier and
:rom Figure 3.32 it is seen that the size of the angle ring girders further analysis is given later in Section 3.6, which deals wlth
s to be 200 x 200 x 12. the "variable design point" method for shell design.
-he girders are located preferably on the outside of the tank The amount of radial groMh and the shape of the expanded
:.rell but can be attached to the inside surface undercertain cir- shell can be best illustrated by modelling the area using a finite
:Jmstances, for example: element analysis computer program and this can also include
the effect of any external piping loads which are transmitted to
ir To prevent a discontinuity in the insulation and cladding
the shell via the shell nozzles.
when the shell is to be thermally insulated.
: To prevent interference with a shell mounted spiral roof As mentioned above, the radial expansion of the shell is re-
access statrcase. strained at its junction with the bottom plating and it has been
found in practice that the full theoretical hoop stress in the shell
-1e disadvantages of internal girders are that:
is not realised until a point which is about JD t above the floor
= They hamper the internal cleaning of the hnk shell. joint. This is illustrated later in Figure 3.40.
: An internal floating cover cannot be inshlled in the tank. The rotation of the shell{o-bottom joint induces stresses in the
bottom plating and the tank Codes give rules, which dictate the
3.5.3 Vertical bending of the shell thickness and width requirements for the bottom plates, which
are immediately under the shell. However, there are no specific
,i hen a tank is being filled with product, the shell willexpand ra- design procedures given in the Codes for this critical area of
:3lly due to the natural elasticity of shell plate material. This bottom plating and whilst this Chapter is devoted to the design
^ atural expansion is restrained at the point where the shell is of the shell, it is difficult to divorce this area of bottom plating
relded to the bottom plating as shown in Figure 3.33 and this from the shell because the shell-to-bottom joint is very rigid and
r;nnection is therefore subjected to rotation. rotates as a unit when the tank is under hvdrostatic load. This is
demonstrated in Figure 3.34.
:3fore analysing what occurs under this circumstance it is nec-
::sary initially to take the simplistic approach in order to estab- The section ofthe floor adjacent to the shell can be considered
-i,r whatform the shell is trying to adopt under load. From basic to be a horizontal projection ofthe shell itselfand this section of
:- grneering principles: the bottom iherefore requires special consideration with regard
to the stresses caused by the rotation and this analysis is
' :.rng s modulus:
included here.
- Stress
Generally it is the larger diameter tanks which need detailed
Strain consideration in this area and it is found that the Codes require
_
en: that these tanks are provided with a ring of annular floor plates
which are butt welded together thus giving a smooth surface
upon which the shell sits.

\:: The expansion of the shell is restrained to practically zero at the


welded joint between the shell{o-bottom plates and hence the
:2-
shelltends to rotate in the outward direction about ihis joint. The
: .., : - welded connection of the shell to the bottom is very rigid and
therefore as the shell rotates, the botiom plate also rotaies
which causes it to lift off the foundation for a distance inside the
- :- tank, until the pressure of the product acting on the floor, bal
;-: ances the lifting effect, this is depicted in Figure 3.34.
.:: This action causes high bending stresses in the bottom plate
and in the toe of the internal fillet weld, which are cyclic, due to
:;,-e 3.33 Shell-to-bottom connection under load the continual filling and emptying of the tank, and thus this area
is subjected to low cycle fatigue.
Stress
Straln = The API 650 Code recognises this potential problem and speci-
E
fies a design fatigue stress of 75,000 /in'z (517 N/mm'?) based
--en change- in tank diameter = Original diameter x Strain.

: 5.3.1 Example

-:rsider the tank in the shell design illustration in Figure 3.8.


--e tank is 30 m diameter, with a bottom course thickness of
-:.6 mm and a shell design stress of 183.333 N/mm2 at a point
: - I mm from the bottom ofthe course (H - 0.3). The tank is as-
: --ned to be full of product with a SG of 1.0.

-:< ng E to be 207,000 N/mm'? for carbon steel, then the Strain

"" """ = 0.000885666


207000

--: change in tank diameter is 0.000885666 x 30,000 = 26.57


-.- or 13.29 mm on the radius. Figure 3.34 Rotation ofthe shell-to-bottom connecUon

STOR,AGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 47


3 Ambient temperature storage tank design

upon 1300 cycles, which corresponds to one, filling/emptying


cycle per week over 25 years.
3.5.3.3 Rotation and stress analysis
H. Kroon formulated a method for analysing the rotation and
stresses at thejoint ( Reference 3.4) based on the following de-
sign conditions:
. The annular plate is considered to be a simply supported
beam of unit width.
. The foundation is infinitely rigid (there is no vertical deflec-
tion).
. The length ofthe beam is the length required to reduce the
rotation at the inside end to zero.
. The rotation ofthe shellis equalto the roiation ofthe bottom
at the joint.
. Radial displacement is zero.
. The design fatigue stress is 75,0001100 lbs/in2.
. The tank is at ambient temperature. Fw . si2e of ftll.i weld per APl, PaE 3.15.7

. The size ofthe fillet welds at the joint are as per the require- a : Tb + Fw +Tst2

ments ofAPl 650 Clause 3.1.5.7 e : Tb + Fw rTs

. Elastic analysis. The use ofelastic analysis for stresses be- P1 = Weightot3hell and Podon olrcolsupported by 3hell
yond the yield strength assumes complete elastic action af- Po : Llqlld Pte3sure
ter a few repetitions of the stress cycle, which will increase P2 = PorFw
the yield strength but leave a certain amount of permanent
deformation.
3.5.3.4 Beam analysis
Figure 3.35 Annular plate loading diagram
The beam is analysed by superposition of the rotation due to
each load acting on the beam. The rotations are determined by
the double integration method.
Referring to Figures 3.35 and 3.36. The unknowns Mc, Ra, Rb,
L, and 0c can be solved from the following equations:

(1) Mc = moment in shell due to load and ec.


(2) e

(3) 0c = e shell

(4) Ra + Rb = P1 + Pr+h^/l -a\


(5) IMb
The example given later which demonstrates the use of H.
Kroon's theory is given in lmperial units, the reason for this be-
ing that the theory is linked to the American API 650 Code,
which at the time was exclusively expressed in lmperial units. @
However for the benefit of those not familiar with these units,
the metric equivalents have been added. See Figure 3.37.

size of fillet weld, as per API 650 clause @


3.1.5.7
Tb+Fw+Ts/2
Tb=2Fw+Ts
\9/
P1 weight of shell and portion of roof supported by
the shell
Po liquid pressure
P2 PoxFw @
Mc= {-4(P1 )[al(L'? a''1 + 2e3a -3e"aL + a"L]

-4(P2)e(L -eXL'z -2e'? +eL)


-(Po)(L -e)'?(2el'z -4e3 +13 +e2L))

{4(-13 -2e3 +3e'?L)l Figure 3.36 Superposilion of loads

48 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


3 A.bi"rt t .F^tun S b*@

Example of a Tank bottom annular plate analysis using a ''Exc6l" spreadsheet


with the '6olv6r' method for evaluating the equations.

Tank diameter *D= 98.43 feet = 30 m


Tank radius R: 49.215 feet : 15 m
l Design liqukl level
Specific gravity of stored produc{ *SG=
629.952
0.9
inches = 16 m

Thickness ol bottom shell course 0.496 inches : 12.60 mm


Thicknese ot bottom annular plate 0.3150 inches = 8.00 mm
Leg lngth of shell-to-bottom fillet weld 0.3150 inches = 8.00 mm
Modulus of elasticity *E= 29000000 lbs/inch" = 200000 N/mm,
Weight of shell + portion of roof supported by the shell 97.63 lbs/inch = 17.134 N/mm
Length of annular plate beam (found by iteration) 13.80185 inches = 350.567 mm
Design fatigue stress Sfat.<=75,000,o.k. S.fat = 43893.79 lbs,/inch, = 3m.716 N /mm,
Characteristic length 0.075103 l/inch. = 0.002957 1/mm
Moment of inertia otshell plate 0.011174 inch = 4651.117 mm
Moment of inertia of bottom annular plate 0.002862 inch = 1191.362 mm
Unrestfained radial expansion atlhe bottom f- 0.496442 inches. = 12.610 mm
Part length ol bottom annular plate 0.87796 inches. = 22.300 mm
Part length ot bottom annular plate 1.44092 inches. = 36.60 mm
Uquid pressure at the bottom 20.473/.2lb6 I inch2= 0.1412 N/mm,
Weuht of shell + portion of roof supported by shel 97.63 lbe,/ inch = 17.1342 N / mm
Liquid pressure on inside filletweld P2= 6.44831 lbs / inch = 1.1317 N/mm
Moment in shell 1075.127 inll&lin.= 4784.442 mm.N/mm
Rotatlon ofshell ls= -0.01438 radians +l
Rotation C1 gcl = {.0034'13 radians I
Rotation C2 -0.00037 radians | 6s mu6t = ec with
Rotation C3 {.024643 radians I opposite sjgn.
Rotation C4 9c4 = 0.042807 radians I OK
Rotation at C 0.01438 radians #
s Rotation at 81 8b1 = 0.002303 radians
Rohion at 82 0.00025radians
Rotation at 83 8b3 = 0.026335radians
Rotation at 94 0b4 = 4.028888 radians
Rotation at B eb= 0.00000 radians eb = 0, OK
Reac'tion at A
Readion at B
288.4169 lbs/ inch = 50.61748
Rb= 68.73185 lbs/ inch = 12.0625'1
Momenl in bottom annular at toe of inside et weld f Md= 714.5033 in.-lb6/in.= 3179.096 mm.N/mm
Hor2ontal iorce at bottom of shell 216.9575 lb6/inch= 38.07627 N/mm
Shear stress in fillet weld
:=
9745.074 lbsrfinch, 67.20741 Ntmm2
Min, width of annular plate (inside shell to tapjoint) (L-e+Fw)= 12.67589 inches. 321.9675 mm

The minimum width oithe annular plate to Apl 650 cl. 3-5.2 is the greater of
the length given by:
390.Tb , , which is
17.87273 inches, or24 inches
{ H.SG y/'
Forthis case the API 650 min. width is: 24 inches = 600 mm

The API rninimun EquirFnt al 6@ ffin is !rv corurvarive In dfs case compaGd wih [ holicar tqutrcneds to H. Kroods

' Manually Inp|dted fi)(ed dsia


- Manualt Inputie<l varibb d.ta
63

6{

Figure 3,37An exampl ofH. Kroon's method for tenK bottom annutar Date analvsis

STORAGE TAI{KS & EOUIPflEI{T 49


3 Ambient tempenture storage tank design

Moment Mc the shell: sc2 hl


The equation forthe rotation ofthe shelland moment Mc can be ffiu"t'z(L-e)-8e3(L-e) Et
found in Het6nyi's "Beams on Elastic Foundations", formula Th
22c, (Reference 3.5). The equation is as follows: -aeL(L -e)(zr -e) 1_.

-l\rc = 2(LXEXIsXr,yo + 0o) 0c3 (Po)(L-et'?, ^ T}I


wnere:
2#(rb)Li (7e'L -4e" -L" -2eL' ) 1)
ft-;\ 8nr{r- -e)3
2,
*it(1-u=).",
I R'Ts' " =o.e-
7, =1ry
JRTs
24qrb)L2

ec = 0cl + 0c2 + 0c3 + 0c4 = -0 shell 3.5


Yo Q xL
E xTb ' wnere: ttp l

Y = PoxR2 e shell = Mc /- v\ l,OL (fr


xTs-(scXH-x)R'?
E xTs
E z(r)(Q(ts) l'' ri exru tcr
tr
ls = , rs- TOI u U.3 --+ lS ts- Horizontal force at bottom of shell: t 5u
=
't211-u, | 10.92 The horizontal force 'Q" acting at the bottom ofthe shell is cal- ffE
\ _,/

-. culated bythe substitution ofvalues in the equation for"eshell' fi


o0 = I_e shett and the transposition of the equation which then gives: rr{
H nll
eshel= Mc I"*- M"*uI'l BS2
"...y.IQL
z().XEXrs) T.. |
H Exrb
^-,.,=i-t:----^, ^ lExTs
\,|=F-
It+l L 2).R' I
liEls
6et
Note: The term (y/H) has been added - to correct the equation XTb E XTS] @
LE \172
for the triangular shape of the pressure diagram.
Rotation at point B: Reaction force Ra: trA
rE
The reaction force Ra acting at the outer end ofthe beam, can
(Found by the double integration method.)
be calculated from:
irdl
lEs
=
'bl
9{. ri
T}EI
air?t"<u-a2)+ze3a-3e2aL+a3L] -o. trat, -q.t"o 6I
(p2pl_e)., ^,
sb2 = +L--Ze-+eL *" _ {rrlr, rtEl
L
6E(rb)L' P
Reaction force Rb:
0b3 = (PoXr- ef e2L) The reaction force Rb acting at the inner end ofthe beam, cal
G
(zeL' -4e3 + L3 +
24E(rb)L2 be calculated from: TlrE I
dl
oM = ze3 rserL)
no = (et) +(ez)+(Po)(L e)-Ra
fttl
^_P-(*,
6E(rb)1',\ a[ rl
Moment Md:
0b = 0b1+ 0b2+ 0b3+ 0M =0 The bending moment Md in the annular plate acting atthe toed -!n
the intemal flllet weld, can be calculated from: -d
The moment of inertia Ib for the annular plate is given as:
-rl
Th3
Md=Mc-(Ra)e+(Pl)(e a) nrt
tzll-v') Combined stross in annular plate:
fr
qEr
Maximum combined stress due to moment Md and horizor d Qttt
f{ force Q is: :an
when u
' = 0.3 then Ib = '10.92
o 6(Md) ^.. KA
o=-+---SUTaI LO
The sum of the values 0b1+ 0b2 r 0b3 + 0b4 is equatedto zero, (rb) (rb), d
and by transposition of formulae the value Mc is found to be:
Where Sfat is the design fatigue stress > 75,000 lbsiin2. ht
Mc = {-4(p1)[aL(L, -a2;+2e3a-3e2aL +a3L1
Shear stress in fillet weld: bt
-4(P2)e(L -eXL'? -2e'? +eL) Era
Maximum shear force acting on each fillet weld is:
-(PoXL -e)'?(2el'?-4e3 +L3 +e?L11 -c
rbl
.:{4(-L3 -2e3 +3e2l)l -+ Shear slress r = E
0.7071 x (Fw)
Rotation at point C:
Solution of equations:
(Found by the double integration method.) IE
0c1 = Figure 3.37, is an example of H. Kroon's theory where all h rsl
jLl -1,rt"2(L-a)-12L2(e a)2 Be1 equalions are solved using a "Excel" spreadsheettogethert tfi
24E(rb)r'
= . the 'solvef' function, which calculates the unknown vari& lou
for a given required target value, allowing also for any cE} ctr
(L -a)+aL(e a)'z(ze + a) -+ar(r -"X21 -") straints which may apply. tE
50 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
3 Ambient lemperaturc storage tan!< aasa-

ln the following example, the thickness of the annular plate 'Tb' The allowable design stresses are defined as:
s targeted at 8 mm.
Sd, which is used in one shell thickness formula, based on the
The variables are the fatigue stress'Sfat'and the beam length working parameters of the tank, including any corrosion allow-
L, ance, which is required to be added to the computed thickness.
The constraints are: Unlike BS 2654, API 650 tanks are designed for a product spe-
1) The rotation atthe shell'As'must be equalto, but opposite cific gravity (SG), which is specified by the tank purchaser. The
in sign to the rotation at point'C'which is '0C. drawbacktothis philosophy is thatthe iank should not be used
for storing products with higher SGs, unless a lower maximum
2) The rotation at point'B', which is'0b, must be zero.
filling height is first calculated. lt is therefore very important for
the tank ownerto keep alltank design records on hand in order
3.5.4 APt 650 to obviate a tank being inadvertently over-stressed.

,Jp to now the British approach to tank shell design in accor-


St, is used in the other shell thickness formula based on the hy-
lance with BS 2654 has been discussed. As mentioned earlier drostatic testing ofthe tank and in this case the corrosion allow-
:heAmerican CodeAPl650 differsfrom the British Code in cer- ance is excluded from the formula.
?in aspects and these difierences are now outlined. For any chosen shell material:
3.5.4.1 General Sd is found to be the lesser of % of the minimum yield
The API 650 Code in its basic form is used for the design of stress, or % of the ultimate tensile stress.
?nks having (for fixed rooftanks) an internal pressure approxi- St is found to be the lesser oI ya of the minimum yield
Tating to atmospheric pressure, orfor a pressure not exceed- stress, or % of the ultimate tensile stress.
19, that which equates to the weight of the roof plates. Unlike
For convenience the API 650 Code includes the stress values
3S 2654 then, API 650 does not have the tank pressure catego-
for a popular range ofsteels in Table 3-2 which is reproduced in
'res (non-pressure, low-pressure and high-pressure). How-
Figure 3-38.
:ver, reference to Appendix F ofthe Code reveals that there are
rrocedures for designing tanks with pressures up to 2% lbf/in2 The tlvo shell design formulas are derived using exactly the
172 mbat\. same principles as the BS 2654 formula but they are simplified
because there is no internal pressure to consider in the tank
r Appendix F, the additional pressure in the space above the vaDour sDace.
stored product is converted into an additional head of product
and this is then added to the design head for use in computing Referring to equation 3.7 and ignoring the term p and combin-
:re shell thickness. ing the constants 98 and 20, the design shell course thickness
-:he in mm is given as:
term 'H'in the following equations 3.34 and 3.35 then be-
Smes 4.9. D(H 0.3). G
td= ' Sd +CA equ 3.34
rr'here:

P = additional pressure (kPa) [1 kPa = 10 mbar] And the hydrostatic test shell thickness in mm is given as:

G = design specific gravity 4.9. p(H 0.3)


tr equ 3.35
-he effect of this additional pressure on the design of the St
-oof-to-shellcompression zone is dealtwith laterin Section 3.8.
The above equations are given in API 650 together with their
{s in BS 2654 there is no provision in API 650 for designing for equivalents in US customary lmperial units (feet, inches and
an internal vacuum condition, but tanks which meet the mini- Ibs/in2), as below:
rum requirements ofthe Code are considered capable of with- 2.6.DtH -l).c +CA
sianding a partialvacuum ofone inch head ofwatergauge (2% td = -:----
roar).
,Vith regard to temperature limitations, API 650 applies only to 2.6. p(H -1)
?nks in non-refrigerated service that have a maximum operat- r-
Tg st
temperature of 90'C (200'F). Howeverthere js provision in
{ppendix N.4 ofthe Code, which allows tanks to be designed up where:
:tr a maximum temperature of 260'C (500"F).
-nis Appendix gives guidance on the desjgn of flxed rooftanks
td = design shell thickness, in mm (inches)

'cr opeting temperatures above 90'C (200'F) but not ex- tt = hydrostatic test shell thickness, in mm (inches)
-edin9 260'C (500'F). D = nominal tank diameter, in m (feet)
-hrough the use ofa iable ofyield strength reduction factors for
:1ree bands of material yield strengths, against four tempera-
H = height from bottom of course under consider-
ation to the top ofthe shell, includjng the top
:-rre ranges, the Appendix shows how the allowable stress lev-
angle, if any, to the bottom of any overflow that
:is are reduced for the various parts ofthe tank. The Appendix
limits the tank filling height; or to any other
a so recognises the need to consider the effect of liquid head
level specilied by the purchaser, restricted by
.nd temperature cycles on the shell-to-bottom joint and gives a
an internal floating roof, or controlled to allow
:rocedure for dealing with these aspecb.
for seismic wave action, in m (feet)
3.5.4.2 Shell design stresses
G = design specific gravity ofthe liquid to be
{Pl 650 has a different approach in setting allowable shell de- stored, as specified by the purchaser
-iign stresses, in that, unlike BS 2654, which uses 2/3 ofthe ma-
ita :erial minimum yield stress for the allowable design stress, Apl CA = corrosion allowance, in mm (inches), as speci-
re-s 450 considers both the yield and the ultimate tensile stress of fied by the purchaser
r- :1e chosen shell material and uses two formulas for determin- Sd = allowable stress for the design condition, in
19 the final design shell thickness. N/mm, (lbs/inr)

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 5,I


3 Ambient temperature storcge tank design

30
:!

v
:.t
'x
Midmum Minimum Prcduct Hydro$atc ..8
Plat Yield StEngrtb Tensile SlrEnSlh Dsign Sdessl/ Test Slress S,
Specificadoo Grade MPa (psi) MPa (psi) MPa{psi) MPa (psi) :-.
ASTM Spcincations -rc
A283M C 205 (300m) 380 (5-5.000) 137 (20.000) r54 (?2.5{10) :
A 285M 205 (30,000) 380 (55.(m) 137 (20.000) 154(22.50O)
7
A I]IM A. B, CS 235 (34.000) 400 (58.0m) l5l e2.700) 17l (21.9m) =
A 36M ?50 (36,000) 100 (58.0m) 160 (L!m) 17l (2:1.900)
-
3,5
A I3IM EH ]6 360 (51.000) 190' (7 r .fin!) 196 (28.44O) 2l0 (30.{00)

A5?3M 400 2?0 (32.0m) 400 (58,fln) r47 (21,3m) I65 (24.m0)
ifl
A5?3M 450 240135,m0) 4s0 (65.m)) 160 (23300) r80(263m)
J'(
A 573M 4E5 290 (42.m0) 485! 00,00.) 193 (28.000) 208 (30.000)

A 5I6M 380 205 (3O,m) 380 (55.0m) 137 (m.00o) 154(2.500) :-


A 5I6M 415 2m (32,m) 415 (60.0m) r.r7 (213m) 165 (24.000)

A5I6M 450 240 (35,0m) 450 (65.0m) r60 (23300) r80(26.100) T{


485 (70.m0) es.Xn) rq5 (28.5m)
_"\
A 5I6M 185 260 (38.000) 173

A 662M B 275 (40.000) 150 (65.0m) lE0 (26.000) r93 (27.90)

A 662M c 295 (43.000) 485r (70.(mr) r94(28.0m) ?08 (30.0m) -.t


A 53?M I 345 (50,0m) 485! {70.(nF) r94 (28.(n0) :08 (30.0m)

A 537M 2 415 (60,000) 55tF (8O.0m) 220 (32.000) 236 (34.300)

A 63]M C,D 345 ($.0m) J85! (?0.000!) l9.r (28.000) ?08 (3o.ooo)

A 678M 34s (50.(m) 485! 00.000.) l9r e8.000) 208 (30.000) ar


A 6?8M B 415 (60.0m) 5s0i (80.0mr) 220 (32.0m) 36 (34.1m) t
A ?37M B 345 (50,m0) 485! (70.m01 194 (28,000) 208 (3o.ooo) 'E
AE4IM 345 (y).m) 485! (70.0m.) r94 (28.(m) 20E (30.0m)

CSA SDecificalions
G40.2tM 2SW 260 (37.7m) + l0 (59.500) l6J (t.8m) 176 c5.5m)
c40.2 tM lmw 3{n (43.5m) ,{50165.300) r80(26.r00) r9l (28.m0)
G40.2lM l5uwT 350 (50.8m) J80r (69.6m4) 192 (??.900) 106(:9.8m)
G40.21M 350W 350 (5O.8m) 150(65im) 180 6.1m) r93(2E.000)

llational Stlndards
235 {34.000) 365 (52.600) 137 (20000) 154 {::.5m)
251) 250 (36.0m) 10o (58.3m) r57 (21.7m) 17t (25.000
215 275 (40.000) ,r30 (62.600) r?2 (25.fin) t8{ (26.800)

lSO 610

EZ75 c,D 265 (38.400) 425 (61,900) r70 (2.r.7m) r82 (36.5m)
-'
E 355 c,D 345 (50.(m) .000.1
490p (? l 196 (28.400) 210(30..tm)
t:
aBy Ngrenent bel{een lhe purchrser rtrd the nrntrfact||rr th tnsil strenstb offtes natrials may b ircreffed lo 515 MP, (?5'000 psi) --e
nirinun ard 620 MP! (90,000 psi) na{inin land t0 58s MPs (85,000 psi) minimum ard 690 MP, {100,000 psi) naxinun for ASTMA
s37M, Cliss 2, !trd A 678M, cradBl. When thi! i! done, th allollrble stressca sb,ll be dtermind as strted in 3,6.2,1 ard 3.6.2.2.

.:

Figure 3.38 Stress values fora popular range of sleels


Fron API 650, table 3-2

52 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient temperature storage tank design

St = allowable stress for the hydrostatic test condi- 3.5.4.4 Shell plate thicknesses
iion, in N/mm, (lbs/in2)
Similarly as for BS 2654, API 650 also specifies minimum allow-
As is the case in BS 2654, API 650 also stipulates that the nomi- able shell plate thickness for the "as constructed" tank and
nal diameter shall be taken as the centreline diameter of the these afe given in the table below.
bottom shell course plates, unless otherwise specified bV the
purchaser.
The API 650 Code quotes lmperial and metric equivalents
throughout its text but only the metric ierms are given here.
An exception to this rule may be requested when ordering a
tank, which is to have a floating roof, as it can be considered Minimum allowable shell plaie
Nominal tank diameler (m)
preferable to have a shell with a smooth internal surface for the
roof seal to act against. For these tanks, the diameter may be < 15
measured to the inside surface of each course of shell plating,
thus avoiding steps between adjacent courses.
36 to 60 a
However, the "one-foot" method in the API 650 Code can only
be used for designing tank shells up to 60m in diameter. Larger
tanks have to be designed using an alternative method known
Then for the shell design above the minimum course thickness
as the "variable design point" method, which is described in
for the 30 m diameter tank is 6 mm and therefore the minimum
Section 3.6.
final course thickness will be:
3.5.4.3 Use of shell design formulae
12.6, 11.O,9.4,7.8,6.2,6.0,6.0 and 6.0 mm.
The use of the shell design formulae can be demonstrated as
follows, using the fixed roof tank depicted earlier in the tank The comparable shell ihicknesses for the tank designed to BS
2654 (Tank shell design jllustration in Figure 3.8) were found to
shelldesign illustration in Figure 3.8, constructed in steel speci-
fication BS EN 10025 5275. be:

From Figure 3.38, underthe heading "National Standards", the 12.6, 11.O, 9.4, 8.0, 8.0, 8.0. 8.0 and 8.0 mm.
Grade 275 Steel has a minimum yield strength of 275 N/mm2 For this particular tank, the only significant difference being in
and a minimum tensile strength of 430 N/mm, the minimum allowable shell plate thicknesses, this being 6 mm
The product design stress js the lesset oI /a x 27 5 = 1 83.333 for the API Code and 8 mm for the BS Code.
N/mm2 and 2s. x 430 = 172 N/mm2. in this cise 172 N/mm2 Comparison between the above table and Figure 3.7 for BS
The hydrostatic test stress is the lesser of 3/. x 275 = 206.25 2654 shows that the American Code is not quite so stringent as
N/mm, and % x CSO = 184.29 N/mm2, in this case 184.29 the British Code as is demonstrated below:
N/mm2
Minimum allowable shetl plate
The tank is 30 m diameter and 16 m high, in eight equal width Nominaltank diameter D (m)

courses. BS 26554 APt650


The stored pfoduct has a specific gravity (SG) of 0.9. < 15

The course thickness is determined using equations 3.34 and 15io<30 15io<36
3.35 as follows:
!
4.9. DrH -0.3t. c >60 10
td= ' +CA
Sd
> 100
03)
tt_4e.p(H
St Whereas the American Code allows a minimum shell plate
For the bottom course: thicknessof6 fortanks upto 36 m in diameter, the British Code
limits the diameter for this thickness to under 30 m.
td-4.9.30116
t
0.31.0.9
r 0-12.08mm Also the American Code allows all tanks above 60 m in diame-
ter to have a minimum thickness of '10 mm. The British Code
specifies a further two sjze categories having minimum thick-
4.9.30r16-0.3'l
tt =
- 134
--- =12.54 mm nesses of 12 mm and 14 mm.
The maximum shellthickness allowed in the American Code is
The greater ofthese two values is taken to be the thickness for 45 mm, which is more than the 40 mm maximum in the British
the bottom course i.e. 12.54 mm. Code.
The calculation can be tabulated as follows: 3.5.4.5 Choosing BS or API shell thickness design meth-
ods
The logical question which comes to mind when considerinq
the BS and API methods for shetl rhicknesses is - which one ii
most advantageous from a commercial point of view? i.e. which
gives the thinner shell for a given material?
This question is not easily answered, because of the effect of
the following variables in the equations;
. Specific cravity (SG) of the stored product.
. Any corrosion allowance (CA) which might be required.
. The varying ratio of minimum yield strength to minimum ten-
sile strength of the range of steels used for the desiqn of
shells.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUTPMENT 53


3 Ambient tempercturc stonge tank design

For SG = 1.0 and CA = I mm.


Shell thicknesses in ( mm ) :-

A.P.l. Values. Final API B.S, Thickest


Courses ld' 'tt' thickness Based on: thickness resutL
Btm. 15.74 13.47 15.7 4 Sd 15.7 4 Same
2 13.86 11.75 13.86 Sd 13.86 Same
1 1.98 Sd Same
10.04 11.98 '11 .98
3
4 10.11 8.32 10.1'l Sd 10.11 Same
5 8.23 6.61 8.23 Sd 8.23 Same
6 6.35 4.89 6.35 Sd 6.35 Same
7 4.48 3.18 4.48 4.48 Same
8 2.6 1.46 2.6 Sd 2.6 Same

thks. Allowed mm mm

For sG = 1.5 and cA = 1mm.


Shell thicknesses in ( mm ):-

A.P.l. Values. FinalAPl B.S. Thickest


Courses 'td' 'tt' thickness Based on: thickness result.
Btm. 23j 13.47 23.1 sd 23.1 Same
2 20.29 11.75 20.29 Sd 20.29 Same
3 17.47 10.04 17.47 Sd 17.47 Same
4 14.66 8.32 14.66 Sd 14.66 Same
5 11.84 6.61 11.84 11.84 Same
6 9.03 4.89 9.03 Sd 9.03 Same
7 6.21 3.18 6.21 Sd 6.21 Same
8 3.4 1.46 3.4 Sd 3.4 Same

. thks. cooe : 6mm 8mm

For SG = 0.8 and GA = I mm.


Shell thicknesses in ( mm ):-

A.P.l. Values. FinalAPl B.S. Thickest


Courses td' 'tt' thickness Based on: thickness result.
Btm. 12.79 13.47 13.47 St 15.7 4 BS
2 11 .29 11.75 11.75 St 13.86 BS
3 9.79 '10.04 10.04 St 1 1.98 BS
8.29 8.32 St 10.11 BS
5 6.78 oot 6.78 sd 8.23
t) 5.28 4.89 5.28 Sd 6.35 tJD

7 3.78 3.18 3.78 Sd 4.48 BS


8 2_28 1.46 2.28 Sd 2.6 BS

thks. code : - 6mm mm

Figure 3.39 Calculalion of compa son of BS and API shells _ page 't

54 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient temperaturc storage tdnk design

For SG = 1.0 and CA = nil.


Shell thicknesses in ( mm ):-

A.P.l. Values. Final API B.S. Thickest


Courses td' tt' thickness Based on: thickness result.
Btm. 14.7 4 't3.47 14.74 Sd 14.74 Same
12.56 't 1.75 12.86 Sd 12.86 Same
3 10.98 10.04 10.98 Sd 10,98 Same
4 9.11 8.32 9.11 sd 9.11 Same
5 7.23 6.61 7.23 Sd 7.23 Same
5.35 4.89 5.35 5.35 Same
7 3.48 3.18 3.48 3.48 Same
8 '1.6 1.46 1.6 sd 1.6 Same

Min. 6mm mm

For SG = 1.5 and cA = nil.


Shell thicknesses in ( mm ) !
A.P.l- Values. FinalAPl B.S. Thickest
Courses td' tt' thickness Based on: thickness result.
Btm. 72.1 13.47 2..1 sd 22.1 Same
19.29 11.75 19.29 Sd 19.29 Same
16.47 10.04 16.47 sd 16.47 Same
4 13.66 8.32 13.66 sd '13.66 Sam
5 10.84 6.61 10.84 Sd 10.84 Same
8.03 4.89 8.03 Sd 8.03 Same
7 5.21 3.18 5.21 sd 5.21 Same
d 2.4 1.46 2.4 sd 2.4 Same

thks. Allowed mm mm

For SG = 0.8 and CA = nil.


Shell thicknesses in ( mm ) -
A.P.l. Values. Final API B.S. Thickest
Courses 'td' 'tr thickness Based on: thickness resu|I.
Btm. 11.79 13.47 13.47 St 't4.74 BS
2 '10.29 11.75 11.75 st 12.86 BS
8.79 '10.04 10.04 St 10.98 BS
4 7.29 8.32 8.32 St 9.11 BS
5 5.78 6.61 6.61 5I 7.23 BS
o 4.28 4.89 4.89 si 5.35 BS
7 2.75 3.'18 3.18 st 3.48 BS
8 1.28 1.46 1.46 st 1.6

Min. th code : - mm mm

Figure 3,39 Calculation of compadson ofBS and APlsholls_ pg 2

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 55


3 Ambient temperature storage tank design

The many differing strength ratios which apply to the last vari_ and for the BS Code, S = 156.667 N/mmr,
able factor, when taken jn conjunction with varying SGs and
CAs, make a generalised conclusion diffjcult. Then taking each ofthe six above conditions in turn. a set of re- a4
sults are obtained which are presented in Figure 3.39. s:
However, it is found that comparisons can be made based on r-(
the premise that ifthe minimum tensile strength is taken hypo_ :o
theticallyto be '166.66yo or more, of the minimum yield strength, 3.6 The "variable design point,, method
fora given material, then the allowable design stress,sd'foithe
One very significant djfference between the British and Ameri-
API equation 3.34 and 'S'for the BS equation 3.7 will have the
can Codes, is the alternatjve shell design method to the
same value and these will determine the shell thicknesses as :!
"one-foot'method which is included in theAmerican Code. This
'St', by deflnition will always be greater than'Sd,or ,S'.
method is called the "variable design point,'method.
Then under these conditions the following is found for various
The American Code specifies that this method mav onlv be
combinations of SG and CA:
used when the purchaser has not specified that the ..one-ioot-
^o
-ic
When SG = 1.0 and CA = O method be used and when the followino is true:
then BS & API thicknesses are eoual.
L 1000 :!n
When SG > 1.0 and CA = 0 H6 equ 3.36 '7
then BS & API thicknesses are eoual.
where:
When SG < '1.0 and CA = O
then the BS thickness is > than the Apl thickness. L = (500. D. t)Z (mm)
When SG = 1.0 and CA > O
then the BS & API thicknesses are equal. D = tank diameter (mm)
When SG > 1.0 and CA > 0 t = bottom-course shellthickness (mm) awa
then the BS & API thicknesses are equal. jve
H = maximum design liquid level (m)
J
clos
When SG < 1.0 and CA > 0
then the BS thickness is > than the Apl thickness. The above condition is found to be satisfied for most tank sizes
Figu
with the possible exception of certain tanks, which have larqe
3.5.4.6 Worked examples n Fi1
diameter to height ratios.
'tam
The following worked examples demonshate the validity ofthe Alsothe Code specifies that this method must be used fortanks sign(
above statements: larger than 60 m in diameter
The
Taking the 30 m diameterx '16 m high tank used in eadier exam- '
in th(
ples, which has 8 x 2 m wide shellcourses, and using the steel 3.6.1 "Variable design point,' method development ano I
specification ASTM 4131 Gr. B which has a minimum yield note(
strength of 235 N/mm2 and a minimum tensile strenqth of4OO The "vaiable design point" method normally provides a reduc_ junct
N/mm2. tion in shell course thicknesses and total material weight, brr: juncti
The ratio of UTs^field = 170.213%. more important is its potentialto permit construction of laloerdi-
The f
ameter tanks within the maximum plate thickness limibtion.
This is more than 166.66% and therefore satisfies the require_ stzes
ments for this exercise. The following work, developed by the late professorA.S. Too0-
Professor of Mechanical Engineering, University of Strath_
sd = 156.667 N/mmr, St = 171Y29 N/mm' clyde. clasgow explains how the method evolved.
The e
Diaheter of i.nk -
I neate
220 n (07 m)
From
there l

t92 ential
Fsnl and c
E
stress
3
consic
dition
a mrul
3 i0lb!rl#r1000 shell.
55.2 68,t N/mm,
used t
loadin(
8 than, c

Assun
stress
c - wrth radlal growth and approa
posed
into AF
Bottom colrse t - 1.'l22ihs. ln this,
which t
tained
12 14 ,16 18 20 22 24
42.7 96.5 110,3 124.1 137,9 151,7 i65,5
26 28 30 32 edges i
170,a 193.1 206.8 220.0
self-eqr
slEin qa!!e measurcme"is takei d Average clrcumlern!.t stress
a pressur
Figure 3.40 Disttibulion of circumferential stresses in a tank 220 ft (67 m) diameter and s6 ft (17.1 m) high with
the "de
different base boundary condkrons mum fo

56 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient temperature storcge tank design

::k and Mccrath analysed a number of large tanks, which 3,6.2 The bottom shell course
.: designed using the "one-foot" method. The analysis used
s f,ased on a computer program developed by Kalnins lnthis, To explain the "variable design point'method, starting with the
]-e basic shell equations are solved by a step-by-step integra- bottom shell course, it is assumed that the junction of the verti-
:,:- method. A number of comparisons are made to examine calshelland base connection is "pin-jointed" -that is, there is no
:-. influence of different base restraints and of different allow- rotational restraint and no radial growth allowed at the base
:: e design stresses and tank size. junction. The fixing moment is thus zero and a horizontalforce
Q is required to susiain the no radial growth condition.
:ecause the theory was formulated some time ago when the
r.-:erican tank Code was written using lmperial units, the the- The value ofthis force can be obtained from shellanalysis, the
:,-. is similarly in the same units. However, the equations of the procedure being as follows:
.:*ed examole atthe end ofthe Section have been converted The hydraulic head produces a linear variation of the radial
.E .:3 the now more acceptable metric units. pressure in the vessel. This is maximum at the base and zero at
c:'
- lirre 3.40 provides a plot showing the distribution of the cir- the liquid level. The value of this pressure is th, where Y is the
specificweightofthe liquid in N/m3 and h is the height offluid.
:-lferential stress in a tank 220 ft (67 m) diameter and 56 ft
'-.1 m) high, for three different restraints:
A = no rotational restraint and no radialgrowth i.e. a hinge.
B = allows radial growth but no robtional restraint
C = allows radial growth but with robtional restraint
' s noted that the differences in these three cases are small,
:Aay from the edge. The two strain gauge values presented
:,e a measureof confidence intheanalytical method,showing
:,:se agreement with curve C.
: The circumferential stress oadue to the hydraulic head is:
;Jre3.41 providesresultsof theanalysisforthesametankas
r :igure 3.40 but with three differentvalues of allowable stress,
-;-nely: 17,850, 23,000, and 30,000 lbf/in'z. The tanks are de- ",
=r'n =t(H-D equ 3.37

<-i :.;ned using the API "one-foot" method.


The free radial displacement ofthe cylinder at any height x, de-
--e variation in the stress levels is noted. The maximum stress pends upon the values ofthe circumferential stress 6and axial
'-.he bottom courses is reasonably close to the design stress stress ox
rt :-d in upper courses is less than the design stress. lt is also
-'::ed that the location of the maximum stress at each course t,
W =;(oo -vo.)
-:- !-ction occurs at approximately one foot, or higher, above the
t-: r-_cttOn.
where
--e final comparison, shown in Figure 3.42 is for two different v = Poisson's ratio
:,zes of tanks:
For this treatment the axialstress is ignored. Thus the free base
1) 280 ft (85.3 m) diameter and 64 ft (19.5 m) high. radial displacement from equation 3.37 is:
2) 120 ft (36.6 m) diameter and 48 ft (14 6 m) high
W=r oe = _
.tHr2
equ 3.38
--e effects are similarto Figure 3.41, though the smallertank is
-Earer to the design stress.
To restrain this radialgrowth to zero, the bottom plateweld must
:-om the plots contained in Figures 3.40 and 3.41 it is clear that
exert a horizontalforce Q perunit length ofcircumference in the
:-ere is some variation in the magnitude ofthe actual circumfer- inward direction. The deflection at the cylinder end due to Q is
:-tial stress in different courses ofthe tank. The bottom course given by:
=-d occasionally the second course are the most highly
::essed. This is unfortunate sincethe bottom course is usually Qr3
equ 3.39
::nsidered to be the most vulnerable course in the tank. In ad- 2KB"
: :on it may have piping attached, resulting in the possibility of
::hrust and/or bending moment, being superimposed on the where:
-.-ell. lt would therefore be desirable, if the design procedure x = et,'r[rz(r-")]
-sed produced a shell which, when subject to the hydrostatic
':ading, had a stress in the bottom course which was lower and
:-an, or of similar magnitude to that of the upper courses.
:ssuming that most designers would prefer the maximum - -r.\2
'
g'=e(r
-.-:ess in each shell course to be the same value, an alternative "';1
- 1

\Ll '/
:oproach to calculate approximate plate thicknesses was pro-
:osed by Zick and lvlccrath in 1968. lt was later incorporated The membrane displacement (equation 3.38) and the edge
-:o API 650, but not into BS 2654. bending displacement (equation 3.39) must be equal.
^ this, the location ofthe "design point' on each shell course, at . Qr3 _ yHrz
rnich the hydrostatic pressure is to be considered can be ob- zKp" Et1
the radial and rotational movement of the plate
=ined from joint. ynr
-ges at each The movements are those caused by the ^ equ 3.40
-:elf-equilibrating forces and moments and by the hydrostatic 29
::essure. The aim is to find the point in the shell course called
ae "design poinf', where the stresses are close to the maxF This force produces a mid-surface circumferential stress. At a
':um for that course. location x from the cylinder end this is:

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 57


3 Ambient temperature storage tank design

Diameter of Tank - 220 i (67 m)

De.iqn slrcss in lbs/in'{lumm2) =

\2.4) 8

-a
(4.88) 16

.g
l7.t) 24

(9.75) 32

112.21 tro

(,{.6) a8
cdr.. !*a h rfdrd l(|l|m)

o7.1) 6a
16 t8 20 22 21 26 2A

110,3 124,1 1!7,9 151,7 165.5 179.3 193.1 220.6 231.4 Nlmft?
Avefag clrcumlerentlal sfss

Figure 3.41 Actual slresses by analysis in a tank designed by the "onejoot' method, with API stress limits

Dianete. or tlnk = 280 n


-!.
tt m.a.rqtl.nl.120n {!.6r } - | ::r
ocsrln s!t6r66 a lF I nr (N/ffilf l= 17,gc
:ri
--.............. Top @E1hk . In ! ircrE E ( Fn l
0 -
0.x/5 (9.5)

****"*?.Si \2.411

i (484)
61r org fi<s in. (

Qql a
T.p @Ea
\-
f r3. ln : i.t+' & i mm )
0.25 (6.4) ml,:;1) o.3)

ift*6e ( M )

t4 86) 1e ffi{rF}-=> Ith @u'E


0162 0s.1)

.-
hts in a
(s.75)

i"t.':xti"llli-**'"' rdE&(ml \
i.73) 24
0,402 (10.2) \ )
0.9.{ (21.0)
& (122)

3rd coLdh thr! - ** .^j'r- irirE&(M)


" ^,
o5a2/j'!8t I 111 (2'.o)
(a 75) 32 ) {r1.8}

z1d cou.tnks. ir i- hcrr.s & ( mm ) Inc]*&(mm)


0.@ {17.3) 1.335 (33.9)
\124.o \ (i7r)
Bdtrncolsthra h : iEhFE (mln )
\ 8o0om d.efi* n: ifr+t & ( m |.-..-
0 e82 {^"} }
1.&,9_---r I
I
i
(14.a) 10
6 I t0 't2fift1A2AA2A 30 32 Sa lbc/in,r1om
56.2 QI 965 tto.3 12a.1 t3/9 151,7 16A5 1193 1SO.1 2GE 2206 234.1 N lFn'

Average clrcurnleretllal st'ess

Figure3.42Actualstressesbyanalysisinsmallertanksdesignedbythe'onejootmethod'withAPlstresslimits

58 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient tempe@turc storcge tank design

^ OB -"^ Bx tained. The value which provides the numericalvalue given in


't1 z e.cos: |
oa=
APl650 is a heightofx equalto 1.4949Ji;, which givesthe fol-
:'om equation 3.40 lowing equation:

yHr -o. Bx Y r-7- n fa


'l-v'llx 't .4949-E
oo=r. e''cos] equ 3.41 B"=1i31
'r y wllt, r
" - 1.9216
--e total mid-surface circumferential stress at any location x Substituting this into equation 3.42:
-trm the end is given by combining equations 3.37 and 3.41
o" - 11" su ro
66s1.1.92161,I!11 {xr.4949.fi,
oo = -y !I
tr "'r,,
cospr*111H-x1
I rt '
equ 3.42 "!t,t'
-: jllustrate the behaviour of equations 3.37, 3.41 and 3.42 a
-.cciflc examDle is considered: ",=fr.osos-r!1ryF.
- this the tank diameter D = 76 m, the height H = 25 m and the
:- ckness of the bottom course t1 = 40 mm. Putting oo = Sd = Allowable design stress and rearranging:
--e distribution of the circumferential mid-surface stress in a . t1r ,, ^-^^. YHr 1 4949!ft1
zlk in this case full of water is shown in Figure 3.43 for the vd
:-'ee equations. The following poinb are worthy of note.
' The stress due to the edge bending (equation 3.41) is Noting that the thickness te is the thickness obtained from the
compressive at the base and dies awayJairly rapidly hydraulic loading, i.e.
reaching a turning valueata heightof 1.83,/rt,= 2266 tt
vHD
t^=-=- vHr
equ 3.43
from the base.
-"d
: The stress due to the hydraulic head (equation 3.37) is
tensile and linear.
. h = t.osos 'a'a la
r'+v+v \
/rt^ .
: The combined stress (equation 3.42) is tensile and has a to H l"to
maximum at a height of 2040 mm. When the edge bending
and hydraulic head stresses are combined thgposition of From equation 3.43:
the maximum stress is always less that 1 .83 Jrt, as shown
by the plot of Figure 3.43 (in metric units). i!, = 1.0503 1.4949
l*, t,
l]:
\

1e value of the height x at which the maximum occurs, de- to l/sdH lto l

:ends on the geometry ofthe tank. The value used in equation


: 42 to derive the equation presented in API 650 (that is equa- Substituting the nomenclature and dimensions of API 650:
:on 3.47) is uncertain to the author. -_.-
lne can but surmise that a number of actual tanks were ana-
t, _r.osoe_r.+9+s-'62 1q6p) ir
',.sed using the exact shell theory and an average value ob- to ! 12'S"12H \/r,

100 -5o o +5o


Crcuniare{ iel mid - surfiac4 sbess in N / mrii

:gLre 3 43 The variation of crrcumferentral mid-surface siress In a lank, 76 m diameter and 25 m high. with a botlom course lhickness of40 mm

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 59


3 Ambient temperature storage tank design

Ir = 1.0503 -'l .4949 x


l;n,
0.329i;;
1.3751[, t1 equ 3.48

then the second course t2 should be the same thickness as the


bottom course t1.
lr=.r.osos-0.+srsS
to H
EE
l/ sd
lto
equ 3.44 2) The influence of the second course is negligibie when
h1=2.625nF '\ equ 3.49
This is a quadratic equation in t1lto. lt could have been used in
this form in the Standard. However, it was simplified into a linear o/ When ---iL lies between 1.375 and 2.625 a linear varia-
form. lt would appear that this was done be examining a num- {r'Ir
ber of vessels of different diameteE, heights and allowable tion is introduced, and this is as follows:
stress design values and solv'ng the quadratic equation 3.44
exactly. lfthis is done it is found that the (tr/to) values are in the
range of 1 to 0.87. 2.625{a
Itwould appear that the lowest value was taken, one presumes
for conservatism.
Putting this in equation 3.44: "rittt
rt, _ -1.{Jb{J3
^-^^ ^.^.^D /HG E^
0.491E- r-v'0.E7
to HlSd 1.37si!;

r
'l i iEa"n l"-
lr.rn
^r^a ^ equ 3.45 ri - t2a
+ u1t e
(2.625 - 1.37 5).\E (2.625 - o.)Jttl
Afurtherfactor of 1,01 was introduced to eouation 3.45 to com-
Densate for a oossible loss due to a thinner second cou6e: . . 12.625 a\
..t,=(t1 _tra)-
.
\ ^ t;-iF
- t-'
/'"
to=r.06t-0.463"HlSd
equ 3.46
/ ^\
r" =(r1 -tr")l 2.1---*
Putting t0 = 2.6 HD modified form ofthe previous basic \ t.z? )
|

/aoa
eouation 3.46 is obtained as follows: when the height of first course is equal to:

t. f r.oor o +og
P /Hcl 2,9!qc , ca equ 3.47
.,'^ft, i.e. o =h, i fi :
I H\jsol sd the thickness is:

where: t, = t," + to = t,". tt, -tr"{z.r--fi-l equ 3.i:


D = nominaltank diameter (ft)
H = height from bottom of shell to top angle (ft) where: :*
G = design specific gravity of liquid h1 = height of the bottom shell course (inches) E
= allowable design stress for calculating plate
thickness (lbfi in'?)
12 = final thickness of the second shell course
(inches)
r-
--
tr = thickness (inches) Iz^ = thickness of the second shell course calcu-
-sr{
lated in the manner described for the upper
CA = corrosion allowances (inches)
shell courses (and given in Section 3.6.4)
:Et1r
:a'
Equation 3.47 combines the circumferential stress due to the (inches)
hydraulic head (which is tensile), with the compressive cir- -_E
cumferential stress caused bythe radial edge restraining force 3.6.4 The upper courses
atthe base oithe shell. lt also incorporates a modification to al-
low for the effect of the second course. lt becomes conservative
For the upper courses the "design point" required to proi,r :i-:r
wien the height of the bottom course is greater lhan 2.625
the maximum stress is obtained by examining the expans'Jr
Jr.t1, (where r, isthe tank radius, in inches). In such cases, the and rotation ofthe girth joint. For a design where the thickr:=
bottom course thickness need not exceed the thickness calcu- ofeach course is determined bya common stress, the thec'-=-
lated by the "one-foot" method. cal location ofthe "design point'is at a variable distance a:,rc -.ts
the bottom ofthe course in question and this is examined as rJ- 3
3.6.3 The second course IoWS:

The elastic movement of the upper shell courses at a q:n:r rg


The second course is more complicated because the restraint girth joint are shown in Figure 3.44. The dotted lines are the:r- rft ,
ofthe tank bottom raises the location ofthe maximum stress in sition the shellwould adopt if itwas allowed to expand free ,. -r-
the bottom course of larger tanks, to the vicinity of the girth joint
ncl
der hydrostatic loading i.e. "unrestrained radial groMh". lt =
=-
between the first t\ivo courses. lt is dependent u pon the height of sumed that a uniform radial load is applied at the lowerec:E r
the bottom course and the value of the bottom course. the upper course moving the unrestrained shell to point 2
There are three empirically based equations which govern the Point 3 is the point where the deflection curye crosses ths '-r
calculation ofthe second course thickness and these are given deflection curve at a distance ot'l.22Jr'Iu. This value -.
as follows: same as given in Figure 3.43 since oe and w decay in er3il
-
1) lf the height of the bottom cou rse is less than or equal to me same way:

60 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient tenpe@turc storage tank design

Varisblo design Point

o.er.c [t r",n'-
,/ | E.i
II

-../\
Min. height of /
whn L- 1.0;c = 0; )(2
io

0.61Viru-. fU 4 .-l
LE]U J

joinl
:9u courses at a tvpical girth
3.44 Elastic movement of upper shell

9f P!
ur, =
2KB'
"-o''"o. r
-he deflection w is zero when cosll = 0' i e'

r
Bv r. . rr -;--\r
rr
r E
| 2=:andX-^;
2p z i/3(1 ")
I(
t=_
1rr a^^]a
^ 2 1.2854
the mid-point be-
leferring to Figure 3.44' point f .is taken as at this
.r""n in'" point 2 and point 3 The deflection
"ni
fi--po;idff;; oiztlt'i tt'" o"n"cton at the end (point
either side of poini 2 in Figure 3 44
Figure 3.45 Portion of cylinder on
2J.
_he can be approximated by From Figure 3.44
average deflection 6-" at point.2
-.,-nJ in'"-:t"""ut" urea""
method ln this it is assumed that a .nr2 ^rhr2 -
of point 2 at the girth joint' c l_L = r-L - b:ve
ii[" u,[" JtJ"i on either side Et. EL
s involved as shown in Figure 3 45
3 53 gives:
6 Substituting for 3""" from equation
-he effective cylinder length = fi +

issume that the hydraulic pressure at


girth point 2 is.constant
a -1-1
I I*.11t I>l
'-
t") I
equ 3.54
;;il; length Thus the pressure times the
;tr""G;vlinder " I' r,,+\/r+/+\l
lr+(tIrur'vlrr\r,l
:rcjected area:
equ 3.51 if
ru(fi*"fq) .,t
,5
-nis pressure is resisted bY:
equ352
t
:r- s(t""E.t-[tr,-)
.nere S is the stress in the vessel'
- - [r*"Rl
11+ KJK l
52 must be equal:
,:- {eplying equilibrium' equations 3 51 and 3 -.,R(K-1)
!-
-1d therefore: ^- 1+ KJK
equ 3.55

.=rn,,t[f[
LJrL rL{nL +
The location ofthe design point above
the girth joint' for the up-
from the resulting
i"rti".l" in" ow"esi vatue obtained

,-.?*lffil
J",
= three expressions:
equ 3.53 equ 3.56
X''+0.61rfi+0 32Ch,

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


61
3 Ambient tempeature s-torcge tank design

Dlanerter of tant = 220 tt (62 ml

e.u) a
K.-';#?ti 0.sr5 (9.5) 0.375 {9.5)

***ru;\
(2.14)

-*"$*- 0.37s (9.5)

b)
(4.8) 16

srn.co,'B.hrr.hi. t: (
.'a \: (1.86)

; f/ 3)
rn rlera{ mm )0.!7e{r7.2) 'i
)
..\rr$ C/.3)

i
=
E
a (s.75)
[ldr6t(mm)0-932{23.7)
I
,rr,Lr\ "*tt.rS (8.75)

(12.21 4)
Ml6 &( mm ) t.154 (29.3) I
I
,**l) \ ,r*,r5.S,
(rz.2t

?n.t coula lhkr :.


ll
(2S.8\l
ln !.r75
[1d|.. &( ) 1.56a (39.7) ,.r*or.aj{
01.) 18
'tlm \ (14.6)
Botom cou! thkr hiiici6itl''ml I
n$]ljkttl t.sr
!y.-sL-." 1.048 (?6.) '

o7.t 50
10 12 1jf t6 18 20 A 21 26 28 30 32 3,1b6lHx1000
68.9 a?t 96.5 110.3 12d1 137.9 151.7 15.5 170.3 193.1 N.A 20.A ?U-a N,
'il'nf
Av.nge clrcr|mf6red.t strsrt

Figure 3.46 Aclualstesses by analysis in a tank designed byihe "variable design poinf method (fullline) and the "one-foof method (chain dotted line)

qrrrGrolTn .l$n ( $.3n I


O..isn !tr..- lrb6 rif ( li f |nflf t
I
)
I
!
I
t
I'rk3.h:-kEt!&(|d) a
I

cqrc.lhk! in r (
o.qEtht* hc'|6 iddr!&('lm )
\'.\-
lh :- C ( mm l

tz() a
fl
I
o
0.78 (r7.8) 5
({88' 16
T
o
(7.3' 2a
t
z
cou!thk . h :. lnclr.& I rml s
1 06 (26.9) 2
\e.75) p 5
d'|'-oeh 'T.ilruj,'\ 'l
4
1,388 (3S.3) I
112.4
c
coufi6ll1l(a. h I i'Et|e ( ftln

(r1.o , t
6 610 12 ta 16 18 20 Z.21 8A $32 3a b./f xlm t
/r1.4 55.2 .*g 82.7 gS.5 110.3 12a1 1?7.9 15.t.7 16.5 t793 t93.1 zGO U).A ruA Nlwrf I
Av.Es. clrcumt r.ntd sb.ss ,]

Figure-3.47 Aclualsiresses by analysis in smallerand in larger tanks designed by the'vriable design poinl" method (futttin) and the'one-foof method (chain dot- I
Ieo nnel I

62 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient tempercturc storage tank destgn

equ 3.57 3.6.6 Comparison of the thickness


results
Xz = Ch"
forthe same tank butthis
equ 3.58 Bv repeating the previous calculation
\ =1.22Jrt, ii." I"tg ii;1"""-foot"
made
method' a comparison can be
between the two results'
Section 3'5'4 2:
joint Using the "one-foot" method from
thickness of the upper course at the performed using the prop-
(inches) For simplicity the catculation will be
erties tor tne "high strength' steel only'
joint
thickness of the lower course at the N
Then Sd = 193 N/mm2 and St = 208
mm'z
(inches)
respectively:
heioht from the bottom of course under
conslo- So equations 3.34 and 3 35 become
nu
to ttt" top ungle or to the bottom of the
4.9.D(H 0.3) t:+'.,n
^ ^"
"r"iion
overflow (inches) '-
trl= '
sd

^- V^(^
r, equ 3.59
4.9 D(H
\ -0.3)-
1+ KJK ft-
St
ryhere:
For the bottom course:
t.
v -:t 0.3) 0.9
+,, .4.9.60(18- _1.0-25.27 mm
t 193
*he expresslon for C in API 650 is given as
4.9 60(18-0.3)
5(k ff* _ =25.02 mm
Ko - '
1) 208
a_ ' -,
k to be the thickness for
(1+ The qreater ofthese two values is taken
the b;ttom course i e. 25 27'
3 59'
.hich gives the same numerical value as equation follows:
The calculation can be tiabulated as

3.6.5 Detailed "variable design point" method cal'


culation

-1e preceding calculations require an estimated thickness for


r8.66 1910 19.1
le upPer course tu. 3 2.25 19.10
161
16 01 15.48 16.01
95
obtained by the 2.25 10
-lis can be achieved by using the thickness
';;;;i':;;th;; aleo usins the thickness,or the 5 225 8.7

previously calculated' the value c can be o0-


"quaiion 2.25 645
"*L. "oro",iiii. xl, X2 and X3 can be calculated The lowest
ii"t
=i""i.
il;;;;;il;' i" then used to derive an improved value ror
i in a modified version of equation 3 36:
in mm' isasfollows:
2 6'D(FL-X/12)G The comparison between the thicknesses'
tx +cA (lmperial units)
Shell 3 5 6 7 8
Bim
-':is first value of tx is used to repeat the steps previously de- 9.9 9.0 8.0 404,843
the suc- 222 16,1 13.0
*riiuO,'*tiitr't"t" only a small difference between 25.3 19.1

"
r"..iu" vatues otx. lnv;riably only three iterations are neces-
25.3 214 1a.5 15.4 12.4 8.0 8.0 394,190

:ary to satisfy convergence' 0.5 10,653


0 0.8 0.6 0.7

--e result of using the method is a tank where the upper


thinner than those obtained with the The saving in terms ofweight of steelfor
the tank is 10'653 kg
=rrt"."l*
::ne+oot' metnoo. when analysed using the Kalnins.program'
"figl'ttly point" method
ofthe actual in i"uort o't tn" "uutiable design
i.i u"o furcCi"ttt found thatthe maximum values welding time' th!s less
;;;;;il;;llwiththe design stresses - see Fisures 3 46 Also the thinner plate gives savings in
-o maximum stresses in each course have a
s-.i2. in"t i. ttt" ;;il;i;il jiant a-nd weloing consumables are utilised
srrilar magnitude. A further comparison is now made, with
the shell designed to
and the resulting thicknesses arefound
to
--rs reiterative method is somewhat labourious and was very fie, #
zoiz
"i"in"J
t-" for designers prior to the advent of modern be (in mm):
"onau*ing *hich-is ideally suited for programming the 2A.O,24.5,21.1, 17 7, 14 3,10 9, 10 0 and
10 0
=^ort"i""t*"","
calculations.
-ove The weiohtofthis shell is 454.450 kg which is 60'260
kg heavier
: . .i av of illustration Figure 3 48 shows a typical example
of the
i;;;'il;;h;i;;"'sned to the APl 650 variable desisn point'
;';ithi; metnod ot iatcutation and is reproduced
in its en-
ilil;;, ;;;;r,6d7 ks heavier than the API 650 "one-foot"
the minimum allowable thickness for the
rr"ty on pages 64-75. r"inoO. Ho*"u"t'
il;;;;;;;;;ii#;;k"s desisned to BS 2654 is 10 mm instead
--e authors are grateful to the late Professor A S Tooth' Pro- toilg,srz kg of the additional shell
l,l"ct'an]cal Engineering, Strathclyde University' to re- ;f"#;il u""ount"
==tJJ
:rsuce these calculations in full' weight.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 63


3 Ambient tempenture storage tank design

Desion of Storaqe Tank Shell platino to A.P.l. 650. 1oth. edition Nov 1998 + Add.1. tvlar 2OOO.

Client: A.Another.
Site: Europe.
Contract No. C m1
Calc. No. C 001 /001
Tanksize: 60m dia. x 18m high.

Calculation in accordance with the 'Variable - design - point,' method (clause 3.6.4. ofApl 650)

metnc imperial
Variables: D = 60m '196.86 fr
H= 18m
G= 0.9
1mm 0.0394 ins
50= 193 N/mm' 27W lbfin'
St= 208 N/mm'z 30168 lb/in"
No. of courses = A
Height oi each course = 2.25 m 7.38 ft

The first set ofcalculations will be made using a ,high'shength steel.

Material specification :- A.S.T.M. A573M Gr.4Bs

Checkthat L/ H =<'lO0O/6 where L = ( sOO.D.toi


D is the tankdia. in m.
t is the bottom course shellthickness.
The bottom course shell thickness has not yet been established, but for
for The Variable point method not to be applicable for a tank of the above
dimensions, it can be calculated that the bottom course would have to be
> 300 mm thick and surely this will not be the case.

Calculations are worked simultaneously for both the 'design, & ,test' conditions.

For the Bottom course :


From Clause 3.6.3.2. Find values for "tpd" and 'tpt".

tpd = 4.9xD(H-0.3)xc +CA


sd
tpt = 4.9xD(H-0.3)
st
tpd = 25.27 mm
rpr = 25.02 mm

[a.gu.o.c I
From Clause 3.6.4.4. rd=fi.06-
[ -r- Dv/HGl
o.o6e6
sal [---s- .J
*ca

ttt=fi.0a- o.oogoo fn I ft.gn.ol


[ " VstJ I sJ
tld = 25.50 mm
tlt = 25.73 mm
Lesser of'tpd' & tld' = 25.27 mm Lesser of tpt'&'tlt' = E.O2mm
The greater of these two latter figures is : - 25.27 ins.
@
The validity of using the Variable Point method can now be checked as required by Clause 3.6.4.1
o.5
Checklhat L/H =<1000/6 when L = ( 5OO.D.I) = 871.21 and
H= 18
L/H= 48.40 As this is <= 10m / 6, the variable point method may be used

Figure 3.48 flfusbation of the use of the "vadable design point' method catculation - page 1

64 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient temperaturc storcge tank design

For the Second course :

=
h 1 2250 mm Width of bottom course
= 30000 mm. NominalTank radius
|
Used for ratio, h1 1fr--lTl
{t1d-c.a)= 24.27 mm Btm course thks less CA Use lor "t2a" (design)
t1d = 2527 mm. Total Btm course thks
t1t= 25o2mm Lesser of tpt' & 'tlt' Used ior ratio' h1 '\tr t1
Ratio for't1d' , h1 : 2.637 Ratio for'tlt" 2.597
\F(tld-"-) v-+:-rxtlt
as follows :-
'Design' case-
Ratio't'1d'is >=2.625, then, i2 = i2a. This isfound by trial for the
il"ii.'ilt;i"tl.ezS Out <2.625,then,t2 = t2a + (tl -t2a\121- {h1/1 25G't1)'s 5I and t2a for the
'Test'condition is found as follows :-

Calculate the Second course 'Test' thickness bv trial

tud = lgl!!!!_gll G+ cA = 22.18 mm


sd
tut = 4.9xD(H-0.3) = 21.84 mm
'lst. Trial St
p""i" iri"n"k course No. 2
Ffi u"_._"r " *1 . ro' b"* nd

-d""r "2i t iS' f: tuB*"" = 1 .1456 x1t = 846.624


113't.416 0.0700 xZ= 1102.742
Cd = 0.072 = x2d Ct =
H (m)= 1,5.75 xd3= 995.217 H(m)= xt3 = 9A7.476
Use lowest value of'xd' 859 662 mm Use lowest value of !t'= 846.628 mm
0860m 0.847 m

tdx= 4.9x0( H-x/1000)G+CA= 2t.41 mm


Sd
ttx = !91!qltfqlq00 ) 21 .07 mm
2nd. Trial. St
fi;;=taplye.3Jelration usino new ydfsil%;u' & Btm cl,i:-tl#s: rErj
?:siqn
& rest
tut = ttx = 21.07

1.188 x1t = 934.163


x2d= x2t = 1403.867
0.086 1344 77O 0.089
15.75 xt3 = 969.850
H (m)= 15.75 xd3 = 977.853
Use lowest value of'xd' 920.533 mm se lowest value of'xt'= 934.163 mm
= 0.921 m - 0.934 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - X/1OOO )G +CA = 21 33 mm


Sd
ttx= !1]LD(!:!1@0) 20.94 mm =
3rd. Trial. St
FdE-tabove calculation usino new values for 'tu' & Btm cqur9e !hl<'s fol Dgsion & Test'
@ I[:-ZEI- tud=tdx= 21.33 tut=t&= 2094
Fi nd vur,r.s_ofl x1 " ro r boll rest & on"kt
"2i t di f: ia=0.:Hi"ondili = 1.195 x'lt = 948 581

Cd = 0.088 x2d = 13A1.527 0.092 xzi= 1453.381

H (m1= 15.750 xd3 = 975 946 15.750 xt3 = 966 998


Use lowest value of'xd' 930.062 mm e lowest value of'xt'= 948.581 mm
= 0930m = 0 949 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H-x/'1000)G+cA= 21.32 mm. = t2a


Sd
ttx = t.e_I_9j_l_:!1q00 ) 20.92 mm. =t2a. Usetocalc value oft2for the'Test'case
St 21.32 mm. =
2'l 4 mm

Tesf t2 = t2a + (t1-t2a\12.1- h1/ 1 25( r . tl )i8.5 21.06 mm.

For the Third cou6e.


lslll]s! tLd = 21 .32 mm. tLt = 20.92 mm.

I,I!-D.]LH-:U1I o + cn = 19.'10 mm
Sd
4.9xD(H-0.3) 18.66 mm
St

point" method calculatiot't -page2


=e-.e 3.48lllostration of the use ofthe variable design

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 65


3 Anbient lemperatue storage lank design

Find values of " xl . x2. & x3 " for both the Desiqn & Test conditionq Course No. 3
Kd = 1.116 x1d = 705.270
Kt = 1.121 x1t = 710.091
0.056 761.111
Ct = 0.059 x2t = 7s2.872
H (m)= 13.5 xd3 = 923.42a H (m)= 13.5 xt3 = 912.745
Use lowest value ot'xd'= 7115.270 nm Use lowest value of'xt'= 710.091 mm
0.705 m 0.710 m

tdx = 4 9 x D( H - x/'1000 )G +CA = !854mm


sd
ttx= 1!41!:!1900) 18.08 mm
St
21 .32 mm . tLt = 20 92 mm
z!C-I!sl tld =
tud = 18.54 mm. tut = 18.08 mm
Find values of " x1 . x2, & x3 " for both the Desion & Test conditionq
Kd = 1.150 x1d = 765.610 Kt = 1.128 x1t = 717.124
0.072 x2d= 970 421 0.062 xA= 837.188
13.5 xd3 = 909.895 H (m)= '13.5 xt3 = 898.455
Use lowest value of'xd' 765 610 mm Use lowest value of \t'= 717.128 nm
O.717 rn
= 0.766 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - 11000 )G +CA = 'l846mm


Sd
ttx = 4glg(!:14900 ) = 18.07 mm
St
3rd. Trial tLd= 2132 mm tLt= 2092 mm
tud = 18 46 mm tut = 18 07 mm
Find values of" x1 x2. & x3 " for both the Desion & Test conditionq
.
- fA = t.lSS xld = 774.A1 Kt = 1 133
-
727.162
868.932
Cd = 0.074 x2d = 1oo2.749 0.064
13.5
H (m 1= 13.5 xd3 = 907.863 H (m)= xt3 = 898.208
Use lowest value of 'xd'= 774 811 mm Use lowest value of 'xt'= 727 .162 mm
0.727 m
= 0775 m

tdx = 4.9xD( H-x/1000)G+CA= 1845 mm

llx= = 18.05 mm

I Thrrd course thickness = 16 c mm I

For the Fourth course.


1st. Trial tld = 18.446036 mm. tLt = 18.05 mm

tud = lLtryDl-BjL3) G+ cA 16.01 mm


Sd
4.9xD(H-0.3) 15.48 mm
St
Find values of " x1 . x2. & x3 " for both the Desion & Test.conditionq -
course No. 4
Kd = 1.152 xld 685 = 382Kt = 1.166 x1t = 702.O74
0.073 xzd = 820.622 ct = 0.080 895.052
H (m)= 11 25 xd3= 845.565 H(m)= 11.25 xt3 = a31 .322

Use lowest value of ld'= 685 382 mm Use lowest value of'xt'= 7O2.o78 mm
0.702 m
= 0.685 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - x/1000 )G +cA = 15.48 mm


Sd
14.91 mm
ttx = {g4t:14900
St
)

2nd. Trial tLd = 18.45 mm. ilt = 18.05 mm


tud = '15.48 mm. tut = 14 91 mm
Find values of" x1, x2. & x3 " for both the Desiqn & Test conditionq
Kd = 1 191 xld =
-
742-52A Kt = 1.166 x1t = 693.570
Cd = 0.091 = 1021.186 Ct =
xzd 0.079 xA= 892.536
11 .25 xt3 = 815.9'17
H (m)= 11.25 831.498 H (m 1=
xd3 =
Use lowest value of 'xd'= 742528mm Use lowest value of 'xt'= 693.570 mm
0.694 m
= 0.743 m

td, = 4 9 x D( H - )d',1000 )G +CA = 15.41 mm


Sd
;
ttx = 19l9ll-:-!1!90 ) 14.92 mm
St

- page 3
Figure 3.48 lllustration of the use of the'variable design point" method calculation

66 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient temperaturc sforage tank design

3rd. Trial tLd = 18.45 mm. tLt = 18.05 mm


tuo = 15.41 mm. tut = 14.92 mm
Find values of " xl . x2. & x3 " ior both the Desiqn & Test conditions.
Kd = 1 .197 xld = 751.227 Ki = x1t 1.172 = 703.433
Cd = 0.093 x2d = 1051.662 Ct = 0.082 x21= 922.442
H (m)= 11.250 xd3= 829.391 H(m)= xt311.250 = 816.246
Use lowest value of ld'= 751.227 mm Use lowest value of'xt'= 703.433 mm
= 0.751 m = 0.703 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - x/1000 )G +CA = 15.39 mm


Sd
ttx = 4.9x0(H-11000)
4.9x0{H-11000) '14.91 mm

Fourth course thickness = 15.4 mm

For the Fiffh course.


1st. Trial tld = 15.393654 mm. tlt = '14.91 mm

tud= 4.9xD(H-0.3)G+CA = 12.93 mm


Sd
tut= 4.9xD(H-0.3) = 12.30 mm
St
Find values of " xl . x2. & x3 " for both the Desion & Test conditions. Course No. 5
Kd= 1 .191 640.609 =Kt 1.212 =
x1t 658.774
0.091 x2d = 814.771 ct = 0.100 x21= 900.847
H (m)= 9.00 xd3 = 759.764 H (m)= 9.00 xt3= 741.007
Use lowest value of 'xd'= 640.609 mm use lowest value of 5(t = ..3.113
= 0.641 m il'
tdx = 4.9 x D( H - x/1000 )G +cA = 12.46 mm
Sd
ttx= {:9x!l!_!1990) 11.79 mm
St
2no tr|at ILo = 15.39 mm.
tLt = 14.91 mm
tud = 12.46 m'r,.
tut = 1 1.79 mm

Find values of " 11 . x2. & x3 " for both the Desiqn & Test conditions
Kd= 1 .235 690.469 Kt = 1.'196 x1t = 630.703
0.110 x2d =
992.221 Ct = 0.093 x? = 837.244
H (m)= 9.00 xd3 = 7 45.916 H(m )= 9.00 xt3 = 725.567
Use lowest value o{'xd'= 690 469 mm use Jowest value of !t = ..3.13i
= 0.690 m ilr
tdx = 4.9 x D( H - x/1000 )G +cA = 12.39 mm
Sd
ttx= {:q)(!1!:!1990) 11.83 mm
St
3rd. Trial tLd = 15.39 mm. 14.91 mm
tLt =
IUO = 12.39 mm. tut =
11.83 mm
Find values of " x1 . x2. & x3 " for both the Desion & Test conditions.
Kd= 1.242 697.973 Kt= 1 x1t .203 = 639.782
0.113 x2d = 1018.874Ct = 0.096 xz= 863.715
H (m)= 9.00 xd3 = 743.867 H (m 1= xt3 9.00 = 726.787
Use lowest value of 'xd'= 697.973 mm Use lowest value of lt'= 639.782 mm
0.698 m = 0.640 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - /1000 )G +CA = 12.38 mm


Sd
ttx= t$!jl:!1990)
st
11 .82 mm

Fifth course thickness = 12.4 mm

For the Sixth course.


'lst. Trial tld = 12.38 mm. tlt = 11.82 mm

tud = _4:!f_H_.]X c+cn = 9.84 mm


Sd
4.9xD(H-0.3) 9.12 mm
st

:gure 3-48lllustraiion oflhe use ofthe"va abledesign point method calculalion - page 4

STORAGE TANKS & ESUIPMENT 67

IL
3 Ambient tempenture stonge tank design

Find values of " x1. x2, & x3 " for both the Desion & Test conditions. Course No. 6
Kd = 1.258 x1d = 590.692
Kt = 1.296 xlt = 613.197
Cd= o.120 x2d = 810.054 0.136 A= 919.316
H (m)= 6.7s xd3 = 662.950 H (m)= 6.75 xt3 = 638.032
Use lowest \lue of ld'= 590.692 mm ljse lowest value of lt'= 613.197 mm
0.591 m = 0.613 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - /1m0 )G +CA = 9.44 mm


sd
ttx = {! '<
%_U_:14!.00 ) 8.67 mm
St
2nd.Ttial tld = '12.38tLt = mm. 11.82 mm
IUO = 9.44 tut = mm. 8.67 mm
Find values of" x'l. x2. & x3 " for both the Desion & Test conditions.
Kd = 1.3'11 x1d =
632.2ffi Kt= I .251 x1t = 554.1'19
Cd= o.142 x2d = 961.166 H (m)= o.117 x?I= 790.453
H (m1= 6.75 xd3 = 6,t9.39() H (m)= .xr3= 6.75 622..38
Use lowest value of'xd'=
632.268 mm Use lowesl value of lt'= 5e1.119 mm
= 0.632 m 0.564 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - /1m0 )G +CA = 9.39 mm


sd
ttx = {: {_l_:_.rll!.00 ) 8.74 mm
st
3rd. Trial tLd =
'12.3819497 tlt mm. 'l'1.82 mm=
tud =
9.38731523 tut mm. 8.74 mm=
Find values of " x1 . x2. & " for both the Desion & Test conditions.
Kd= 't.319 xld = Kt= 1.259
xlt = 572.417
0.146 x2d =
983.370 O.12O 2t= 812.505
H (m)= 6.75 xd3 = 647.424 H (m)= 6.75
xt3 = 624.A2
Use lowest value of 'xd'-- 638.392 mm Use lowest value of lt'= 572.417 mm
0.538 m = O.872 m

tdx = !$!l!_:_4!!9lc +ca = e.38 mm


Sd
[Ix= t.e"sjrjlql!.00) = 8.73 mm
St

For the Seventh course.


ffi
'lst. Trial tLd = 9.38 mm. tLt = 8.73 mm

tud = _!Lllr_Lltl_:..lqll G+ cA = 6.76 mm


50
tut = 4.9xD(H-0.3) =
5.94 mm
St
Find values of" x1. x2. & x3 " for both the Desion & Test conditions. Course No. 7
Kd= 1.388 x1d = 524.fi6 Kt = 1.471
x'1t = 552.414
Cd = 0.173 2d = 7AO.2O Ct = 0.205 x2l= 923.080
H (m1= 4.50 xd3 = 549.331 H (m)= 4.50
xt3 = 514.858
Use lowest Yalue ofld'= 524.336 mm use lowest value of rt = u,1.ff3
ilt
= 0.524 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - x/1ffi )G +CA = 6.45 mm


sd
tu= t! x D-l n:_4_qoo) = 5.63 mm
st
2nd. Trial tLd = 9.38 mm. tLt = 8.73 mm
tud = 6.45 mm. tut = SbJmm

Kd= 1.454 xld = 554.646 Kt= '1.354 xlt= 480.858


0.'199 Pd= 894.697 0.160 2t = 719.064
H (m1= 4.50 xd3 = 536.685 H (m1= 4.50 xt3 = 501.516
Use lowest value of'xd'= 536.695 mm Use lowest value of !t'= 480.858 mm
= 0.537 m = 0.481 m

Iqx = G+CA= 6.43 mm

ttx = 4.9xD(H-x/10m) 5.68 mm


st
3rd. Trial tLd = 9.38 mm. tlt = 6/Jmm
tud = 6.43 mm. td = 5.68 mm

Figure 3.48 lllustration ofthe use ofthe'varlable deslgn point'method calculation -page 5

68 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient temperature sto@ge tank destgn

1.357 x1t = 483.988


0.200 v2d = 901.157 ct = 0.161 1A= 725.5W
H (m)= 4.fi xd3 = 535 980 H (m1= 450 xt3 = 503.650
Use lowest value of'xd'= 535 980 mm Use lowest value of tt= 483.988 m m
0.484 m
= 0.536 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H-x/1000)G+CA= 6.43 mm


sd
ttx = {.9,( !_l_Ujlq1qoo ) = 5.68 mm
st
Seventh course thickness = 6.5 mm

Esllbellshlb-qrse
ls!_IrEl tLd = 6.43 mm. tlt = 5.68 mm

tud = LjL_0.]_LL:..lq1IG + cA = 3.67 mm


sd
tut= 4.9xD(H-0.3) = 2.76 mm
St
Find values of " xl. No 8
x2. & x3 " for both the Desion q JCgt-conditionq.. Course
T 't.lsz x1d= 418.356 Kt= 2059 x1t= 452.1&
Cd = 0.300 x2d = 674 548 Ct = 0 384 xzt = 864.873
H(;)= 2. xd3 = 4o5.oo1 H(m1= 2'25 xt3= 350.816
Use lowest value of'xd'= 405.001 mm Use lowest value oflt'= 350.816 mm
0.351 m
= 0.405 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - x/'1000 )G +CA = 3.53 mm


50
tb( = l.e )( !_L!l_:49.00 ) = 2.68 mm
St
2!C=.I&LI tld = 6.43 mm. tLt = 5.68 mm
luo = 3.53 mm. tut = 2 68 mm

1.608 x1t = 355.842


0.321 x2d = 72.386 Ct = 0.254 x? = 571.O45
H (m)= 2.25 xd3 = 396.986 H (m1= 2.% xt3 = 346.215
Use lowest value of'xd'= 396.986 mm Use lowest value of 5d'= 346.215 mm
0.346 m
= 0.397 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - x/1000 )G +CA = 354mm


50
tb( = 1.9_I s $j,(4qm ) = 2.69 mm
St
3rd-I!e! tld = 6.i13 mm. tLt = 5 68 mm
tud = 3.54 mm. tut = 2.69 mm
Find values of " x'l. x2. & x3 " ior both the Desion & Test oonditionq.
Kd = 1.A17 x1d = 4m'7&
Kt = 1.603 x1t = 354.837
Cd= 0.319 x2d = 718.683
Ct = O. 2 2t=
H (m 1= 2.250 xd3 = 397.603 H(m)= 2.250 xt3 = 346.6?t
Use lowest value of ld'=
397.603 mm Use lowest value of lt'= 346.634 m m
0.347 m
= 0398m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - x/10m )G +cA = 354mm


Sd
ttx = 1.9: Pl_!:!1q00 ) = 2.69 mm
st
Eighth course thickness = 3.6 mm

A summary of course thicknesses is given at the end ofthis set of calculations'

Theuppercoursesoflencalculatetobethinnerthantheminimuma||owab|eShellcoursethickness
for the particular diameter of tank under GorFideration, thereiore a second set of
calculations is
producd using a 'bw strength' steel and this ofren resulb in a more financially economical design
tor one or more ofthe upper cou6es.

page 6
Figure 3.48 lllustralion of lhe uss of the 'variable deslgn poinf method calculation -

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPiIENT 69


3 Ambient temparature stonge bnk design

A second set ofcalculations is now made using a ,low,s{rength steel.

For the Bottom course :


First find "tpd', & ,tpt".

metric imoerial
Variables : 60m 196.86 fr
H 18m 59.058 t
0.9 0.9
'l mm 0.0394 ins
sd 137 N/mm, 19870 lb/in'
st 154 N/mm'
No. of courses = I a
Height of each course = 2.Xm 7.3{l.215 i.

Material Specification i A.S.T.M. A 2e3 cr.C

Calculaiions are worked simultaneously for both the 'design' & test, conditions.
From Clause 3.6.3.2. tpd= 4.9xD(tt._Oj)xc +CA

rpt = 4.9xD(H_0.3)
st
IPo = 35.19 mm
lpt = 33.79 mm

From Clause 3.6.4.4. *=[*' '"fi",-l-t=-J r,"*fc-] .cA

ttt=lioo- -o.oom o lrr I lon"nl


fid=
[ "-JEIJ L'=E-J
35.08 mm
33.70 mm
Lesser of tpd, & ,tld, = 35.08 mm Lesser of ,tpt, & , t, 33.70 mm
=
The sreater of twg i;s.
-3sffinal
LBottom course thjckness =
For the Second course :

hl = 2250 mm, Width of boftom course.


= r
3Om0 mm. NominalTank radius.
(t1d-c.a.)= 34.08 mrn. Btm. course thks. less CA. Use ior ,,t2a,, (design) Used for ratio h1 +rr-T1-
t1d = 35.08 mm. Total Btm. course thks.
tlt = 33.70 mm. Lesser of tpt, & tt'. Used ior ratio h1 +{r-TT-
Ratio for't1d', h1 : 2.23 Ratio for,tlt, h1 : 2.24
\F"(t1d-"".)
Ratio 't1d' is > l .375 btn <2.625, then, t2 = t2a + (t1 - t2arl2.1 - ,
{h1/1 .25(r.t1)no.s}l and t2a for the Design' condition
is found as folbws :-
Ratio tlt' is>1.375 but <2.625, then, t2 = t2a + (t1 - t2a)[2.1 - {h1/1.25(r.t1)no.s}] and t2a for the ' Test'
condition
is iound asfollows :-

Calculate the Second course Test,thickness by trial

= 4.9xD(H-0.3)c+CA =
tud 30.84 mrn
Sd
tut= 4.9xD(H-_93) = 29.50 mm
1st. Trial ---- St--
Find vallr,eF of' x1. x2. & x3 " for both the Desiqn & Test conditiona. Course No. 2
Kd= 1.1st x,td= 920.469 Kt= xlt= 919.s23
Cd = 0.066 ed = 1042.&qi Ct = O.Om xA= 1080.352
H(m)= 15.75 xd3 = 1173.84 H(m)=-tllz 15.75 xt3 = j147.62O
Use lowest value of ld,= 920.469 mm Use lowest \lue of xt,= 9,19.b23 mm
0.920 m 0.920 m

tdx = !9.t!:qC!_:4!qIG +cA = 29.64 mm


sd
tt' = {.e x_Q_l_uj!1900 ) 28.31 mm \
St

Figure 3.48 fffustration of lhe use of the ryariable deslgn poinf method clculallon _ page 7

70 STORAGE TANKS & ESUIPMENT


3 Ambient temperature sforage ,a,rk de.*''

2nd. Trial.
above calculation usino new values for 'tu' & Btm. course thk's. for Desiqn & Test.
=
tld 36.08 33.70 tud=tdx= 29.64 tut=th= 2431
Find values of" xl. x2, & x3'for both the Test & Desion conditions.
-ReoeatKd = 1.'183 xld = 1014.799 Kt = 1.190 x'lt= 1017.352
Cd = 0.087 f,d, = 1373.657 Ct = 0.@0 2t= 142'3W
H (m1= 15.75
't5.75 \ xd3=
xd3 = 11ul.4bg
1'150.459 H (m)= 15.75 xt3 = 1124.375
Use lowest value of ld'= 1o14.799 mm Ue lowest value of lt'= 1017.352 mm
= 'l .015 m = 1.017 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - x/10m )G +CA = 29.4 mm

tb( = =
28.13 mm
3rd. Trial. St
Reoeat above calculation usino new values for 'tu' & Btm. course thk's. for Desiqn & Test.
35.08 33.70 tud = tdx = 29.46
tut = tb( = 28.'t3

Kd = 1.191 x1d = 1029.598 Kt = 1.198 xlt = 1033.308


0.091 x2d = 14X.434 Ct= 0.094 x?I= 1478.055
xd3 = 1146.918 H (m)= 15.75 xt3 = 112().661
use rowest varue of td! ,oT:333
ilr
Use lowest value of 1d'= 1033.4)8 mm
'L033 m

tdx = !9lt9l!_:4_9@)G +cA = 29.43 mm. = t2a. Use to calc. value of t2 br the'Design' cae
so
tu = 19IP..li_!__!1990 ) 4.10 mm. = t2a. Use to calc. value oit2 for the'Test' case
s+ 29.43 mm. = 29.5 mm.
'Design' t2 = t2a + (t1-l2a\ 12.1- h1/1-25(r.tl )^0.5 31.381 0K
'Tesf t2 = t2a + (t1-t2a) P.1- h1 / 1.25( r . tl )/S.5 29-832 mm.
3'1.381

second course thickness = 31.4 mm.


Forthe Third course.
'lst. Trial tLd = 31-38 mm. tLt = 29.83 mm

tud= 4.9 x D ( H - 0.3 ) G + CA = 26.49 mm


so
tut = 4_!_Ql_uj!=3 ) = X2mm
St
Course No. 3
Kd= 't.'tu =
x1d 9?2..642 Kt= I.144 xlt= 907.971
0.088 x2d = 11e3.773 Ct= 0.087 xA= 1179.957
H (m 1= 13.50 xd3 = 1087.669 H (m)= '13.50 xt3 = 1060.769
Use lowest value of ld'= 92.d42 mm Use lowest value of lt'= 907.971 mm
= 0.923 m = 0.908 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - x/1000 )G +CA = 25.29 mm


sd
tb(= 1!,(ryF|j_I4gm)
ST
= 24.04 mm

2nd. Trial tLd = 31.38 mm.


tlt =
29.83 mm
tud = .29 mm.
tut = 24.04.mm
Find values of" x1. )4. & x3 " for both the Desion & Test conditions.
Kd= 1.241 x1d = 1017.683 l(= 1.180 x1t= AA7.251
0.113 x2d= 1519.795 ct = 0.085 xA= 1153.829
H (m1= xd3 = 1(b2.@8 H (m)= xt3 13.50 = 1036.052
Use lowest \ralue of
.xd'=1017.683 mm use lowe.'l value of x= ttl:#l
= 1-0'18 m il.
tdx = 4.9 x D( H - x/1000 )G +CA = 25.11 mm
sd
tu= {r{st tt:_Xll9o) = 24.08 mm

3rd. Trial 31.38 mm. tlt = 29.83 mm


tud = 25.11 mm. tut = 24.08 mm

Figure 3,48 lllustralion of the use of the "vadable deaign point meihod calculation - pege 8

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 7'l


3 Ambient tempercturc storage tank design

Find values of " x1 . x2. & x3 " for both the Desion & Test conditions.
Kd= 1.250 = xld 1032.709 Kt= 1.188 xlt = 904.445
o.1'17= x2d 1572.787 0.089 x2r= 1206.227
H (m;= 13.50 = xd3 1058.835 H (m)= 13.50 xt3 = 1036.904
Use lowest value of'xd'= 1032.709 mm Use lowest value of lt'= 904.445 mm
= 1.033 m = 0.904 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - x/1000 )G +CA = 25.08 mm


Sd
ttx = t9]!9jj:14!.00 ) = 24.05 mm
St
Third course thickness = 25.1 mm

For the Fourth course.


1st. Trial tld = 25.0791621 m'Il.. tLt = 24.05 mm

tud = 4.9xD(H-0.3)c+cA = 22.15 mm


sd
tut = 4.9xD(H-0.3) = 20.90 mm
st
Find values of" xl. x2. & x3 " for both the Desiqn & Iest conditions. Course No. 4
Kd= 1.132 727.111 =
Kt 1.150 x1t = 742.A36
Cd = 0.064 x2d = 714.354 =
Ct 0.072 xzr= 811.765
H (m)= 11.25 xd3 = 994.476 H(m)= 11.25 xt3 = 966.142
Use lowest value of 'xd'= 718.354 mm
0.718 m
Use towest vatue of,xt
= ,^t:.ify
tdx = 4.9xD(H-x/1000 |G +CA = 21 .34 mm
Sd
ttx= 1q_9_LE_l!90) : zuub mm
St
2nd. Trial iLd = 25.08 tlt = mm.24.05 mm
tud = 21 .34 mm tut . 20.06 mm =
Find values of" x1. x2. & x3 " for both the Desiqn & Test conditions.
Kd= 1.175 x1d = 744.732 Kt= x1t 1.127 = 693.797
0.084 xzd 939.524 = 0.061 \z= 689.359
H (m)= 11.25 xd3 = 976.168 H (m)= xt3 11.25 = 946.404
Use lowest value of 'xd'= Use lowest value of'xt'= 689.359 mm
0.789 m = 0.689 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H-x/1000)G+CA= 21 .20 mm


Sd
ttx = 1!4]!:!19.00 ) 20.16 mm
St
3rd. Trial tld = 25.08 mm. tlt = 24.05 mm
tud = 21.20 mm. tut = 20.16 mm
Find values of " x1 . x2. & x3 " for both the Desion & Test conditions.
Kd= 1 .183 799.419 Kt= 1 xl t .134 = 707 .094
0.087 x2d = 977.746 0.065 x2r= 727.153
H (m1= 11.250 xd3 = 973.054 H (m;= xt3 11.250 = 948.809
Use lowest value of'xd'= 799.419 mm Use lowest value of tt'= 707.094 mm
= 0.799 m = 0.707 m

tdx = lqr!Q(!-:l:!!qq)G +cA = 21.18 mm


sd
tu= 1.9 ,<
{st n: t<4190 ) 20.13 mm

For the Fifrh course.


1st. Trial tLd = 21.18 mm. tLt = 20.13 mm

_49:!1H:U c+cn = 17.80 mm


Sd
tut = 4.9xD(H-0.3) '16.61 mm
st

Figure 3.48 lllustration ofthe use ofthe "va able design poinf'method calculation -page I

72 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


3 Ambient tempentue &otqe d( &i, I
!
Find values of" x1. x2, & x3 " for both the Desion & Test conditions. Course No. 5
I
Kd = 1.'190 x1d = 705.429 Kt = 1.212 x1t = 71A325
0.090 Pd= 811.349 Ct = 0.100 x?t= a99.172 .,

H (m)= 9.00 xd3 = 89'l.595 H (m)= 9.00 xt3 = 861.179


Use lowest value of 'xd'= 705.429 mm use rowest varue of n= tt3.i?3
0.705 m Ir
tdx = 4.9 x D( H - /1000 )G'+CA = 17.Q mm
sd
ttx = 1.9 ><_Ql_E_:..!19.00 ) : 15.81 mm
st
2nd. Trial = tld 21.18 tLt mm. = 20.13 mm
tud = 17.02 tutmm. = '15.81 mm
Find values of" x1. x2. & x3 " ior both the Desion & Test clnditions.
Kd = 1.245 x1d = 764.989 Kt = 1.183 x1i = 670.26
0.114 fld = 1024/# 0.087 {2t = 741.644
H (m1= 9.00 xd3 = 471.767 9.00 xt3 = 840.m
value of ld'= value of!d'= value of'xd'= 764.989 mm Use lowest value oi )d'= 670.236 m m
0.765 m 0.670 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - /10m )G +CA = 16.90 mm


Sd
ttx= 19rQ_1!_:!1990) 15.90 mm
st
3rd. Trial =tld 21.18 tLtmm. = 20.13 mm
tud = 16.90 mm.
tut = 15.90 mm
Find values of " x1. x2. & x3 " for both the Desion & Test conditions.
Kd= 1 .253 x1d = 774.044 Kt = x1t = 1.191 68't.867
Cd= 0.1 18 nd =
1061.363 0.090 AI= 814.185
H (m)= 9.00 xd3 = 868.816 H (m)= 9.m 842.656
Use lowesl value of 'xd'= 774.044 nm Use lowest value of tt'= 681.867 mm
0.774 m 0.682 m

tdx = 4.9 x DaH - x/1000 )c +CA = 16.89 mm


sd
ttx= 19rQ_(!_!19_00) = 15.88 mm
St
lFih@
Forthe Sixth cou6e.
1st. Trial tld = 16.89 ins. tLt = '15.88 ins.

tud= 4.9xD(H-0.3)G+CA = 13.46 mm


Sd
tut = 4.9xD(H-0.3) = 12.31 mm
st
Find values of" xl.,. & x3 " for boththe Desion & Test conditions. CourseNo. 6
Kd= 1.2fi x1d= 643.947 Kl= 1.290 x,tt= 659.023
0.119 xzd = 801.117 0.133 xA= 900.845
H (m1= 6.75 xd3 = 775.179 6.75 xt3 = 741.fi4
Use lowest value of 'xd'= 6i13.947 mm Use lowest value of lt'= 659.023 mm
0.644 m 0.659 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - x/1000 )c +CA = 12.79 mm


Sd
ttx= t4_l!_:..14!.00) 11.63 mm
St
2nd. Trial tLd = 16.89 mm.
tLt = 15.88 mm
tud = 12.79 mm.
tut = 11.63 mm
Find values of " x1. x2. & x3 " for both the Desion & Test conditions.
Kd = 1.320 x1d = 693.500 K= x1t = 1.241
0.146 t2d =
986.244 x2t= 0.113 761.5V2
H (m)= xd3 = 755.804 H (m)= 6.750 xt3 = 720.572
Use lowest value oi 'xd'= 693.500 mm Use lowest value of lt'= ouJ,Yob mm
0.694 m 0.6M m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - x/1000 )G +CA = 12.70 mm


sd
ttx = 19.t!q.1xj_x4qm ) = 11.73 mm
St

Figure 3.48 flfuslration of the use ofthe'variable design point'method calculalion - page 10

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 73


3 Ambient temperaturc storage tank design

3rd. Tfial = tld 16.89 mm. = tLt 15.88 mm


tud = 12.70 mm. = td 11.73 mm
Find values of" xl. x2. & x3 " for both the Desion & Tet conditions.
Kd = '1.330
x1d = 700.905 Kt = xlt 'l. 'l = 5'14.333
0.150 fld= 1013.811 0.117 A= 788.819
6.75 xd3 = 752.972 H (m)= xt3 6.75 = 7n.821
Use lowest value of 'xd'= 700.905 mm Use lowest value of X'= 614.333 mm
0.701 m = 0.614 m

tdx = 4,9 x D( H - )'/1000 )G +CA = 12.68 mm


sd
tk= 4.9xD(H-x/1000) = 11.71 mm
st
Sixth course thickness = 12.7 mm

For the Seventh course.


1st. Trial tld = 12.68 ins. tlt = '11.71 ins.

tud= 4.9 x D ( H - 0.3 ) G + CA = 9.l l mm


sd
tut= 4.9xD(H-0.3) = 8.02 mm
St
Find values of" x1. x2. & x3 " for both the Desion & Tesl conditions. Course No. 7
Kd = 1.N2 = x1d 570.944 l( = .461 xlt = 1 589.208
Cd = 0.175 x2d = 7A7 .54A Ct = O.2O'l xA = 906.3,16
H (m)= 4.50 xd3= 637.A57 H (m)= 4.50 xt3 = 598.35/1
Use lowest value of'xd'= 570.944 mm Use lowest value of ld'= 589.208 mm
= 0.571 m = 0.589 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - x/1000 )G +CA = 8.59 mm


sd
ttx = { t<_Ql_l_t4!,00 ) 7.47 mm
st
2nd. Trial tLd = '12.68 tlt = mm- 1'1.71 mm
tud = 8.59 tut = mm. 7.47 mm
Find values of " x1. ,.
& x3 " for both the Desiqn & Test conditions.
Kd= 1.477 x1d = 608.169 Kt= x1t '1.364 = 524.595
O.2O7 x2d 912.921= 0.164 x?t= 737.507
H (m)= 4.50 xd3 = 619.nO H (m1= xt3 4.50 = 52.386
Use lowest value of !d'= 608.169 mm Use lolYest value of lf= 524.695 mm
0.608 m = 0.525 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - x/1@0 )G +CA = 9.52 mm


5d
ttx= 1.9t<_Pl_E_::lllgo) = 7.59 mm
st
3rd. Trial tLd = '12.68 tLt = mm. 11.71 mm
tud = 8.52 tut = mm. 7.59 mm
Find values of" x'|. x2. & x3 " for both the Desiqn & Test conditions.
Kd= '1.489 x1d = 613.i181 Kt= xlt 1.375 = 533.6@
o.212 x2d 953.578= x2t 0.168 = 758.139
H (m)= 4.50 xd3 616.672= H (m1= xt3 4.50 = 592jn
Use lotYest value of td'= 613.481 mm Use lolvest value of lt'= 533.669 mm
0.613 m = 0.534 m

tdx = 4.9 x D( H - x/1000 )G +CA = 8.51 mm


Sd
ttx= {$_Pl_E_:14!.oo) =
St
Seventh course thickness = 8.6 mm

For the Eiqhth course.


1st. Trial tLd = 8.51 mm. tLt = 7.57 mm

tud = l9lQ.(!_:..lUllc + cn = 4.77 mm

tut = 4.9xD(H-0.3) 3.72 mm


st

Figure 3.48 llluslralion of the use of the "variable design poinf melhod calculation - page 11

74 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


No' I
Find values of" x1. x2 , Course 2034
& x3 " for both the Desiqn gJes-t-conditionq
Kt = x1t = 476.a45
Kd= ''7a5 xlo:----83'696 o 378 xz,= 850.595
il = 0.310 x2d = 696.980 ct =
H(;)= 2.25 xd3= 461325 H(m)= 225 xt3= 407.714
mm lowest value of'xt'= 407.71o mm
use lowest value of 'xd'= 453.696 Use
0.408 m
= 0.454 m

tdx = 1g!t!_!!p9q)G+cA = 447mm


Sd
3.52 mm
rux = tg41!_:lg1q00 )
St
h{ttal tld
= 8.51 tlt mm. = 7.57 mm
tud = 4.47 tut mm. 3.52 mm=
Find values of " x1 . x2. & x3 " for both.the Desion & Tqit-conditionq,. 1694 xlt = 401.126
Kd = 1 903 ,'to-= 47o Kt 822 =
0.344 = Ct7i33a} = o 282 xZ = 634.316
Cd = x2d
446.728 H(m)= 225 xt3= 396.290
Hrm\= 2.25 xd3=
'l \"r/- u=. toi"lt uutu" oiro'= 446728 mm use lowest value of lt'= 396.290 mm
0.396 m
= 0447 rn

4.48 mm

ttx= 49xD(H-x/'1000) = 354mm

Jrd. r|al
I 8.51 mm. tLt = 7 57 mm
tud = 4.48 mm. tut = 3.54 mm
Find values of " x1 . x2. & x3 " for both the Desiqn &-Tegt-conditionq , 1 689
Kd = .898 x1dl-- 470 027
1
Kt =
o 280
x1t = 400.574
630.676
0.342 = 769771 Ct = x2l =
Cd = x2d
H(;)= 2.25 xd3= 447 4oo H(m)= 225 xt3 = 397.516
397.516 mm
Use lowest value of'xd'= 447.400 mm Use lowest value of'rt'=
0.398 m
= O 447 m

4.9 x D( H-x/1000)G+CA= 4.48 mm


tdx =
sd
3.54 mm
rtx = !L!Ql!:14q00 )
st

Summary of calculated oourse ihicknesses

The minimum nominal Shell thickness for


a Tank of 60 m. dia. is 8mm
--------| ---
Course No. Calc. thks. Actualthks. Material.
lmm) (mm) A.S.T.M.
25.3 25.3 A 573M Gr.4a5
A 283 Gr.c
2 21 .4 21 .4 A 573M Gr.485
A 283 Gr.C l
3 18.5 '18.5 A 573N4 Gr.485
A 283 Gr.C
4 15.4 A 573M Gr.485
A 283 Gr.c
5 12.4 A 573lvl Gr.485
A 283 Gr.C
6 9.4 9.4 A 573M Gr.485
A 283 Gr.C
7 8 A 573N4 Gr.485
I 8 A 573M Gr.485

:-
Final selection of Shell thicknesses and Steel speciflcations

Course No. Thickness Steelgrade


tmml A.S.T.M.
1 A 573M Gr.485
2 A 573M Gr.485
3 18.5 A 573M Gr.485
4 '15.4 A 573M Gr.485
5 12.4 A 573M Gr.485
6 9.4 A 5731V Gr.485
7 8 A 573M Gr.485
The weight of the shell is 394190 kg
I 8 A 283 Gr.C :

poinf'method calculatian'page 12
Figure 3.48lllusttation ofthe use ofthe "va able design

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 75


3 Ambient temperature storage tank design

3.6.7 Shell stiffening wind girders The equivalent API formula is intended to apply to tanks with e!
- ther open tops or closed tops and is based on the following fac-
Having dealt with the differences in approach to designing shell tors taken from R.V McGrath's Stabilitv of API 650 Standard
thickness beiween the British and American Codes, the Ameri- Tank Shells, (Reference 3.6\.
can approach to shell stiffening requirements is now a A design wind velocity (V) of 160 km/h (100 mph) which
considered. imposes a dynamic pressure of 1 .23 kPa (25.6 lbf/ftr). The
3.6.7.1 Primary wind girders to API 650 velocity is increased by 10% for either a height above
ground or a gust factor; thus the pressure is increased to
The background for the requirements of primary wind girders to 1.48 kPa (31 lbf/ftr). An additional 0.24 kPa (5 tbflftr) is
the API 650 Code are the same as for the BS Code and these added to account for inward drag associated with
have already been given in Section 3.5.1. open-top tanks or for internal vacuum associated with
closed-top tanks. Atotalof 1.72 kPa (3h lbflftr) is obtained.
The API Code refers to top wind girders rather than primary
wind girders and the formula for the required section modulus For the purposes of this Standard, this pressure is in-
for the girder is the same as the BS formula except that it is Ore- tended to be the result of a 160 km/h (100 mph) fastest
sented in a slightly different format, as follows: mile velocity at approximately I m (30 ft) above ground. H1
may be modified for other wind velocities, as specified by
the purchaser, by multiplying the right side ofthe equation
equ.3.60 by [(V,/ V),], where V, =1 60 km/h (100 mph). When a de-
17
sign wind pressure, rather than a wind velocity, is specified
where; by the purchaser, the preceding increase factors should
be added to the purchaser's specified wind pressure un-
Z= required section modulus (cm3)
less they are contained within the design wind pressufe
D= nominal tank diameter (m) specified by the purchaser
Hz= heighi oftank shell (m) including any freeboard b The wind pressure being uniform over the theoretical
provided above the maximum filling height as a buckling mode ofthe tank shell, which eliminates the need
guide for a floating roof for a shape factor for the wind loading.

The consiant lTequates to 0.058 used in the BS formula (see


c The modified US l\,4odel Basin formula for the critical uni-
form external pressure on thin-wall tubes free fiom end
equation 3.22 ). loadings, subjectto the total pressure specified in ltem a.
The formula is based on a wind speed of 100 mph and therefore d Other factors specified bythe purchaser. When otherfac-
must be modified for any other wind speed by multiplying the tors are specified by the purchaser that are greater than
' the factors in ltems a - c, the total load on the shell shall be
right hand side of the equation
' LY-
OU
| 100,
modified accofdingly and H, shall be increased by the ratio
of 1.72 kPa (36 lbfiftr) to the modified total pressure.
where: The resulting API formula is given as:
V = design wind speed (mph) f.----
t\/\2 '
H. = 9.47r ll I equ 3.61
In Sl units this becomes --1 where V is in m/sec. !\D i
\44 7 )
which is the same as:
For tank diameters over 60 m, the section modulus required by
equation 3.22 may be reduced by agreement beh,,r'een the pur- g 471
/,i-r:
-;.' \ 'z
H, - in the BS format.
chaser and the manufactufer, but the modulus may not be less t D' .l
than that required for a tank diameter of 60 m.
As is the case for ihe BS Code, API requires that when the top where;
wind girder is located more than 600 mrn below the top of the Hr = ihe vertical distance (m) between the interme
shell, the tank shall be provided with a 60 x 60 x 5 mm top curb diate wind girder and the top angle of the shell
angle for shells with a top course thickness of 5 mm and a 80 x or top wjnd girder of an open top tank
80 x 6 mm angie for top courses more than 5 mm thick.
t = the "as ordered" thickness (mm), unless other-
3.6.7.2 Secondary wind girders to API 650 wise specified, of the top shell course
Again, the theory behind the design of secondary wind girders D
(referred to as intermediate wind girders in the API Code) is the
= nominaltank diameter (m)
same as that given in Section 3.5.2 for the BS Code. However Note: This implies that, unless directed otherwise by the pur-
there are differences in the presentation ofthe formulae and the chaser, the tank designer can use the total, "as built"
nomenclature used, as follows: thickness of the top course in calculation without de-
ducting from it any corrosion allowance which may
In the BS Code the maximum height of the unstiffened shell is have been included in the course thickness. The BS
given in equation 3.33 as: Code requires any corrosion allowance to be deducted
1n lrom the top course thickness for this calculation.
, .
np = xl
tt'I" I
-
For wind speeds other than 100 mph, H1, is modified by multi-
lD", / 100 \2
plying the right ha nd side of equation3.61 by|
*J
whereVis
wnere:
the design wind speed in mph.
K = 95,000
t447\2
3.563Vs + 580 Va For Sl units this becomes - where V is in m/sec.
\ v,/
Vs = the design wind speed (m/sec)
To compare equations 3.33 and 31.61, consider a tank de-
Va = the design vacuum (mbar) signed for a wind speed of 100 mph (44.7 mls). Theminimum

76 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient tempercturc storage tank design

value for the partial internalvacuum used in the design of sec- tank shell may be included in the calculation and the portion al-
ondary wind girders to the BS Code is that quoted in the Code lowed is given by:
ior open top, or non-pressure tanks, Va = 5 mbar.
1 3.4l5 x t equ 3.63
Then from equation 3.32
95,000 where
=9.482
3.563x44.7'+580x5 D = nominal tank diameter (m)
This result is very similar to the constant of9.47 derived for use t = shellthickness (mm) at the point of attachment
in the API formula given in equation 3.61.
The use in the API Code of equation 3.62 for determining the
The orincioal difference between the Codes, is that lhe BS
section size for intermediate wind girders usually results in
Code increases the value used for internal vacuum Va for
larger section sizes than that required by Table 3 of the BS
ligh-pressure tanks (56 moar) to 8.5 mbar. Whereas no in-
Code.
crease is required when designing for higher pressures when
applying Appendix F of the API Cod Comparisons between BS and API wind girder section require-
Applying the increased value of 8.5 mbar to equation 3.32 ments are given in Figure 3.49 for a range of tank diameters
gives: and minimum course thicknesses.
95,000
=7 .884 Intermediate (secondary) girde6 to the APlCode
3.563 x44.7 + 580 x 8.5
This has the eifect, for a given set of tank design parameters' to
decrease the minimum allowable spacing of the girders on a
high-pressure tank designed to the BS Code by 16 75olo over
the API requirements. Hence, depending upon the geometry of
the tank, this could lead to an increase in the number of wind
gliders required for the BS tank.
Section 3.5.2 showed how a tank shell of varying course thick-
nesses. designed to the BS Code, was transposed to a equiva-
lent height shell having a constant thickness equal to the thick-
ness of the top course.
The API Code follows exactly the same mathematical route in
determining the equivalent, (or "transposed shell" as it is re-
ferred to in the API Code). Also the method for the determina-
tion of the number and positioning of the girders is the same as
r6-q oo14- -''--_ o84400 I8o
for the BS Code. -!-j

However, whereas the BS Code tabulates the required section I 8r9 7t 1.015 263 00J
Pateo oerc
734.510 38 32
for the secondary wind girders against ranges of tank diarne-
ters. the API Code requires the section modulus of the section 747 838 Pl"t" 9'd"'b zor e2o 37.62
to be calculated using the same equation as that used for the
top girders (equation 3.60), except that the value for H is differ- u'l9'o!fo ruu uuo ,t,t
"
ent. For Intermediate wind girders to the API Code:

equ 3.62 Intermediate (secondary) 9irders to the Bs code


17

where:
D = tank diameter (m) 64.7

Hr = vertical distance (m) between the intermediate x75xB 953


wind girder and the top angle of ihe shell, or x75x8 95.3
the top wind girder of an open top tank (see
125x75x8 95.3
equation 3.61)
150x90x10 1739
Again, equation 3.62 is based on a wind speed of 100 mph. 150 x 9-o x lo 173.9

For other wind speeds the right hand side of the equation is I 19o49r lq
150x90x10 1739
r \/ t2 2AAx1A0a12 314.4
multiplied
' by
' | 100,
-- I where V is the required design wind
\ 200x100x12
speed. 204x100x12
/ \/ \2
Figure 3.49 Comparisons betlveen BS and API wlnd glfdef section require-
For Sl units this becomes ,,"; where V is in m/sec.
\++.r )
The required section modulus for intermediate wind gifders is Note: Typical dimensions for plate girders made from formed
based on the properties of chosen steel sections, which are ai- plate are given in Figure 3.3'1.
tached to the shell. Normally rolled steel angles or channels are The minimum thickness requirements for the top courses alter
used but for larger girders, polygonal sections formed from at differing tank diameters in each Code, so, in orderto keep the
folded plate are often used. (See Figures 3.30 and 3.31.) comparisons on the same basis, tank diameters have been se-
When determining what steel section(s) is required to satisfy lected tofallinto two ofthe top course minimum thickness cate-
the section modulus given by equation 3.62, a portion of the gories, namely, 6 mm and I mm, for both Codes.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 77


3 Ambient temperature storage tank deslgn

3.6.7.3 Comparison between British and American sec- HF


These girders are ideally spaced at apart = 1.929 m.
ondary wind girder requirements --
The differing secondary wind girder requirements, between the Thefirstgirder, when positioned 1.929 m downfrom the primary
British and American Codes, can be compared by designing a girder, is on a course of minimum thickness and is not within
tank shell to both Codes using the same overall dimensions 150 mm ofa horizonial girth weld. This position js acceptable.
and design parameters.
The second girder is positioned 1.929 m below the flrst, i.e. at
Take the British tank design illustration in Section 3.5.2.3. Here 3.858 m belowthe primarygirderand in this position it is on the
itwas demonstrated that the shell required two secondarywind 14.1 mm thick course, which is not a course of minimum thick-
girders, each being an angle section of 200 x 1OO x 12 (27.3 ness and is also only 108 mm below a girth seam. On both
kgim). counts its position must be adjusted.

Designing the shell to the American Code, and using the same Adjust the position for being on a course thicker than the mini-
design parameters (i.e. external floating rooftank 96 m diame- mum as follows:
terand 19 m high having eight2.375 m widecourses), the shell
{3.s58 - (1.375'-,-.","rr
li.l
2.375}} *^ttz.d]
I l"
is to be designed for a wind speed of 60 m/sec and the primary
girder is 1 m down from the top of the shell.

Note: The shell, being over 60 m diameter, is designed to the +(1.375+2.375\ =3.912 m below the primary girder
"variable design point" method.
Also, due to the lower allowable stress for the American Code,
which is based on the ultimate tensile stress of the shell mate-
rial, rather than the minimum yield stress in the case ofthe Brit-
ish Code, the lower courses are thicker than those to the British
Code, whereas the two upper courses are to the minimum al-
lowable nominal thickness for construction purooses to the
American Code. (.e. 10 mm to APl, and 12 mm to BS).
7:
h {m) He (m) riF hI
LJ75 10.0 1.375

2 2.375 10.0 2.375


3 2.375 1.006

2.375 19.2 0.465

5 2.375 24.T o.248


6 2.375 2A.A 0.169

7 2.375 39.2 0.078

8 2.375 40.7 .071

5.747

However, as the stiffening requirements are being compared,


rather than the differences in the shell thickness requirements,
the upper two courses willbe keptatthe same thickness as that
for the BS Code. The data used will therefore be as follows;

h (m) i(mm) He lm)

1.375 12.O 1.375


2 2.375 12.0 2 375
3 2.375 1.006

2.375 19.2 0465


5 2.375 24.7 0.244
6 2.375 24.8 0.169

T 2.375 39.2 0 078

I 2.375 40.7 .071

5.787

The maximum spacing for stiffeners on the shell from equation


3.61 is;

\ =9.47x'12

ne \ 79,7
r'lj
Figure 3.50 Typical stitrening ring sections iortank shells
Therefore two secondary wind girders are required. Fron API 650, figure 3-20

78 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient temperaturc stotage tank design

il

Coh{D! 4 Colum 5 Colunn 6


Cohen I Colu@ 2
Mcbber Size sheU Thicloess {ms (i'r)l
II! 5 t34e) 6(lil) 8 (540)

Top Atrgle: Figt& 3-20, Ddail a

64x64x6.4 21/2x2r/2x114 6.86 t0.4D 7.01(0.42)


64x64x1.9 2tl2x2\/2x51rc 8.30(0.51) 8.48 (0,52)
76x76><9.5 3x3x3/8 13.80(0.89) 14.10 (0.91)

C\nt) Anglcr Figue 3-20, Detlil b

&x&x6.4 2tl2x2\12xrl4 2?.00.6D 28.3 (r.72)


Ux64x7I 2tl2x2tlxxlrc 3r.l (1.89) 32.8 Q.M'
'16x16x6.4 3x3x\14 38.1 (2.32) 39.9 (248)
76x76x9.5 3x3x3/s 43.0 (2.78) 52.6 (3.35)
1(,x$tx6,4 s',t.6 (3.s' 71.4 (4.41)

102x102x9.5 65.6(4.17) 8r.4(5.82)

OneAnglei Figue 3-20, Dbil c (Sce NoE)


&x 64x5.4 2rl2x2\lzxtl4 28.s (r.68) 29.6(r.79) 31.3 0.87) 32.1(r.93J 33.4 (2.00)
gxgt7.9 2\lxx2r/2x51ft 33.10.98) As (2.t3' 365 Q.23' 38.1 Q.32) 395 (2.44)
60-8 (3.73) 64.2.89) 66.6 (4.00) 67.7 (4.10)
It)2x76x63 4x3x1l4 58.3 (1.50)
lO2x76 x7 9 4x3x5/16 7r.6(4.4s)
68.3 (4.14) 76.2(4.6) 19.4 (4.82) 80.8 (4.95)

127 x76x1.9 5x3x5/16 90.? (5.53) 9s2(5.96) 102.0(625) 105.0 (6.47) 108.0 (6.64)

127 x89 x1.9 5x3tl2t516 101.0(6.13) 106.0 (6.60) 113.0 (6.92) 118.0(7.16) r20.0(7.35)
12? x 89 x9.5 5x3%x3/8 r 16.0(?.02) 122-0(7.6r) 131.0 (8.01) 137.0t8.33) 140.0(8.58)

$2x'02x9,5 6x4x3/8 150.0 f9.@) 169.000.56) 182.0(ll.l5) 191.0 01.59) 194.0 o 1.93)
'IUo Angler: Figr.Ee l-20, Ddril d (S No.e)

r02x76x7.9 4x3x5/rc 186 01J7) 19r (1r.78) 200(r220) ?0t (t2.53\ 2r0 02.81)
2n 233 (t4.rE) 242 (14.&) 245 (t4.95)
l02x76t9.5 4x3x3lB 21603.06) 1J3.61\
262 (16.23) 2ts (16.u) 285 0734) 289 (t7.74)
121x.16x'|.9 5x3x5/16 2s405.48)
x16x9.5 5x3x3/s 2% (18.00) 305 (18-8e) 321(19.64) 333 (2026) 338(20.?7)
127
279 (16.9s) 287 (t7.7O) 100(18.31) 310 O8,82) 314 (19.23)
127 x89 x7.9 5x3t/2x51rc
5x3t12xtl8 325 (t9;75J 334(20.63) 350 (21.39) 363 (22.01) 368 Q2.A'
127x89x9.5
456Qt.74) 468 (28.92) 489 (29.95) 507 (30.82) 514 (31.55)
152 x 102x9.5 6x4x318
ForEed PLre: Figue 3-20, Detail e

b=250 b= l0
- 34t(23.29) 3',ts Q4.63\ 39 (25.61' 39 (26,34'
b-300 b= 12 421(29.21) 473 (31.07) 496(32.36) 505 (33.33)

b=350 b-14
- 519(35.49) 577 (37.88) 606 (39.53) 618 (40.78)

b=4m b* t6 615 (42.06) 687 (4507) '123 (41.t0) 731(48.6t)


7r7 (48.97\ 8t2 (52.62' 846 (55.07) 864 (56.9)
b=450 b= l8
b=500 b =20 8U (56.2r\ (6032) 976 (63.43) 996 (65.73)

b=550 937 (63.80) lo49 (6E.78) llll (72.1E) 1135 (74.89)

b=600 b=24 t0s4(7t.n\ ll81(??.39) 1252 (81.30) 1280 (84.45)

b=650 b=26 r r?6 (79-9) l3l7 (86.35) 1399 (90.?9) t432 (944r)

b-700 b=28 1304 (88.58) 1459 (95.66) l55l (r00.6s) r589004.77)


b- 750 b-30 t436(91.52' 1607005.31) l ?09 (t | 0.88) l7s2 01sJ2)
b=8m l5?3(106.78) 175901s.30) 1873 02 r.47) r92t 026.66\
b- 850 b=1,4 1716 (116.39) r9r7 (t25.64> 2U1(132.4\ 2096038.17)
b= 9m b=36 1864(126.33) 2080036.32) 2218 043.73) 2n6 Q50.07)
2016036.60) zA8(t41.3s) 2398 (155.40) 2463 (162.34'
b=950 b=38
2174(t41.211 2421(l58.tl) 258/' (167.42' 2654 (t74-99)
b = 1000 b=40
Nor, fn" roti* roa,tl f- Dtails e and d arE basd on lhe lonSpr hg bing locdcd hctrizootsly (Frpedislar to lh! sheu)
l|Aetr eglca wi6 lm6td lcgs ar u!d.

Figure 3.51 Section moduliof stiffening ring sections fortank shells (Values given in cm3 (in3)
Fron API 650, table 3-20

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 79


3 Ambient temperaturc storage tank design

This position puts the girder '162 mm below the girth seam and
therefore further adjustment is not required.
3.7 Compression area for fixed roof tanks
The spacing between the girders on the transposed shell is: 3.7.1 Effect of internal pressure
1.929 m, 1.983 m and '1 .875 m = 5.787 m. These spacings are
all less than Hj at 2.787 m and therefore are acceptable. All closed tanks which are subjected to an internal pressure
The section sizes for the girders have now to be calculated. which is in excess ofthe weight ofthe roof plates, try to adopt a
spherical form, wherebythe meridional and latitudinal stresses
From equation 3.62 the section modulus is calculated as fol-
lows:
at any given point in the containment parts would tend to
equalrse.
For the upper secondary girderthe value for H1 is 1.929 m, and
By way of illustration, the effect on a vertical cylindrical cone
D2 H, / v \'? roof storage tank is shown in an exaggerated form in Figure
-- 17 144.7 ) 3.52.
Two critical areas of distortion become aDoarent:
qA2 qro
-"" 17 ^Yl"":i r AA
xl "al
r2
_1884cm3 1) The shell-to-bottom joint.
\44.7 ) 2) The shell-to-roof joint.

Section type and size The distortion ofthe shell-to-bottom joint has already been dis-
cussed in Section 3.5.3 and the shell-to-roofjoint is now consid-
Figure 3.50 shows typical stiffening ring sections and is taken ered.
from Table 3-30 ofAPl 650 and typical values of section for var-
ious types of ring sections. The action ofthe pressure on the underside ofthe roofcauses a
compressive force to be induced in the shell-to-roof ioint as
shown in Figure 3.53.
From equation 3.63 the participating portion ofthe shellplating
The area in the vicinity of this connectjon needs to be strong
which can be included in the calculation for the girder is:
enough to withsiand the compressive force in orderto preventa
13.4^,t61 = 13.4.t86 x 12 =45s mm buckling failure taking place as shown in Figure 3.54.
Referring to Figure 3.50, a Detail 'e'type girder is required.

The table in Figure 3.51 does not have a shelt thickness of 12


mm listed but at 11 mmthenearestZvaluetolSS4cm3isl92l
cm3 indicating that a minimum girder width of about 32 inches
(813 mm) is required.
A detailed calculation gives an actual minimum width of 770
mm, giving a Z value of 1890 cm3.
Forthe lowersecondary girder the value for H1 is 1 .983 m, and

- D2.H. / v t2
- 17 \44.7 )
96' x 1.983
x / 60 - 12
rvJ/ cml
17 \44.7 )
The participating portion of shell is found to be 493 for the 14. 1
mm plate, and the required Z value is 1937 cm3 indicating that a
Detail 'e' type girder with a similar width to that for the upper
girder is required.
Adetailed calculation again shows that a minimum width of 770
mm, gives a Z value of 1940cm3forthe 14.1 mm plate.
Both girders will have the same minimum cross section and it is
found that ifthe girders are made in sections to match the num-
ber of shell plates there will be 32 polygonal sections per girder
and these will each weigh an average of 50.64 kg/m of tank cir-
cumference. Figure 3.52 Diagrammaic illustration of a pressurised tank

Conclusion
The British design requires two girders each out of 200 x 100 x
12 x 27.3 kglm angle, giving a toial net weight of 16,467 kg.
The American design again requires two girders but of a much
largersection madefrom 6 mm folded plate having an average
fabricated weight of 50.64 kg/m giving a total net weight of
30,545 kg, which is 85% more than the British design.
Referring back to Morton's research in Section 3.5.2.2, it ap-
pears that the British Code has heeded his advice, which sug-
gests thatfairly small section girders give adequate stiffness to
a shell, whereas the American Code seems not to have done
so. Figure 3.53 Compressive force at shell-to-roof ioint

80 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient tempercture storage tank design

PR N/rm circ.
=2tan0
a
As this force is acting on area t x L (1 mm x 1 mm), it becomes
pressure

p= PR N/mm equ 3.64


2tan0
To find the circumferential (hoop) stress in the ring of
diameter
2R and length L, Proceed as follows:
The load on the elemental horizontal strip at axis
XX= pressure x area
equ 3.65
=Px2RxL
joint due to intemalpressure
Figure 3.54 An example ofa failed shell-to_roof The force in the ring resisting this load at axis
Couftesy of EEMUA
XX=stressxarea
equ 3.66
3.7.2 Derivation of the required compression zone =scx2(txL)
area where Sc is the stress

The compression areawhich is required is derived as follows:


The load acting normal to the underside of the roof
= p. n.R'? (N)

The circumference of the shell


=2. r.R (mm)
Then the vertical force in the shell
r'Rz R (N/mmcirc.)
-p2.n.R-P 2

given
The load given by equation 3.65 must equate to the force
in equation 3.66 and therefore.
Scx2xtxL=Px2RxL
Substituting equation 3.64 for P;
oR
The horizontal component of this vertical force is found as: sc x2 xtxL = _r_xzKxL
ztanu
Where 0 is the angle between the roof and the horizontal, atthe
oolnt where the roof meets the shell Then:
p.R2 .L

s 5C.lanU
The cross-sectional area Afor the ring
N/mmcirc.
-gB-
2tane
but as both t and L are both 1 mm, then:
Consider an elemental ring ofthe tank shell having a thickness t equ 3.67
of 1 mm and a length L of i mm and resolve theforces acting at
-' Sc.tan 0
axis XX.
Consider a unit cube of this ring, then the force F acting 3.7.2.1 Effect of roof slope on cross-sectional area
It can be seen from equation 3 67 that for a given tank radius
and Dressure, the lowerthe slope ofthe roof, the lowerthe value
for tan 0 and in consequence a higher value for the compres-
sion zone area is required. This is an important factor when de-
signing "frangible" roofjoints, which is discussed in Section 3 8'

3.7.3 Compression zones

3.7.3.1 Compression zone area to BS Code


ln the BS Code the units which apply to equation 3 67 are:
= area to be provided within the compresslon
zone (mm2)

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 81


3 Ambient temperature storage tank design

p = internal pressure in the roof space less the 0 = slope of the roof from the horizontal (degrees)
weight of the roof plates (mbar)
3.7.3.3 BS and APlCode differences of allowable compres-
R = radius ofthe tank shell (m) sive stress
Sc = allowable compressive stress (N/mm2) Due to the difference in the values used for the allowable com-
pressive stress S, (120 N/mm2 in the BS Code and 137.5
e = the angle between the roof and the horizontal,
N/mm2 in the API Code), the compression area required to the
at the point where the roof meets the shell (de
BS Code is 14.6% greaterthan that req uired to the API Code.
grees)
Note: The BS Code states that, unless otherwise specified, 3.7.4 Providing the required compression area
the value for Sc shall be taken as 120 N/mm'.
p in mbar must be converted to Ni mm2 by multiplying by 0.0001 The roof{o-shell compression zone is made up of three basic
and R is converted from metres to millimetres. The equation components:
then becomes:
1) A participating area of the roof plating
pxO.OOOIxR2 x 10002
^ 2) A participating area of the shell plating
2xScxtan0
3) lf required, the above areas can be augmented by adding
50pR'? steel sections at the roof-to-shell junction
^ Sc.tan 0
equ 3.68
In the case of 1) and 2) these areas may be increased by thick-
ening upthe plating in thearea localto the joint. Additionalsteel
That is how the equation is shown in the BS Code. sections, when added into the compression zone, must fall
Note: The weightofthe roof plates in mbar, must be deducted within the participating area of the shell plating. The areas
from the internal pressure in order to arrive at the cor- which are considered to comprise the compression zone are il-
rect value for p for us in equation 3.68. The weight of 1 lustrated in Figures 3.55,3.56 and 3.57.
mm thickness of 1 m' of carbon steel late is 7.85 kg, or
3.7.4.1 For the BS Code
77N which equates to 0.77 mbar and so a more conve-
nient way to write the equation for carbon steeltanks is: The requirements to the BS Code are given in figure 7 of the
so(p 0.77tr) code and illustrated in Figure 3.55:
A :-"
R'?

nu'
equ 3.69
5C
where:
3.7.3.2 Compression zone area to API Code Rr = the radius of curvature of the roof at the point
The basic American API 650 Code does not cater for pressur- where it meets the shell (m) (for conical roofs
ised tanks but merely stipulates minimum curb angle require- R, = R/sin 0)
ments for various sizes of tanks and these are given in Section R
3.7.9.1, Figure 3.59.
= the radius ofthe tank shell (m)

However Appendix F of this Code caters for pressurised tanks


t = the thickness of the shell in the compression
zone (mm)
and gives requirements for roof-to-shell compression zones.
Appendix F follows the same theory as that for the BS Code but L = the thickness of a stiffening section (mm)
in the API Code the tank diameter D in metres is used instead of t, = the thickness ofthe roof plate in the compres-
the radius and the internal pressure p is expressed in kilopas- sion zone (mm)
cals (kPa) instead of mbar, and as 1 kPa = 0.001 N/mm2 the
equation in the API Code becomes:
Wr. = the participating length of roof plating in the ef-
fective compression area (mm)
,2
px0.001 x(u, x 1000) 125.p.D2 W" = the participating length of shell plating inthe
a_ -_---!-.1
2xscxtan0 Sc tano effective compression area (mm)

The API Code uses a value of 137.5 N/mm'? (20,000 lbs/in'?) for 3.7.4.2 For the API Code
Sc and the equation reduces to: The requirements to the API code are given in figure F-2 of Ap-
pu- pendix F of the Code and illustrated in Figure 3.56:
" 'l.1.tan 0
equ 3.70
wnere:

The value used for p is the internal pressure less the weight of t" = thickness of angle leg
the roof plates expressed in kPa and the API Code deems that tb
1 mm thickness of 1 m2 of carbon steel plate weighs 0.08 kPa,
= thickness of bar

then the formula becomes: t" = thickness of shell plate

. D'?(p o.o8 th)


equ 3.71
th = thickness of roof Plate
1 1. tan e ts thickness of thickened plate in shell
This is how the equation is shown in the API Code. maximum width of participating shell
where: 5
0.6(R"t")0
A = area to be provided within the compression
zone (mm'?) maximum width of participating roof

p = internal pressure in the roof space (kPa) 0.3(Rrth)0s of 300 mm (12 in),
D = diameter of the tank shell (m) whichever is less

th = thickness ofthe roof plates (mm) R" inside radius of tank shell

82 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambtent tempe@lure slorcge tank design

R.r

l/,=0.6 {i^n-ooont
_il
'--T-

: gure 3.55 Shelfto-roof compression ateas to BS 2654


-.on BS 2654, fiSure 7

R2 = length of the normal tothe roof, measured 3.7.7 Calculating the compression zone area
from the vertical centreline of the tank
_R When applying the above theory the designer will calculate the
Wh, and W" participating plate lengths and hence the available
@o area as (Wh x tr) + (W" x t). This is then compared with the re-
Note: All dimensions and thicknesses are in millimetres and quired area from either equation 3.68 or 3.71 depending upon
(inches). which Code is being used. lfthere is a deficiency, consideration
may be given to redressing this deficiency by adding in one or
-urther examples for increasing the area in the roof-to-shell
more steel sections or thickened plates at tie joint as shown in
aompression zone are given in Figure 3.57. Figures 3.55, 3.56 and 3.57.
Thickened plates may be used for elther the roof or the shell
3.7.5 Establishing the compression area section or for boih together, depending upon the amouni of ad-
dit onal area, which is fequired. When adopting this method it
The formulae for calculating the values W,, and We for the vari- must be remembered that the participating length of the com-
ous roof{o-shell connections are arrived at empirlcally through pression area Wh and/or W. has to be recalcuLated using the
research carried out by R. Perono, (Reference 3.71. new thicker plate chosen for the roof and/or shell sect on and
ihis greater value is then multiplied by the thicker plate thus giv-
The increase in pressure in the roof space causes an upward
Ing a larger compressron area.
deflection ofthe roof plating. Perono assumed the shape ofthis
deflection to be parabolic in the region close to the shell and de-
duced that the length concerned was proportional to 3.7.8 Practical considerations

0.6vFadrL,s of ttre platrng x thrckn


The most suitable method for providing the fequired area for a
particular application is found by trying various combinations of
and this is the value adopted by the BS Code for W6. Although
the available steel sections. For additional area requiremenis
the same theory does not apply to the shell, the BS Code uses
of up to say 9000 mm2, angle sections can be used. Beyond this
the same equation for the participating length of the shell plal
n9 W"'
then horizontally disposed plate stiffeners and/or thickened
shell and roof plate sections have to be considered.

3.7.6 API limitations for the length of the roof com- If thickened sections of shell or roof plate are decided upon,
then it should be borne in mind, that from a practical and com-
Pression area mercial point of view it is considered cheaper to produce a
thickened shell plate section than roof section. This is because,
It is Interesting to note that the BS Code uses a single factor of unless flat bar can be sourced, the development of the cone
0.6 forWh the length ofthe roof compression area shown in Fig- frustum from rectangular plate is wasteful in terms of material.
ure 3.55, whereas in Figure 3.56 for the API Code, a factor of Also the labour involved in marking off, cutting and rolling the
0.3, (with a maximum allowablevalue of 300 mm), is used when conical section, is more than that required for the cylindrical
angle sections are used to supplement the compression area. shell section. This is demonstrated later in Section 3.7.'10.3.
Where roof compression plates are used, then the factor used
is 0.6 but the maximum length allowable for Wh in these in-
stances is: 3.7.9 Minimum curb angle requirements

o.elF"{ For small diameter, or non-pressure tanks, (to the BS Code),


the calculated compression area may be so small that it can be
where: catered for by the allowable compression areas of the shell and
roof plating alone. Therefore it can be argued that for these
R" = inside radius of the shell
cases there is no need to introduce additionalarea at thejoint in
tu = thickness of the roof compression plate the form of a curb anqle.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 83


3 Ambient tempemture storcge tank design

Allr||dile ;.
n2

\- N|,rdui3
\ I'lt tel.xb olsEle ot englo
4 - 0.6(40pr
lr6x.

2l.nd

2t,6 ztrra|a'x

I msx
0.6(8"1.)45

Ddg Dcrdl h

Figure 3.56 Roof- to-shell compression areas to API 650


Frcn API 650, Apqendix F

84 STORAGE TANKS & ESUIP'IIENT


3 Ambient temperaturc storcge tank design

Figure 3.57 The use of two angte secrions or rwo thickened roof and shellplates to increase ihe area n in" rooftol]rl"rr"olnpr"""ion ton"

From a practical point of view, both the BS and API Codes take 3.7.9 3 Effect of internal pressure and tank diameter on re'
the view that for construction purposes, (unless there are spe- quired compression area
cial circumstances which are given in Section 3 7 9 2), then Forthe BS Code, the effect ofthe varying internal design pres-
tanks must be provided with a top curb angle of a certain mini sure for a ranqe of iank diameters is demonstrated in Figure
mum srze. 3.61, for the following tank design parameters.
The reason for this is to:
a) l\.4aintain shell circularity during construction
b) Give a landing for the roof plating
c) Give a landing for the roof handrail stanchions (where Jit-
ted) in? 5 5
Roofslopel L
3.7.9.1 Minimum curb angle sizes for fixed roof tanks rano= 0.2 02 0.2

In the BS Code, the minimum size of curb angle which shall be 9i1s!l ll:!l 0 rs6l
fltted to the tank shall be that derived from equation 3 68 or as 12A 124 120
given in Table 4 of the Code (Figure 3.58) whichevef is the
greater. From equation 3.68:
Mininum size curb angle (mm) 50pR2
A reoutreq
'
6ol!9l9 Sc tan 0
60x60xB From Figure 3.55, the available roof plate area
=wn.t = o.6u/i ooo. n, . t xg equ3 72

The available shell plate area

Figure 3.58 L4inimum size of curb angle from BS 2654


=w".t=0.6",/iooo+txt equ 3.73

The corresponding requirements to the APl650 Code are given From Figure 3.65 it can be seen howthe compression zone/re-
quirements increase dramatically over the range of tank diame-
in clause 3.1.5.9 of the Code and are shown in Figure 3.59.
ters, when moving from a non-pressure through to a high- pres-
Minidum size culb angle (mm) sure ratino. This is because, in equation 3.68 the pressure
50x50x5 increases bya factorot ta.zg i.e.52! linearly whilst Lhe value
,11._18 50,50^6
for the tank radius is being squared.
80x80x10

Figure 3.59 Corresponding requirements API 650 for minimum curb angle
3.7.9,2 Cases where minimum curb angle requirements do
not apply
The stipulations given in Figures 3.58 and 3.59 do not apply to
the following:
a) Open top tanks.
b) Tanks having self-supportlng roofs to API 650
- these are
governed by specific requirements given in clauses 3.10.5 1.751 sR<31
and 3.10.6 ofAPl 650 which can result in roof-to-shell con-
nections as 'detail a' of Figure 3.55 or'detail h' of Figure
3.56.
c) For the API Code only.
- Tanks = I m diameter
< which
have the top angle formed by flanging the top edge of the
shell as shown in Figure 3.60. Figure 3.60 Top edge of shell flanged io form a landing for the roof plales

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 85


3 Ambient temperature storcge tank design

Addlional 4ea rcqdrd


provid.d bY aFas Wi e Wc
H.P.

977 0 0 0
30 135 435
1197 o 0 o
6 6a 303 978
1382 0 o 356
I 122 538 1734 5

5 1545 0 1171
l0 190 841 2716

5 1726 0 0 2516
125 297 11314 4244

6111 6 2076 0 0 403


15 424 1893
2242 0 334 6076
'17.5 542 2576 $14 6
2397 0 964 6468
2D ?60 3365 10865 6
6 2542 1716 11209
225 962 4258 13750
2679 0 2574 14296
25 1188 5257 16976 6

6 2410 0 355t 17734


27.5 1438 6361 20541

8 3518 0 4052 2@21


30 1711 7570 24445
25989
33 2070 9160 29579 I 3690 0 54TO

3S54 0 31347
36 10901 3520',t a

'12-194 4011 0 8743 37301


2491 41313 8
4163 0 10675 43750
42 3353 r 4838 47913 a
506S3
3850 17033 55002 I 4309 0 12725

4450 0 14930 5A130


48 4380 19340 62580
4547 354 't7291 66060
5l 4945 21474
4720 424 19403 744e3
54 5543 24526 79203

Figure 3.61 Vary ng internaldesign pressure for a range oflank diameters

Hence, large diameter, high-pressure tanks require to be The area of this section is 544 x 34 = l8'496 mm2
heavily stiffened at the roof{o-shell joint to prevent compres- Then the total roof compression area =
sive failure in this area. Figure 3.62 shows the results from Fig- 44,132 + 1a,496 = 62,628 mm2
ure 3.61 in graph form.
3.7.10.2 Shell comPression area
The effect of imposing a mandatory requirement for the provi-
sion of a minimum size of curb angle is shown in Figure 3 63' From Figure 3.55

Figure 3.78 shows that for the full range of non-pressure tanks wh = 6.6"i1goo.R t
selected, the minimum curb angle requirement satisfies the de-
sign area required for the compression zone for all the tanks' = 0.6'!!ao x 27 x 34
However this is not the case for all the low and high-pressure = 575 mm
tanks and most of these will have to be provided with sections
having larger cross-sectional areas. The sheil compression area = 575 x 34 = 19,550 mm.
The total of the roof and shell compression areas available
3.7.10 Design example
= 62,628 + 19,550

Consider the 54 m diameter, high-pressure tank designed to


= 82,178 mm2
BS 2654, deiails of which are shown in Figure 3 63.
This is acceptable, although 2,975 mm2 more than required By
The requifed roof-to-shell compression area is 79203 mm'?
reducing the roof plate outstand beyond the shellto 457 mm re-
The range of angle sizes which are readily available are not duces the area by (544 - 457) x 34 = 2,958.
large enough to satisfy the area which is required and so the
This then gives a total compression area of 79,220 mm2' which
use of thickened roof and shell plates will be employed.
is acceptable.
By a trial and error method. a suitable arrangement can be
found by using the maximum allowable roof and shell lengths 3.7.10.3 Rationalising the calculation
together with a plate thickness of 34 mm' which will satisfy the The above example is based on using the maximum allowable
totral area requirement. For ease of calculation the same thick- participating lengths for Wh and W" in the roof and shell area
ness plate has been used here for both the roof and shell plate calculations. Using the maximum value for Wr. resulted in a
areas, but they can be of different thicknesses if so desired' plate thickness of 34 mm being the ideal thickness to suit the
"stan-
3.7.10.1 Roof comPression area calculated lengths. But 34 mm is not considered to be a
dard" thickness and 35 mm thick platewould be more appropn-
From Figure 3.55
ate. Repeating the above calculations for 35 mm plate and us-
'1000. R1 q ing appiopriately chosen valuesforWh and Wc, the resultgiven
in Figure 3.64 is obtained.
0.6 loo x 3.7.10.4 Economy of design
0r 961 x 34.....-

The net weight of the comPonents ls:


= 1 ,298 mm
for the shell 29,703 kg
The compression area is therefore 1298x34= 44,132 mm2
for the roof 77,241 kg
The maximum allowable outstand of the roof plate beyond the
Total net weight 106,984 kg
shell is 16.twhich in this case is 16 x 34 = 544 mm.

86 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


issuming that the components are to be cut from standard 18 standard plates 10 m x2.5 m x 35 mm whichweigh 123,638
: ate sizes then: kg. The plate scrapped in this case being 46,357 kg. or 37.5%'
which is high and costly.
-.re amount of plate required to cut the shell plate sections, as-
From this exercise it can be appreciated that the designer
sJming the ring to be in 18 pieces (the same as the numberof
should tryto design the roofcomponentto suit standard flat bar
s.rell plates per course), would be:
sizes or, if cutting from plate, attemptto minimise the amount ot
a standard Dlates 10 m x 2 m x 35 mm which weigh 32'970 kg' scrap plate which is Produced.
-he plate thus scrapped is 3,267 kg. or 10%, which is generally
A further means of economy, is to maximise the area put into
3cceotable. the shell component, where material wastage is lower. leaving
-he amount of plate required to cut the developed roof plate a minimum balance ofarea to be catered for bythe roofcompo-
sections, assuming again that the ring would be in 18 pieces' nent. However there is a potential danger of inducing second-
,vould be: ary bending stresses in the compression zone due to the cen-

f
g
zmo

6t* ____J
:g sm@
g 4s@
I
E3m
8
;g 2@@ --(
F.oo*
*ffi, t0 12-5 15 17.5 20 225 25 27.5 g 3 36
T||* di|m.t.r (n)

- - - NoD,Drgssrt Tar* . - . Lorr-Fs3s[ Tank Tar*

Figure 3.62 Comparison of rcof-to-shell compression alea requlremenls


-Hilr-p{r3su
13 th. min, sizs clrb 3ufRcient?
Mln. cufi 3lzo io Cod. F@vid.d by mio. d4 cu.b

(m) L,P.

30 135 435 5 60x60x6 691 16S


]j 303 974 5 691 l88a
6a
122 538 1738 5 60x60x6 691 2073

2716 5 60x60x6 2236


l0 190 841

12.5 297 1314 4244 5 60x60x8 903 2631

6111 6 903 2979


15 424 1893

6 60x60x8 903 3145


'17.5 582 2574 831S

760 3365 10855 6 60x60x8 903 33@


e 20

)a 22.5 962 4258 13750 6 80x80t10 1510 4052

80x40x10 1510 4189 No


a 25 1184 5257 16976 6

te 27.5 1138 6361 20541 6 1510 4320

'')- 24445 I 80xB0i 10 1510 5028


30 1711 7570
n- I 80x80x10 1510 5200
2070 9160 29579
S- 5364
36 2464 10901 35201 8 80x60x 1o 1510
>a
12794 41313 a 100x100x12 2270 6241
39 2491

14838 4791X 100 x 100 )( 12 2270 6433


3353

45 3450 17033 55002 100r'100i12 2270 6579

4380 19380 62580 100x 100 x 12 2270 6720


4B

21474 7t&47 150x 150x10 2530 7517


51 4945

24524 79203 a 150x150x10 2930 7650


5543

Figure 3.63 Toial compression zone areas, including minimum curb angle sizes

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 87


llmbent tempercturc storage lank design

More specific guidance is given for tanks having dome roofs


and self-supporting cone roofs, i.e. roofs without internal sup-
porting structures. In these cases clause F7 states thatthe par-
ticipating compression area shall be in accordance with clause
3.12.4 of the API Standard 620, "Design and Construction of
Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Slorage Tanks "
Except thatthe allowable compressive stress stated in API 620,
shall be increased from 105 N/mm2 (15,000 lbs/in'z) to 140
N/mm' (20,000 lbs/in'?)
3.7.11.3 Guidance on the positioning the centroid of area
Having mentioned API 620, which incidentally, allows design
pressures up to 1035 mbar (15 lbs/in'?). This Code gives guid-
ance on the positioning ofthe centroid of the compression zone
area in clause 3.12.5.2 which sbtes that:
"The additional area shall be arranged so that the centroid of
the cross-sectional area of the composite corner of the com-
pression region lies ideally in the horizontal plane ofthe cornel
formed by the two members. In no case shall the centroid be off
the plane by more than '1 .5 times the average thickness of the
Fioure 3.64 Roof io-shell compression zone design for a 54 m dlameief
hlgh-pfessure tank
two members intersecting at the corner."
Presumably this somewhat stricter rule has been applied in API
Lroid of the cross sectional area being lowered as shown in
620 because of the possibility of much g reate r forces being evi-
Figure 3.65b.
dent at the roof-to-shell junction due to higher allowable tank
operating pressures to this Code. Nevertheless this guidance
3.7.11 Positioning the centroid of area can be used to good effect for all tanks.
This guidance is shown pictorially in Figure 3 66.
BS 2654 and API 650 do not give any detailed guidance or caF
culations for the positioning of the centroid of area
3.7. 1 2 Cost-effective design
3.7.11.1 The BS Code
The BSI Code states that: 'lf a horizontal girder is required to The way in which any additional cross-sectional area is built
provide additional cross-sectional area, this girder shall be into the roof-to-shell compression zone can be a test ofthe tank
placed as close to thejunction as possible and at a distance al- designer's skill. This is particularly the case for large diameter'
ways less than the effective shell length for compression area high-pressure tanks, where the designer needs to accomplish
W";'. The arrangement referred to here, is shown typically in the task of providing large amounts of additional area to satisfy
Figure 3.56 details (g) & (i) the Code requirements, together with the most cost-efiective
3.7.11.2 The API code Appendix F method of doing this to satisfy the tank purchaser's budget.
Aooendix F oftheAPl Code, shows in Figure 3.56 detail'b'and
'ci ihat the roof plate connection point on to the horizontal leg of
the curb angle shall be between the position of the vertical neu-
tral axis of the angle and the heel of the angle

Figufe 3.65b Comptession zone with the shell thickness much gfeater than
Figurc 3.65a Compfesslon zone having roof and shell plates of ihe same the roof

88 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient temperature storcge tank design

The section of shell lapPed


behind the angle incteases
Thecentrord ol lh composll shlland rool the available cross-section
area shaLlnol be oulsidelhrs snaded area area in length w

Figure 3.67a Typical roofioini


'AA- 1he horizonlal Plane of the i
bv the roof and shellmembers
Hand.ai I stanc h ions, plaform supporling brackets

x; the maximum oflplane allowance = 1.5 (tr + 0 / 2 or stiffeneB of any kind musl not be welded acros

: !ure 3.66 ldeal location fot the cenaoid ofthe compresslon zone area to API
:2-0. (For information onlv, not mandaiory to the BS 2654 and API 690 Codes)
"^-"'-;\
3.8 Frangible roof joint, or weak R@f plat6 not connected
to the roof supporling structur
roof-to-shell joint
3.8.1 lntroduction

mix-
'ixed roof tanks which store volatile products will have a
:ufe of product vapour and air in the space between the surface Figure 3.67b Typical frangible foof ioint
of the product and the tank roof. This mixture may be in the
'lammable range and, due to malfunction, externalfire or inter- result in failure ofthe joini. This possibility must be prevented by
-al explosion. there may be a sudden increase in pressure designing the roof-to-shelljoint to fail before the shell-to-bottom
,vithin the tank which the normal vent devices and emergency
joint does. This is accomplished by considering the point at
are unable to cope with. Consequently tl^e tank rray be which the pressure in the tank is such that the floor is just about
',ents to li11 off its foundatLon.
damaged and this can result in failufe of either the shell-to-bo!
iom joint or the roof-to-shell joint.
ln either case such failures are disastrous but the failure of the
3.8.3 The maximum compression zone area allow-
shell-to-bottom joint can be particularly horrendous due to the able
felease of the stored product over the surrounding area caus-
Lng the attendant ecological and environmental problems. For a roof connection to be considered frangible, the maxlmum
compression zone area allowable must be determined.
Of the two types of failure, the roof-to-shell failure is to be pre-
ferred. as this will normally create sufficient free-venting area to The roof plating is assumed to act as a membrane and any
allow the release of the tank over-pressurisation without any bending effects are ignored, as are any changes in geomeiry,
oss of stored product. To increase the likelihood of a preferen- also th; angle between the slope of the roof and the horizontal
tial roof-to-shell failu re, some fixed roof tanks can be provided 0, is assumed to remain at its design value.
with a weak rooflo-shell connection, known as a "frangible roof Considering Figure 3.68.
joint . A typical arrangement of this type of joint is showl in
Figure 3.67b. P = internal Pressure
T = membrane force in roof Plating
3.8.2 Frangible roof joint theory Wr = weight of roof plating

Assuming a empty cone roof tank, then, as the pressure in the


tank increases above atmospheric pressure, a point will be
feached when the upward force on the roof plating willequalthe
downward load due to the weight of the roof plating As ihe
pressure increases further, the roof plating will tift oif its support
structure and this further increase in pressure is withstood by
lensile membrane forces 'T' in the roof plating (see Figure
3.68). These forces exert a pull at the shell-to-roofiunctlon and
so induce compressive forces in this area
A point will be reached when the upward force due to further in-
crease in pressure, willovercome the downward load duetothe
weight of the shell and support structure, and at this pressure'
the floor plating at the tank periphery will start to lift ofi the tank
foundation, as illustrated earlier in Figure 3.52
The floor being allowed to lift off the foundation' can result in
high stresses being set up in the shellto-bottom jointwhich can Figure 3 68 Tensile membrane fotces

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 89


3 Ambient tempercturc storcge tank design

Ws = weight of shell and roof support structure The size and quality ofthis weld is therefore an important factor
which is carried by the shell of the frangible joint. However there does not appear to have
been very much research done in this area, and this could be
R = tank radius
due to difflculties in making meaningful analytical studies ofthe
= angle of the roof slope to the horizontal influence and behaviour of such welds when subjected to this
type of failure mechanism.
Wr and Ws shall have any corrosion deducted.
The Codes do however require that the peripheral roof plate
Note: The above condition assumes that the tank is empty,
weld be kept as small as Dossible and in no case shall it be
but the theory is equally valid if the tank contains liquid.
larger than 5 mm. From a practical point of view making the
When this is the case, then the load due to the weightof
the liquid, which is considered to be effective, (i.e. say weld size any less than this, can be detrimental in the long term,
within 750 mm of the shell), is added to that of the shell because experience has shown that in time, this weld suffers
and framing. from the effects ofcorrosion wastage which can eventuallylead
to vapour leaks at the joint.
' However, it is normal practice to design for the worst
condition, which in this case, is when the tank is empty,
thus giving a lesser value for the allowable area for the 3.8.5 Formula as expressed in BS 2654
compression zone for the frangible condition.
Hencethe upliftforce on the roof plates is given byp r'R2 and
A is expressed in mm2

this force is resisted bythe weightofthe shelland support struc- Ws is given the notation 'T' and is the weight of the
ture Ws. shell, shell stiffening and roof framework suF
ported by the shell but excluding the roof
Then: plates, expressed in kilograms.
p.7r.R2 = Ws equ 3.74 Sc is expressed in N/mm2 and curb failure is as-
It has already been determined in equation 3.68, that the re- sumed to occur at 220 N/mm2, so this flgure is
quired compression area at the shell-to-roof junction is given built into the equation.
by: 0 is the slope of the roof at its point of connec-
n.R2 tion to the shell in degrees.
A=---l--:-::
2 Sc.tan 0 The formula then becomes:
And transposing for p: Tx9.807 Tx7.07x10-s
equ3.77
2.A Sc tan e 2 xT x2zo.lan e tan e
O=-
'R' equ 3.75
Which is as it is shown in Appendix F of BS 2654.
Substituting for p in equation 3.74 then: 3.8.5.1 Additional requirements to BS 2654
2 ASctan0 -,
_xn.K_=vvs ... In addition to the restriction in cross-sectional area for the
R roof-to-shell zone for the frangible condition, the Code requires
that the following conditions shall also be met, as described in
nence: Sections 3.8.4.1 and 3.8.4.2:
^ws
2 r.Sc tan 0
equ 3.76 . The slope of the roof plating at its connection to the shell
shall not be more than 1 in 5.
The area A thus found. is the maximum that can be allowed for . The peripheral roof plating-to-shell connection weld shall
ihe shell-to-roof compression zone to be considered as a fran- not be more than 5 mm.
gible joint.
3.8.6 Formula as expressed in API 650
3.8.4 Other factors affecting the frangible roof con-
nection A is expressed in mm2

3.8.4.1 Roof slope Ws is given the notation W and is the weight of the
shell, shell stiffening and roof framework sup-
ln Section 3.7.2.1 itwas demonstrated that as the roofslope be- ported by the shell but excluding the roof
comes shallower, the value of 6 decreases and hence the re- plates, expressed in Newtons
quired cross sectionalarea increases. Taken to the extreme, as
0 tends to 0', then the required cross-sectional tends to infinity. Sc is expressed in N/mm'?and cufu failure is as-
sumed to occur at 221 Nimm2, (32,000 lbiin')
Therefore itcan be seen thata shallow slope favours the frangi- so this figure is built into the equation
ble condition. Both the British and American codes recognise
this and put a limit on the maximum roof slope allowed for a roof 0 is the slope of the roof at its point of connec-
to be considered frangible. These limits are given in Sections tion to the shell in degrees
3.8.5.1 and 3.8.6.1. The formula then becomes:
3.8.4.2 Size of weld at the roof plate-to-shell connection
During the failure process of a frangible roof, the normal se-
^WW
^= 2r"x221 1390 xta" o
equ 3.78

quence of events is for the roof to deform, and undergo elastic ^ane=
Which is as it is shown in clause 3.10.2.5.3 of API 650.
buckling.
3.8.6.'l Additional requirements to API 650
l\4any creases will appear at the periphery as a reduction in di-
ameter occurs and the compression zone will buckle and col- ln additlon to the restriction in cross-sectional area for the
lapse. This causes the peripheral roof plate weld to tear away roof-to-shell zone for the frangible condition, the Code requires
from its shell mounting and hence the excessive internal pres- that the following conditions shall also be met, as described
sure is relieved. above in Sections 3.8.4.1 and 3.8.4.2:

90 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient tempercturc storage tank destgn

the amount of additional area which may have to be pro-


. The slope of the roof plating at its connection to the shell
vided by a curb angle.
shall not be more than 1 in 6.
. The peripheral roof plating-to-shell connection weld shall
2r Durinq the erection ofthe tank. lapping the angle directly
up ag;inst the top of the shell plating is a simpler erection
not be more than 5 mm procedure.
In Case A.1 , the area available from the roof and shell plating is'
3.8.7 Difference between Codes
on its own, more than enough to satisfy the amount requlred
from equation 3.67 and therefore only the minimum size of an-
The orincipal difference between the British and the American gle from Figure 3.58 will be fitted to the tank, in this case a 80 x
Codes isthat BS 2654 allows the slightly steeper roof slope of 1
80 x 10 angle. Thetotalarea provided in the compresslonzone
I in 5, against 1 in 6 to API 650.
isfoundto be5028 mm2. This is more than the allowable area of
The different constants used in equations 3.77 and 3'78 ate 4811 mm2, and the roofjoint is therefore considered not to be
due to the tank weight being expressed in kilograms in BS 2654 frangible.
and in Newtons in API 650.
Case A2
The maximum allowable cross-sectional area in millimetres
Case 42 allows for the vertical leg of the curb angle to be butt
calculated by either equation is found to be the same for a given
welded directly on to the top ofthe shell plating as shown in Fig-
set of design parameters.
ure 3.67b This is a more difficult erection task than that for a
lapped curb angle but can be advantageous when a frangible
3.8.8 Conflict of design interests roof ioint is required, because the area of the shell-to-roof com-
presiion zone is reduced due to the lesser area of shell plating
During the initial tank design stage, the shell{o-roof joint will being within the zone.
have been designed to suit the internal service pressure re-
quirement, as detailed in Section 3 7. The most appropnate Aoain. it can be seen that the area provided by the shell and
roof is more than enough to satisfy the requirement of equation
method of providing the required cross-sectional area in the 3.64, and in this instance, the minimum size curb angle is butt
roof-to-shelljointwill have been established and hence the tank welded. rather than lap welded to the shell' thus reducing the
will be capable of withstanding the compressive forces which area availablefrom the shellbythedepth ofthe angle i.e B0x8
will develop in this area during normal operation of the bnk'
= 640 mm2.
However, it may be necessaryto ensure' that in the event of an
This is enough to reduce the total available compression zone
accidental over-pressurisation in the tank' it would be desirable
area to a flgure which is less than the maximum allowed for a
for the shell-to-roofjoint to fail This may not always be possible
frangible joint and therefore the roofjoint is frangible
because the compression area built into the tank to satisfy the
operating pressure may be more than that allowed for a frangi-
CaseAl CaseA2
ble roofjoint, within the strictures of the Code _
Pressle T5ombar 75dbar
The likelihood of this conflict occurring and the possible means
by which it can be overcome, will become evident ffom the fol- compresson zo.e a@a requned ior ,,7jj nn2 1711mn,
lowing Sections.
Crrodna,e aoo"oo orlreo olrpt _cp-^ao60rosler Brr-*Flopo.oshel
3.8.8.1 "Service" and "Emergency" design conditions
wh a.d Wc area mm?
35i8 2878 mm'?
The maximum cross-sectional area at the compresslon zone
red -1807 '1167
which is allowable by equations 377 and 3.78 for the tank
Additonalarea rea!

emergency condition, may be found to be less than that re- L se ected curb a.gle size I 8ox80x10RsA 80x80xl0Rsa
quired to satisfy resistance ofthe internal pressure for the ser- Selected curb ang|e afea 1510 mm'? 1510 mmz
vice condition calculated by equations 3.68 or 3 71. ..rr.* I .,r.
'*
When this occurs the tank is deemed not to have a frangible ls totalarea provLded suilicient?
roofjoint, but this situation may be overcome by providing the 136089 kg
13608s kg
tankwith anchor bolts or straps attached to the lowershellarea
ofthe tank and secured to a peripheral concrete foundation ring lr,,laximum area a lowed iorirangible

beam.
ls lhe oofto nl ffang ble?

3.8.9 Examples of frangible and non-frangible roof


joints 3.8.9.2 Tank designed for an operating pressure of20 mbar
Cases Bl and 82
Using the tank shell design illustration given in Section 3 3 2 9,
and issuming a roof slope of 1 in 5, and a roof plate to curb an- At this higher pressure the required compresslon zone area
gle weld of 5 mm, then further calculations give the following has significantly increased from 1711 mm2 to 7570 mm'?.
information:
Following what was learned from case 42, the selected curb
3.8.9.1 Tank designed for an operating pressure of 7'5 angle size of 150 x 150 x 18 for Case 81, is butt-welded to the
mDar tank shell as shown in Figure 3.67b However, it can be seen
Case Al that in doing this, the loss of shell area leaves a deficit of 152
mm, (7570-7418) in the area required for operation, and this is
Case 41 allows for the curb angte to be lapped on to the top of
not acceptable.
ihe shell, as shown in Figure 3 67a. This arrangement ls gener-
ally adopted for two main reasons; Case 82 is calculated in the same way as Case B1 except that
the larger angle size of 200 x 200 x 16 is used and the conse-
1) The available area of the compression zone which is re- quent increase in the cross-sectional area ofthe angle gives an
quired for the tank operating pressure is increased, be-
cause the top of the shell plating behind the angle is also acceDtable totalarea forthe compression zone required forop-
included in the zone. This is advantageous as it minimises erational purposes.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 91


3 Ambient temperaturc storage tank design

For both Cases 81 and 82 however the area of the compres- tank foundation. Three methods of anchorage are illustrated in
sion zone is far in excess ofthe maximum allowed for a frangi- Figures 3.69 (a), (b) and (c).
ble roofjoint. 3.8.10.1 Ensuring a frangible roof connection using an-
cnorage
CAeBz
case B1
Apart from the frangibility consideration, anchorage may also
_ 20.00 mbar be required due to the following conditions;
Compression zone area reqlired for . The operating pressure causing uplifr ofthe tank.

Curbangle lapPed or butted to shell?


--l . The overturning effect on the tank of the prevailing wind
2318 mm': 1918 mm2 . Instability of the tank caused by seismic action.
Add tronalarea requ red 5252.32 5652 These instances are discussed in Section 3.9 and Chapter 15
!:r*t"djy9j!q:l!1 i50 x 150 x 18 RSA ,oqr?oirI r$ or26, butfornoW the means of designing anchorageto ensure
a frangible roofjoint will be considered as follows:
Selected curb angre area s100 mm'
3.8.1 0.2 Determining anchorage requirements
Ls lotal area Pmvide suffclenl? Where a roofis deemed notto befrangible. then the pressure at
140426 kg
which it would fail has to be determined. This is done by trans-
I19634lg
posing equation 3.69 or 3.71 depending upon which code is be-

. o*ulL ing used, and thus determining a failure pressure p


[,lax dum area alowed lorlrangble
joni

lslhe roof lointfrangble? t!- Takino the case for the British Code then from equation 3 69:
Jc t1n J*s.77 equ 3.79
o=4 1r-

Case 83
From the previous Cases B1 and 82 it was found thai for this Failure is considered to occur at a compressive stress Sc of 220
oarticular tank size and its attendant design parameters there N/mm'z.
was no advantage in butt-welding the curb angle to the shell Hence failure Pressure
Case 83 therefore is based on lap welding the curb angle as A:tan o+0.77.tr
shown in Figure 3.67a. lt can be seen from the results that in do-
o=44
ing this the inclusion ofthe additionalarea oftheshell plate be-
hi;d the curb angle atlows a smaller angle size of 150 x 150 x 15 Remember that in the British Code p is in mbar.
to be used, and the combination gives an adequate overall total Similarly, for the American Code, from equation 3.71.
area in the comPresslon zone.
1.1 A tanoro.o8.th
o=
'D"
Forthe American Code, failure is considered to occur at a com-
pressive stress of 221 N/mm2.
Compress on zone area required ior opetion
The constant 1.1 in equation 3.71 is calculated using a allow-
-t'! -
Curb ang e lapped orbltted lo shelt t
able stress of 137.5 N/mm' e.g. 1.1

This has to be recalculated using thefailure compressive stress


150 | 150 x 15 RsA
of 221 N/mm/ and the new constant is '1!
125
'r,
Failure pressure is therefore
ls lotalarea Prov de sufiicieot?
1.77.# t"n o
equ 3.80
p= * o.os. r'.

[,lax m!m area a lowed for irang ble]oini


In the American Code p is in kilopascals (1 kPa =10 mbar)
s lh rooiioinlfrang ble?
-
3.8.10.3 Worked examPle
Consider the tank depicted in Section 3 3.2.9.
However, as before in the previous cases, this area is wellin ex-
cess of that allowable for a frangible roofjoint. This tank is 30 m diameter, has a roofslope of 1: 5, a roof plate
thickness of 5 mm and compression zone details as given in
3.8,10 Tank anchorage a means to frangibility Section 3.8.9.2 for Case 83.
- Anchorage is io be provided using bolb
The tank in Case 83 meets the Code requirement for having Using the BS Code for this example, then the failure pressure
sufficient cross-sectional area in the roof-to-shell compression will be:
zone for operating conditions But under an emergency over
pressure condition, this area is too great to ensure that the 4.44 x7818 x0.2=U./a
^ -- XO.
;ooflo-shell joint is frangible and therefore may not fail under
- 1s'
this extreme condition. This could cause the shell-to-floor rim of
the fank to lift off the foundation and the resulting distortion in = 34.43 mbar
this area could cause this joint to fail rather than the
roof-to-shell joint. = 3.443 kNi m'?
This pressure acting on the roofofthe emptytankwillproduce a
This occurrence can be prevented by anchoring the tank to a
suitably designed concrete ring beam which forms a part ofthe
uplift of:

92 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient temperaturc storcge tank desryn

UP=" R'P
'rlll
lttll
{ | I ll =nx152 x3.443
lrn caseswheElheanchorborbarc
= 2433.71 kN
The weight of the tank shell, stiffening and roof structufe given
in case 83 is 139041 kg which equates to 1363 55 kN
Then the net uplift = 2433.71 -1363.55 = 1070 16 kN
The BS Code requires anchors to be spaced around the tank
circumference at a minimum of 1 m and a maximum of 3 m
In this case a 3 m spacing will be used and hence the number of
5
bolts required is;
30xn ^,.^
3

This is rounded up to 32.


However, as there are 12 plates per shell course, then 36 an-
chors will be selected, giving 3 per plate and thus clashes be-
tween anchor brackets and vertical shell course butt welds will
): be avoided.
Figufe 3.69a Anchotage using bolts The load per bolt due to the over-pressurisation uplift will be
I
1070 16 :zg.t3 ttt
36
The BS Code also requires anchors to have a minimum cross-
sectional area of 500 mm2. This equates to a bolt core diameter
of 25.33 mm and hence a overall bolt diameter of 30 mm will be
selected, which has an actuat core stress area of 561 mm'? (this
excludes any corrosion which may be required).
The stress in each bolt due to the over-pressurisation uplift will
be
29.73 x 1000
561

= 53.0 N/mm'?
The BS Code states that the allowable tensile stress in the an-
chorage shall not exceed 50% of the specified yield strength, or
33.33% of the minimum tensile strength of the anchorage ma-
terial, whichever is the lowesi.
Taking medium strength steel having a minimum tensile
strength of 430 N/mm'? and yield of 255 N/mm2 for this diameter
of bolt, then the allowable tensile stress would be 127.5 N/mm'?.
Figure 3.69b Anchorage using siraps The selected bolt size is therefore acceptable.
3.8.10.4 Further design check
From above it can be seen that the tank can be subjected to a
pressure greater than its design pressure i.e. 34.58 mbar in-
stead of 20 mbar The original tank design must therefore be
checked to ensure that the allowable stress in the shell (equa-
tion 3.7) is not exceeded. This is accomplished by transposing
S, the allowable stress and t in equation 3.7.
3.8.1 0.5 Other anchorage considerations
The anchorage design here is only catering for the uplift due to
over-pressurisation and it must be borne in mind that this may
have to be combined with any anchorage requirements which
may be found to be necessary to stabilise an overturning mo-
ment on the tank due to wind loading which is dealt with in
Section 3.9.

3.8.11 API 650 Code anchor requirements


-
3.8.11.1 Minimum bolt diameter
The minimum anchor bolt diameter should not be less than 25
mm, plus a corrosion allowance of at least 6 mm, giving a mini-
FigLre 3.69c Combinalion usrrg slrap ard bolld'lchotage mum diameter of 31 mm. This is similar to that given in the BS

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 93


3 Ambient temperature storage tank design

Code at 30 mm, exceptthat in the case ofthe BS Code any cor- 3.9.3 Spacing of anchors
rosion allowance is added to 30 mm.
The allowable spacing of anchors to the British and American
3.8.11.2 Spacing of anchors Codes are given earlier in Sections 3.8 10.3 and 3.8.11.2 re-
TheAPlCodedoes notspecifya minimum spacing for anchors spectively.
but states a maximum spacing of 3 m
3.9.4 Worked examPle
3.8.11.3 Allowable stresses in anchors
Table F-1 ofAppendix F ofAPl 650 gives the allowable stresses Following a worked example is a good wayto illustrate how an-
and this is reproduced in Figure 3.70. chorage is applied to a tank, and also how some ofthe previous
theory is applied.
3.8.12 Further guidance on frangible roofs Some of the previous data is used:
Using the tank design data from BS 2654' in Section 3 3 2 9'
3.8.12.1 EEMUA exceptthat the internalservice pressure will be increased from
7.5 mbar to 56 mbar in order to ensure that anchorage will be
EENiIUA (The Engineering Equipment and Materials Users As- required. This is shown in Figure 3.72.
sociation) publication No. 180, gives very usefuladvice on the
subject, (Reference 3.8).
One ofthe aspects covered, is an alternative method ofensur-
ing a frangible joint in the tank shell near to the top of the tank
AloqrbL s!!s a Rn( o{
and this is shown in Figure 3.71. Ar+* Box tturdr
This method could also be used to convert an existing non-fran- 0b{/e:,
gible roof tank, to have a frangible joint. t5.m
105

Note: Care must be exercised in using this method to ensure T.nl d.siEn F6$c PIB *tu!d' lrlo 20.m
that the frangible shell-to-roof .ioint will fail before the
20m
shelllo-bottom joint. the shell joint or the anchorage A t4{l

thorough finite element analysis should be undertaKn F tul. Frrs@ {fM F 6) x t Jb


to make certain that the fillet weld between the angles
fails before any other area of the tank. rs.c E fd ssn d6i!! rcC.rfte'Is
Altctdir
bF.. di; dd'to.. dE GfdtiE li4o'd sriSrr d b. E
tods! {Ell d b s!.6.d to l!(lE ft 'Ela lo'4 Trt
t ilot! FBioa ti.It !. eblh&d 6i!! a_hil lhi:taga
3.9 Tank anchorage further consider- 'Midsur! sF.itu Yi.ld $!ttcd!
ations
-
Figure 3.70 Allowabl design stresses in anchors
Fron API 65A. bble F'1
3.9.1 Wind loading and internal service pressure

The British, American and European Codes all address this


subject. Fixed roof tanks shall be provided with anchorage if,
dueto one of the following conditions, there may be a tendency
forthe shell and the bottom plate, close to the shell, to lift offthe
foundation:
. Uplift on an empty tank due to internal design pressure,
counteracted by the effeciive weight of the roof and shell'
. Uplift due to internal design pressure in combination with
wind loading, counteracted by the effective weight of the
roof and shell, plus the effective weight of product, consid-
ered bythe tankoperator, to be always present in the tank

(This last condition is at the sole discretion ofthe tank oper-


ator.)
Note: The tank weights referred to are the weighb after de-
ducting any corrosion allowances.

3.9,2 Anchorage attachment

The principle point of attachment of the anchorage shall be on


the tank shell plating and not the bottom plating and should be
so designed to accommodate any tank movement due to ther-
mal changes and hydrostatic pressure Stresses induced into
the shell djue to the anchorage shall be kept to a minimum Ex-
amples oftank anchoring methods are shown earlier in Figures
3.69 (a), (b) and (c).
The allowable stresses to the British, American and EN Codes
are given earlier in Sections 3.8.10 3and3 811 3andinFigure Figure 3.71 Frangiblejoini in a tank shell
3.70.

94 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient temperaturc storage tank deslgn

Tank oiameter o = 3oooo m shel : 12 Pl.les perco!6e


Tank Helght H= 16.000 m
specilicgravivw = 0900 1 00 to beused lorsheLldosgn
lnier.alpress. p = 56 oO m bar lnlmalvtc 6 00 m baf
co(osion allowances ' shellplates 0 00 mm
Floorplales o 00 mm
RoofPlales 000 mm
shellanlles o0o mm.Tota = 0.00 mooffeachnanqelhks The total equivalent stable height of the shell HE = 12 388 m
Desgn temperalurc I Max. 90 00 "c
lllin. 0 0o "c 3.9.4.3 Maximum unstiffened height of the shell
sreeltype l Bs EN 10025 5275
Minimum Yield Stress = 275 000 N/mf,z for'l <= 16mm This is obtained from Section 3 5.2, equation 3.33 which gives:
Desgnsless = 133.333 Nh.ri(23xmLn YLeld)
_
-.1^
sheLlhickness D/20 s{9sw (H _o 3)+ p}+ca ignoe p il =< 7 m bar ) t'1" '
' i D' Il
( 5
Ho=Kl
The code requres a mln thickdess 3 00 mm

alsls! !lligsI9!! But first a value for K must be obtained from equation 3 32
where
1 2.000
183 333
13 05
11.5
,.
N=--
95,000
;
2 2 000
3 2 000 9.84 9.9 (3.563.Vs'+580
- Va)
424 33
5 2 000 143 333 6.63
503 30 95,000
,-
6 183.333
7 2 000 i33 333 3.42 Kr - - r.YVo
2.000 (3.563 x 44.16' 580 x 8.5)

'rhe wight otthe shll = 1 10 631 kg Then:


This shellca culat on dernonslrales how the lomula produces verv lh n uPpefcources
The Code require. a mininum th ckness of 8 mm tor thjs tank diameler
no=z.ssal
'
81
l'30'l
] =earr'
Figure 3.72 Tank shell deslgn daia illustration Comparing the maximum height of unstiffened shell allowable
Hp = 8.81i m, to the eq u ivalent stable height of the shellHE =
Note: The shell thicknesses have increased slightly from 1i.388 m it can be seen thatas 8.811 m<12388m<2x8811
those shown in Figure 3 8, this is due to the increase in m, then one secondary wind girder is required and the Code re-
internal pressure, from 7.5 mbar to 56 mbar' quires this to be positioned at HE/2 = 6.194 m down from the top
3.9.4.'l Completion of tank design of the shell.
'12.388 - 8 811
The tank design has to be completed in order to obtain a tank However, ihe girder may be positioned at a point
weight. This is required in order to be able to perform the an- 3.577 m down lrom the top of the shell as in this position the
=
chorage calculation. maximum permitted spacing of 8 811 m is still maintained.
3.9.4.2 Shell wind girder calculation There is an argumentfor placing the girder(s) as close to ihe top
In this example the tank site is located in Liverpool, England of the tank as possible because it has been found in practice
that the upper courses tend to suffer more internal corrosion
and from Section 3.3.3 and Figure 3.10, the basicwind speed is
iound to be 46 m/sec. This is due to the wetting and drying cycle inthe upperarea due
to product movements in and out of the tank. Hence the
Also the topography factors from Section 3.3.3, Figure 3.11 and girder(s) offer stiffness in the area where it is most needed
3.12 a.e:
In any event the girder(s) shall not be within 150 mm of a shell
s1=1.0 s2=0.96 S3=1 .0 girth weld.
The design wind speed Vs is therefore 46 x 0 96 = 44.1 6 m/sec 3.9.4.4 Section size for the secondary wind girder
Referring back to Section 3.5.2, equation 3.24 gives the equiv- From Figure 3.32, for a 30 m diameter tank the section size
alent stable height of each shell course: shall be a 125 x 75 x 8 mm angle.
. . ..2.5
!!1! I The toe ofthe longer leg ofthe angle is welded to eitherthe in-
re = n( tefnal or external surface of the shell. The normal preference is
\ r.l
to attach ittothe external surface. This leaves a smooth internal
For the bottom course: surface, which makes for easier tank cleaning and also allows
rr r25 for the future fitting of an internal floating cover if, due to change
He=2,0 II =0.538m of stored produce, this is found necessary
\ 13.1'
The weight of this wind girder is 1,150 kg
The calculation forthe fullshellcan be shown in tabularform as
3.9.4.5 Shell-to-roof compression zone
iollows:
From equation 3.69 the required area in this zone is:
Heisht (F) (Po.77 tr) R'?
A_50
2.4 13.1 0.853 Sc tan 0
2 2.0 115 0.807 The minimum allowable roof plate thickness to the Code is 5
2A 9.9 '1.174 mm (to which any corrosion allowance has to be added).
2.0 8.3 1.424 The normal roof slope for a cone roof tank is 1 : 5 and this will be
2.4 8.0 2.000 useo nere.
For this tank

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 95


3 Ambient temperature stonge tank design

50 x (0.77 x 51} x 15'? Also the code allows the participating roof plate to overhang
^ {56 the shell by 16.t which in this case is 16 x 16 = 256 mm
^= .2o*t2
By it is found that the roof plate dimensions of Wh
trialand error
=24,445 mm2 = TOOm plus a shell overhang of 210 mm, give a roof plate area
of (700 + 210) x 18 =16380 mm'?.
3.9.4.6 Participating roof and shell plate area
Using the allowable shell length of 294 mm x 16 mm, then the
From Figure 3.55, in Section 3.7.4.1, the participating roofplate area for the shell section is 4704 mm2.
length: The total area is therefore 16,380 + 4.704 = 21,084 mm7 and
1000. R1 .
t this meets the requirement.
Also it can he found that the centroid of the two plate sections
R, is the roof plate radius at the point where it meets the shell
lies 7.64 mm above the corner formed by the two participating
and is given by: plates.
R 15 = 26.+gs .
0=0.196
From Section 3.7.11 the maximum distance for the position of
sin the centroid of area, either above or below the corner is:
Then: 1.5 (tr + t) /2 = 25.5 mm
wh = o.6.,raoo 'r 76.485 'x 5 = 371 mm The chosen arrangement satisfies this requirement.
The area of this length of roof plating: The weight of this composite section is 15,594 kg
=Wh ! =371 x5=1885mm2 The compression zone will be constructed as shown in Figure
3.73.
Similarly the participating shell plate length:
3.9.4.7 Roof plating
wc=o.o"/ioooR t
The roof olate thickness was selected as 5 mm, which is the
ln this case the radius of the shell: minimum to the Code, and, as is normalforthis type of roof, the
lapped joints between the plates are welded on the top side
R = 15 m
on ly.
Then:
The suitability of this thickness and joint type has to be proved
wc-o.oJtooo x ts xa - 207.85 mm in accordance with equation 5.3 in Chapter 5 The reason for
this is that, as the roof plating is only attached to the tank at its
The area of this length of shell plating: periphery then, under pressure it can lift off its support structure
= Wc.t =207.85 x 8 = 1662.8 mm2 and act as a membrane and so its suitabilityin this condition has
to be verified.
The total participating area:
From equation 5.3 in Chapter 5, the thickness of the roof plate
= wh + Wc = 1885 + 1662.8 =3547 .8 mm2 to resist pressure:
The additional area required at the junction: P Rr
L=
' 10 S u
= A-(Wh + Wc)

= 24 ,445 3547 .8 = 2O ,897 .2 mm2 where:

Tocomplywith the Code, this additionalarea must liewithinthe p = 56 mbar


participating roof and shell lengths of: R1 = 76.485
Wh = 371 mm and We = 207.85 mm. S = 18.33 N/mm2
The additional area is too large to be provided by any combina- 0.35 for a single side-welded lap joint
tion ofthe largestangle sizeswhich are commonly available to
=
us. The alternative therefore, is to use thickened roofand shell I nen
plates within the compression zone
Following the same method used inthedesign example in Sec-
tion 3.7.10.1 , the following result is obtained.
Corroded area required = 20,897 .2 mm2
Trytr = 18 mm
and t = 16 mm
c.a. = 0mm
'l in 5
Roof slope
Tank diameter = 30m
Roof radius = 76.486 m
(tr - c.a.) = 18 mm
( - c.a.) = 16 mm

Recalculate:
wh = 0.6^'iaoo;t6385 )( 18 =704 mm

and
wc = 0.0.,/tooo x Ls x '16 = zg+ n' Figure 3,73 Compression zone construction

96 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient tempetature storage tank destT

56 x 76.485 Fs=0.7x1195.4x30x16
t -b.b6mm
10x183.33x0.35
- Fs =401,654 N
The roof plating is not acceptable at 5 mm thick, with single
lap-welded joints. Three solutions to this situation are possible: The wind force normal to the roof from equation 3.21:

1) Lose 7 mm roof plating (which is a non-standard thick Fr =CI q /zD.h


ness, therefore 8 mm would probably be selected.)
Fr =0.7 x 1 195.4 x(30/2) x3
2) Weld the underside as well as the top side of the lap welds
This would increase the joint efficiency factor p to 0.5. The Fr = 37,655.1 N
required design thickness would then reduce to 4.67 mm
and then 5 mm plate would be accepbble. The resulting wind moment on the tank is found from equation
3.19:
However, welding the underside laps on such a large area of
roof would be an expensive and labourious bsk. Mw = [Fs H/zl+ [Fr{h +ni JU
3) Re-design the roof as an umbrella roofwhen the roof ra-
dius can be selected to accept 5 mm plate. N/rw .1401,654.4x16/2j- [37.655.1 (16 | 3/3)]
ln oractice solution 3) would be the most favourable option, but
for the ourposes of this exercise we will continue with the cone Mw = 3,853,371.9 N or 3,853.37 kNm
roof and select to use I mm plate. A further effect of this deci-
Whilst it is not specifically mentioned in BS 2654, it is advisable
sion is to increase the weight on the roof structure by about 17
to apply a factor of safety to the tank overturning moment. Guid-
tonnes (24 kg/ m'?) and hence the design of the structure will
ance on this is given in BS 449: Part 2 "The use of structural
have to cater for this additional load.
steel in building". Clause 10b oithis Code states "When consid-
The weight ofthe 8 mm roof plating is found to be 45,270 kg. ering wind loads, the restoring moment shall not be less than
3.9.4.8 Roof structure 1.4 times the overturning moment due to dead loads and wind
loads, nor less than '1.2 times the overturning moment due to
The various types of roof structures are dealt with in Chapter 5,
the combined effects of dead, imposed and wind loads". There-
where it will be seen that they are designed to structural engF
fore a factor of 1.4 will be used.
neering standards, which are not exhaustively dealt with in the
iank standards. For the tank in question, the structure will be of The value for Mw used in the anchorage calculation then in-
the internal truss type and from previous experience it is found creases to 3,853.37 x 1.4 = 5,394.72 kNm.
that the net weight of such a structure is in the region of 31,000 The counteracting righting moment on the tank is given by mul-
kg, after allowing for the thickerthan usual roof plating at 8 mm. tiplying the effective weight of the tank W less ihe uplift on the
3.9.4.9 Anchorage calculation roof due to the wind passing over it, which is usually taken as
0.6 x q x area, by the moment afm measured betlveen the polar
Enough information is now available to calculate the effective
axis of the tank and the tank shell.
weight Ga of the tank for the anchorage calculation and ihis js
summarised as follows: -^t
M'. lw (u.bxqxarealxurrl
kg
The uplift in this case is 0.6 x 1195.4 x 21x 30'?= 507 kN
Shell 110,681
Wind girder 1 ,150 Mrr = (1997.6 507) x3012
Shell-to-roof
compressron zone 15,594
Mr, = 22 35n O*t
Roof structure 31,000 As lvlrj > lVlW anchorage is not required.
Roof plating 45,270 3.9.4.11 Overturning moment due to wind action while in
seryice
Ga = 203,695 = 1997.6 kN
The Code requires the tank stability to be checked when it is
Note: The floor weight is excluded from the effective tank empty, but subjected to its internal design pressure together
weight.
with the external wind load and this is performed as follows:
The forces aciing on the tank which can cause anchorage to be
The upthrust on the roof due to the internal pressure is:
required will now be considered.
3.9.4.10 Overturning moment due to wind action only uP=rl4D'P
Relerring to Section 3.3.3.4 for the theory used in CP3 : Chap-
Up = n/4 x 30'zx 56 x 0.01
ier V : Part 2, the following is found;
Jsing equation 3.15, the design wind speed has been estab- Up = 3958.42 kN
ished as 44.16 m/sec.
The resultant downward load is:
From equation 3.17 the dynamic pressure:
ca - Up = 1,997.6 3,958.42 = -1 ,960.82
q = 0.613 V"'?
Then the r;ghting moment for this case:
g=0.613x44.16'? Mr, = (Ga Up)D /2

9=1195.4N/m, lvlr, = 1,960.82 x 30 /2


The tank height to diameter ratio =16/30 = 0.533; and from Fig-
l\,4r, = -29,412.3 kNm
Jre 3.12 the coefficient Cr= 0.7.
The wind moment Mw is the same as before for this condition
The wind force normalto the shellfrom equation 3.20:
and hence for this case M12 < Mw and therefore anchorage is
Fs =Cf q.D H requrred.

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 97


3 Ambient temperalurc storage tank design

4M
Note: There is provision in the Code forthe tank user to stipu- Load/anchor =
DN
late that ihere will always be a certain amount of prod-
uct in the tank at all times whilst the tank is in service load is thatdue to the shell, shellstiff-
For such cases the applicable weight of this product The force W resisting this
eninq and that part of the roof structure and plating which is
can be added to the weight ofthe tank to counteract the
the shell. (all after the deduction of any corrosion
uothrust due to the internal pressure This, in some supp;rted by'minus
p, the simultaneous uplift from operating
cases, can negate the requirementfor anchorage to be allowance),
Provided. conditions such as the internal pressure on the roof'

3.9.4.12 Design of the anchorage This uplift may in certain cases be more than the weight of the
tank and in such cases the load is added to the load due to the
To determine the load induced in the anchorage by the over- :_
overturning moment.
turning moment, consider the following approach
From the fundamental theory of bending it is known that: Then:

v=l W=(w p) and the load Per bolt =


-
ly
where: The load in each anchor is therefore is

M = in this case the wind overturning moment


.' D,N equ 3.83
N
| = moment of inertia of the cross-section of the
tank This is the expression, which appears in API 650, clause
3.111 .3 for anchorage, except that D is shown as the anchor
cir-
f = stress in cross-section
cle diameter.
v = maximum distance from the axis of the section
to the outer fibres. in this case the radius r of Adopting the nomenclature used in Section 3 9 4 10 and 11'
the tank shell then equation 3.83 can be written:

It is also known that: . 4 Mw (Ga UP) equ 3.84


s- D.N N
I = Z the modulus of the cross-section.
v The BS Code does not give a method for calculating the an-
and therefore: chorage loading but leav;sthis to the individual designer to for-
mulate.
.M equ 3.81
z The BS Code does stipulate that the spacing oi anchors shall
be between 1 and 3 metres (see Section 3.8.10 3) and also that
Also: the minimum cross-sectional area ofan anchor shall not be less
than 500 mm2, excluding any corrosion allowance'
51rgss =lY:l er 1=l
afea A convenientto arrange the anchors such thatthere are
It is often

The cross-sectional area of a thin cylinder is given as: an equal number on each shell plate. in this way clashes be-
h,\,/een anchor positions and vertical course welds can be
A=n D t avoided.

where: For the 30 m diameter tank in question, the maximum numDer


plates per
of anchors is 94 and the minimum 32 As there are 12
D = diameter of the iank
course, then 36 anchors will be selected, giving 3
per shell
t = shell ihickness plate.
(a) and
Then: Assume the use ofanchorbolts as shown in Figure 3 69
a pitch circle diameter of 30.32 m.
-L equ 3.82
' nDt From equation 3.80 the load per bolt
Equations 3.81 and 3.82 can now be equated: . 4 x5,994J2 (-1,960 82)
"
- 30.32 x 36 36
Z n.D f = 74.2 kN / bolt

By definition, Z, the section modulus for a thin walled


cylinder is is an an-
Selected from the worked example in Section 3 8 10 3
given by: lhor bolt material having a minimum tensile strength of 430
and hence
NUmmi and a minimum yield strength of 255 N/mm2
r.f .t =!.D2 t an allowabletensile stress of 127.5 N/mm2 based on 50%
ofthe
yield strength.
Then: stress
A bolt diameter of 36 mm will be selected, having a core
M L ^- 4'M area of 817 mm2 and this excludes a corrosion allowance
r/4D'zt nDt nD't n.D.T
The tensile stress in the anchor bolts will be:
Hence:
74.24 x 1000 ,99.97
, 4,M
417
111n'.n,'z

D
ac-
This actual stress is less than 127.5 N/mmz and is therefore
L is thetotal load in all the anchors, so ifthe number of anchors
ceptable.
is N, then the load in each anchor is.

98 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


3 Ambient tempercturc stotage tank design

3.9.4.13 Check for frangibility These pressures can be adjusted for other wind velocities by
multiplying them by (Vi 160)'?for Sl units, or (V/100)'zfor lmperial
lf the tank were required to have a frangible roofjoint, then the
units, whereV is the wind speed in km / h or mph respectively.
calculation given in Section 3.8.10.3 would be based on the an-
ticipated roof failure pressure and performed as follows: The value lViW the overturning wind moment, is then calculated
using the above figures.
From Section 3.9.4.6 the total area ofthe compression zone is
21 ,084 mm2. The American Code chooses a safety factor of 1 .5 ( it was 1.4
for the British Code) and therefore for an unanchored tank:
From Section 3.9.4.7 the roof plating is 8 mm thick
1.5 Mw must be less than orjust equalto the effective weightof
From Section 3.9.4.9 the effective weight ofthe tank (excluding thetankWxD/2.
the roof plates) is 158,425 kg = 1553.64 kN.
This is actually shown in the Code as:
From equation 3.79
w DJ
Asc tano ^--. rr,r*.=?f
O=-+U.It.tl
' 50. R'
3\ 2 )
The load in each anchor tb is found from equation 3.79 except
21,Oa4 x220 x0.2 that it is presented in the Code as:
+ 0.77 x8
50x15 ., 4.M W
= 88.62 millibar or 8.862 kN/m'?
d.N N
The upthrust on the roof: where:

Up=nx15'?x8.862 d = diameter of the anchor circle (m)

= 6,264.18 kN 3.10 Tanks produced in stainless steel ma-


The net uplift on the roof is: terials
6,264.18 - 1,553.64 = 4,710.54 kN. The BS and API Codes are written around the use of carbon
steel materials. However for many years the petrochemical in-
The tank is to have 36 off36 mm diameter bolts, each having a
dustry has required tanks made in stainless steel materials. Ac-
core cross-sectional diameter of 817 mm2. cordingly designers have used the existing Codes and adapted
The load in each bolt: them for stainless steel materials.
471nqt Stainless steel does not strain under load in the same way that
= " 36'- = 13085 kN carbon sieel does, as it does not have a distinct yield point. The
alternative is to use the value of the 'proof stress" as the yield
The stress in each bolt: stress and usually ihe value for the 1 % proof stress is used.
130 85 x looo ln 1998 API 650 introduced Appendix S into the Code and this
- 160.16 N/mm'?
glves recommendations for designing tanks in austenitic stain-
817
less sieel grades 304,3041, 316, 3161, 317 and 3171.
This is greater than the allowable stress of 127.5 N/mm'? and is
therefore unacceptable. The Appendix gives many recommendations, the important
ones being in the following areas:
Try using 42 mm diameter bolts with a core cross-sectional
atea of 1112 mmz. Lists ofacceptable materials to be usedforplates and struc-
tural sections, piping, forgings and bolting materials.
The stress in each bolt:
given in the
-
130 qq x 1000
- 117.67 N/mm, and this is acceptabte
Design information
- This is very similarto that
main body of the Code but for the shell desig n it includes the
1112 use of a joint efficiency, the value of which is dependant
It can be seen then, that whilstthe tank anchorage of 36 off 36 upon the level of radiographic inspection ofthe shell welds.
mm diameter bolts was acceptable for wind and service load- Tables for the allowable stresses and "yield stresses" for
ing, for the frangible roof condition the bolt diameter had to be tank shells at various design temperatures for the range of
increased to 42 mm. steel grades covered by the Code.
Alternatively, the number of bolts could have been increased if A table giving values for the modulus of elasticity of stain-
there was a desire to maintain a bolt diameter of 36 mm. less steel over a range of temperatures.
:- As mentioned in Section 3.8.10.4 the stress in the shell plating
A list of other Appendices which require modification when
l: must be checked at the roof failure pressure.
used for austenitic stainless steels.
3.9.4.14 Wind loading to API 650
'e The BS Code does not yet give advice on the use of stainless
The American Code uses a different method to establish the steels for tank construction.
wind loading on a tank. The EuroDean code orEN 14015 -1 does include references to
In clause 3.11 .1 of the Code, specific wind pressures are pub- he use of stainless steel and these can be briefly summarised
lished, based on a wind speed of 100 mph, (160 km/h) and as follows;
these are: . A list of acceptable austeniticand austenitic-ferritic steels to
1.4 kPa (30 lbf/ft2) on vertical plane surfaces. EN 10088 -1 is given
0.86 kPa (18 lbflft'?) on projected areas of cylindrical surfaces. . The allowable stress levels have to be determined by the
designer from EN '10088 -1
0.72 kPa (15 lbflft') on projected areas of conical and double
curved surfaces. . l\,'linimum floor plate thicknesses are given as:

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 99


3 Ambient tempercture storage tank design
to en-
freelv drain to the centre sump lt is therefore important
Lap-welded floors 5 mm pfut". oo not distort during welding and the use of
(compared to 6 mm for carbon steel) "ur"iniiin"
strongbacks is essential as shown in Figure 3 75'
Butt-welded floors 3 mm
(compared to 5 mm for carbon steel))
. The minimum allowable nominal shell thicknesses are
given as:

2 5
D<6
5

5
l0 to. 15

5 6
15to<30
6 8
30to<45
By agremenl bebven the
puahaser and the @ntEctq

Figure 3.74 Semi-buried tanks under con$ruclon


Minimum roof Plate thickness 3 mm
Courtesy of McTaY
(compared to 5 mm for carbon steel)
Minimum thickness of structural roof members 3 mm
(compared to 5 mm for carbon steel)
Shell nozzle barrel thicknesses:

3.5 5

5 5.5
> 50.= 75

>75 <= 100


7.5

T 8.5

> 150 <= 200 I 10.5

> 200 I 12.5


Figure 3.75 The use ofstrongbacks du ng welding to stop plate distortion

coudesy of McTaY
. Roof nozzle barrel thicknesses:

n.b. ofnozl {mm) I stainless steel{mm}

paint system
Figure 3.76 The tank shell is coated with bitumen-based

3.11 Semi-buried tanks for the storage of Cauftesy of Whessoe

aviation fuel
Standard
An interesting design ofstorage tank has becomethe
fuel at most military air bases and
i"iir''" of lviation
"t-"g" airports
some commercial
These are vertical cylindrical tanks which are cased in rein-
ioii"o Lither fully or semi-buried lnthecaseof
"on"t"t" "no security from
mititarv estautisnments' the reason is based on
under consuuc-
aerial or ground attack. A series ofthese tanks
tion is shown in Figure 3.74
reln-
The tanks are supported on a cone down to the centre
torndation with a slope of 1:25 and a central
ioi""J
liquid outlet. The bottom is usually butt-weloeo anq
bottom"on"t"t"
there are no
around 12 mm thick lt is important to ensure that
foundation in order to Figure 3.77 The tank is clad in reinfolced concrete
ioiJs tet*een tne loor plating and the
giu" u fiit for the suppbrt columns Also' the floor must CouftesY of Whessoe
""uting

1OO STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1 Ambent |FrnpetatLttP 'otdge tat t\ de tgn

./8 - rp rd r. rs lao r'r ' o' pd ol ra e


is then par
'esY af Whessae constructed on top of the tank The whole structure
buried and grassed over to make rts pres-
tially, or completely
ence less obvious. This is shown in Figure 3 80
m in diameter
These tanks are made of carbon steel, up to 33
fn"lnt"inui"utfu""s are lined with an appropriate epoxy based
puint ly"tu. for reasons of product cleanliness as shown
in

Figure 3.81.

3.12 References
3.1 A Review of the Develapment of Fracture Safe Des/gns
anclCodes for Oiland LPG St'orageTanks' H C Cotton'
: i -'e rool s c ad in relnforced concr-6te
Consultant and J. B Denham, BP International Ltd
i 3 79 The lank
: .lesY oi Wlressoe
3.2 Farmulasfor Stress and Siraln, by R J RoarkandW C
I Young, PUblished bY N'4ccraw Hlll

3.3 TG,lrct,p' tn lhe Arne i'on Sor'el, or f ncrin'e >


t,ne t3 '5 lA- 1911 h t Sa '.lder' a.ld A "Va:l-
Windenbefg

3.4 Sheifto-Base Joint Design //lspection & Repair' l',


iioon, Pnp"t pr"t"nted aithe Storage Tank Design and
inspectiori Seminar, Un versity College Stockton' UK'
1999.

3.5 Beams an Elastic Foundations' M , The University of


wi"niqnn pt""" '1946
and Oxford Universlty Press,
(This ieference is contained within the H Kfoonpapef)
:Jre 3 80 The whole structure s padially orcompletely buteo
'
3.6 Stabilitv of APt Standard 65A Tank Shei/s, R V
: : .,ilesy of lvhessoe
rain, proceeaings of the American Petroleum Insti-
ti,,tcC
-'re tanks' bottoms were originally designed to resist an exter- tute, Section lll- Refinin9
,,-o,ess.rre arisingfron the grourd wateror around I n
head
l-.nce ihe t2 mrn rhickness; otlt ior later tank5 lhis -equire- 3.7 Franaibilite, etude sur la rupture eventuelle dun reser-
voi;yinctrique \,eircal a lon conQue soLtmis a une
e-iuuas removed (allhough the 12 n'n thicl'1es5 was mdir surpiesslon provoquee par une deflagration
:lned). accidentelle, R. Perono, SNCT Publjcations, (crrca
-1e tank shells are butt-welded and the tank roof is flat sup- 1980).
,.rtrJ bv int"rnulcolumns Following construction ofthe metal- for
Guide for designers and users on frangible roofjoints
. outt". tn" tank shell is coated with a biturnen-based paint (T g-
3.8
fixed roaf storage tanks' EEI\,4UA (The Englneenng
. . siem. see f iq.r'e l. /6 and s clad ;n reinlort ed conc'eie and L4aterials Users Association) publica-
.:es 3.2/ anci.z8; as is lr^e tanl' rool {F;gure 3 79\' lr so'ne Eqripr"nt
tion No. 180, '1996
,uil" u combined pump house and control room is
"on"r"t"

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 101

-
102 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
4 Nozzle design and the effect of
applied loading
a low elevation in the boftom course of the
The majority of piplng systems connect into a tank at
connect to thin-walled' larse
$;i;ieii"d. iil"'J"""ig'n of these efie;ai piping svstems,which
proutem the analysis of the interface
diameter, cvlindrical vertcat storage t-aniG iJn p-osl a in
uetween in6 piping system and the shell nozzles'
shell .and the radial deflection and
The designer must consider the stiffness of the tankproduct head,-pressure and uniform or
meridionalrotation oftne snett nozzreiesulting from the
sie'tiandttre uottom. rne work ofihe pipins desisner and
;#;;li;i#;;;iure-oetween tne
Jnsure that the pipins roads imposed on the shell
;#"#'tift;i;;;; il"i iL "ooroinai"Jto
limits'
nozzles by the piping are within safe
Thischapterelaboratesonthemethodofana|ysisgiveninAppendixPofAP|650.
Contents:
4.1 Nozzle design
4.1 .1 The scope of the nozzles analysed
4.1.1.1 The loading on the nozzle
4-1.1.2 Definition of stiffness coefiicients
4.1.1.3 Shell deflection and rotation
4.1.1.4 Determination of toads on the nozle
4.1.2 The assessment of nozzle loadings
API 650 approach
4.1.2.'l Determination of allowable loads according to the
4.1.2.2 Construction of the nomograms
4.1.2.3 Determination of allowable loads
4.1.3 Concluding comments
4.1.4 Method of analysis examPle
4.1.4.1 The Problem
4.1.4.2 The solution
4.1.4.3 The stiffness coefiicients for the nozzle-tank mnnection
centreline
4.1.4.4 Unrestrained shell deflection and rotation at the nozzle
4.1.5 Assessment of the nozzle loading example
4.1.5.1 Determination of the non-dimensional quantities
4.1.5.2 Construction of the load nomograms
4.2 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 103


4 Nazzle design and the ellect of applied loading

4.1 Nozzle design ever only to be applied to tanks whose diameter is larger than
36 m.
Grateful acknowledgment is given to the late Professor A. S.
Tooth, Professor of Mechanical Engineering at University of The approach, by Billimoris and Hagstrom, (Reference 4.1)
Strathclyde, GlasgoW' forthe following elaboration ofthe appli- was incorporated into API 650 Appendix P in November 1988.
cation of the theory The purpose of the method is to provide local stiffness coeffi-
cients for the nozzle-shell connection that can be used in the
l\y'any large diameter cylindrical tanks are constructed with low design ofthe piping system. The restraint ofthe nozzle connec-
entry nozzles in the shell close to the base plate - illustrated in tion can be simulated by including these coefficients in anycon-
Figure 4.1. The location of these enables bulk liquid storage ventional piping flexibility analysis program. Then from a com-
systems to make use of gravity feed for discharge. In view of patibility analysis of the piping system, the value ofthe loads on
this. and oftheir smalldiameter comDared to the tank diameter the nozzle can be determined and, thereafter evaluated to see
and the fact that the tank radius/wall thickness (Ryt) ratio is if they can be safely carried by the bnk.
large, it is not possible to make use of the chads provided in BS
5500 and WRC Bulletin 107 (or WRC 297) to determine the
4.1.1 The scope of the nozzles analysed
stiffness coefficients for the nozzles when subjected to local
loading. The above references are primarily designed for the
Two types of reinforced nozzle connections are considered in
analysis of pressure vessels, rather than storage vessels, and
API 650. These are:
are limited to vessel geometries within the range appropriate
for high pressure service. . Reinforcing in the nozzle only by an increase in the noz-
To cope with this, a simplification is often made when carrying zle wallthickness, in which case the tank is not reinforced by
out an overall pipework analysis, in which the tank is assumed a oad olate or insert.
to be a rigid anchor However, ignoring the local flexibility of the . Reinforcing of the shell by means of a pad plate or an in-
nozzle-shell connection in the piping flexibility analysis can re- sert plate. The width ofthe reinforcing zone on each side of
sult in a significant overestimation of the rigidity of the piping the nozzle centre-line is prescribed as 2a and the thickness
system and of the "end reactions" at the pipe-to-nozzle junc- of the reinforcing plate is assumed equal to the tank thick-
tion. This can often lead to unnecessary redesign of the piping ness.
system and the nozzle-shell attachment to handle the higher
For both types of nozzle connections, the distance from the
loads, which are predicted by the analysis.
tank bottom L, (see Figure 4.52), is described in ierms of L/2a.
The API 650 Code Appendix P addresses this problem, Two cases are examined. viz.. L/2a = 1.0 and 1.5L.
wherebythe localstiffness coefflcients can be obtained. These
Curves for determining the stiffness coefficients are given for
are given for a range of Ryt values, nozzle radius/shell radius ra-
Ryt ratios from 300 to 3000 and a/R ratios from 0.005 to 0.04.
tio values (a/R), and ratios ofdistance from the base/nozzle di-
For intermediate values of R/t and a/R, the stress values can be
ameter (L/2a), which are appropriate for these large storage
found by interpolation from the curves. lt is considered that the
vessels. The nozzle restraints can thus be more accurately
ranges of the ratios R/t and a/R given in the Code should ade-
modelled and included in any conventional piping analysis pro-
quately encompass the majority of low{ype fittings. Other val-
gram, to determine the actual loads on the nozzle and from
ues of L/2a can be approximated.
ihese the resultino stresses in the vessel. The method is how-

wFF (+)

RAOIAL LOAD Fi

or = tan'(14/R/L)

LONGITUOINAL MOIiIEI,IT [f !

Fr--t- AL =MJKL

wiM = (-L) tan (01)

Fgure 4 1 API 650 nomenclature for piping loads and deformation on nozzle logether wiih thtee types ofloading

104 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


4 Nozzte desiqn and lhe eftect of apphed :(E:':

Appt.d f@ ro ll@t.b.n ow F* = K* x W^. equ 4.1

v___* 4=K.x{ egu 4.2

equ 4.3
14=Kcxoc

SX)*
:gurc 4.2 Oiagrammaiic presentation of pressure load distributions
where:
Kn, Ku
&Kc
Wnr =
= stiffnesscoefficients

radial deflection of the tank at the nozzle con-


nection
4.1.1.1 The loading on the nozzle
0L = rotation ofthe tank meridian in a vertical plane
Jnder the most general movement of the piping system' the
at the nozzle connectlon
'ozzle willbe subjectto three forces and three moments acting
'r and about the orthogonal axes However, only one force and B. = rotation in the horizontal plane at the nozzle
:,vo moments are con;idered signi{lcant in causing shell defor- " connection due to a circumferential moment
-'ratrons.
-hese three types of loading are shown in Figure 4 1; they are: Roinlorcoment on shell

:re radialthrust FR, longitudinal moment ML' applied in a verti-


;al plane through the centre of the nozzle, and circumferential Llz. :1.O
-roment Mc, ap;lied in a horizontal plane through the centre of E
::re nozzte.
E 1x l0+
-he above nozzle loadingswere modelled assuming the nozzle E
E
?dial load was uniformly distributed over an equivalent square 3 lR = o.oos
:atch of the uncut shell. That is the hole' the nozzle penetration I
.9
:nd the nozzle geometry are ignored. The moment loadings 1x t03
,rere assumed to apply a triangular interface pressure load to
6 ,R
:'e square patch of the uncut shell. These distributions are \
tl
:rown diagrammatically on Figure 4 2.
I
-N
NOTE: This simplified approach, by which the nozzle local 1x l0<
loading istransferred to the uncutvessel, isthat used in
WRC dulletin 107 and BS 5500 However, in the WRC
.E \. Tt
= 0.{X
Bulletin 297 a more rigorous approach is adopted
whereby the actual nozzie and shell are analysed' that
8
lx10{ II
is to say the shell is Penetrated.
R It
r addition to the deformations due to piping loads therewillbe
-ee-body deflections and rotrations of the tank shell'
{.1.1.2 Definition of stiffness coeffiGients
-he relationship between the elastic deformation of the tank
shell nozzle connection and the external loads are expressed
1x10{
sf;EFssE R g

:n Figure 4.1 in the following linear form: ror ronsirudinar momeni: Reinrorcement In noz-
:'8Y,:%f X"iil[ZT-:i."fcient

Reinlorcement on shell Reintorcement on sheu

L12. Llza 1.0

1x 104 1x l0+
E a lR = o.Ns
P I
q= 0.005
=9 {
s
1rl0{ J 6
1x10{
I
I
G 0.r t2

"\
1xt0< i\. { 1x10'
{
Ilt
6
d
lx10+
0.1
tr
A
E
.9
s
2
1x 10+
Ph
I tFl-
tlt I = 0.04

x10'
1x l0+
s sf;EFESE R
I
s E EFseE
- jure 4.3 Stiffnesscoefficientfor 6dial load: Reinforcemenion shell Fiourc 4.5 Stiffness coefficient for citcumfetential moment: Reinfofcemenl on I

_2a = 1.4) sh;ll{u2a = 1.0)

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 105


4 Nozzle design and the effect of applied loading

F. = radial thrust and the external piping loads can be expressed as follows:
ML = longitudinal moment
w"'' - l" -Lt""ll I . * luorn equation 4.67) equ4.6
Mc = circumferential moment KR \Kr,/
ln relation to the equations 4.l to4.3, itshould be noted that ra-
dialdeflections and meridian rotations arise from both the radial q -S t"n'li I , (from equation4.68) equl.l
thrust FR and the longitudinal moment ML. The resultant com-
' K. lLKo J

patibility equations are given in Section 4.1.1 .4, equations 4.6


to 4.8. which make this point clear. In API 650 there is no dis- e" =9 equ 4.8
tinction betlveen the displacements caused by the individual ^c
nozzle forces and the resuliant displacements caused by all ef-
Wn , 0r and 0c are the resultant radial deflection (in mm) and ro-
fects, the same symbol is used for both.
tation (in radians) of the tank at the nozzle opening resulting
Acomputer program based upon the work of Kalnins was used fromthepiping loads Fn, Mrand Mc and the product head, pres-
to derive these stiffness coefficients, which are given in the sure and uniform or differential temperature betvveen the tank
code in non-dimensional form. As indicated in Section 4.1.1, shell and the tank bottom.
two values ofthe ratio, distance from the base/nozzle diameter,
ln the above equationsthe deflections W and 0 can be obtained
are examined i.e. L/2a = 1 .0 and 1 .5, and the two types of rein-
from equations 4.4 and 4.5. The resultant deflection and rota-
forced local geometry were considered.
tions on the left-hand side of equations 4.6 to 4.8 must be equal
ln all. the Code presents twelve charts. For illustration typical to those from the connecting piping system, which can be ob-
values of stiffness coefficients are given in Figures 4 3, 4 4 and tained from a pipe work analysis. The problem, therefore, co-
4.5 for radial load, longitudinalmoment and circumferential mo- mes down to the solution of three simultaneous equations,
ment{or the case of U2a = 1 .0, and forthe reinforcement on the where the unknowns are the three piping loads, Fn, Mr and Mc
shell case. The problem, therefore, is solved.
4.1.1.3 Shell deflection and rotation The assessment ofthese Ioads as given in API 650 are outlined
The product in the tank produces both radial and rotational in Section 4.1.2 and in Section 4.1.4 the details ofthe approach
groMh. They are given by the following: in Appendix P is shown by means of an example

Radial groMh of the shell


4.1.2 The assessment of nozzle loadings
The unrestrained outward radial growth ofthe shell at the cen-
tre ofthe nozzle resulting from the product head andiorthe ther- 4.1.2.1 Determination of allowable loads according to the
mal exoansion can be determined as follows: API 650 approach
9.8X1O6GHR'
ft o'"o.lpr-f ll* ,,nor API 650 Appendix P provides a linear interaction diagram to es-
I " \ |-1 /l tablish an allowable load criterion for any "lowtype" nozzle con-
equ4 4 tlguration when several loads acttogether The hoop stress due
to the product head is taken into considefation in formulating
Rotation of the shell the criteria. When the nozzle loads are acting to produce ten-
The unrestrained rotation ofthe tank at the centre ofthe nozzle
resulting from the product head can be determined as follows; Two.tntds ol lne requrred rernlorced a.ea must be located
6G.H w'thrn a- 0.5 (Ft )"' oi the oonrng centedine \
9.8 x 1o R2
(l o" u'("o"1n u)+si(P L)))
equ 4.5

where:
G = design specific gravity ofthe liquid
H = maximum allowable tank filling height (mrn)
R = nominal tank radius (mm)
E = modulus of elasticity (NIPa)
t = tank thickness at the nozzle (mm)
L = vertical distance from the nozzle centreline to
tank bottom (mm)

0 = 2j5
chara"t"1stic parameter =1 ttlmml
JRt
o = coetficient of thermal expansion ofthetank
material, [(mm/ mm -'C)]

AT = temperature differential ('c)


Note: The phrase "unrestrained" in the above two expres-
sions takes account ofthe vessel base restraint, which
implies zero radialmovement and thefreedom to rotate
like a "hinge", but not the restraint caused by the pipe 0.2 0-3 0.5 1.0

WOTK. L - a/lRtj"3 - \a/Rll4/t Jo'


4,1.1,4 Determination of loads on the nozzle
The relationship between the elastic deformation of the nozzle Figure 4 6 The coefficienls YF and YL

106 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


4 Nozzte design and the eflect of applied loading

r*r{rb ol tF caied
'rule'"ddM8 '\
rs . + 06 (Rl l!.r tu.9ttl.

r-.ttqtt-=tt|F,/fI t\t-

Figure 4.7 Obtaining coefficient Yc


hoop tensile and Mc are proportional to the quantities:
sion in the areas ofthe tank shellwhich experience
stresses due to product head, the criteria for allowable
nozzle r /rr \ r /r,,t \
reactions act I I h a lllj lrespectively,
I _1 l\ JanoaYc
f""0" t"t"
rir.ttictive than when these nozzle
2YF lFpJ' a\ [ Fp I \. FP ]
i" ti" "L direction and their effect is mitigated by the
product"pJ""it
head. where:
particular elevation
The stresses due to the product head at a
o"if't" t"n["n"] ut" related to the distance from the
tank bot- ^ -Jnt
effect in terms of a
i"t. ittr", it is possible to express their
bottom lt is also possible to Fp p n a2, the pressure end load on the nozzle lor
non-Oi."n"ion"iOi"tiance from the
' =
ine efect otthe nozzle loads in terms of a non-dlmen- ih" pt"""uie due to design product head at the
sional lenqth by normalising the reaction' using
""oress the pressure nozzle centreline
as the normalrs-
toice on tnie crols-sectionalarea ofthe nozzle
Y'. Y'- = the coetficients which indicate the effect ofthe
ing divisor.
& i.- nozzle loads on the shell-nozzle junction and
Homoqrams have been constructed by Iimiting
the.total maxl-
obtained from Figures 4 6 and 4 7
mum ;alculated hoop membrane stress due to the prooucr
;";; ;;J ih" nozzle loads to 110% of the design .allowable ! fE) i" ,n" non-dimensional quantity plotted on the
(l e mem- 2Y, IFp] = abscissa of the "allowable load" nomogram
stress. Also the maximum calculated surface stress
the allow-
Oi"ne anO oenOing) has been limited to three times
O".ion t"rnUiine stress. (This latter limitation impliesthat ^ /.r\ "" 1r,r)
I'Flat" plotted on the ordlnate: one
"lf"
ti,"-tir""J in tni" r"gion is secondary which is somewhat optF -Ll'uLlanoaYc \ Fp ,
.Lti" there iill also be a primary bending element.as
aYL
lFe I
moment
"in"uallowable load parameters have been adjusted
well). The
In nomogram for each combination of radial load and
Consis-
.""""*n"r"tn" o"nding siress isthe governing factor' musr oe 4.1.2.2 Construction of the nomograms
tent units for the various parameters in the approach
used throughout. The following steps are set out in API 650:
1. Determine the non-dimenslonal quantities Xo/rR'
In view of themultiple possibilities and because the piping anaF
graphical proce- x"/Jnt ano r;/.,Fi for the nozzle conflguration'
vsis usuallv involvis several loading cases' a
Oure, using nomograms is suggested Despite the complexlty
paper with
(Reference 4'1\havete- 2. Lav out two sets of orthogonal axes on graph
oiitre toaoinq eittiioris and Hagstrom
ordinate and abscissa as indicated above and snown
In
to the use of only two nomograms tor eacn
duced the approach
Figures 4.8 and 4.9.
nozzle configuntion.
bound-
FR' Mt 3. Construct four boundaries Ior Figure 4 8 and two
The non-dimensionat stresses due to the piping loads

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 107


4 Nozzle design and the effect of applied loading

lI I aYLl lM t lFp)

1.0- 0'/.fJlttJF)
&F
i -r roi]oo.j o.zs.r"/rn,r"'r,
wrrchs@r rs grsar
1.0
-
O'F
t
Ll'
tl.
tL | 2Y.,) tFalF.\
..F,.4
A
H;*
fFr. t-

[1.0-
t1.o-0.75 x^/(Fr)451,
Figure 4.10 Determination ofallowable loads from nomogram: FR and lVlL

1.0

Figure 4.8 Consaucilon ofnomogram for b1, b2, c1, c2boundary

(@ntrcsh.r C @@h)

tL l2Y.tIFalFc) Figure 4.11 Determination ofth allowable loads from nomogram: FR and I\,{c

-1.0 -0.5 1.0

Figure 4.9 Construclion of nomogram for bl, ca boundary 4.1.3 Concluding comments

aries for Figure 4.9. Boundaries b1 and b2 are constructed The method set out in API 650 orovides a method for determin-
as lines at 45' angles between the abscissa and the ordi- ing the stiffness characteristics ofthe tank shell-to-nozzlejunc-
nate. Boundaries cj, c2, and ca are constructed as lines at
tion, which can be used ln a thorough piping analysis to deter-
45'angles passing through the calculated values indi-
mine the piping loads.
cated on Figures 4.8 and 4.9. The shift in the 45" lines re-
flects the points made earlier concerning the necessity of Having determined the piping loads, their magnitudes can be
restricting the tensile stresses when they are additive. assessed by means of an interaction diagram set out in API
650. The ordinates of two nomograms are normalised with re-
4.1.2.3 Determination of allowable loads spect to the end pressure on the nozzle. Design limitations con-
sistent with the various piping loads are built into these dia-
grams to provide the required design safety.
1. From the values ofthe localnozzle loading FR, ML and l\.4c,
and the other parameters, the following quantities can be Note: Such an analysis is not provided in BS 2654. lt could
obtained: well be that this reflects a degree of uncertainty as to
the validity, or value, ofthe newer methods of analysis.
r f El aYr r!t'luno r(!Ll Perhaos further assessment of these methods is re-
ourred.
2YF lFp./ IFp, aYc t FpJ

4.1.4 Method of analysis example


2. protthepointcor.,""nonoinoto
r"L[[),i, The example given in API 650 Appendix P is used to illustrate
[H.l""tn"
nomogram constructed as shown in Figure 4.8, redrawn in the method of analysis to determine the forces which arise on a
Figure 4.10. 610 mm (24") nozzle located near the bottom of the tank when
connected to a simple pipework layout.

3. Plot the point corresponding to ^f. l'j l. +lrlt lonthe


4.1.4.1 The Droblem
zYF \iPl aY_ ro\ / This is oresented as follows:
nomogram constructed as shown in Figure 4.9, redrawn in
Atank is 79.24 m (260 ft) in diameter and 19.506 m (64 ft) high,
Figure 4.11.
and its bottom course is 33.78 mm (1.33 in) thick. The tank has
4. For the piping loads to be acceptable both points must lie a low type nozzle with an outside diameter of 610 mm in accor-
withinthe boundaries ofthe nomograms shown in Figures dance with API 650, and the nozzle centreline is 630 mm
4.10 and 4.11. (24.75 in) up from the bottom plate, with reinforcement on the

108 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


4 Nozzle design an J uE efrect d # ffi4

r. = (s.o x ro')(t98620 x 6103)

|! = 13.6 x 10-'g mm -N/radian


For the circumferential moment from Figure 4.15
K"
= =5.0*10,
42.)"
L=830mn
r" = (s.o x ro')(1e8620 x6103)

Kc =22.6 x 10{mm -N /radian

Unrestrained shell deflectlon and rotation at the nozzle


centreline
Flgure 4.12 Low lype nozzle with reinforcement in nozzle neck only The product in the tank (hydrostatic head and temperature dif-
Frcm API 650, Appendix P, figure P-6 ferential) produces both radial and rotational displacement.
The unrestrained values of these are givsn by equations 4.4
and 4.5 in terms of the iank geometry the tank material con-
opening (neck) only (see Figure 4.12).
stants, lhe height and specific gravity of the liquid contenb,
Determine the end conditions W, e, KR, KL and Kc) foruse in a shown as follows:
piping analysis and hence determine the value of the radial
ttrrusi Fn, the longitudinal moment Ms and the circumferential
moment Mc.
9.8 x 1ojc.H.R'?
E.t (''-"'*[u.,i))+c,.n lr
wnere:
9.8 x 1o-6c.H.R2
0= -o"''1"o'1o t) + sin(o'r-)f
305 mm [f
630 mm
And p = characteristic Parameter
H= '19,506 mm 1.285 1.285
=uuu| | t
AT 93-21 =72"Q JR.t
J39624 x 33.78
R= 79.2412 x 1000 = 39,624 mm thus
33-78 mm p.L =0.00111 x 630 =0.7rad
E= 198,620 N / mm2 Substituting into equation 4.4:
1.0 9.8 x 10-6 x 1.0 x 19500 x39624'z
198620 x33.78
ct - 0.0000012 mm l"C /, . A?n \
e. coso.7) _19506:J
4.1.4.2 The solution
[(i_e
In the Jirst instance API 650 Appendix P is used to determine +(12 x 10 x39624 x72)
the stifiness coeffcients and the unrestrained shell deflection
and rotation at the nozle resulting from the hydrostatic head
and the temoerature difierential. Thereafter these values are
w =44.73 x (1-(o.ae66 x 0.7648) -o.o3?3)+34.23
used in a pipework analysis to determine the thrust and mo-
ments atthe nozzle. An assessment is made, usingthe method W =60.53 mm (APlgives59.7 mm, using roundedvalues)
given in Appendix P, to determine the acceptability of the de- Substituting into equation 4.5:
sign.
The stiff ness coeffi cients: ^ 9.8 x 1o-6G.H.R2
o=- E.t
For the nozzle-tank connection
M (f -0."-tr(.* 1n L) + sin(e'L)))
= 39624 / 33.78 = 1173

a/R=305/39624=0.008 98 x 10-6 10 x 19506 x396242


e=
'198620 x 33.78
u2a = 630 / 610 ", 1 .0

For the radial load from Figure 4.13


( 1 -o.oollt x0.4966 (cos 0.7+sin 0.7)l
\ 19506
!^,
EI2al
= 3.t *to' 0 =44.73 x
- (o.oot t't x o.+soo x (o.zo+e r o.o++z))}
{o.oooosrzz
K* = (3.1fl0'X1e862o x 610)
0 =44.73 x-0.0007254

KR =37559 N /mm e= -0.032 radians (as given in API) = 1.833 degrees


For the longitudinal moment from Figure 4.14
4.1,5 Assessment of the nozzle loading example
Kt r 10'
= =3.0
42.)" As indicated in Section 4.1.2, using the approach in API 650

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 109


4 Nozzle design and the effect of applied loading

Appendix P provides an interaction diagram to establish the al-


i.o-0.75 ! -1.0 o.7s l.\ J39624 x 33.781) -o.oo 93'
lowable loads. The background to the criteria and detiails ofthe
method of construction of the nomograms has already been
VRt
given. The example given here uses the method and plots the
1 o-0.75 L -1.0 o.7s [ 930 ) =o.sg
four cases on the resulting nomograms.
VRt t J39624 x 33.781
4.1.5.1 Determination of the non-dimensional quantities
The ordinates and abscissa ofthese nomograms can be found
From the nozzle illustrated in Figure 4.12 the following values using the radial load Fp , associated with the pressure head at
can be found: the nozzle. In this case this is equal to:
XA = 935 mm at the top of the nozzle Fp = pra'z = (gsooxl .o)C e.2 0.630),{0.305)'? = 53,200N
Xe = 325 mm at the bottom of the nozzle

Xc = 630 mm at the centre line of the nozzle


Using these the following non-dimensional quantities are as fol- Rsinforcement on oponlng (neck) only
IOWS:

xa 935 E U2a 't.0


JRt J39624 x 33.78
E
1x10{
x. 325 3
JRt J39624 x 33.78
P
= 0.005

x- 630 '6 txl03


==-=u.54
JRt J39624 x 33.78
5.0 x

x
I {

,a305 :
/.- -u,zo
R

-- "/39624 x 33.78
"/Rt 1x 10i I I

From Figures 4.6 and 4.7, the values of Yr, Yr and Yc can be E
.c \
found. 6
Yr = 7.8 'l x 106
t t.o
\:
Yr ='1.9 R t
E
Yc = 15.0
1x10.
4.'1.5.2 Construction of the load nomograms
From these values a nomogram can be constructed.
vlrq\ Figure 4.14 Stiffness coefficientfor longiludinal momenl: Reinlorcement in
'i.o, 0.7s ^B - 1.0 -0.75
JRt | ""x 33.78,/I - o.zs nozzle neck only (L/2a = 1.0)
\'J39624 From API 654, figure P-2H

Reinforcement on opening (neck) only


Rinforcement on opening (neck) only

UZa = r.o i
u2a = 1.0 -
E
1x10{
1x102 / R = 0.005
E

1x10j
f = 0.005 P
1x 103

5x t04
3.1x104
a/R=0-
x10l ll
1x 10+
g 'l

\
I
'| x l05 I I x 105
T...
/F t.& D.(X

R t l/t I

I
1x105
1x104
3 8 I I3838 rF

Figure 4.13 Stifiness coefficient for radial load: Reinforcement in nozzle neck Figure 4.15 Stiffness coefiicieni for circumfercntjal moment: Reinforcemenl in
only (U2a = 1.0) nozzle neck only (U2a = 1.0)
From API 650, figute P-2G From API 650, tigure P-21

110 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


4 Nozzle design an l uE tu d 1# W
(tension at 'C' controls)
+
2YF
| =+^ l -T_ =1.22xro*r"
+I
IFPJ (2X2.0) \53,200'
I
For the condition Mc = 0 and FR =0

4 fS) = -g= [_9-^^^) = zos " r o*r,4 ^ l"t l=2.05x10"M.=0.4


2YL \FPJ (305X7.8) \53'2oo.l
a YL l.FpJ
fd and hen@
ld -Lf$l==93-. (--V" l=r ozxro*r,,r"
2Yc I J (305X15) \53,200'
FP M = AA
-" , =195x10" N.mm
The limiting nozzle loads can now be established. (tension at 'A controls)
For the condition ML = 0 and Mc = 0
A summary of the limiting nozzle loadings are:
fF*) =r.zzr.,o 6E <=0.4
2 ^YF IFPJ Fn,* =328,000 N (tension at'A controls)
and hence i4.- = 550 x 106 N.mm (tension at 'C' controls)
n/ j 'A controls)
F.^* = 328000N (tension at
=
Tffi it.- = 195 x 105 N.mm (tension at'A controls)
For the condition ML = 0 and FR =0
r [% ]=r.oz x 1o-s tr/. <=0.5s 4-2 References
a.YC I Fp J
4.1 &iffness Coefficients and Allowable Loads for Nozzles
and hence in Flat Boftom gorage Tanks, H. D. Billimoris and J.
o5q Hagstrom, ASME Jn Pres Vos Techn 100 (4), 1978 p.
q'-=f;;fu=550x10" N mm
389.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 111


STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
5 The design of tank roofs - fixed

The design of fixed roofs for atmospheric storage tanks has not undergone any radical change
for a considerable period of iime. Designs are based almost entirely on the practices and
experiences oftank users in the petrochemical industry over manyyears and the design rules
which are laid down in the various Codes.
The most influential and widely used tank Code is American API 650. This Code was first
published as API 12C in 1936 and since the early 60s the design rules for tank roofs have not
changed significantly.
The British Standard for atmospheric storage tanks BS 2654 has taken a different approach to
theAmerican Code in manyareas ofiank design, but in terms oftank roofdesign, it has followed
the API rules almost exactly. The design of floating roofs is discussed in Chapter 6.

Contents:
5.1 The design of tank roofs
5.1.1 Basic types
5.'1.2 Differences behveen fixed and floating roofs
5.2 Fixed roofs
5.2.1 Design basis
5.2.1.1 Design loadings
5.2.1.2 Design methods
5.2.1.3 Code requirements
5.3 Various forms of fixed roofs
5.4 Roofs with no supporting structure
5.4.1 Cone roofs
5.4.2 Dome roofs
5.5 Roofs with supporting structures, suppofted from the tank shell
5.5.1 Cone roofs
5.5-1-1 Radial rafter type
5.5.1.2 Design example
5.5.1.3 Central crown ring
5.5.1.4 Trussed frame type
5.5.1.5 Design example
5.5. 1.6 Externally-framed roof
5.5.2 Dome roofs
5.5.2.1 Radial rafter type
5.5.2.2 Externally-framed type
5.5.3 Other types
5.5.3.1 Geodesic dome roofs
5.6 Column-supported roofs
5-6.'1 Column selection

5.7 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 113


5 Ihe !9:'g! of ta!!

5.1 The design of tank roofs


This is an area of design which has been effectively fossilised
for some 40 years. This is perhaps largely because the existing
designs work well giving little incentive for innovation and that
the savings to be made are modest in comparison with the per-
ceived risks of new and untried designs being used.
Tank roofs perform the basicfunction ofkeeping the elements-
and possibly the occasional bird out of the stored product,
and, with varying degrees of success, keeping product vapours
out of the atmosphere. The various types of roofs are outlined
Detow.

5.'1,1 Basic types

There are two main types of tank roof and these are illustrated
in Figure 5.1.
. The first type is the fixed roof
. The second type is the floating roof
Both fixed and floating roofs are available in a number ofdiffer-
ent forms. Fixed roofs are discussed in this Chapter and float-
ing roofs are discussed in Chapter 6.

5.'l.2 Differences between fixed and floating roofs

One of the disadvantages of the fixed roof tan k, especially with


the more volatile products, is the loss of product vapour which
occurs for two reasons. '"'.'".,'*'"";,
Firstly, the diurnal changes in atmospheric temperature cause Figure 5.1 Types of lank roof
"breathing losses".

Secondly, the import and export of product to and from the tank cluded here and would be applied by the designer as directed
causes "filling" losses. by the tank purchaser, on a job-by-job basis.
5.2.1.1 Design loadings
The emission of large volumes of product vapour into the atmo-
sphere is both costly and environmentally undesirable. This a) An external superimposed load ofa minimum of 1.2 kN/m'?
problem is largely solved by the floating rooftank where the roof (25 lb/in").
sits on the surface of the product and moves up and down as In the case of the American Code, this load is deemed to
product is imported and exported and thus the majority of the include dead load plus a uniform live load.
vapours are contained under the roof.
For the Briiish Code, this load is the sum of either internal
There is also a hybrid of these two main types of roof and that is vacuum and snow load. or. internalvacuum and live load.
where an internal floating cover, which is of a much lighter con- This loading generally dictates the thickness of the roof
struction than the normalfloating foof, is fitted within a fixed roof sheeting for roofs without supporting structures, and dic-
tank. This internal cover may be fltted io the tank when it is first tates the nature ofthe supporting structure for roofs which
built, or it may be retro-fitted at a later daie since the compo- have such structures.
nents for these types of cover are designed to fit through a stan-
dard 24" (610 mm) shell manhole.
bl lnternalDressure. The British Code states that this can be
between 7.5 and 56 mbar
These internal covers are used for the following reasons: It is usual to specify a modest design pressure, but in spe-
a) Where a tank service is changed to the storage of a more cial circumstances, higher pressures can be used (see
volatile product. Chapter 4, Section 4.3.2.8). As the pressure increases,
so does its influence not only on the thickness of the shell
b) Where changes to either environmental or safety consid- and roof plating, but also on the size of the compression
erations require the reduction of vapour emissions. area at the roof-to-shell junction (see Chapter 4, Section
c) Where the vapours of a highly volatile product have to be 3.7) and on the requirements for anchorage to prevent
contained and also there is a need to ensure thatthe prod- tank uplift (see Chapter 3, Section 3.8.10 and 3.9).
uct is kept dry and not contaminated with rainwater. The American Code is based on the tank operating at at-
mospheric pressure, or that internal pressure which
equates to the weight ofthe %6" (4.76 mm) roof plates i.e.4
5.2 Fixed roofs mbar. The exception to this is covered by Appendix F of
the Code which gives the requirements fortanks operating
5.2.1 Design basis at up lo 2Y.lbslin'.g (172 mbat).
c) Exceptiona! loadings. These may includethe possibilityof
The basic design parameters are laid down in the most widely an internal explosion or sudden overpressure due to ab-
used Codes BS 2654, API 650 and the proposed European normal causes. For such cases it is usualto specify a fran-
Code prEN 140'15. There are other national and company spe- gible shell-to-roof joint which fails preferentially to relieve
cific Standards, which may partially supersede or augment the high internal pressure, whilst continuing to contain the
parts ofthese tank Codes, but they are too numerous to be an- stored product. (see Chapter 3, Section 3.8).

114 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


5 The design of tank roafs Jixed

5.2.1.2 Design methods ted, by agreement between the tank purchaser and the
manufacturer, provided that this can be justified by special
a) Roof plating procedure tests simulating the actual conflguration io be
Aoart from exceptional circumstances, the minimum roof used on site.
sheet thickness allowable is specified in the Codes.
. Cross bracing shall be provided in the plane of the roof in at
The British Code requires a minimum thickness of 5 mm, least in two bays, i.e. betlveen tvvo pairs of adiacent ratters,
whilst the American Code calls for %6" (4 76 mm). on all roofs more than 15 metres in diameter' Sets of bracing
Apparently these minimum thicknesses are based on shall be equi-spaced around the tank circumference
N.E.PA. 78 Lightning Protection Code which states " - . Vertical bracing on trussed roof structures only shallbe pro-
steel sheet less than %6" (4.76mm) in thickness may be
vided in an approximate vertical plane between trusses as
punctured by severe strikes and shall not be relied upon follows:
as protection for direct lightning strikes".
For roofs more than 15 metres diameter 1 nng
b) Roof framing
For roofs more ihan 25 metres diameter 2 rings.
The British Code refers to the Structural Steel design -
Code BS 449. These ring(s) shall be at the end of the trusses which are
The American Code contains its own rules taken from vari- near to the tank shell.
ous publications (References 5.3, 5 4 and 5 5)- From the American Code
5.2.1.3 Code requirements . Root plates shall be attached to the top angle of the tank by
The rules for designing and detailing tank roofs are covered a continuous fillet weld on the top side only Figure 3-3Ain
fully in both the British and American Codes and these should the Code showsthe roofplates lapsto bethe same configu-
be followed carefully during the design process Some of the ration as tiles on the roof of a building. i.e. opposite to the
major requirements are given here as follows: British Code.
From the British Code . All internal and external structural members shall have a
. minimum nominal thickness of 4 3 mm (0.17") in any com-
The spacing of roof plate supporting members for cone roof
ponent. The method of providing a corrosion allowance, if
tanks shall be such that the span between them does not
any, for the structural members shall be a matter of agree-
exceed 2 metres where one edge of the panel is supported
ment bet\,!r'een the purchaser and the manufacturer
by the top curb angle. Where this support is not present. the
span shall not exceed '1.7 metres . The minimum thickness ofany structuralmember, including
. For dome roofs this spacing may be increased as agreed any corrosion allowance on the exposed side or sides, shall
not be less Lhan 6mm (0.25"), for columns kneebracesand
between the tank purchaser and the manufacturef.
beams or stiffeners which by design normally resist axial
. The roof plating shall be continuously welded to the shell compressive forces, or 4.3 mm (0.17") fof any other struc-
curD an9le. tural member.
. For tanks exceeding 12.5 metres diameter, roof plates shall . Roof plates ol supported cone roofs shall not be attached to
not be aitached to the roof supporting structure the supporting members.
. The roof plates are normally lapped by a minimum of 25mm . For all types of roofs, the plates may be stiffened by sec-
and fillet-welded on the top side only. The laps should be ar- tions welded to the plates but may not be stiffened by sec-
ranged such that the lower edge of the uppermost plate ls tions welded to the supporiing rafters or girders
beneath the upper edge ofthe lower plate (the opposite way
to that of tiles on the roof of a building) in order to minimise . When the purchaser specifies lateral loads that will be im-
the possibility of moisture due to condensation on the un- posed on ihe roofsupporting columns (when used)' the col-
derside of the plates entering the internal lap joint. umns must be proportioned to meet the requirements for
combined axial compression and bending as specified in
Note; The American Code shows the laps the opposite wayto
the Code.
this, presumably to allow the roof to shed rain water.
Depending upon the stored product it may be some- . The slope of supported cone roofs shall be 19 mm in 300
times necessary for the lap joint to be welded on both mm (%" in '12") or greater if specified by the purchasef.
sides or made as a butijoint.
Note: This slope of 1 in '16 is fairly flat and is usually used for
. The slope of cone roofs is generally 1 :5 or for column-sup- column-supported roofs. Roofs which are supported by
ported roofs 1;16. The radil of domed roofs is generally be- radial rafters or trusses and without internal columns,
tv,r'een 0.8D and 1.5D, where D is the tank diameter' normally have a slope of 1 in 6 (the maximum allowable
to this Code for a frangible roof). This is because the
. The minimum thickness for structural sections shall be
steeper slope favours the production of a more eco-
5mm (excluding any corrosion allowance) but this does not nomical rafter or truss design.
apply to the webs of rolled steel joists channels or
packings, or to structures where special provisions against . Main roofsupporting members of column-su pported roofs,
corrosion have been made. which are in contact with the roof plates, (excluding radial
rafters carrying dead loads only) shall be considered as re-
. Roof plate joints are considered to have the following joint ceiving no lateral support from the roof plates and shall be
efficiencies: laterally braced, if necessa ry by other acceptable methods
1.0 for butt-welded ioints. Radial rafters carrying dead loads plus live loads, which are
in contaci with the roof plates applying the live loading to the
0.35 for lapped joints with fillet welds on one side.
rafters. may be considered as receiving adeqdate lateral
0.5 for lapped joints with fillet welds on both sides suppo( frorn the friction between the roof plates and the
. compression flanges ofthe rafters, with the following excep-
The allowable stress shall be taken as % of the minimum
tlons;
specified yield strength of the roof plate material. In special
circumstances, increases in joint efficiency may be permit- - a) Trusses and open web joints used as rafters.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 115


5 The design of tank rcofs - fixed

- b) Rafters with a nominal depth greaterthan 375mm. The American Code is more specific and says that the slope
shall be within the range of 9.5" to 37' which is (1 in 6, to 1 in
- c) Rafrers with a slope greater than 'l in6.
1.333).
. Rafrers for suppoded cone roofs shall be spaced so that in
5.4.1.2 Thickness of roof plating This is t
the outer ring, their centres are not morethan 0.6r metres = thicknes
1.885 metres (2rft = 6.283ft) apart, measured along the cir- The Brjtish Code states that the minimum thickness of roof plat-
ing shall be 5 mm, excluding any corrosion allowance. The roo
cumference ofthe iank. Spacing on inner rings shall not be sure du(
greaterthan 1.7 metres (5%ft). When specified bythe pur- TheAmerican Code statesthat self-supporting cone roofs shall ferring t(
chaser, for tanks located in areas subject to earthquakes, have a minimum thickness of 5 mm (216") and a maximum of sphere i
19mm (%") diameter tie rods (or their equivalent) shall be 12.5 mm (%") excluding any corrosion allowance.
placed between the rafters in the outer rings. These tie rods The buc
5.4.1.3 Self-supporting cone (or membrane roofl
may be omitted if l-sections or H-sections are used as raf-
ters. The design loadings for self-supporting cone roofs are sus-
tained entirely bythe roofsheeting itself, withoutany supporting
. Self-supporting cone roofs shallhave a minimum thickness structure. Generally this type of roof is confined to smaller
of 5 mm (%d') and a maximum of 12.5 mm (%") exctuding tanks, up to say 8 metres diameter. wnere:
any conosion allowance.
The lack of an internal structure makes the roof ideal for: q
. The slope of self-supporting roofs shall be within the range
of 9.5'to37' which is (1: 6to 1: 1.333). The method of cal-
. Tanks which require the application of an internal lining, fd
culating the required thickness for a self-supporting cone where a internal structure would hamperthe lining process.
E
roof is described later in Section 5.4.1.4. . Tanks where a high internal corrosion allowance is speci-
tro
. The requirements for roofs in the draft form of European fied, thus avoiding the requirementfor a support structure in
Code for prEN 14015 - 1, are basically the same as that very thick steel sections.
given in BS 2654. . Tanks where siainless steel roof materials are required. Using a
There is a limited range of stainless steelsections which are
available and therefore a membrane roofobviatesthe need
5.3 Various forms of fixed roofs for any support structure.
Figure 5.2 summarises the various types offixed roofs in com-
5.4.1.4 British Code Design requirements
mon use. - This ex
Equations 5.1 and 5.4 for the thickness of a self-supporting allow f(
cone roof, are based on work done by the late Professor A.S. The Bl
5.4 Roofs with no supporting structure Tooth, see Reference 5. t and are derived as follows: equatic
The membrane stress for a conical roof under internal pressure This th
5.4.1 Cone roofs occurs in the circumferential direction at the roof-to-shell iunc- pressu
tion and is given by:
The British Code states that the slope of the roof shall comply pe
with the requirements specified by the purchaser or shall be - or^
1in5. k.sino
Reana
and therefore:
p.r"
Roofs with no supoortino structures \c -.T.n.stn u equ 5.1
a ) Cone roofs
where: where
i ) Self supporting cone
ii ) Folded plate petal type f = membrane stress (N/mm,) Pe

p = internal pressure (mbar) ro


b ) Dome roofs
rs = radius oftank shell (m) E
i ) Simple dome
t," = thickness of cone roof plating (m) Writinl
ii ) Umbrella type
0 = the slope of the roof measured from the hori-
\"
zontal (degrees)
Roofs with suDDortino slructures
n = joint efilciency. For self-supporting roofs the
a ) Cone roofs BS Code only allows butt-welded roof joints k
where q = 1.0, or double lap-welded joints
i) Radial rafter type whereq=05 For a
ii ) Trussed frame type joinst
iii ) Extemally framed type To exDress eouation 5.1 in terms ofthe radius ofthe cone roof
'r"' at the point where it meets the shell, instead of the shell ra-
dius 'r"', it can be seen from Figure 5.3 that:
b ) Dome roofs

i) Radial rafter type


sin 6=-: Subsl
rc
AS:
ii ) Extemally framed type
iii ) Other types Substituting for'sin e' in equation 5.1 then:
L.
3 Column-suoported roofs
. pr"
equ 5.2
'" f .q

This equation has to be adjusted to accept the varying units as The I


Figure 5.2 Va ous types of Uxed roofs follows: equa'

116 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


5 The design of tank roofs - fixed

)e .
I="
Dr^ 103 pr. equ 5.3
in "" td.t.r 1o.f .rl
This is the equation which is given in the British Code for the
thickrress of unsupported cone roofs.
The roof must also be checked to withstand the external pres-
sure duetothe roofloading andvacuum. This isachieved byre-
all ferring to the classical theory for buckling pressure for a perfect
of sphere and adapting this for the cone roof.
The buckling pressure for a perfect sphere is
2 E.\o' equ 5.4 Figure 5.3 Equation 5.1 dedvation
r ,'2
ler dome roofs simply by inserting the relevantvalue forthe roof ra-
where: dius.
q' = the buckling pressure (mbar) 5.4.1.5 American Code Design requirements
-
E. rd = the radius ofthe sphere (m) Self-supporting cone roofs shallhave a minimum thickness of5
s. mm (%6") and a maximum of '12.5 mm (%") excluding anycorro-
E = Young's Modulus (N/mm'z)
sion allowance.
ci-
rin t,a = the thickness of the roof plate (m)
The slope of self-supporting roofs shall be within the range of
v = Poisson's ratio 9.5'to 37" which is (1 :6 to 1 : 1.333).
Using a value of0.3 for Poisson's ratio the equation becomes: The API 650 Code is based on tanks working at atmospheric
lte pressure and the section which deals with self-supporting cone
eo . 1.21.E.U2
equ 5.5 roofs (Section 3.10.5, in the Code) therefore, only deals with
9 =
rd the calculation for external pressure considerations. For cases
-jg
wheretianks have to be designedfor internal pressures, the de-
This expression only applies to a perfect sphere and does not
signer is required to refer to Appendix F, Clause F.7.3 of the
ng allow for imperfections in fabrication or for a factor of safety.
Code, which in turn refers to API 620 for such designs.
The British Code applied a factor of approximately 20 to
equation 5.5. For external pressures the theory for buckling given above in
equation 5.7 applies, exceptthat in the American Code the fol-
Jre This then gives an equation for the safe allowable external
lowing values are assumed:
pressure'Pe':
. Thevalueof Young's Modulus E =29x 106 lbiin"(200,000
e. _ 0.0625. E. !d'? equ 5.6 N/mm')
fo'
. The external roof loading is taken as, a live load of 25 lb/ftl
Rearranging this equation for trd we obhin: (1.2 kN/m') plus a dead load of 20 lb/ft'? (approximately
1.0 kN/m'), which is the self-weight of %" (12.5 mm) roof
I P*'
t =,t/ffi=+'. plating - the maximum thickness allowed.
Also the American Code uses the tank diameter ratherthan the
wnere:: roof radius in its equation.

Pe = allowable safe external pressure (kN/m'?)


rd = spherical radius ofthe dome (m)
E = Young's Modulus (N/mm'?)
AS:
Writing the equation for these unib gives:
t. =Dl2
td =4 1000 rd
ano:
Pe =2.2 kNf m2 and E = 200,000 kN/m'?

k=4ordF equ 5.7


Then equation 5.8 becomes:

Fora cone roofiank'rd'is the radius atthe pointwhere the roof , 4O.O r1o.Z2
oof joinsthe shell and is giventhe notation'rc'andfrom Figure5.3: '' =
2in o12oo,ooo
ta- r-
'"-sinO *\"- 0.20976.D
Substituting for'rd'in equation 5.7 gives 't"'for cone rooftanks "ine
AS: .D
k" = equ 5.9
4.8 sin
@
o_

,'" =ao.r.
singl/ e
equ 5.8
wnere:
5.2
t," shall not be iessthan 5 mm, excluding corrosion allowance. D is in metres

The form of this equation given in the British Code is that of t.can onlybe a minimum of 5mm, and a maximum of 12.5 mm,
eouation 5.7. as in this form it can be used for both cone and excluding corrosion allowance.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 117


5 The design of tank roofs - fixed

thickness requirements, but the thickness of the roof plates


shallnot be less than 5 mm(/;')when so designed bythe man-
ufacturer, subject to the approval of the purchase/'.
This means lhat a membrane roofwhose thickness calculates
to be morethan the maximum allowableof 12.5 mm (y."\ can be
re-designed by other means to allow for the inclusion of stiffen-
ers which are welded to the roof plates. Because storage tanks
are generally designed for small intemal pressures, the thick-
ness ofthe unsupported roof is usuallydetermined bythe exter-
nal, rather than the internal Dressure to which the tank is sub.
jected.
5.4.1.6 Folded plate type cone roof
This type of construction was originally devised by the Shell In-
Equation 5.9 is given in the American Code.
ternational Petroleum Company and is included in its lank De-
Note: When the sum ofthe live and dead loads exceeds 2.2 sign and Engineeing Practice Manual.
kN/m'?, the minimum thickness shall be increased by For this type of roof, illustrated in Figure 5.4, one edge of each
the following ratio: ofthe radial roof plate panels is flanged into the form of a chan-
live load +dead load nel section to form an integral supporting structure. This type of
roof construction is limited by the British Code to tanks up to
12.5 metres diameter.
The American Code also states that: "Self-supporting Normally the plate folds are internal, but for specific cases
- are stiffened byroofs,
to the American Code, whose roof plates sec- where a smooth interiorsurface is required forthe application of
tions welded to the plates need not conform to the minimum an internal lining, the petals can be externalto the tank.

1E:-,..re
|
q:-6"**y;tr '--1 ,,

w-"--
{
".*,ono-^
Temporary erec{lon bolt - rfiove bsfore
lank 903 into service

Roof blate-to-shell connection Sec{ion B - B

:l

Part plan ot radial .oof plates

Figure 5.4 Folded plale type cone roof design

118 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


5 The design of tank roofs - frxed

DESIGN FOR A FOLDED PLATE PETAL CONE ROOF,


DESIGNED TO Bss 4,10 & 'FoRMULAS FOR STRESS
&''STRAIN" sth EDITION BY ROARK & YOUNG.

TANK DIA, 12.5 m

ROOF SLOPE 1in? 1in5


No. oF PETALS 32

MAT'I. TYPE BS EN 10025 5275

YIELD or 1% PRooF STRESS 275 Nlmm2

PTATE THKS. 5mm


CORR. ALLOWANCE 0mm
DESTGN PLATE THKS. ( SEE FOLDED SECTION BELOW ) 5mm
O.D. OF ROOF PLATING : 12500 + ( 2x 25mm) LAPS OVER SHELL 12550 mm

SLOPE LENGTH OF CON E ROOF (lncl. 25mm lap over Shell) 6399 mm

LENGTH OF FOLDED SECTION 5701 mm


FLANGE IVDTH OF FOLDED PLATE 75 mm
WEB DEPTH OF FOLDED PLATE 150 mm
OVERALL O.D. OF CENTRE CROIAN PLATE '1344 mm

O.D. OF CRO\AN RING WEB PLATE 850 mm


GAP BETWEEN LOWER RAFTER FLANGES 59.5 mm O.K;
HEIGHT OF CROVVN RING WEB PLATE 125 mm
THKS. OF CROW{ RING PLATING 10 mm
DESIGN THKS. OF CRO\'IN PLATING 10 mm
SUPERIMPOSED LOAD 1.2 ld'Um'
INSULATIoN ( IFANY) (0.25kN/m'!) 0lf.l/m2

TOTAL LOAD = ROOF PLATING 48-51 kN


+ ROOF FOLDS 15.80 kN (Conoded)

+ CROVIN RING 2.33 kN

+ |NSULc,T|ON 0kN
+ S'MPOSED LOAD '147.26 kN

TOTAL LOAD 213.91 kN

LOAD PER PETAL "Q" 213.91KN / 32 PETALS 6.58 kN

REACTIoN AT CROI N " Rb" = 1&d'4" 2.23 kN

CoMPN. lN FOLD "P':Rb / dn thda 11.37 kN

Figure 5.5 Design example br blded platE petal cone roof - page ,

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPiIENT 119


5 The design of tank roofs - fixed

SECTION OF FOLDED ROOF PETAL

EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTHS


C.S.A, OF FOLD 'A" 1450 mm2
SECOND M.O.A. OF FOLD '1" s087083.3 mm4
SECTION MODULUS '|z"=lly 87827.8 mm3

RAD of GYRATIoN "Rx){' 59.2 mm


SLENDERNESS RATIO " L/tuo(" = 6399/59.2= 108.0
RATIO "D/T" 30
MAX BENDING MNT. = 0.128.Q*L kNm
2
MAX. BENDING STRESS Fbc: B.M./Z 80.7 Nlmm
ALL'BL BEND'G STRESS "Pbc" N/mm'? 117 BS 449 Table 3a
2
MAX. COI\iPRESStVE STRESS Fc=PrrA Nlmm
ALL'BL COMPR. STRESS "PC' N/rnm' BS 449 Table 17a
Fbc/Pbc + Fc/Pc =< 1.0 0.8 ACCEPT
DEFLEcTIoN =( 0.01304*q"L^3Y E* I 2t.7 ACCEPT
ALLOWABLE DEFLn. From Table 5 BS 5950: Part 1 = L I 200 mm

CROWN RING DESIGN FROM :

ROARK sth EDITION TABLE 17-7


2 x.c =ANGLE B'TWEEN RAFTERS 1 '1 .25 DEGREES
oc = 1/2 ANGLE B'TWEEN RAFTERS 5.(lI5 UE(jKEE:'
1/a = 380/2Pf Alpha 't0.'t86 RADTANS
'llsin d 10.242
'lffan d: 10.153
HORIZ. LOAD ON RING 'H"= P cois 0 11.14S kN

Figure 5.5 Design example for folded plate petal cone rcol - page 2

'I20 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


5 The design of tank roofs - fixed

TYPICAL DETAIL OF CRO!\4{ RING.

-
ffir
o.D. OF cRo\AN RING WEB = 850 /
O.D. OF CROWN PLATE =

PROPERTIES OF RING :

RADIUS OF RING 'R' 425 mm

WIDTH oF RING = 16*THICKNESS 160 mm

C.S.A. OF THIS ANNULAR RING '4" 1600 mm2

SECOND M.O,A.ON AXIS 'XX' PERP.TO "H" 3413333.33 mm'

sEcTloN MODULUS Z=lly 42666.67 mm'


MOMENT BETWEEN FORCES ''H" iS :

Mo=H"R/2('llsin .c - 1/.c) 54782.23 Nmm


COMPRESSIoN lN RING is:
No = H/z{1/sin 56866.15 N
"c)
.1.2g N/mm 2
Mo lZ =
No/A = 35.54 N/mm2

TOTAL COMP. STRESS IN RING iS :

Mo/Z+No/A= 36.83 N/mm'


ALLOWABLE STRESS = 2/3 of YIELD = 1g3.33 N/mm2
COMP. STRESS < ALLOWABLE ? YES ACCEPT

MOMENT AT FORCES "H" iS :

[,li=H*Rl2(1i"c - 1/ tan "c) 77572.00 Nmm


TENSION IN RING iS:
Ni= H/2(t/tan .c) 58592.33 N
2
MilZ= 1.82 N/mm
N/mm
I
Ni/A=
ToTAL TENSILE STRESS lN RING is:
2
Mi/Z + Ni /A= 37.15 N/mm
2
ALLOWABLE STRESS = 2/3 OfYIELD 183.33 N/mm

TENSILE STRESS < ALLOWABLE ? YES ACCEPT

THE DESIGN OF THE ROOF IS ACCEPTED

Figure 5.5 Design example for folded plate petal cone roof - page 3

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 121


5 The design of tank roofs - fixed

A design example for this type of roof is given in Figure 5.5. td = thickness of the domed roof plating (mm)
(not less than 5mm excluding corrosion allov.
5.4.2 Dome roofs ance)
Pe = allowable safe external pressure (kN/m,)
The British Code states that the spherical radius of such roofs
should be within the range of 0.8 xtank diameterto 1 .5 x tank d! rd = spherical radius ofthe dome (m)
ameter. However, the Code does allow the tank purchaser to (generally 0.8.D to 1.5.D)
specify a radius to suit his requirements. The American Code is E = Young's Modulus (N/mm,)
slightly different, and gives the range as 0.8 x tank diameter
(unless otherwise specified by the purchaser) up to a maximum 5.4.2.4 American Code Design requirements
of 1.2 x tank diameter.
-
Equation 5.7 is used to give the thickness for an unsupporte:
5.4.2.1 Simple dome dome roof and as previously for the cone roof, the Americ-
Code builds the following consbnt values into the equation:
This involves the use of spherically-pressed plates, which are
expensive to produce. This type of roof is usually confined to . The value ofYoung's Modulus
small, high pressure tanks, or for tanks where internal linings, E = 29 x '10 lb/in' (200,000 N/mm,)
and an internal corrosion allowance or stainless steel materials
are required.
. The external roof loading is taken as, a live load of25 lb/t.
(1.2 kN/m'z) plus a dead load of20lbfft, (approximatety 1.:
5.4.2.2 Umbrella dome kN/m'?), which is the self-weightof %" (12.5 mm) roof platin3
This is a cheaperversion ofthe simple dome and again is gen- - the maximum thickness allowed.
erally used only on small diameter tanks. The roof petal plates Equation 5.7 then becomes:
in this case are rolled in the radial direction only and when they
are assembled the appearance ofthe roofis Iike thatofan um-
brella - hence the name. (See Figure 5.6.) la =40 ro

5.4.2.3 British Code Design requirements


- .rr
The membrane stress in a spherical shell is given by the stan-
dard expression: " 2.4

p ro This equation is given in the American Code.


f= equ5.10
As for the unsupported cone roof, the following applies to un-
supported dome roofs:
where:
When the sum of the live and dead loads exceeds 2.2 kN/m,.
P internal pressure (mbar) the minimum thickness shall be increased bythe following ratio:

fd spherical radius (m)


td = thickness of the domed roof plating (mm)
Rearranging for trd then: The American Code also states that:
"Self-supporting roofs, whose roof plates are stiffened by sec-
' -Ph equ 5.11
tions welded to the plates, need not conlorm to the minimum
As wasthe case for the selfsupported cone roof, the Code uses thickness requirements, but the thickness of the roof plates
shallnot be less than 5 mm (/*")when so designed bythe man-
the same joint efficiencies n as follows:
ufacturer, subject to the approval of the purchaser."
n = 1.0 for butfwelded joints
Observations on the unsupported cone and dome roof
= 0.35 for lapped joints with fillet welds on one thickness equations
stde. 1) By comparing equation 5.3 for the cone roof
= 0.5 for lapped joints with flllet welds on both
rt" - Pr"
S!dCS 1o.f .t1
Rationalising the units, the equation becomes:
wlth equation 5.12 for the domed roof
pxrox103
1t x2 xf xn . P r,r

ph
'" zo. t. n
.
-" 20. f.1
equ 5.'12 itcan be seen that for a given roof construction, roof radius and
internal pressure then the thickness of a cone roof is twice that
This is the form ofequation which is found in the British Code for for a dome roof.
the thickness of a spherjcal roof under pressure.
2) By comparing the expression for the stress in a cylinder 5
The roof must also be checked to withstand the external pres- from equation 4.6 fi
sure due to the roofloading and vacuum and by reference to the
previous equations 5.4, 5.5, 5.6 and 5.7, which are all based on
. DXD
the theory for a domed roof , it can be seen from equation 5.7 2xI
that:
with the expression for the stress in a spherical roof from 2
10 Pe equation 5.10
to =40 ro
E
. Pr"
where:

122 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


5 The design of tank toofs - frxed

F
o
rs

t:

Root olata rcllod in


thi8 direc{on only

n Figure 5.6 Umbrella type domg roof


s
F
then it can be seen, that for a @nstant thickness shell and 5.5.1.1 Radial rafter type
spherical roof, and hence equating 't'and'tid'
pxD_pxrd This type of roof is supported by a radial rafter framework com-
posed of structural sections. lt is illustrated in plan form in Fig-
2xl 2xI ure 5.7.
and for this condition then, D = rd
These structures are usually confined to tanks with diameters
Then fora dome roofthickness to be the same as that ofthe top
less than 15 metres.
course ofshell plating, the radius of the dome is equalto the di-
ameter of the tank.
5.5.t.2 Design example
The American Code adopted this approach for setting the limits
for the maximum and minimum radiifordomed roofs but allows One method of designing such a structure using the British
a t20% variation thus giving the range for roof radii to be: Codes is as follo\ /s:
ro = 0.8.D to 1.2.D
Assume a bnk diameter of 12.5 m
which has been given earlier.
No. of main rafters R1 = 8
5.5 Roofs wlth supporting structures, supported
from the tank shell No. of secondary rafters R2 = 16

5.5.1 Cone roofg


Superimposed load = 1200 N/m'z

The usual slope for this type of roof is 1 in 5 for the Britjsh Code Dead load (structure and roof plating) = 740 N/m'?
and 1 in 6 for the tunerican Code. Ljnless the internal pressure (Derived from experience)
dictates otheMise it is usualforthe roof plating to be smm (/;')
thickand is single lapweldedonthe topside. The Codes do not Total loading = 1940 N/m'?
permit the roof plating to be attached to the supporting frame-
work. Roof slope is 1 in 5.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPiIENT 123


5 The design of tank rcofs - fixed

Section A.A

.\

:-E

af,(
te(

:-7--Tl^
-

at
Se
>a
S{
0 0.5 m

Pad plan ofroof{raming


one bay ot elght Rr

Br

T.
Fl
&

Figu 5.7 Plan arrangement oi radial rafter type cone roof structure

124 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


5 The design of tank rcoE - fixed

The 102 x 51 R.S.C. as selected is therefore accephble.


Purlin:
P = Ra+ (Yz xArea Ex 1940)
= 4403.8+(0.245x1940)
= 4879.1 N

=--
LA79 1
Rc=Rd =2439.55N

Bending moment
M=2439.55 x 0.58 = 1414.94Nm
Try using a 102 x 51 R.S.C.
From the Section tables Zxx = 40.89cm3
The loading diagram is configured as shown. Bending stress
The Purlin length is such that the main rafters at this point are
1.7m apart.
_!!_ 14'14.94 x'103
= 34.60N/mm,
Z 40.89 x 10'
The roof load is apportioned to the structural members byspli!
From BS 449Table 2 the allowablebending stress is 180 N/mm
ting the surface of the roof into panels. This is at the discretion
of each individualdesigner and in this case, the method shown The 102 x 51 R.S.C. as selected is therefore acceptable.
above has been adopted. These areas are calculated using Main rafrer R1:
geometrical methods and in this case are found to be:
The loading diagram for this rafrer is as follows:
Area A 1 x 4-50 = 4.50m2
B2 x 4.54 = 9.08m2
C2 x 0.045 = 0.09m'
D1 x 0.82 = O.82 m'
E2 x 0.245 = 0.49m'z
FI x 0.36 - 0.36 m,
15.34 m2
Check the sector area = /u x nl4 x'12.52 = 15-34 m'z O.K.
Secondary rafrer R2:
Plan length of rafter is found to be 4.18 m
Slope length of rafter is
tan g = !5 =0.2 = 11.31' and sin 0 = 0.1961
xaft = 4.2lsm
^@lE Pl = (2 x P) + (Area C x 1940)
Load on rafter = (2 x 4879.1) + (0.09 x 1940) 9932.80 N
= (/z xAreaB x 1940) = 4.54 x 1940 = 8807.6 N P2 =Area Fi 1940= 0.36x 1940 698.40 N
Reactions at ends of rafter Ra and Rb
Q1 = Area Ax 1940 = 4.50 x 't940 8730.00 N
= 88076i2 = 4403.8 N
Q2 = Area D x 1940 = 0.82 x 1940 1590.80 N
Bending moment in rafrer
20952.0 N
^. W.L 8807.6 x 4.263=+oJ3.35
,^- Nm
88 Taking momenb about Re
Try using a 102 x 51 R.S.C. (Ql x 1.672) + (Pl x 3.344) +
From the Section tables Zxx = 40.89cm3
(Q2x4.4545) +(P2x5.565) = Rf x 5.565

Bending stress (8730 x L672) + (9932.8 x 3.344) +


M 4693.35 x 103 .,, -^ .,rr / mm2 (1590.8x 4.4545) + (698.4x5.565)= Rfx5.565
= r r+.ro
Z 40.89 x 10'
1459.66 + 33215.28+7086.22 + 3886.60 = Rfx 5.565
From BS 449 Table 2 the allowable bendino stress is
'180 N/mm2 58784.66= Rfx5.565

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPIIENT 125


5 The design of tank rcofs - fixed

qATA' AA
Rf = ::j-:--:-:: = 10563.3 N c.
c.coc
TerEi
Re =20952.0 -10563.3 = 10388.7N Design the Crowo Ring using Roark sth Edition
Note: The compressive stress transmitted to the shell by this "Formulas for Stress and Strain" - Table 17-7
load shall be minimised by mounting the rafrer fixing Number of l\rain rafrers conneqted to the Crown nng :8 From
bracket on to a doubler plate welded to the shell.
170 n
The maximum bending moment is at position p1.
The t
Taking moments about P1 TIE Y
(Re x 3.344) - (Q1 x '1 .672) Ek
(EIO
(10388.7 x 3.344) - (8730 x 1.672) 7&l
srnF
= 34739.8'l-14596.56 ail
= 20143.25 Nm The I
.Errts
The compressive force C in the rafter is found as follows:
ti-s,r
C = Rflsin 0
Ttis
= 10563.3/0.1961 5,10,
TEXI(
= 53862.47 N
ctcu
Try a 203 x 76 R.S.C. s-p9
From the Section tables: Th |
Yiter
C.S.A. = 3034 mm,
z = 192 x 10s mm3

= 80.2 mm
D/T = 18.2
Maximum slope length of rafrer between fixing poinb
L =3.344m x .rEl5 = 3.41m
L 3410 .^
=,to
r- 80.2

From BS 449, the allowable stresses are:


From Table 3a the allowable bending stress
2xc = AnSle Belwn Rane6 45.00 degf
pbc = 180 N/mm, a = 1i2 Aigle Benven Rari.B 22.50 degr
2.55 |ldiffi
From Table l7a the allowable compressive stress 2.61
2.41
pc = 148 N/mm, fbdz. L@d on RlrB'Ff = C x ..s 6 52.42 |d!

The actual bending stress c.sA. ol corod6d qoM Ring A- 44&.@ mB?
Posilion ot Yyy .xb froh ou!6r fa@ of nng = 40.51 mm
.. M --:-j-j:j=:ii
fbc= 20143.25 x1O3
l: = 104.91N/mm, Momnt of Inonta n Axis ltro" cnkoki Itry= 7zlEl,0l6,10 m'
= 83_49 mm
Z 192 x'l0r zw= 83675.e1 mf
tW- 41.25 nm
The actual compressive stress Radius ol6oro<ld Crorn Ring R= 645.00 mni

c =99qq2 47 = 177sN6m'
fc=c.s.a. ilomnt bt0*n Fo@E
l/b: (HxR/4x(i/3h c
"tf b 'l'lb'
- 1/q) 12056979 N
3034 Compeion tr Rjng is'No'= Haz (1/:tn a) 6912.66 N
14,41 Nmml
':: + must 15.64 M|nni
pDc -"
BS 449 states that not be more than 1.0 Tot l Comp, Slllss ln Rhg = MdZ + No/A - 3O.@ N/mif
pc Alldable Design Stlgs = 1e3.330 lgnnf
ls ToblCoftp- stsss< AlloMble Dslgn Str$? Y6 acc6pt
1il,441
'l 1775
I + MA
180 !=058+0.12=07< 1.0 O.K. iromn! at Forc$'|r ls 'Mf
Mi= (Hx Rl A x (1/AhtE - l/ bn -) ?3275.81 N
To3bn in Rit is'Nr= E2(1/ t n c) 6375934 N
The 203 x 76 R.S.C. as selected is therefore accephble. Matz. 2E.@ lvrn|lf
Bracing 81: Total Tclon in Rlng = M'Z + NUA :
AIl. rabl6 O6ign SI|B = 143.3 lvmrn'
The load Bl in the bracing is found using Lami's theorem: ls Tobl Tensih Strs -< Allomb. D6i!r Sb.$?
I}E desisn or f| Arown flE b a@dd
sin675'
B1=Cx Itri. c@del6 oE &!ign of ii. .oof .t ucilB
sin45"

o'9238
B't = 5J862.41 x = 70369.sg r\
o.7071
Try using a 80 x 80 xSAngle. Figure 5.8 Crown ring design example using Roark s method

126 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


5 The design of tank raofs lixed

C.S.A. = 1230 mm"


nsile stress in the bracing
70369 33
= =
p7r.'
57.2
1230
=rom BS 449 Table 19 the allowable iensile stress is
i 70 N/mm'
Ihe 80 x 80 x 8 Angle is thefefore acceptable.
-ihe
weight of this structure together with the 5 mm roof plating
,vorks out to be around 8000kgorsay78500N.Thisgivesa
lead load of 640 N/m'of roof area. This is less than the figure of
740 N/m'assumed for design purposes and the design as-
sumption is therefore acceptable.
5.5.'1.3 Central crown ring
The design of the crown ring by Roark's method is illustrated
JSing the example set out in Figure 5.8.
5.5.1.4 Trussed frame type
This type of supporting structure, shown in Figures 5.9 and
5.'10. takes the form of a series of radial trusses, generally
made up from steel angle sections. Between these trusses are
circumferentially arranged members providing stability and
support for the roof plating. Figure 5.10 A 39 meife irussed ime type struciure under conslrucllon
Coutlesy of l",lcTay
The British Code requiresthat verticalring bracing shallbe pro-
vided under the outer circumferential purlins. This shall be, one ring for roofs over 15 m and up to 25 m diameter and two rings
for roofs over 25 m diameter. Also it requires cross-bracing to
be provided in the plane ofthe roof surface, in at least tur'o bays,
between two pairs of adjacent trusses for roofs over 15 m diam-
eter. These sets of bracings have to be evenly spaced around
the tank circumference and afe to give torsional stability io the
stfucture.
The imporiance of the diagonal bracing members which occur
in most types of roof supporting structures whefe the frame-
work is wlthin the tank and not attached to the roof plating can-
not be overestimated. These rnembers are usually placed in
two or four bays equally spaced within the ffamework and are
often known as wind bracing. Their funct on is to provide the
siructure with some measure of torsional stabiliiy.
Figure 5.11 shows ihe collapsed roof framework of a tank of
some 40 m in diameter which was being constructed in the l\,4id-
dle Easi by Whessoe Heavy Engineering Ltd. The erection
foreman decided that he would construci the roofframework on
a central klng post, but would leave the wind bracing to be fitted
inio the structure at a later date. The king post was removed
and the roof collapsed. The spiral nature ofthe failure is clear to
see.
The roof did not fail immediately, which was fortunate as this
would have resulted in serious injuryto the operatives wiihin the
tank at the time that the central support was removed, but was

Figure 5.11 The collapsed toof ftamework


Figure 5.9 Trussed frame type rcoi Cauftesy af Whessae

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 127


5 The design of tank roofs - fixed

The lower part of the trusses generally protrude down belowthe


level of the top of the tank shell and hence can become sub.
merged in the stored product. In certain circumstances, or for
some corrosive stored products, this may be an undesirable
feature.
5.5.1.5 Design example
These days there are computer-aided design packages avail-
able for structural designers to use, but for this example, the
tried and tested "hand-cranked" method is demonstrated.
The exercise willdemonstrate howthe sizes of the members oi
a 30 m diameter roof structure are calculated.
The arrangement of rafrers and purlins in one of 12 bays of the
structure is shown in Figure 5.13. The three intermediate raf-
Figure 5.12 A view fiom oubide the tank shell when the roof had failed ters per bayare supported attheirouter end bythe shelland by
Courtesy of Whessoe three purlins in the plane ofthe rool The rafters lie on top of the
purlins which in turn transmit the rafter loads to the main
kind enough to wait until they had gone for lunch. Figure 5.12 trusses. The load on the sections of rafrers is determined bydi-
shows a view from outside the tank shellwhichwasforced into a viding the roof sector into panels as shown in Figure 5.13, the
curious, but quite regular shape by the action of the main size ofthese panels is calculated using simple geometric meth-
trusses pulling inwards as the rooffailed. oos.
The American Code does not specifically mention these brac- The numbers in Figures 5.13, represent plan areas in m2
ing requirements, but nevertheless, it is generally thought to be
As before:
good practice to include them in roofs of this type.
Superimposed load = 1200 N/m'?
This type of roof is commonly used within the range of 15 m to
60 m diameter. Dead load (structure and roof plating; = 749 Jrl7rz
(Derived from experience)
Total loading = 1940 N/m'?
a

/e?\el I

$$+Lo

t
c*dD

Figure 5.13 Arrangements of rafters and pudins Th


:1
:r
si
=h

sg
H{

iJs

OU

Th
TI
dri
Figure 5.14 Uniformly distribuled rafter loads and rafie. reactions

128 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


5 The design of tank roofs - fixed

fE
IE ,t64
br
bb

+
he

irf

he
*
bl
tE Spaca diagran of Ausg showiag applid loaos
ir
& Figure 5.15 Space diagram of truss showing apptied loads

lD
t|-

Figure 5.'16 Force diagran

The panel areas can now be converted into loads which act on Draw a line parallelto the slope ofthe main kuss through .b'rep-
the various sectons ofthe rafiers and hence the reactions at resenting member 'b' - l.
their connections to the purlins and the shell can be estiab-
lished. Through point a draw a line parallel with the lower outer mem-
The uniformly distributed loads (U.D.L.S) on rafters and rafter ber'a'- 1. Where these two lines meet is point 1 and the scale
reactions are as shown in Figure 5.14. length of these lines represenb the axial load canied bv mem-
bers 'b'- '1 and 'a'- 1.
The loads transmitted to the main trusses can be worked out
from Figure 5.14 and are found to be as shown on the truss Through point I draw a vertjcal line representing member 1 - 2
space diagram in Figure 5.15. and through pointa drawa line parallelto member,a'-2. Where
Note: these two lines meetgives us point2 and hence the axialloads
The compressive stress transmitted to the shell bv the
load of 92,074 N shalt be minimised bv mountino the in members 1 - 2 and'a' - 2.
rafter fixing bracket on to a doubler plate welded t6 the
This procedure is continued until the diagram is completed as
shell.
shown.
Using BoWs notation method the truss space diagram is let-
tered Ato F and numbered 1 to 9 and a force diagram is pro- By scaling ofithe diagramthe axialloads in allthe members can
duced to a suihble scale. be found.
The force diagram in Figure 5.16 is produced as follows:
The same resulb could be found mathematically using gec.
The loads 'b' to 'c', 'c' to 'd', 'd' to 'e', 'e' to ,f, and to ,a' are
f metrical methods but the force diagram gives a good pictorial
drawn to scale down the right-hand side of the diagram. appreciation of the magnitude of the loadings on the various
truss members.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 129


5 The design of tank roofs - fixed

. i.e. 'd' - 5 and 'd' - 6 being the most heavily loaded and 4 - 5 The top boom of the truss I
being the least loaded. The most highly-loaded member in the top boom ofthe truss is tr
The BoWs notation method also allows us to establish in which D5 or E5 both at 182,250 N. The length of these members is
direction the forces in the members are acling. 3059.4 mm
h
Take the connection of the outer purlin to the main truss, then Try a double angle section comprising 125 x 75 x 10 angles
from the force diagram. separated by a 10 mm thick connecting gusset plate.
Properties of the compound section:
C.S.A.= 3820 mm'
lxx = 604000 mma
lyy = 3593103 mma
Max Y xx = 82.7 mm
Z )c( = 73035 mm3
. Starting at 'b', follow round the points 'c', 3, 2, 1 and back to tW = 30.67mm
'b'.
D/t = 12.5
The direction ofthe load 'b'-'c'is verticallydownwards, then fol-
lowing round the diagram, the directions of the loads must fol-
\/l
low this pattern and are found to be as shown here.
AI
F(
st
Fl

s
Compressive stress
This procedure is repeated at eachjoint and the load directions
are established as shown below. A
=182250 =47.7Y1^
3280 '
L 0.7 x 3059.4 .^

4J
'I / '4
r 30.67
From BS 449 Table 17a - Allowable compressive stress

31<-" I t/
/ett
I, pc = 123 N/mm'?

\f.\ 7{
"l
Worst case U.D.L. on the top boom is on member 81 and is 2 x
5393 N

S = Stlur
Although this worst case U.D.L. does not coincide with the max- sl
lcompreislon)
T=Tie (Tension) imum axial compressive load they will be mmbined here to L
prove that the chosen section for the top boom is adequate.
A
Bending moment
The axialload in each memberis given in Figure 5.17, showing
also if the member is a strut or a tie. t- w88
L 2 x5393-x3059'4
- =4,124,836 Nmm
Having found allthe loadings, then suitable section sizes forthe
members can be found using the requiremenE of BS 449. Bending stress

fbc- M - 4'124'836
For expediency, the numbers and sizes of bolts requiredforthe
=56.sN/mm'z
many and various connections in the trusswillnot be calculated
here because, although this is a fairly simple task it is quite
ZY. 73035
labourious. All connections will assume M20 bolB in 22 mm From BS 449 Table 3a -Allowable bending stress = '172 N/mm'
diameter holes.
!9 r IE ru"1 6" less than 1.0 for the selected member
B1 ,135,500
N Stlri 148250 N Tb 'l-2 72500 N strn
pc pbc SI
section to be acceptable. L
178.750 N strn 133,5@ N Ir 2-3 50,0(n N Tlr
Fu
D5 1e2:50 N Shrt 174500 N lie 3-4 29.000 N Stri
182250 N stut 165500 t{ 119 +5 11250 N
17-I.I
't23 172 =0.ss.0.33 =0.72 < 1.0 Accept

F8 18.500 N Str, A9 147.000 r TE 5{ t82fo }| stu


lf by combining the two worst case loads acting on the top boom
67 21,0q1N 'ns
member, as shown above, the memberwas provedto be inade-
74 22.qn N Stld quate, then each of the members making up the top.boom
&s s6,250 N TL would have to be separately analysed using their own individ-
ual, axial and U.D.L.s. This can result in the selected section for
Figure 5.17 The axial load in each member the top boom being found to be adequate.

130 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


Lr.!9 !9:'s!:!P4@u!
The normal practice is to have two sets of intermediate 10 mm pc=46N/mm'? fc<pcAccept
packers bolted through the vertical legs of the members, thus
affording the combined member additional rigidity to withstand Strut 7-8
axial load. These packers are equi-spaced betvveen the main L = 3470 mm
bolted connection points as shown:
Axial compressive load = 22,000 N
Compressive stress
22'ooo
fc = = 13.5p7rr'
1626

L 3470 ,^^
r 21.3
From Table 3a - Allowable compressive stress
pc = 35N/mm'? fc<pc Accept
All the above struts are acceptable using two 70 x 70 x 6 Angles
back-to-back and separated by a 10 mm gusset plate.
All struts to be fitted with two equi-spaced bolted packers (as
Vertical struts stated above).
All struts to have double-bolted end connections. The bottom boom of the truss
For all struts try using two 70 x 70 x 6 Angles back-to-back and The maximum tensile load in this lower boom is '175,500 N
separated by a 10 mm gusset Plate.
Try using two 70 x 70 x 6 Angles backlo-back and separated by
From the Section tables the minimum radius of gyration a 10 mm gusset plate.
r = 2.13 cm Gross C.S.A. of the compound section is
C.S.A. = '16.26 cm' 2 x 813 mm' = 1626 mm'?
Strut 1-2 Assume that the ties are bolted with M20 bolts in 22 mm
L = 1200 mm diameter holes.
Axial compressive load = 72,500 N From BS 449 the effective areas of the angle legs are as fol-
lows:
Compressive stress
72'5oo a2 the net area of the unconnected Leg is
fc = = 44.6 N/mm'? 170 - 6 12) x 6= 402 .r]'m'
1626

L=-=vl:,
2100 ^^ a1 the net area of the connected leg is
402 - (22 x 6) = 27O mmz
| 21.3
Then
From Table 3a - Allowable compressive stress
5al 5 x27O 1350
pc=84 N/mm' fc<pc Accept
5^1. (5x27o)+402 1752
= 0.77
^2
Strut 34 The effective C.S.A. for each angle is
L = 2557 mm
270 + (0.77 x 4O2) = 579.5 mm'
Axial compressive load = 29,000 N
and for the compound section is therefore '1159 mm'
Compressive stress
The maximum tensile stress in the tie
,o noo
fc = --'--- ='16117tt' 175'5oo
1626 = 1s1 .4 N/rr'
1159
L 2577 ..^ From Table 19 - the allowable stress is 170 N/mm'?
( 21.3
The compound section is therefore acceptable.
From Table 3a
- Allowable compresslve stress
Diagonal ties
pc = 62 N/mm'? fc<pc Accept
The most highly-loaded tie is 2-3 at 50,000 N
Strut 5-6 Try using two 50 x 50 x 6 Angles back{o-back and separated by
a '10 mm gusset plate.
L = 3013 mm
Axial compressive load = 18,250 N GrossC.S.A. of the compound section is2x569 mm'? = 1138
mm2
Compressive stress
Assume that the ties are bolted with M20 bolts in 22 mm
1A
fc= '"'-""
'6n =11.2117rr2 diameter holes.
1626
From BS 449 the effective areas of the angle legs are as fol-
L 3013 ,," lows:
( 21.3 a2 the net area ofthe unconnected leg is
From Table 3a - Allowable compressive stress (5o 612) x6 =282 mm2

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 13'1


5 The design of tank roofs - fixed

al the net area of the connected leg is I


282 - (22 x 6) = 15o mm2 360

Then This factor is to ensure, among other reasons, thatthere willE


no damageto building finishes, which is not a concern whende-
5a1 5x150 _750 signing tank roof structures.
5a1+a2 (5 x 150) +282= 1032 =0.73
BS 5950: Part'l, Table 5 gives severalalternativesforallowab
The effective C.S.A. for each angle is deflections. In particular it quotes L/360 for beams carryi.-c
plaster or other brittle finishes and also L/200 for all otis
150 + (0.73 x 282) = 355 mm'?
beams.
and for the compound section is therefore The U200 is a more realistic figure for tank roofstructures ar{
this is the factor which will be used.
2 x 355 = 7'10 mm2
Applying this to the above rafter, then the allowable deflectis
The maximum tensile stress in the tie
IS:

= ""'""- = 70 N/mm'z Yl::


710 = 17.0 mm
200
From Table 19 the allowablethe allowable stress is '170 N/mm,
Hence the chosen beam size is acceptable for the stress leve
The compound section is therefore acceptiable. and deflection.
CroYvn ring Purlin No. 4
The central crown ring is designed as for the previous example
using Roark's method. See Figure 5.18,
lntermediate rafters
The longest intermediate rafrer at 3408 mm, is the one at the
centre of the bay, running between the shell and Purlin No.4.
This rafter is also the most heavily-loaded, carrying a total
U.D.L of 1'l,477 N. The design forallthe intermediate lafters will
be based on this worst case.
Loading diagram
The maximum bending moment is given by

Design of diagonal bracing

9474+9330/2 = 14,139N
h

WL 11477 x3408
^^
= 4.9 x 106 Nmm
l,-'-
Try using a 127 x 64 R.S.C.
Z xx = 75.99 cm3
Load in diagonal bracing
lxx = 482.5 cma
tW = 1.88cm = 14,'139+sin 34.056 =25,248 N
D _ 13.8
Tryusing two 80 x 80 xO Angles back-to-backand separated by
t a 10 mm gusset plate.
Bending stress
rr /
^.-.^6
C.S.A.= 1870 mm'
rbc - +
Zo(= -* -64.48 N/mm'?
75.99 x 10'
=--: Min.r = 24.5 mm
L 3408 ^,- Compressive stress
r 13.8
2q
From Table 3a the allowable bending stress pbc is 89 N/mm'? fc=--'-'AA- =13.5 N/mm',
1870
The stress in the beam is acceptiable.
Check for deflection. L 3794 ,-^
Deflection is given by | 24.5
5. W. L3 5 x 11477 x34083
= 5.9 mm From Table 17a - the allowable stress pc = 40 N/mm?
384. E 1 384 x 207,000 x482.5 x ld
The allowable deflection given in BS 449 is The member as selected is acceptable.

132 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


5 The design of tank rcofs - fixed

e Crown rlng
Central crown ring design using Roarks method
'-
p
s
IT

Fa-

Tank dia. 30.00 m


Number of rafler 12.00
Crown ring dia 1175.00 mm
Roof slope 1 in ? 5.00
ComDressive load in rater 168.50 kN
Design stress 183.33 N / mm2

2x < =Angle Between Rafters 30.00 degrees


c( = 1/2 Angle Between Raters 15.00 degrees
1/c( =360 / ( 2Pix o() 3-820 radhns
1/Sin G 3.864
1/Tan o( 3.732
Horiz. Load on Ring "H" = F8 x cos e 165.228 kN
Properties of Ring
C.S.A. of corroded Crown Ring A= 5950.00 mm'
Moment of Inerth on Axis thro' centroid I yy = 9684541.32 mm4
Section Modulus ZW = - 87,106.93 mm3
Radius of Gyration R yy = 40.34 mm
Ring
Radius of Crolrvn R - 561.b{J mm
Moment between Forces "H" is "Mo"
Mo=(HxR/2ix(1/sind - 1/o( ) 213425.88 N
Compression in Ring is "No"= H/2(l^iin c) 319195.68 N
Mo IZ= 24.42 N/mftf
No/A= 53.65 N/mrn'
Total Comp. stress in Ring = MotZ + No/A = 78.07 Nlmm'
Allowable Design Stress = 183.333 N/mm'
ls Total Comp. Stress=< Allowable Design Slress? Yes accept
Moment at Forcs "H" is "Mi"
Mi = ( Hx R/2)x(1/ a - l/Tan .() 4255017.50 N
Tercion in Ring is "Ni"= Hl2ll Mn *) 308319.35 N
MirZ= t|{l.68 N/mm'
Ni/A= 51 .82 Nlnrn?
Total Tension in Ring = Mi/Z + NiiA = 100.50 N/mnf
Allowable Design Stress = 183.33 N/mrn'
ls Total Tengile Stress =< Allowable Design Stress Yes accept
The complele Roof Design is - acoepted

Figure 5.18 Centalcrown ring design calculation using Roark's mthod

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 133


5 The design of tank rcofs - fixed

Beam of Purlin No. 4 L 3459 .,,


| 24.5
0443+6517/2 = 9702N

Bending moment
W.L x 3.106
9.330 ______:_i _-_.__
44 =7.244.745Nmm

Try using a '127 x 64 R.S.C.


z xx = /5.9c cm" From Table 17a - the allowable stress oc = 46 N/mm'z
lxx = 482.5 cma The member as selected is acceptable,
tYY = 188cm Beam of Purlin No. 3
n
:=134
t
Bending stress
it -T artrt'rtE
fbc '' - "'I11IY
- Zv - 95.3 11/ttr
75,990

L 1580 ^.
r 18.8 Bending moment
From Table 3a -the allowable bending stress pbc is 148 N/mm,
.. W.L 6517 x2329 ^-^,
= c. r v+.523 Nmm
The stress in the beam is acceptable. 44
Check for deflection
Try using a 127 x 64 R.S.C.
Deflection is given by Fl

w.L3 9.330 x 3.'1063 Z xx = 75.99 cm3 TI


i r- =583 mm
+e +e *207p00_:t;s2s * 1d
I xx = 482.5 cma
The allowable deflection is:
al nA rYY = 188cm I}
:t:: =.15.5 mm n
200 :=138
Hence the chosen beam size is acceptable for the stress level t fr
and deflection. TI
Bending stress
Purlin No.3 tY

.. M 3.794.523 _^ ^ ..,
toc=-=--cu.U N/mm2
el

Zv. 75,990
I I tA6
r 18.8

FromTable 3a the allowable bending stress pbc is 175 N/mm,

The stress in the beam is acceptable.

Check ior deflection.

Deflection is given by:


Design of diagonal bracing.
w.L3 _ 6517 x 23293 .
Load in diagonal bracing = 9702 + sin 47.67 = 13,124 N _.1.7 mm
48.E.1 48 x207,000 x 482.5 x 1f
Try using two 80 x 80 x 6 Angles back-to-back a nd separated by
a 10 mm gusset plate.
The allowable deflection is
C.S.A. = '1870 mm'?
ta2a ,l ,l
Minimum r' = 24.5 mm :::: = .6 mm
200
Compressive stress
13'123 Hence the chosen beam size is acceptiabte tor tne stress tevel
fc= = 7.9p7..n'
1870 and deflection.

134 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


5 The design of tank rcots - frxed

Purlin No. 2

2716 N 5886 N 2716 N

6.716 x 1d
Rb - 5659 N
4.471x 1o

The maximum bending moment is atthe centre of purlin and is:


M = (5659 x 1553) -(2716 x 763) = 6,716,119 Nmm
Tryusinga127xMR.S.C.
Zxx = 75.99 cm3
Purlin No. 1
lxx = 482.5 cm4
rYY = 1.88 cm
6128 N

It =1sa
tT-------T
I

Bending stress l< 1s53 mm j


l\, A 7.t A 110
fbc = +' "ij-j'rl--:
zn = 75,990 = 88.4 N/mm'?
Maximum bending moment

L 790 ., WL - --; --- -2.38


M= .4- = 6'128x1553 ^-- x t06 N /mm
r 18-8
Try using a 102 x 5'l R.S.C.
FromTable 3a -the allowable bending stress pbc is 180 N/mm,
The stress in the beam is acceptable.
Z xx = 40.89 cm3
I xx = 2l7.7cma
Check for deflection.
As the beam is loaded symmetrically, Mohr's area method will rW = 1.48 cm
be used to determine the maximum deflection in the beam. :n = 13.3
The deflection measured at Ra, from a tangent at the centre of t
the deflected beam is equal to:
Bending stress
The first moment of area of the bending moment diagram be-
tween Ra andthe centre ofthe beam, divided bythe modulusof ..
fbc =
M 2.38x'106
-jj: -^ -..,
-j:::i:- = 58.2 N/mm'z
=
elasticityand the second momentofarea ofthe beam section.

Of Delleclton
'lst m.o.a. of B.M.diao.(Ra
-\ to centre)/ L 776.5 -^
= :- r 18.3
1st m.o.a.: From Table3a-the allowable bending stress pbc is 180 N/mm"
The stress in the beam is acceptable.
7qo
A=;x4.471x 10' x 527 =93.1 x 1010 The deflection in the beam

_w.L3 _ 6128x1s533 _""--


B =763 x4.471 x106 x'1172 = 399.8 x 1010 48Et 48 x2O7,OOO x2O7.7 x'td - """"'
C='i:x2.245x1O8x1299 Allowable deflection is
z- ='111.3x1010
=/ .at mm
Total 'lst m.o.a. of B.M diag. 200
between Ra & C.L = 604.2 x 1010 N/mm, -
Hence the chosen beam size is acceptiable for the stress level
604'2x1010 and deflection.
Deflgct;sn= =6 1 mm
207,000 x482.5 x 1d Cross bracings
Allowable deflection is As mentioned eadier, the British Code requires that cross brac-
ing shallbe provided in the plane ofthis size of foof, to give the
3106
= 15.53 mt structure torsional stability. This bracing shall be in at least two
200 bays of the roof, between two pairs of adjacent rafters.
Hence the chosen beam size is acceptable for the stress level In practice, it has been found that designers have often pro-
and deflection. vided four sets of bracing in 30 metre diameter structures, as

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 135


5 The design of tank roofs - fixed

Figure 5.19 Exlernally-framed cone rooi type arangemeni

this has the advantage of giving added rigidity to the structure 5.5.2 Dome roofs
during the construction of the roof.
5.5.2.1 Radial rafter type
The selection of the section size for these bracings usually re-
lies on the experience ofthe individual designer because there This structure consists of a seies of curved radial steel beam
are no specific loads to work with. Hence the length ofthe brac- sections connected to the shell attheirouter end and to a centre
ing is considered with regard to the sag which is likely to occur crown ring at the centre of the tank. A series of circumferential
due to self-weight, and a suitable angle section is normally cho- rings provide lateral supportfor the beams and cross bracing in
sen against this criteria. the plane ofthe roof is provided in some bays to give the struc-
ture torsional stability. This type of roof can be used in all sizes
Forthe structure designed above a bracing angle section of 70 of tank and has an advantage over the truss type of structure
x 70 x 6 has been chosen. when dealing with tanks over say 50 metres in diameter where
the truss type structure becomes quite massive.
The weight of the finished structure can be calculated and in There is a further advantage because, unlike the truss type
this case it is found to be 24,300 kg. Adding the weight of the structure, the domed structure is completely clear ofthe stored
roof plating, 29,000 kg, to this gives a total of 53,300 kg or product. Also, if an internalfloating cover is to be installed in the
522713 N which gives a overall dead load of 739.5 N/mm" tank, there is no loss of tiank capacity
which equates favourably to the flgure of 740 N/mm' used for
One disadvantage is that this type of roof is not frangible and
oesrgn purposes.
therefore if frangibility is a desirable feature then it can not be
useo.
This concludes the design forthe trussed frame type structure.
Details ofthis type of structure and an illustration showing a roof
5.5.1.6 Externally-framed roofs under construction are given in Figures 5.21 and 5.22 respec-
tively.
This type of supporting structure consists of a series of radial
Figure 5.23 (8 pages, attheend ofthis Chapter, pages 144-
steel sections. The roof oetal plate sections are welded to the '151), provides a typicaldesign calculation forthistype ofstruc-
underside of the lower flange of each beam. The arrangement
ture, using a 39 metre diameter tank as the basis.
is shown in Figure 5.19.
There are also software packages available such as STMD or
The design calculation for this type of structure based on a 15 ANYSIS which enable the complete roof structure to be mod-
metre diameter tank is given in Figure 5.20. elled.

136 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


5 The design of tank rcofs - frxed

Tank diameter 15.00 m


'15.062 m (incl, curb o/lap)
Roofdiameter
Roofslope 1in? 5.00
RoofHeight 1.506 m
Roofslope Lengh 7.680 m
Shell toD course ftickness 6.00 mm
Roof overlap on to Curb angle 2500
O.D. of central horizontalplate of Cro\Mr ring. (min.=32 500.00 mm
O.D. of central horizontal plate to i.d. of Cro\MI upstand 341.0m mm +100mm, OK
O.D. ofconical Cro\Ml ring. 1757 mm
O.D. of Cro$n ring upsiand. 1189.00 mm
Minimum hdght of cruvm ring upstand - (can behigher) 1S1 mm
Max. depth of Rafter fxing bracket to suit selected Raft 161 mm
Thicloess of Raffer fixingbracket 1000 mm
Thicloess of Crown dating 10.00 mm
Flange width of Rafter (see below)76.20 mm
Space between toes of adjacent Rafrers at Cro$m 195.719 mm (>100mm, OK)
Rafter overlap on to cro{yn Ring (usually =>100 mm) 100 mm (>100mm, OK)
Gap between Rafter end & Croivn upstand (say 190 mm) 190 mm
Petal plate edge "overlap' ( from centre line of Rater ) 100 mm
Pdal plate edge 'underlap' ( from centre line of Rafter 50 mm

Section at radialjoint in Roof plate.

Underlap

Tan of RoofAngle 0.2000


Sin of RoofAflgle 0.1961
cos of RoofAngle 0.9806
RoofAngle Clheta)
'I 1 .310 degrces
Roofplate steelTlpe CS or SS ?
Roofplate Veld or'l% Proof Stress 275.m Nrtnm'?
Roqfplate design Stress = 2/3 x Yeld or'l% Prooi Stre 183.33
Roof Plate Thks. 5.00 mm
conosion Allo$ance on Roof plating. 0.00 mm
Roof Plate Design Thks. 5.00 mm
Weight of Roof Plating 69.290 kN unconoded
Weight of insulation 0.00 lN/m2
Weight due to InEllation 0.000 kN

No. of Beams 16.00


corosion alloiyance ofi each face of Rafier 0.000 mm
Total conosion allo$anc is therefore 0.000 mm
Unit tteight of Beams 23.82 kgitn unconoded
Weight of StructJre detailed above 25.738 kN
Weight of Cro\fin Ring 3.062 ldrl unconoded
Superimposed Load (normally 1.2d/inl 1.20 rdlr/m'?
Superimpo6ed Load 213.814 kt{
Total Load on Roof 'A 311.S04 kN
.,- P

Load per Rater 'Cf= Total Load/No. of Beams 19.494 KN


Vertical Load @ Roofcentre = 1/3 x 'Q' = 6.498 td{
Load dorvn axis of Rater = "P" = "Rb'/sin Theh 33.133 td!

Figure 5.20 Design calculation for extemally-framed cone roof type - page t

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 137


5 The design of tank rcofs - fixed

Try using a Rafter Section: 203 x 76 x 23.82 kg/m R.S.C.


The relevant properties ofthe unconoded Rafters are as follotrs :-
Depth ofSection 203.20 mm
Flange widh 76.24 mm
Flange hicl{|ess 11.200 mm
Weight of Rafter 23.820 kg ,/ m
Cross sectional Area 'A" Uncoroded propertie 30.34 cm2
Moment of Inertia ixx 1950.00 cmo
Elastic Modulus Zxx '192.00 cm3
Radus of Gyration Rxx 8.O2 cm
Ratio D/T 18.20
Length of Rater L6.884 m
Slendemess Ratio UR n(Beam restrained by roof plate) 85.8
Modulus of Elasticity'E" 207.000 kN/mm,
Max Bending Mnt. = BM =0.128x Qx L 17.177 kN.m
Max Bending Stress'frc" = BM /Z 89464 Nrtnm,
Max Compressive Stress ''fc" = P/A 10.921 N/mm,
Allo\aiable Bending Stress "pbc" {BS zt4g Tabtes 2 &3a)
'l5O.O N/mm,
Allo$able Comp. Stress "pc'(BS 449 Tabte 17a)
101.0 N/mm,
frcrhbc + ic,lpc must be =< 1.0 Actualvalue is :-- 0.705 ACCEPTABLE
Deiection = (0.013(Nx Qx L3) divided by ExI 20.54 mm
Allowable Deiection = L / 200 (BS 5950 : pt . Table 34.42 5)
ls Actual Deflection < Allowable Defection? ACCEPTABLE yES
Clsi,fl Rlng.

Efiedive regions of Ring = 16,a ', ' or,n" available dimnsion lvfiichever
is the smaller. "ctual
UPstand
=
'|60 mm
Inne. conical sec.tion = 160 mm
Outer conical sec-tion = 160 mm
Load on Cro\rn Ring 'P'= 33.133 kN
Sec'tion Modulus of Ring "Z= 174.811 cm'
C.S.A. of Ring 'A' = 4837.858 mm,
Radius of Crovyn Ring "R'= 594.500 mm
From "Roark sth Edltion Table 17-7
Angle bet$/een Rafrers = 2xa 22.500 oegrees
1t2 " 11.250
'llTheta = ( 360 / 2x Pi.x o() 5.093 radrans
1,lsin a= 5.126
1ftan c< = 5.027
F
Moment between Loads'P"= "Mo"=PxR/2(1/sin o( -1l.r) 323.761 kN.mm
Compression in Ring 'Ilo"= Pz(l/sin .() 84.918 kN.mm
MolZ= 't.852 N,/mm'? J
/A=
No 17.553 N,/mm'?
Total Compressive Stress Mo/z + No/A
= 19.405 Nlmm?
Allori/able Stress from earlier is N/mm'?
ls Total Comp.Stress < Allofable Stress ? YES ACCCEPTABLE
Moment under Load "P"= "Mi"= PxRz(l/c - l/tan ..) 646.273 kN.mm
Tension in Ring "Ni"= P/2(lltan .() 83.287 KN
MilZ= 3.697 N/rnm'?
Ni/A= 17.216 N/mm'?
Total Tensile Sfess Mi/Z + Ni /A = 20.913 N/mm'?
Allowable Stress ftom eariier is N/mm?
ls TotalTensile Stress < Allowable Stress ? YES ACCEPTABLE

THE ROOF AS DESIGNED IS THEREFORE ACCEPTED

Number ofplates required to cut Petal plates from is : - 8 OTF

FEi
Figure 5-20 Design calculation for extematty-fiamed cone roof type -page 2
Cot

,I38 STORAGE TANKS


& EQUIPMENT
$
$---_r
N+
'-_t\Jl--d-T

Ff

Part plan of roof framin9

section B-B
o6LilotentB ns

Figure 5.21 Details of rafler type dome roof

5.5.2.2 Externally-framed tYPe

This again consists ofa supporting structure composed ofa se-


ries of curved radial rafters. In this case the roof sheeting is at-
tached to the underside of the supporting rafters, This type of
arrangement is idealfor internally-lined or stainless steel tanks,
which can have a carbon steel external structure

The method of construction used here was to shop-fabricate


the sectors of roof plating with a radial beam alreadywelded to
each edge ofthe plate. The photograph shows the first four pet-
als in place and supported at the centre by a temporary klng
post. Every other petal plate sector was then lifted into position
and finally the gaps between the pre fabricated sectors were
plated in.

The design ofthis type of structure is similarto that ofthe inter-


nally domed structure but as the roof plates are welded to the
lowirflange of the radial rafters, the rafters are "tied" together
and hence there is no horizontial load transmitted to the shell
Figure 5.22 Radial rafter dome roof under construction
from the rafters and hence the reinforced curb angle arrange-
Counesy of Whessoe ment is not required.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 139


5 The design of tank rcofs - fixed

t-^

Figure 5.26 Completed externa yjramed dome rooftank


Couftesy of Whessoe

Figure 5.24 shows a typical arrangement for this type of roof.


The rafters are laterally restrained by the roof plating but it is
usual to weld web stiffening plates into the rafters as ihown in
Section A- A of Figure 5.24 and the length of L for determining
the slenderness ratio forthe rafters is taken as the qreatest un_
supported distance on the rafter.
Figure 5.25 shows the initialstage of construction ofthis tvoe of
roof on a 44 metre diameter tank. Figure 5.26 shows a'com_
pleted 90 m diameter tank roof.

I
,
Figure 5.24 Externatty-framed dome roof type arrangemenl

Figure 5.27 90 m oiameter inlerna yjramed do^re roof ulder construcLion

F gure.5.25 hilial stage ol constr ucr,o1 ot exlerna yJrameo oome root ot a T


Figure 5.28 90 m diameter interna y-framed dome roofcompteted and ready rl
Coulesy of McTay to be air-lifted (note the stabilisation cabtes aitached to the centre ofthe flo;)
o

140 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


5 The design of tank raofs - fixed

# b, .';.'a!.'

>

Figufe 5.32 33 nr diameler geodesic dome roof be ng built alongs de a tank


L

Figure 5.29 A 90 m d ameler roof being a r-lifted to the iop ofthe tank

t
tR

Fgure 5.30 A90 m diameter roofbeing secLfied nlo place


Figure 5 33 A 33 m diameier alumini!m geodesic dome rcof be ng tfied nro

Figure 5.34 A 33 m aluminium geodesjc dome roof n posiiion on ihe iank


Figurc 5.31 A 90 m diameter roof in ts fina postof and ready for \,r,etding io ready for lhe final periphera f ashings 1o be put inio ptace
the shell compression plale

5.5.3 Other types main rafters. In particular for very large diameters say above B0
metres, Reference 5.2 should be consulted.
There are a number of methods available for designing domed
roofs and in some instances the circumferential rings are For ease of constfuction, these very large diameter roofs are of-
deemed to take tensile loads, thus decreasing the load in the ten constructed inside the shell on the floor of the tank, see Fig-

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 141


5 The design oftank rcofs - fixed

ures 5.26, and then lifted to the top of the tank under air pres- T(
sure. The small gap between the rim ofthe completed roofand S'
the shellis sealedwith a temporary flexible membrane which is rJ
secured to the roof rim. The pressure underthe roofwhich is re-
quired to Iift it is surprisingly small. cl
Take a 90 m diameter roof having an all-up weight of 620 oJ

tonnes. The pressure equalling this weightoverthe area ofthe t"


tank is equivalent to 9.6 mbar and this pressure can be deliv- T
ered by large volume fans attached to the shell manholes. The I
roof is stabilised during its ascent by cables attached to the floor p
which pass through the crown ofthe roof and across the outer
F
surface to sheaves at the rim, finally these cables are anchored
at points above the rim ofthe shell. Figures 5.27, 5.29, 5.30 and
lr
S
5.3'1 show a 90 m diameter roof constructed and lifted in this
way. F
5.5.3.1 Geodesic dome roofs s
This type of roof is a fully triangulated, spherical, space frame
F
structure, generally designed to be self-supporting from its pe-
ripherywith an integral peripheral tension ring to take the hod- e
n
zontalforces. They are usually constructed in reinforced plastic
d
or aluminium, Figure 5.32to 5.34showa 33 m diameterroof of
c
this type under construction and being lifred into position.
They are particularly suited to water and wastewater applica- I
a
tions where theircorrosion resistant properties are a distinct ad- Figure 5.36 Column-supported cone roof lanks under construction
vantage, also these relatively lightweight structures lend them- Courtesv of Whessoe
selves to being retrofitted to existing tanks for the coniainment
of vapour, gasses and odours, as they can be erected along-
side a tank and lifted into position in one piece.
They are also used in the petrochemical industry again for the
containment of vapours or as weatherproof covers for floating
roof tanks containing moisture sensitive producb.

5.6 Golumn-supported roofs


As an alternative to providing a structure which is supported
only by the tank shell, the column-supported roof introduces a
series of vertical supporting columns. These are arranged in a
series of circumferential rings around a slngle centre 60lumn.
The rings of columns are circumferentially linked by girders
which in turn support radial rafters on which the roof plating is
laid. lt is usual to adopt a shallow conical shape (1 in 16) and in
theory there is no limit to the size ofthe tank roofwhich can be
constructed in this way and it is reported that a tank of 110
metres in diameter has been built.

Figure 5.37 Completed column-suppoded roof structure

The conshuction of this type of roof is shown in Figures 5.35,


5.36 and 5.37.

Clearly, careful thought has to be given in cases where there is


a possibilitythat the tankfoundation may be prone to differential
settlementdue to poor soil conditions, which can result in differ-
ential settlement of the columns, thus causing undesirable in-
crease stresses in the roof members and their connections.

Consideration has to be given to the possibility oflateral loading


ofthe columns due to the motion ofthe stored product when de-
signing for a seismic condition. The column bases should, un-
der all conditions, be restrained in position on the tankfloor. The
bases should not be attached to thefloor butshall be prevented
from moving bywelding angle cleats to the floorat the edges of
the column bases.

Figure 5.37 shows the rafters projecting beyond the support


Figure 5.35 Column-suppoded roof tanks underconsl.uction
beams, this is done to ensure that the maximum allowed spac-
Cawlesy of MB Engineering Services Ltd ing of 1.7m (5.5 ft) between the rafrers is mainiained.

142 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


t.:il-'= -'=- jt
.

value for its radius of gyration but there is cie- re *::3-:: :: -:-
To provide torsional stability in the plane of the roof it is neces- la--
inq tubes because of the possibil ty of lnternal corrcs 3i
sarv to orovide cross bracing in at least two bays of the struc- tubes are often mo:e e:-
aq-e which cannot be detected, also
ture for ioofs exceeding 15m in diameter. These seis of bracing
p6nsive than other sections or combination of sections
should be spaced evenly around the tank circumference The
bracings are normally thin flat tie bars welded to the top flanges
ofthe iafters ormay be tie rods connected between the webs of
the rafters.
The shallow roof slope makes this type of roof unsuitable for in-
ternal pressures much in excess of the self-weight of the roof
plating itself (usually 4 mbar).
For column-supported roof structures which are designed to
the British Code then the recommendations of the Structural
Steel Code BS 449 shall aPPIY
For tanks designed to the American Code then the applicable
Structural Steel Codes which apply to the country in which the
tank is being built shall aPPIY il t[_|]
II

Fortanks which are built in America the AISC Code, (see Refer-
ence 5.3), shall be used together with the overriding require-
mentsof API 650 given in the Code, clause3 10 3 3 forslen-
ll l[-Lr
)l

derness ratios and clause 3 10.3 4, for the allowable


comoression in columns. Figure 5.38 Examples ofothet sections used for columns in column_supponeo

The design of column-supported roofs is fairly straightfoMard


and may be aPProached as follows: Other sectionswhich have been usedareshownin Figure5 38'
a) Solit uo the area of the roof and apportion the resulting
loads io the individual radial rafrers These rafters are
treated as simply supported beams with a U.D.L' 5.7 References
D) The qirders connecting the tops of the columns together 5.1 Structurat stabitity of the tank-code requiremenls, Pro-
take the point loads from the radial rafters, remembering fessor A.S. Tooth, Department of Mechanical Engineer-
that the girders support half the load from an inner ring of ing, University of Strathclyde
rafters, ilus half tfre load from an outer ring of rafters 5.2. Adesign philosophyfor large storage tank braced d-ome
Again the girders are considered as simply supported roofs,-The Structural Engineer, G. Thompson, G K'
beams with multi-Point loads Schleyer and Prof. A S. Tooth, 1987.
Half the load from each ofthe two adjacent girders in a cir-
5.3 Sgecifrcation for Structurat Steel Buildings Manual of
cumferential ring is carried by the connected column and Siee/ Construction, Atlowabte Sfress Design The
the design of the columns is subject to ihe applicable American lnsiitute of Steel Construction (AISC), (Noie
Structural Steel design Code.
that Chapter'N' on the use of plastic design in Part 5 A/-
/owable Stress Deslgn of this latter Specification is spe-
5.6.1 Golumn selection cifically not allowed )

The selection of the type of column section to be used excites


5.3 SteelPtate EngineeingDataSeries, Useful Information
- Design of Pt;te Structurcs, Volume Il , American lron &
the imagination inasmuch as the columns are usually quite tall Steel Institute (AlSl)
and herice the minimum radius of gyration through any axis of
the column must be as largeas possible in ordertoarrive at the 5.5 Minimum design loads for Buildings and other Struc-
oreatestvalue obtainable for Ur. The obvious answer ls to use tures, American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) -
Sandard 7-93.
i tubular section for the columns, which of course has only one

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 143


5 The design of tank roofs - lixed

Design for the radial Rafters of a Domed roof.


Design Codes :- BS 449
A.P.t.650 (A.P.l. 650 does not give all ofthe specific requirements for
Supported Dome or Umbrella Roofs therefore the guidance
given in Clause 3.10.2.7. applies to this design.)
Desiqn of Roof in the conoded condition.
lMate rial Specifi cation 305 x 165 x 40# Universal Beam to 8.S.4. in BS En 10025 5275 Material
Tank mean Diameter D 39m
Tank Height H 22^
Dome Roof Diameter DL 39
Dome Roof Radius RR 58.5 m. RR/DL= l.bo
OK
Numberof Rafters NMR 44
Super. load 1.2 ld{/rn"
Rafter \,\ight 31 kg/m
Roof plate thickness 5mm
Roof plate conosion allowance 0mm
Other uniform roofload purlins 0.031 lN/rf
Crown ring kN 4.65 0.004 kN/m,
Design load for roof TL 1.86 kN/nf
Radius to inner end of Rafte RU 1250 mm
Dia. to innerend of Rafter RD 2500 mm
into
For lateral restraint the Rafter is split 5 sections byfitting Purlins. (Actuallythere are
6 sections, but the outer one is not at the same
Dome Roof Desiqn spacing as the others therefore is ignored here.)

1. Determine load applied by the structure Crown Ring.


PCL = RDr. pi . TL
4 . NIVR
:
Where RD = Diameter of Crown Ring. ( 2 x RU )
TL = Roof loading.
NMR = Number of main Rafters.

2. Determine geometery of any section.

RL = Rad. at outer end of Rafter


RU= " "inner "
RR = Rad. of dome.

Fl = Angle subtended by RU Arcsine ( RU / RR )


F2 = Angle subtended by RL Arcsine ( RL / RR )
F3 = Angle subtended by section F2 - F1
F4= Rise in height of section {( 1 -cosF2) -( 1 -cos Ft )}. RR
Arc = Arc length RL to F4 F3 . RR

Figure 5.23 Design clculation for .adiat rafter dome roof type - page .t

144 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


5 The design of tank rcofs - frxed

-.- 3. Load on Rafier6ection.

HTT
T_I
f
,,-^
nrF( +
|
=L

Where :

HTR = RU.2.pi.TL I

NMR
HTT = (RL- RU.2.pi.TL
NMR

4. Reactions at lo rer end of Rafter section.

Horizontal Reac{ion.
UTH = t( HTR. ( RL - RU )'? / 2+( HTT. ( RL - RU )2/6 + PcL. ( RL - RU ) ] /F4

Vertical Reaction.
VTH = HTR . ( RL - RU )+(HTT. ( RL - RU) ) / 2 + PcL

5. Calculations at 50 No. intervals

XN = Present arc dislance from upper end of section.


F7=XN/RR
HD = Horizontal distance. { sin ( F1+F7 ).RR } - RU
F8 = Vertical distance at poir{ ( 1 - cos ( F1+F7 ) ) - ( 1 - cos F1 ) } . RR

6. Bending moment at the above intervals.


BM1 = -HTH,F8 THTT. HF+HTR HD2TPCL.HD
(RL-RU)r 2

7. Shear force at above intervals.


F10 = Vertical load at any point considered.
= HTT. HEF+ HTR. HD+ PCL
(RL-RU).2
SF= Shear load at point considered.
= F10. cos ( F1+F7 ) r(- HTH. sin ( F1+F7 ))

L Compression at above intervals.


@M = F10. sin (F1+F7 )+ HTH. cos(F1 + v)
9. Stress at above intervals.
f c= - COM /Area of Rafter
fb=
BM /Z of Rafter
Stress in topflange = f c+ f b
Stress in bottom flange = fc-fb

Figu 5.23 Design caldlation for radial rafter dome roof type - page 2

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 145


5 The design of tank roofs - fixed

Design calculations.
L PCL = 0.2075058 kN

=
Fl 0.0213691 Rads.
=
F2 0.3398369 Rads.
=
F3 0.3184678 Rads.
=
F4 3.3323148 m
ARC = 18.630364 m

HTR= 0.3320092 kN/m


HTT= 4.8473347 kN/m

4. =
HTH 98.476427 kN ( Horiz. load at shett )
=
WH 50.498603 kN ( Vert. load at shell )

5. XN = 0.3726073 m ( inteNals at which calcs. are made along the Rafter.)

Depth mm lwdth mm lvvt. kg/m


lSect type
Beam section to be used forthe Rafter :- 3OS | 165
| 40 u.B.|
(356 x 171 x 51 lg/m with a 1 mm c.a. off each face.)
Properties of Rafter :- c.s.a.= 51.5 cm2 In< 8523 cm4
ZKX.= 581.2 cms I yy ' 763 cma
EYT= 29.9 ryy 3.85 cm
lsthe Rafter vvelded to the Roof plating ? NO ( i.e. Internal or extemal structure ? )
Purlin Section size is :- 90 x 90 x 10 R.S.A.
Thickness of Roof plating 5mm
Roof plating con. allowance 0mm
Roof plating design thicl(|es 5mm

Properties of Rafter incl platr c.s.a.= 67.75 cm2 | >u 11491.00 cma
( For extemal structures onl) Zxx= 605.82 cm3 D/T= 29.9
(yy 5.69 cm
For this case :-
Use bare Rafter properties only
c.s.a.= 51.5 cm2 | )o( 8523.00 cma
Z:rx= 561.20 cm3 D/T= ZY,J
tyY ?AE am
The value of '/ to be used is I yy = 3.85 cm ( for lateral restraint for the Beam )

Figur 5.23 DEsign calcullion for radlal lafier dom6 roof typ- page 3

146 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


5 The design a: ia" 'aa': '':-

Cfoss sectional area = 5150 mm, Zr.( . 561200 mm. D/T= 29.9
Relevant value for'ryy'. 38.50 mm
Arc lenglh of Rafter = 18.630 m Calculations made at t- 50 intervals atonq Rafter

XN HD BM SF col\rl P fc fb Top Btm


arc (m) {kN.m) (kN) tkN) (N/mm') lN/n1m') lN/mm2) (N/mrn'?)
1 0.373 o.3/2 -0.798 -2.382 98 448 -19.116 -1 422 -20.539 -11.694
2 0.7 45 o.745 -1.770 -2.830 98.437 -19.114 -22.269 -15.959
3 1.118 1.117 -2.943 -3.241 98.426 -19.112 -5.172 -24.284 -13.940
4 1.490 1.490 ,4.181 -3.616 98.4'i5 -19 110 -7.451 -26.560 -'11.659
5 1 863 '1.862 -5.593 -3.954 98.405 -19 108 -9.966 -29.47 4 -9.142
6 2.236 2.234 98.398 ,19.'106 -12 693 -31.799 -6.413
7 2.608 -8.759 -4 520 98.392 -19.'105 -15 608 u.714 -3.497
8 2 981 2.977 -10.487 -4.7 49 98.390 -19 105 -18.688 -37.793 -o.417
I 3.353 3.349 -12.294 -4.941 98.392 -19.105 -21.907 -41.012 2.801
10 3.720 -14.165 -5.098 98.399 -19.107 -25.241 -44.348 6.135
11 4.099 4.091 -'16.088 -5.218 98.411 -19.109 -28.668 9.559
12 4.471 4.462 -'18.050 -5.303 98.429 -19.112 -32.163 ,51.275 13.050
13 4.444 4.833 -20.036 -5.352 98.454 -19117 -35.702 -54.819 '16.585
14 5.217 5.203 -22.034 98.486 -19.123 -39.262 -58.386 20.'139
15 5.589 5.574 -24.031 ,5 345 98.525 -19.131 -42.824 -61 951 23.689
16 5.962 5.944 -26.O13 -5 289 98 574 19.141 -46 353 65.493 27.212
17 6.313 -27.968 -5 199 98.632 -19 152 -49.836 -68.988 30.684
18 6.707 6.683 -29.883 -5 074 98.700 -1S.165 -53.248 -72.413 34.083
19 7.080 7.052 -31.745 -4.915 98.779 -19.180 -56.566 -75.746 37.386
20 7.452 7.420 -33.541 -4.722 98.868 -19 198 -59.767 -78.965 4A.570
21 7.825 7.7AA -35.260 -4.496 98.970 -19 218 -62.829 -42.o47 43.612
22 8.197 8.'156 -36.888 -4.237 99.084 -19.240 -65.730 -u.970 46.490
23 8.570 L524 38.413 -3.945 99.212 -19.264 -68.448 -87 712 49.183
8.943 8.891 -39.823 -3.620 99.353 -19.292 ,70.961 -x.253 51.669
25 9.315 9.258 -41.107 99.509 -19.322 -73.248 -92.570 53.926
26 9.688 L624 -42.251 -2.875 99.679 -'19.355 -75 287 -94.643 55.932
27 10.060 9.990 -43.245 -2.455 99.865 -'19.39'1 -77.055 -96.450 57.667
28 '10.433 10.356 -44.O77 -2.005 100.068 -19.431 -78.541 -97.971 59.110
10.806 10.721 -44.735 -1.523 1AO.287 -19.473 -79.714 -99.187 60.241
30 11.178 11 085 -45.249 -1 012 100.523 -19.519 -80.557 100.076 61.038
'1
1.551 11.449 -45.486 -0.471 140.777 19.568 -81.051 '100.6'19 6'1.483
11.923 11.812 -45.556
:: 12.296 12.175 -45.408
0.099
0.698
101 050
101 341
19.621
-19.678
-81.176
-80.913
100.797
100 591
61.555
61.235
34 12.669 12.538 -45.432 1.325 101.653 -19.738 80.243 -99.981 60.505
'i3.041 12.900 -44.417 1 981 10'1.984 -19 803 -98.950 59.344
;;l 13.414 13.261 -43.553 2 663 102 335 -19 871 -71 607 -97.478 57.736
13.746 13.622 -42.429 3.372 102.708 -19.943 -75.605 -95 548 55.662
ill 14.'159 13.982 -41.037 4.104 103.102 -20 020 -73.123 -93.143 53.103
14.532 14.341 -39 36s 4.869 '103.518 -24.101 -70.145 -90.245 50 044
131 14.904 14.704 -37.405 5.656 103.S57 -20.186 -66 652 -86 838 46.466
15.277 15.058 -35.147 6.467 104.419 -20.275 -62.629 -82.904 42.?83
15.650 15.416 -32 583 7 3A2 104.904 :20.370 -58 059 -78.429 37.639
iA 16.O22 15.772 -29.743 8.'161 105.413 :20.468 -52.927 -73.395 32.458
441 '16.395 16.128 -26.498 9.043 '105.946 :20.572 -47.216 -67.788 26.644
16.767 16.484 -22.960 9.948 '106.504 -20.680 -40.9'i3 -6'1.593 20 233
17.144 16.839 -19.082 10.874 107.087 -20.794 -34.OO2 -54.795 13.204
lil 17.513 17.193 -14.854 11.822 107.695 -20.912 -26.469 -47.380 5.557
481 17.885 17.546 -10.270 12.79Q 108.329 -21.035 -'18.300 ,39.334 -2.735
18.258 17.89e -5.321 13.778 108.990 -21.163 -9.481 -30.644 .11.682
;:l 18.630 18.250 0.000 14 745 149.677 -21297 0.000 -21.297 .r1?97

lvlaximum values are r - 109 677 21.297 81 176


Comp kN fc N/mm, tb N/mm,
Compare max. bending stresses against allowable to BS 449.
The Rafter is not welded to the roof plaiing, therefore the relevant value
of'ryy' is to be used based upon the effective lenglh between purlins.
Lengtfi of Raftef Lr = 18.360 m.
lheBeam is split irto- 5 sections by web stiffene.s or pudins
LS= L
L= 3.726 n
Ur= 97
Dfi = 29.9

Figure 5.23 Design calculation for radialraftef domercof type page4

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 147


5 The design of tank roofs - fixed

Table 17a of BS if49 86 N/mm2


Table 3a oi BS 449 127 ll/mm2
Actual comp've. stress 21.297 Nlmm2
Actual bend'g stress tbc = 8'1.176 N/mm'?
fc/Pc+ fbc / pbc = 0.89 < '1, oK

10. Crown Ring design


From Roark sth edition Table 17 Ref. No. 7

Angle between Rafters 0.143 rads.


1/2 angla between Rafters 0"071 rads.
14.006
14.O18
'lltan - = 13.982

Selection of Crcwn Rino properties


Enter requirements Y or N
From Sheet'B' of this Prog.
From another source (give details):

Properties of Channel:
Size: 305 x '102 x l--ToTe--ltsrm
58.83 cm'
499.50 cm"
2.66 cm

Areas: Channel 58.83


Plate rings 72.00
Total
---JE6t6?",,

1st m.o.a. from back of Channel:


Channel 156.49
Plate rings 936.00
Total 1092.49 cm3

Weight of Crown dng = 332.69 kg Channel + 141.3 kg Top & Btm plates
473.99 kg which is 4.65 kN

Position of centroid of section = 1092.49 8.35 cm


130.83

Figure 5.23 Design calculation for radial rafrer dome roof Vpe - page 5

148 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


5 The design of bnk o& - M

2nd m.o,a. about cer*roid of section:


Channel 2404.479 cma

l ggfurPlate B'D3= 1728 c'na


12

1 yy for plaie 2506,263 x 2 -' 5012.527 cm-

Totafznd m.o.a. = 2404.48 + 5012.59 = 7417 o1 cma

Y max = 16.65 cm
y mrn, = 8-35 cm

zw= 7417.01 - 4,L5.48 cm3


16.65

Cross sactional area A = 130.830 cm2


Section modulus Z = ,145.480 cm3
Total weight W = 474.0 kg or = 4_65 kN
Horizontal load = HTH = H = 98.476 kN

BM between loads on Ring = Mo = HxW2 (l/sin * - 1(1/- )= 732.853 kN.mm


Compression in Ring is = No = H/2 (l/sin e ) = 690.199 kN
MolZ= 2.086 5.602 N/mm'z
No/A = 15.493 Nlmmz
Total comp. stress in Ring = Mc/Z + No/A = 21.095 lvmmz
Allowable siress to BS ,149 = 180.000 N/mm'?
ls the actual sfess in the Ring acceptable? YES

BM at loads on Ring = Mi=HxFY2(1/--1^ane)= 1465.332 kN.m


Tension in ring is = Ni = H/2 (1/tane) = 688.440 kN
MilZ= 11-2OO N/mm'?
Ni/A = 15.454 N/mm2
Total tensile stress in Ring = Mi/Z + Ni/A = 26.654 N/mm'?
Allowable stress lo BS 449 = 180.000 N/mmz
ls the actual stress in the Ring acceplable? YES

Deflections in the Rino due to load from Rafters


Radial displacment al easi load point = Hx R3 lllsin*2 (n- + 'll2.sincos.e) - 1/-l
2xE xl
1/sin*2 = 196.491
1126= 0.0357
1/2.sin*.cos* = 0.036
14.006
E= 207000 N/mm2
6104.4 cma

Figure 5.23 Design calculalion for Edial raftr dome roof type- page 6

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 149


5 The design of tank roofs - fixed

Radial displacement at each load ooint = 0.000062 mm (inwards)


Acceptable disolacement = Length between loads/200 0.892 mm
ls displacement acceptable? yES

Radial displacement between each load point = Hx R3 [2/- - l/sin* -[* x (cos-/sin*'?)
4xExl
Z*= 28.O1'l
COSE = 0.997
sin*2 = 0.005
* x (cos*/sin*2) = 13.994

Radial displacement between each load point = 0.000054 mm (outwards)


ls displacement acceptable? yES

Ibedesiorufthe is-acceplQd

In the above design method, the main rafters are deemed to cany all the loadings and the
circumferential rings are there to give lateral support to the rafters but they do not iake any
appreciable load. This means that the rafters exert an appreciable horizontal load at their
attachment point to the shell and the top ofthe shell must be reinforced to take this load.
From the above calculation this load is seen to be HTH at 98.47 kN and the necessary
reinforcement in this case is provided by a double angle arrangement which is designed
as follows:

Desion of a Rino. fcurb Ano iEnace


Desion based on Roa

Try two angles forming a box section 2OO t 2ao

200 x 200 x 24 R.S.A. and a 120 x 120 x 12 R.S.A.

'B'
120 r 120 x 12 RS.A

Number of equispaced loads acting on the Ring. 44


Horizontal Load on Crown Ring HTH = "H" = 98.476 kN (from Sht. 'A')
Radius of Ring "R" = 19500 mm
C.S.A of Ring '4" = 9660 mm2
Moment of Inertia of Ring "1" 3421.227 cm4
Section of Modulus of Ring "2" = 262.494 cm3

Figure 5.23 Design calculation for radial rafter dome roof tpe - page 7

150 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


5 The des-go af tat r "aEia -
"ea

From "Roark sth Edition Table 17-7


Angle between Rafters = 2 x
= 8.18'1818 degrees
= 4.090909 degrees
1/2 Angle between Rafters = e
1/Theta = (360/2xPi.x
' *) = 14.00563 radians
'llsin-= 14.01754
1/tan * = 13.98183
Moment between Loads "H" = "Mo" = H x R/2(1/sin *1/*) = 11432.5 kN.mm
Tension in Ring "No" = H/2(1/sin-) = 690.1987 kN.mm
MolZ= 43.55336 N/mm'?
NoiA = 71.44914 N/mm2
TotalTension Stress Mo/Z + No/A = I15.0025 N/mm'z
Allowable Stress from BS 449 is: 180 Nimm2
ls Total Tensile Str"ess < Allowable Stress? YES ACCEPTABLE
Moment under Load "H" = "Mi" = H x R/2( l/* - 1/tan*) 22859.17 kN.mm
Compression in Ring "Ni" = H/2(1/tan*) 688.,1402 kN
MitZ= 87.08452 N/mm'
Ni/A = 71.2671 N/mm?
Total ComDrehensive Stfess Mi/Z + Ni/A = 158.3516 N/mm'?
Allowable Stress from BS 449 is: 180 N/mm2
ls Total Comorehensive Stress < Allowable Stress? YES ACCEPTABLE

Deflections in the Rinq due to load from Rafrers

Radial displacement at each load point =

Hx R3 lllsin2*(112* +'1l2.sin,.cos.*) - 1/*l


2xExl
=
1/sin*2 196.4915
112*= 0.0357
1/2.sin-cos.(= 0.035579
1l- = 14.00563
E = 207000 N/mm2
| = 342'1.227 cma

Radial displacement at each load point = 0.417 mm (outwards)


Acceptable displacment = Length between Loads/200 = 13.923 mm
ls displacement acceptable? YES

Radial displacement between each load point =


Hx R3 [2/* - l/sin* - [* x(6os -/sin -'?)]l
4xExl
2l* = 28.01127
1/sin *= 14.01754
=
cos- 0.997452
sin*z = 0.005089
e x (cos* /sin42) = 13.99371

Radial displacemnt betvveen each load point =


0.365265 mm (inwards)
ls displacement acceptable? YES

fte-desiotr otube Rinqis-accep d

Figure 5.23 Design calculation for radialEfter dome roof type - page I

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 151


152 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
6 The design of tank roofs - floating

A floating roof greatly reduces vapour losses due to changes in climatic conditions and during
tank filling operations. These losses are particularly significant where volatile organic
compounds are stored in tanks which are subject to high filling and emptying cycles. The two
types of floating roofs are discussed: the externalfloating roof and the internal floating roof and
variations on these. A review offloating roof accessories or equipment is made and examples oi
many appurtenances given.

Contents:
6.1 lntroduction
6.2 The principal of the floating roof
6.3 External floating roofs
6.3.1 Types of external floating roof
6.3.1.1 Single-deck pontoon type
6.3.1.2 Double-deck type
6.3.2 Other types of floating roof
6.3.2.1 BlPN,l roof
6.3.2.2 Buoy roof
6.3.3 Floating roof design example
6.4 Internal floating roofs
6.4.1 Types of internal floating roofs
6.4.1.1 Pan roof
6.4.1.2 Honeycomb roof
6.4.1.3 Pontoon and skin roof
6.5 External floating roof appurtenances
6.5. 1 Roof support legs
6.5.2 Guide pole
6.5.3 Roof seals
6.5.3.1 lvlechanical seals
6.5.3.2 Liquid-filled fabric seal
6.5.3.3 Resilient foam-filled seal
6.5.3.4 Compression plate type seals
6.5.4 Rim vents
6.5.5 Drain plugs
6.5.6 Fire fighting
6.5.6.1 Rim fire detection
6.5.7 Roof drains
6.5.7.1 Articulated piping system
6.5.7.2 Armoured flexible hose
6.5.7-3 Helical flexible hose
6.5.7-4 Drain design Codes
6.5.7-5 "The man who drained the floating roofs"
6.5.8 Syphon drains
6.5.9 Emergency drains
6.5.10 Bleeder vents
6.5.11 The gaugers platform
6.5.12 Rolling ladder
6.5.13 Deck manholes
6.5.14 Pontoon manholes
6.5.15 Sample/dip hatch
6.5.16 Foam dam
6.5. 1 7 Electrical continuity

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 153


rdF
6 The design oftank roofs - floating

6.1 Introduction
The realisation that a great deal of product was being lost by Air in
evaporation from fixed roof petroleum tanks lead research into
developing a roof which floated directly on the surface of the o)
product thus reducing these evaporation losses.
The development ofthis technology began shortly after the first
World War by Chicago Bridge & lron Company (CB & l), which
undertook full scale floating roof fire tests in the presence of o-
prominent leaders in the petroleum and insurance industries to
convince them that storing volatile products in floating roof 6.:
tanks was a viable proposition. Night
TT
A series of tests were carried out in 1923, see Figure 6.1, Breathino losses
'Dt
wherebygasoline was poured on to a floating roof and its seals lnl
and flttings, and was then ignited. The fire was readily extin- Vapour olt Air in m
guished without damage to tank or its contents ofgasoline, see
to
Figure 6.2. The original CB & | floating roofdesigns, and some
TI
variant of them, have been in regular use ever since.
TI
et
fn

ts'
h
lmpod Export lf
lmport / Export losses
d

Figure 6.3 The loss mechan;sms experienced in fxed rooflanks

6.2 The principal of the floating roof


The floating roof is a circular steel structure which is provided
Figure 6.1 CB & I Floaling Rooffire test in 1923 with built-in buoyancy allowing it to float on top of the stored
Coutlesy of product in a closed or open top tank. Due to the limits of accu-
racy in constructing large circular structures, the overalldiame-
ter of the floating roof is generally about 400 mm smaller than
the inside tank diameter thus allowing it to rise and fall on the
product without binding on the tank shell, ratherlike a piston ina
cylinder The gap between the outer rim ofthe roof and the in-
side of the tank shell is closed by means of a flexible sealing
system, of which there are many types available and these are
discussed later in Section 6.5. The sealalso serves to central-
ise the oosition of the roof in the tank.
There are two types of floating rooi
a) The external floating roof, where the roof sits on the
product in an open top tank and the roof is open to the ele-
ments.
b) The internal floating roof where the roof floats on the
product in a fixed rooftank. The roof and product in this ar-
rangement are protected from the ingress of rain and
snowand alsofrom the efiectofwind. Thistype of roof, be-
ing protected from the elements, is usuallyof much lighter
Figure 6.2 CB & | Floating Roof fire lesl for invited audience of peiroleum in- construction.
dustry leaders hats compulsory |
-
6.3 External floating roofs
The use of a floating roof also greatly reduces vapour losses
due to changes in climatic conditions and during tank filling op- The single-deck pontoon type and the double-deck type of roof
erations. These losses are particularlysignificantwherevolatile are the most commonly used type of designs, although there
organic compounds are stored in tanks which are subject to are other varianls available.
high filling and emptying cycles.
The design rules laid down in API 650, BS 2654 and the pro-
posed European Code prEN '14015-1 are essentially the same
and these are:
Figure 6.3 illustrates very simplistically the loss mechanisms a) The roof design shall be such that the roof will remain
experienced in fixed roof bnks. afloat on a product of specific gravity of 0.7 with two adja-

154 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


6 The design of tank roofs - floating

cent pontoon compartments punctured (additionally for is of much heavier construction (and hence more expensive)
the single-deck pontoon type roof only, that the centre butthis more rigid design allows better drainage from the top of
deck is also Dunctured). the roof, which usually has a minimum slope of 1:64 and the
b) The roof design shall be such that the roof will remain lower membrane is more likelyto stay in contactwith the stored
afloat on a product of speciflc gravity of 0.7 carrying a load product and hence there is less likelihood ofstatic vapour pock-
of 250 mm of rainfall overthe entire roof area with the pri- ets forming under the roof. Also, the air gap between the upper
mary roof drain considered inoperative. and lower plates has a insulating effect against solar heat
reaching the stored product which can be advantiageous when
6.3.'l Types of external floating roof storing volatile products in hot climates.
The rigidity ofthis type of roof mainly (although not completely)
6.3.1.1 Singledeck pontoon type overcomes wind-excited cracking problems.
This type of roof, illustrated in Figure 6.4, derives its principal This type of roof is favoured for small tanks under, say 10
buoyancyfrom a outer annular pontoon which is divided radially metres in diameter, where ifthe single-deck pontoon type were
into liquid tight compartments. The centre deck is formed by a used, would only leave a very small centre deck area. lt is also
membrane of steel plates lap welded together (usually on the used for tanks above, say 65 metres in diameter, where the
top side only) and connected to the inner rim of the pontoons. more rigid construction mainly eliminates the drainage, under-
This centre deck is normally 5 mm ot %6" lhick. deck corrosion and deck cracking problems. The double-deck
roof has more buoyancy available compared with the sin-
This type of roof is used in tanks up to about 65 metres in diam- gle-deck type which is advantageous in satisfying the design
eter. Roofs that are larger than this have been known to suffer requirement in a) above, especially for large diameter roofs.
from wind-excited fatigue which can cause cracking in the
welded joints ofthe centre deck. (Attempts to prevent this by in- Figure 6.6 shows a double-deck floating roof under construc-
troducing stiffening on the underside ofthe deck has not always tion. The bottom deck has been laid, the circumferential and ra-
been entirely successful.) Also, because of the flexibility of a dial bulkheads fitted and the top deck stiffeners are in place
large centre deck, the naturalrise in the deckwhen floating can ready to receive the top deck plating
make drainage of rainwater from the deck a problem. Vapour
can also become trapped in the space thus formed under the
deck. which can oromote corrosion in this area.

Figure 6.6 Adouble-deck floating roofunder construction


Couiesy of McTay
Figure 6.4 Single-deck ponloon type rcof
Courtesy of Whessoe
6.3.2 Other types of floating roof
6.3.1.2 Double-deck type
This type of roof, shown in Figure 6.5, consists ofan upperand 6.3.2.1 BIPM roof
lower steel membrane (usually in smm plate) separated by a
The BIPM type of roof designed by Shell, the Netherlands, con-
series of circumferential bulkheads which are subdivided by ra-
sists of both annular pontoons and radial box girders which of-
dial bulkheads. The outer ring of the compartments so formed
fer additional buoyancy for the punctured condition. These box
are the main liquid tight buoyancyiorthe roof. This type of roof girders also stiffen the centre deck membrane. The design is il
lustrated in Figure 6.7.
This design was an attempt to prod uce a floating roofwhich was
stiffer than the single-deck pontoon type without incurring the
cost and weightpenalties associated withthe double-deck roof.
The reason for this initiative was in the main associated with the
need to produce an economic roof with good resistance to wind
induced fatigue problems. In this respect the design was suc-
cessful. However, other problems bedevilled this design as the
radial ribs were prone to buckling in service, which was thought
to be related to:
. The initial periphery to centre construction preset.
. Foundation settlement giving uneven support to the roof in
the landed condition.
Figure 6.5 Double-deck type roof
CouTesy of Whessoe . Changes in the stored product specific gravity.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 155


'lffi'l
6 The design of tank roofs - floating

and poor quality. The buoy roof allowed an increased leve :.


shop fabrication which was helpful in controlling quality, tir=
and cost. lt was usual to arrange for shop-fabricated uniis co --
sisting of the buoy, the supporting teg and the singte-deck ir_
mediately surrounding the buoy to be supplied to site whe.=
only the closing seams were required to be completed.
This design suffered from problems with wind-excited fatioL:
cracking. particularly around the buoy units where the stitfnes:
of the buoy and the deck were very different. Also problemai :
was the draining of rainwater because the majority ofthe cenlr:
deck floated flat and consequenflythere was no naturalslope i:
the drainage sumps. Rain would accumulate on the roof awa.
from the drains, this then caused low points attracting more rai:
which formed non-draining ponds on the roof. In some cases
drainage channels were fabricated into ihe roofin an attemDt tc
alleviate the problem but this added more weight to the ioo.
t oVo" ot|'o"t of both annular ponloons and radial box which was undesirable.
!ilog;"u "onsisting
Counesy af Whessae
A typical buoy roof is shown in Figure 6.8. lt is a 96 m diamete.
roof at the Phillips Seal Sands Facility for crude oil storage.
The resulting buckling of the ribs led to numerous failures in
service and the use ofthis design was discontinued and it is not
known if any roofs of this type are still in service.
6.3.2.2 Buoy roof
Of the two mandatory Code desjgn conditions a) and b) given in
earlier, it has been found through experience that for the sin-
gle-deck pontoon roof, the most onerous desiqn condition is
when the hryo adjacent pontoon compartments and the deck are
punctured. In this condition the flooded deck plating exerts ra-
dial loads on to the pontoons which cause compressive
stresses in the pontoon structure. Also, as the tank diameter in-
creases, the weight of the centre deck to be suDDorted in-
creases. and the buoyancy required from the peripheral pon-
toons increases.
The obvious answer may be to increase the width of the pon- Figure 6.8 Aiypical buoy roof
toon ring which will increase buoyancy and reduce the size of Caulesy of Phillips Petroleum Company
the centre deck. However it has been established that the rela-
tively thin upper and lower pontoon plates offer litfle resistance 6.3.3 Floating roof design
to the induced compressive stresses and theycan buckle at rel-
atively low stress levels. The area of the pontoons which offer
most resistance is found to be the inner and outer rim plates The design of a floating roof touches the frjnges of naval archi-
and a short section of the upper and lower pontoon plating im- tecture as well as that of structural engineering.
mediately adjacent to the rim plates. The remainder of the up- Where the Codes give guidance on designing say, secondary
per and lower plates therefore require stjfening by using wind girders or shell-to-roof connections, we are left to our own
structural sections, thus increasing the weight and cost of the devices with regard to the detail design offloating roofs. Hence,
roof. each tank designer has developed his own approach in orderto
The principal problem with the single-deck pontoon roof is the satisfy the requiremenb of the Code.
lack of buoyancy in the centre deck and in the earlv 1970s an One such approach is given for the design ofa single-deck roof,
American tank constructor produced a roof design which over- and is shown in Figure 6.9, "Design of a single-deck Floating
came this problem. lt was called it the "Buov roof'. This desion Roof for a Storage Tank designed to API 650 Appendix C and/
incorporates a series of liquid-tight buoyaniy units arranged'in or BS 2654".
a grid pattern on the top of the centre deck. These units give
buoyancy to the centre deck when in the punctured condition.
They can be circular, square, rectangular, or of any shape to 6.4 Internal floating roofs
suit the width of the plates used to form the centre deck. Gener-
ally the deck support legs (described later) are housed through Internal floating roofs are used inside fixed rooftanks to reduce
the centre ofthe units, which has the advantage ofoffering stiff- vapour emission into the tank void above the product. Because
ening to the units concerned and vertical stiffness to the leqs this type of roof is not open to the elements, a much lighter form
themselves. ofconstruction in aluminium or plastic can be used. Also the rim
seals do not have to be as robust and are often made from
Afurther advantage ofthe buoy roof is that the cross-section of moulded flexible closed cell urethane foam in the form of a
the peripheral pontoons is dramatically reduced as it only hasto wiper seal where the tip of the seal is above the rim as the roof
provide enough buoyancy for itself and a short section of the descends and flips below the rim as the roof ascends.
centre deck plating immediately adjacent to it. The overall ad-
vantage ofthis type of roof design is for tanks having diameters The selection of construction materials for a Darticular service
larger than, say, 65 metres. condition has to be carefully considered especiallywhen using
aluminium, where the unexpected introduction of corrosive
This roof design appeared in the UK at a time when site con- traces in the product can cause serious damaqe to the roof
struction was beset by problems of labour militancy, high costs components.

156 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


6 The design of tank roofs - floating

Dssign of a Single dBck Floating Roof for a Storaoe Tank


Designd to A.P.l. 650 l ofr 6ditiin-[qqtl9ggAppnqix]g'adl or
8.S.2654 : 1989 + amd 1997 Clause 9

Tank size: 35.00 m i/dia. x 15.00 rn high

Spcific gravity of Product =


0.70
The Code requirss tile Roof io be qesignod tor a specific gravity of :- 0.70
Howsvr, ihis ccrnplete caloiation may be rpated if necessary using
ths actual plodrjd s,g. in order to determine adual floatatiql levols.

Yeld stress ofstoelbeing ugd =


.
275.00 N/mm,
Modulus of Elgsticity of thest61 209000.00 Nlrnm2

Pontoon Comfry. ( Atl dimnsions in 'mm' unlas otherwise stated. )

s
h
e
I
34-60 m o / dia of Roof
I

aqoo x 12.00

Outer Rim 2200.oo Maintenance height o: Deck


masured at lnner Rim positioo.

Slops in Tankfloor 1in


fune up q[ cone dcurn ( loo}irq from ttF-Shg[ )?

WcishtoLEhaftS.Beof.

2e00 Co. mpf!$ent pEtes = x.:1.98 .x 5,00 x.7.85 ..=.110-95-2 kg.

Top ponioon plate=nx 17.5O2 x 15.462 x x 7.85 = e282.43 k9.


F.O0
Btm pontoon pl*e=.n x 11341x 15.302 x 5.OO x 7.gE + 8221.09 kg.

Innerdm=r - ruga-l#3#-.-2'9'09 x 0.4s x 20.00 x z.Bs = 67e6.22 ks.

ourerrim=n r re?o*g#!9! x o.BZ x s.oo x 7.ss = s889.94 ks.,


Seal mounting F.B. = n:x 34.56 x O.1O x 6.00 x 7.85 = 511-rt4 kg.

Erre 6.9 Deslgn of a singledeck floaling egt for a siorEOs br|k designed,io Apt 650 Apprdix Cnd/or.gs 2654 - pag6 t

STiORASE*AN KS,& EQITIIFI$ ENT 157


6 The design of tank roofs - floating

Bumper bars = 22.00 x 0.30 x 0.10 x 25.00 x 7.85 = 129.53 kg.

Pontoon legs in 3" sch. 80 PiDe '2 = 22.08 x 307O.OO x ts-+d = Szo.oo rg.

Pontoon log housings in 4. sch. 80 pipa =


T ' a"to.oo x n.qt = s22.7s ks.

600.00 dia. Pontoon HatcfiEs. in


6.00 mm Plt. 50.00

I ooo.oo I

Weight = Neck = '13.32 Cover = 19.34


Total = 32-66 kg. x 22.00 = 718.53 kg.
Ponloon nozzles, fittings etc. Sy= 1000.00 kg
Weight of Rim Seal t
(based on
53.00 kg./ m. of Rim ci|t ) = 5701.05 kg.

"*ff""fixl?H,*r
- t x (go'oo' 188#J "r88#.oo' r2@ x 785 = .zz'sa'.s
Weight of Deck plates =

n7a * {so.oo - [tgpy'41'x s.oox 7.8s = 2828e.64ks.

Deck leg6 in 3" s.fr. 80 pipe.

No.orressrequd.=
## = .3.33olod',,
= 24.51

SaY = 26.00

Weight = 28.OO x 3327.@ x $.s= 1332.13 kg.


Deck leg housings in 4" sch.80 pip = 26.00 x 13OO.OO x 22.N - 757.12 W.
Deck nozzles, fittings etc. SaY = 1500.00 kg

Rollino ladder
Tank hgight = 15.00m + 2m Gaugors plaform,less dean - out height 14.80 m
Assume max. angle of hdder is 60., then length of laddef is :. 17.09 m
Allow a ladder weight of
50.00 kg /m acting on the Roof lhn tadder wight is :. 854.48 kg.
The wbrst casg ecoentricity for thE ladder is at 8.76 m. from the Tank centre line.
( to bs used ior a lat6r calqiation. I

Summary ofwsightE:- Pontoon componnts i 3706,1.58


Dck components t
qr'U
33955.93
Totat wEight of Ftoating Roof = 71017.51 kg.

Volume of Ponioons.

0.31

0.45

0.11

t-|ta.-fb.lB bdhg roof for a storage tank designed to Apt 650 Appendix C and/or BS 2654 _ psge 2

f, Bq{rtPtlENT
6 The design of tank rcofs - floating

Volums O 0.31 x 2_00


2.@
x x
93.27 IE 31.876 rn!

Volume @ 0.45 x 2.W x 34.60 x ,r 92.174 m'

Volume @ 0.11 x 2.OO


2.@
x 93.27 x n 10.974 rf
135.024 mr

Operational fl oatation levets.

Flotation cleDlh of 5.00 mm thk. Csnfe Dsck, on water.

x 100O.OO = 39.25 mm

Floation deph of Pontoon wBighing 37061.58 t(g

Displacemert in water = SZOOL50 = 37.062 m r


1000.00

Floatation deDth 'd =


#%.*# =o127m

Dicplacemont in a producl having a density of 700_00 kg / m'


Floatation depth ot 5.@ mm thk Ded! on a product of s.g. . O.7O

= 56.071 mm

Floation dgpth of Pontoon weighing 37061.S8 kg

DisplacamEnt in a product of s. g. . O.7O = = 52.945 m J


Tffi]63a
Flostiation deoth 'd'- = l!?'9: 10 97a)
2"oo x ar.6o r; =u zuc m

mm for Pontoon 56.00 mm tor Dsck

DifiErencs in Pontoon & Oeck lEvels = 149.@ mm


SetDecket 149.00 mm up from inner comer of pontoon and
the underside of th Deck wi[ siill b6 ,wetted'.
Frsboard availabls abov Deck levgl and the top outr comsr of the porioon =
450.@ - 149.m + 305.00 = 606.00 mm
The normal oparetional bvel for the Roof is :-
Weight of Roof 71012.S13 t(g
This aquates to a volume of produd of :- Z1O1t.S1g =. 101.4S4 m!
700.00
Thsn th6 (bpth of floatation above the Deck i9 resolvgd as follolvs: -

101.454 = 10.97a + 92.174 x ffi + (n/4 x 30 .602x depth)

oeptn = 1{!91:10.94:-!,o529. x 1000 = 81.532 mm


735.415

Figure 6.9 Design ofa singledeck floaflng rcoffor a stoEge tank dsigned to Apl 650 Appendix
C and/or BS 2654 _ page g

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


6 The design of tank roofs - floating

Produd levl
Deck level

Dsck to suppott 250mm ( 'l O' ) of rainwater.

Volume of rainvrEter collecisd over the area of the Tank !


trl x 35.002 x o.a5 - 244.g77 m.
Volume to b6 displacad on a product dssity of 700.00 kg / m !
214+-
700.00*
71917:91
0.70 = 4oo.s63 rns

Assuming the Deck stays level.


With the Deck set at
149.00 mm from lo\ 16r inner corner of thg Ponloon.
thsn the max volums available is :- x * to.tn * ,o.ofx
10.s74 + (s2.'t74
ffi ) o.ory = 6io.sos np

As the volume avsilable > lhan volume required, the calculation is acospted

The Roof must still float with tho Centre Deck & two Pontoon comoertments pundurcd.

volume availabl with t$o out of 22.@ compartrnenE purEtured = 1B5.a24 r = 122.75 m3
#f3
Minimum volume required to meet dEsign requirements = =101.454m3
##
As 122.75 > 101.45 Ayailable volume 3ufriciont .

Product liquid level above the Deck is found as follows :-

1O1.454 = (92.174 + 10.974 - part of Votume 20.oo


O) x
22.00
101.45 - 93.77 = Pt. vot.O x 4@
n.oo
Pt. vol.O = 8..{51 m3

Producl level above base of Section fi)


is lound by iteration using method givY
overleaf Enter a value hsre-l>

This gives a Prt votume tor @ * 8.487 m t


lnls ts ctose enouon lo 8.451 m I to be acceptable.

'Freboerd' of Pontoon abov6 the oroduci


lsvel for the pundured cordition i6 305.00 - 44.50 = 260.50 mm This b accaptabte

Levelof produd above thg Deck = 345.50 mm

Figure 6.9 Design of a single-deck floaling rooflor a storago tank dsigned to Apl 650 Appendix C and lor BS 2654 - page 4

160 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


6 The design of tank roofs - floating

Method to fird the levd by which a Single dedr Floating Roof sinks due to tlrb
compartmnE being punctired_

The loss of buoyancy will cause the product to rlse in top seciion CD of lhe
Pontoon cross - seclion and hig ibration method determines that 6vel.

'$' denobs dimensions aubmatically inputed from the design sht.

t lnput figure ( on Sheet A ) uilil the volur requird of 8.451 ms


\ is anived at ( from SlEet 'A .)
zo00 $
\ k--
T t -T|--.--..-
uouL fliJ | .,r*..,rr--.-------3#4'
ilk+.sFW
vi | ./ a/ ./ ,/ ,/1., \ \-.-

Volume 'a' = 7.854t!06 m3


Volume 'b' = 0.6{1209 m'
8.486895 m3

Check O16 sfassos end rbf,acdon in tE Cntrd Dd( trd fie


edEuact dtha lnner Rim with a punctured Csntrg Dck.

F* --.--.--|
F om Roark sth Edition "Fornulas for Sfss & Strain.
ChapFr 10.11
q.en4 =
[K1.(y/t)+l{2.(y/t) (1)
E.t^4 -
lI.3= [K3. ( y/t]+ K4. (y/t)- t2)
E. tr
wher q = unit load of D6d( (N/lnrnr)
5.00 (7.85 _ 0,70) x 9.81x 10= 0.000351
sfier:- t =Deck date thks. (mm) 5.@
Thks. of lnnr Rim plate (mm) 20.00
Wdth of Dck mountirE iat bar ( mm ) 80.@
T= Ihks. of D6ck rnountng f,at bar ( mm )
. a- lEdius of Tank (mm) 15300.00
12.O0

poisson's ratio (0.3) 0.30


E= Youngs tnodulus ( l'llmm1 209000.00
plab yiild sfiss8 ( Nfnrf) 275.OO
allo$able sbess = 213 x Yeld (N/mrfl '| 83.333

yb = bending strss (N/mff)


Fd = diphEgm st1oss (Mrvn1
tr = tobl sfee8 Fb+pd

Flgure 6 9 DEsign of a singre-dck foating roof br a storage tank designd to Apr 650 Appendix c and/or Bs 26s4 - page 5

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPIIENT .16,I

'a
6 The design of tank rcofs - floating

Condition t
Fhed & Held. K1 =
5s * 5.86 l<2 =
z.o
2.86
(1 - vz; (1 *rt)
AttFcenfe l= -J-=- 2.8 K4= 0.98
(1 -v)
Atiheedge K3= 1= 1.& K4= 0.48
(1-v')
Ecuation 61, 147124.32 = [K1.(y/t)+K2.(y/t)1- (1)
K1.( y /t ) 5.86 (y/t)
= 2.86
K2.( y/t F = (y/t)'
1471?432 5.86 6rft) 2.80 (y/t)!
51,196.09 2.05 (yit) 1.00 (y/t)!
51496.09 0.41 (y^) 0.01 (y/t)'
6437010.9 51.25 y 1.00 f
By lteraton i 6437010.92 9532.74 + 6434856.00
Try'Y'= f 86,00 6437010.92 8{44388.74 Dcf86 valuo of'y'
6437010.98 9481.49 + 6331625.@
Try'Y'= 185.m 6487010.32 6341100.49 lncr8e vahJs ot' Y '
sag In Dec|(. 186.tt0

Equaion(2)= K3.(y/t)+K4.(y/tF sts3 at cen1.e of Dck


$ff =

Fb at cefiu = 2.37 -fgrmar


N/mrlf(bn'dg.) 30.15 tfintnr (Diephrgm)
32.52 tumff (tilal stsss)
Accptable

K3.(y/t)+K4.(y/tf ta(
eouariontzp
lfff -
1qr st.ess et dg3 of Dck

pb al edgp 3.65 tl/mfif (bndlng) 14'70 l'Umfif (Diaphr4m)


18.35 N/imf (total sfioss)

It is the diaphragm stress et the edge rdrich causes tfF tension at t|e outr edgs
of the Deck and hnce the strss in th lnner Rim.

Thn rdialforce on Inn6r Rim =14.70 x5.00=73.51 N/mm.circ.

'::::----l-r-
20.00
- rt, 24.34 N/mm Bending mnt. = 49.17 x 149.0o = 7326.67 N. mm

301.00
73.51 N / mm
49.17 N I mm
#
Section modulu8
B r. D2 1 ' 2o.oo2
ffin'
,=
6 = 6.00 = 66.67

plete 73n.67 109.9) N/mm'


Then bnding sfess in Rim =
66.67
=
Accoptable

Figure 6.9 Deslgn of a singlodeck floating roof foa 6 6torag6 tank deslgnd to API 650 Appendix C end/or BS 2654 ' pago 6

162 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPiIENT


6 The design of tank roots - floating

Find Section Modulus of the Innr Rim using an area of 16 x thks. as the Section boundaries.

(16.t )
652.00
(16.r )

l=$x9:
--o* = 43i1666.67 mm

Z=lly = 43466.67 mmt


c.s.A. 13040.00 mm "
Check that the compressive stress in the Inner Rim is acceptable.
From Roark sth edition Table 17 Cas6 7 ( Formulas for circular rings )

Using load points at each mm of circumfrence, hence a very small angle between
lod points approximates to a u.d.l. acling on the lnner Rim.

2 x Alpha = angle between load pointr0.00'


Alpha: % angle between load points 0.001A72406"
=
0.00003268 rads.
1/Alpha = 360/2Pi x Alpha 30600.08429
'1lsin Alpha 30600.08429
1/Tan Alpha 30600.08428
Load / mm of Rim circumfrence 73.51 N/mm
No. of load ooints on the circum'fce 96133.00 ( one / mm of circ. )
Horiz. load on lnner Rim 'H' 0.074 kN / Load Point
Prooerties of the effeclive section of the lnner Rim
Rim diameter 30.60 m
Radius of lnner Rim 'R' 15300.00 mm
C.S.A ofthe effective section 'A' 13040.00 mm ?
Section modulus Z = li y(inptaneof load)
= 434666.667 mms
Moment between loads 'H' is :-
Mo = H x R /2(1/sin Alpha - 1/Alpha) 3.063 Nmm
Compression in Innr Rim is :-
No = H /2 (1/sin Alpha) 1124757.498 N
Mo lZ -- 0.00000705 N/mm2
No/A = 86.254 N/mm2
Total compressive stress in Inner Rim is :-
Mo/Z+No/A= 86.254 N/mm2
Allowable stress " 183.333 N/mm2
ls comp. stress < Allowsble stress ? Yes accept
Moment at loads 'H' is :-
Mi = H r R/ 2 (1/Alpha - 1/tan Alpha) 6.'126 Nmm
Tension in lnner Rim is :-
Ni = H/2 (1/tanAlpha) 1124757.498 N
MilZ= o.0o0o14og N/mm 2
NiiA= 86.254 N/mm'2
Total tsnsion in Inner Rim is :-
Mi/Z+Ni /A= 86.254 N/mm 2

Allowable stress = 183.333 N/mm2


ls tensile stress < Allowable stress ? Yes accpt

The stsossos are accepted

Figure 6.9 Design of a single-dock floating roof for a storage tank designed to API 650 Appendix C andlot BS 2654 - page 7

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 163


6 The design of tank roofs - f,oating

Consider lhe effscl of two ounehjred pontoons and Cantre Deck


on the stability of the Flosting Roof.

k 34.@ m. dia.
F___=t.a!9-cqE'.g!a
I
I
t- --j
Area of Pontoon = r. 14 x (34.6G - OO.602) = m4.Ez2 m2

0.57 rads.

Remaining Pontoon alr.ea= 2O4.8g2 * Sftu#@ = 186.211 m,

- 2sinol2(R! - r!)' sin a2]272 ( 17.3003 - 15.3m3 )


'---
2
-iTrrrr = 3 x '186.211 = 1.610 m

Moment of Insrtia of remaining pontoon area :-


4n
ryr= (R-: t ) pn -(angoxrc)-sinA1

= (17.306 - 15.3004) [2 n - (32.7zfaox rE) - sin3z727l = (3at.OS)x (6.283 - 0.571 - 0.s41)

= 22480.08 ma

In = lly+(Arm. r Zr)
I

I
= 22480.08 + (186.2,t1x 1.6102) E E9@..78 ma

i
U*lng morl6nt = WiSht of Rod ,W x Z
= 71.018 x 1.610
= 114.335 Tonns. m

Compss to adual sccntrtc bads i


Dck= 33.101 x Ag.., x 15.300 = 46.g1 tqrnss.m

Por oons = .t.* " jrg* x 16.300 = 54.919 tonns. m

Ladder = 0.8511 x x =
8.755 7.i181 tofln3. m
Tdal = 1(8.441 tonns. m
As 108.44 blrssthd| 114.38 Thc Roof tr O.K

Figure 6 9 Design of a singl+deck foating roof for a storage tank designed to AFI 6so Appendk c and/or Bs 26s4 - page 8

164 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


6 The design of tank roofs - floating

Additional submrslon on FmcturEd side i


d,= ML, (R + z) +
- 114.335x (17.300 1.610) : nr?5.n
In '. 3.9. 22962.729 x O.7OO

Rduced depth on oppcx3ito gide :-

o"= !!_l_E_:Z) =
| )o( x s.g.
114.335x{17.300-1.610)
= 0.112 m
22962.729 \ O.70O

Nominel floatation dspth is 345.50 abov Dck { ftom eerlief calcuhtion )

Ma)( submoision = 0.3i16 + 0.135 = 0.480 m


As thF ls < 0.606 (b. thI is 'frEeboard" ot 0.126 tfie Roofldllio.t3.
Mh. submrsbn = 0.348 - 0.'112 =i 0.234 m
A IllA
Angb of Rod= ten< ffi = O.O*'
Considor the influenco of 10' ( 254mm ) of ralnwstr on the Ded(

Volum of rainfa ( fom pre\rious clqlhtbn ) :. 244.3n


Volurne of displaoement ( frcm pra/io6 calc.) i rt50.563

Area of total Roof= nl4 x y.602


= 940.247 m2
Area of Dck only = dax s0.6002 = 735.415 m'
h'= height of rain\ atrabove deck 244.?8 / 735.42 = O.33 m

0.61 1

depthl of submersion

Depth of gubmersion =
450.563 - 10.974 - [92.174x (0.149/0.450)]
940.25
450.563 - 10.974 - 30.520
= 0.435 m
940.247

Load due to stel Deck & rainwater = *955.932 +244376.639 = 278332.571


Upward iorce of produc*on u/s Deck 735.415 x 0.435 x 700.00 - 23%7.93

Nft do nward forca = 2785U.57 - 22gW;7.g34 = 73.92 k9lm'

= 725.19 Nlm2
The Centre Deck deflects downwards due to the additional weight of water on the Deck.
This defledion is found from Roark sth Edition "Formulas for Strcss & Slrain" Chapte|l0.11 (page 406)

9.{ yrtl+re.(y/t)- (1)


E- t* = 1rr.1

ES = to.(y/t)+K4.{y/t
-- (2)

i
Figure 6.9 Design of a single-deck floating roof for a storage tank designed to API 650 Appendix C and/or BS 2654 - page 9
.1

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 165


6 The desiqn of tank rcofs - floaling

Where q' = unit load of Deck (N/mm') -6


725 192 x 10- 0.00
5.00
wher6:- t = Deck Plate thks. (mm) 20.00
Thks. of Innr Rim Plate (mm)
80.00
\Mdth ot Deck mounting flat bar ( mm )
12.W
T = Thks. of Deck mounting flat bar mm )
(
15300.00
a = radius of Tank (mm)

ooisson's ratio (03)


0.30
v=
20so@.00
E = youngs modulus ( Nlmrn')
275.OO
Dlat vield Etress ( N/mrn')
183.333
Ltt*.iote stress = Zn x Veld (N/mrn')

ub = b6nding stress (l'Umnf)


ijd = diaphragm stress (N/mnf)
P = total stress !b+ud
Condition :- - ^^ 2.6
Fixed& HeH. K1 = ffi'= sae l(2= (1- v' = 2.6
)

centre )
At the K3 = _-_e- . = 2.& K4= 0.98

Attheedse rc= K4 .= 0.4t!


,t'Vy +.ao
Equation (1)' 304223.09 = [Kl (v/t) +rc.(v/iFl -
(1)

K1.{Y/t) = 586 (Y/t)


t<2.(vttf = 2.86 (Y/t)"
304223'w 5 86 (Y/t) 2.86 (y/t)'
106483.41 205 (Y/t) 1.00 (y/t)t
10&183.41 0'41 (Y/t) 0.01 (ylt)'
1*1c/.26 51 25 Y 1.00 t'

88 12095 31 + 13144256 00
'rss.u':- Try,y,=
13310425
Bv iteration
ev of'v'
- is3ioiii.Sa 1315651.3
236.fit lncf,easo value
iiiiotis.eg iz1t5.ffi + 13312053.00
of'v'
Try'y' = 237.00 i io4'; ag tggz+tgg o Dscreas value

Sag in Deck = 237'N

Equation (2)= = *4.(v/I)+K4 (v/tF -__ for max' stre$ at edse of Dock'
B#
ub aiJse = 4.65 l'umnr (bendin . 23'87 N/mrf (Diaphragm)
28 52 l't/mnr' (total gtress)
(2)= (ylt\+K4'(y/tF for max stress at cenirs ot Deck'
Equation = Xa
fff (bn'dg.)-- . 4e'95 N/mrf (Diaphragm)
ub at centre = g.O2 N/mtrf
N/mrf (total stress)
51.97
AccePtable

It is the diaphragm stress at the edge which


causs the tension at the outer edge
ot itre Oecti anO nence the siress in the Inner Rim'

Then radialforc on lnnr Rim = 23.a7 x 5'@ = 11935 N/mm'circ'

= 732667 N mm
N/mm Bending mnt. = 49.17 X 149'00

301.
119.35 N / mm
149, 79.83 N / mm

lor BS m54 - page 10


storage tank designed to API 650 Appendix C and
Figure 6.9 Design of a singleieck ioating roof for a

'166 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIP ENT


6 The design of tank rcofs - lloating

x D2
B__-:a--
Seclion modulus = 1-::9-o
6.00
^2
= 66.67 mm 3

7326.67
Then bending stress in Rim plat = 66.67 = 109.90 N /mm"
Accsptable

Find Seclion Modulus of lhe Inn6r Rim using an area of 1 6 x thks. as lhe Section boundaries.

l.aro.oo (16.1 )
652.00 412.ffi
r** (16.1 )

. BrD' 431666.67 mm
12 =
Z = lly = 43466.67 mmr
C,S.A = 13040.00 mmz
Check that the compressive stress in the lnner Rim is acceotabls.

From Roark sih edition Table 17 Cas 7 { Formulas for circular rings )

Using load points at ech mm of circumfren@, hen@ a very small angle btwen
load points approximates to a u.d.l. ac{ing on the Innsr Rim.

2 x Alpha = angle betweon load pointr 0.00374'


Alpha = % angle between load points 0.00187' 0.00003268 rads. :
1/Alpha = 360l2Pi x Alpha 30600.08429
1/Sin Alpha 30600.0&t29
1/Tan Alpha 30600.08428
Load / mm of Rim circumfence 119.35 ll/mm
No. of load poinls on the circurnfrenc 96133.00 ( one / mm of circ. )
Horiz. load on lnner Rim 'H' 0.119 kN / Load Point
Prooertieg of th6 effedive sction of th6 Inner Rim
Rim diametor 30.60 m
Redius of lnner Rim 'R' 15300.00 mm
C.S.A of the effec[ive section 'A 13040.00 mm'
Sc{ion modulus Z=l/y(inplane 431666.667 mmr
Moment betwen lods 'H' is :-
Mo = H x R /2 (1/sin Alpha - 1/Alpha) 4.973 Nmm
Compress'ron in lnnr Rim is i
No=H/2(1/sinAlpha) 1826121.630 N
Mo/Z = 0.00001144 N/mm'
No/A = 140.040 l{/mm 2

Total compressivs glrsss in Innr Rim is :


MolZ+NolA= lrl{l.O40 lvmm :
Allo\ abl stress = 183.333 N/mm 2
ls comp. stress < Allo\i/abl6 sfess ? Yes accept

Figur 6.9 Dsign of a singledeck foatlng roof for a storag tank designed to API 650 Appendix C and lor BS 54- page 11

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 167


6 The design of tank roofs - floating

Moment at loads'H' is :-

Mi = H x R/2 (1/Alpha - 1/tan Alpha) 9.946 Nmm


Tension in lnner Rim is :-
Ni =H/2(1/tanAlpha) 1826121.629 N
MilZ= 0.00002288 N/mm'z
Ni /A= 140.040 N/mm ?
Total tension in lnner Rim is :-
Mi/Z+Ni/A= 1/{l.0t0 N/mm "
Allowable stress = 183.333 N/mm'?
ls tensile stress < Allowable stress ? Yes accept
Thc atresses are accePtod
The Deck'dishes' due to the weight of water as shown below:-

Solving the above geometry the radius of the'dished' Deck is 493.979 m

Vol. of dished Deck = fil3xb2 (3R- b) = 87.15 m"

244.377 - 87.154
Depth 'h' = 735.415
= 0.214 m

depth'd' 450.56 - 10.97- q0.520- 87.15


To find revised submersion = 940.247
= Q.342 m

Find nett load ac{ing on the Deck.

Weight of steel Deck = 33955.93 kg


kg
Weight of rain wate, = '#.* kS

Total upward force on Deck. = [e7.t54+ (735.415 x 0.342)]x 700.00 = 237258.37 l(g

Nett downward force = 278332.57 - 237258.371 = 41074.200 kg

This repsents a pressure of ss#i;w = b47.e1 N/m,

Figurc 6.9 Design of a singledeck tloating roof for a stoEge tank designed to API 650 Appendix C and lot Bs 2654 - page 12

168 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


6 The design of tank roofs - floating

Ch6ck again to ensure that the stressss in tlle lnnar Rim ar acceotable in this revised conditiol.

(1)
ftft = txr.tvrt)+r<:.(y/tft-
[$ = r'c.tvr + K4. ( yrt )'l- (2)
\lvhere unit load of Deck (lvmrf )
547.905 x 1o6 0.00
where:- t = Deck plate thks. (mm) 5.CX)
Thks. of Inner Rim plate (mm) 20.00
Wdth of Dck mounting flat bar ( mm ) 80.00
T= Thks. of Dcft mourning flat bar (mm ) 12.N
a*
radius of Tank (mm) 15300.00

poisson's ratio ( 0.3 ) 0.30


E' youngs modulus ( Mmfif) 209000.00
plate yi6ld streFs ( N/mrf) 275.O0
alloureble stress = 2a x Yield (N/mrn:) 183.333

gb= bending stres6 (Nhrn'z)


ucl = diaphrqm strss (N/ffin')
p= dal sfess pb+Fd
Conditiofi t 5. = s.ao
Fhd & H6ld. K1 = (1-v" )
1a2 -25-.
= (1- v" ) =
2.s6

At the centie l(3 =


11fo, = t'* K4 = o'ee

At the edg6 .:4:.=


l= (1-v') 4.4O K4 = 0.4s

Equation (1). 229850.16 = 1K1.(y/t)+K2. (y/tFl- (1)


K1'(Y/t) = 5'86 (Y/t)
K2.( Y/ t F= 246 (Y/t)5
229850.16 s.86 (v^) 2.86 (y/t)!
80451.58 2.05 (v^) 1.00 (y/t)3
80451.58 0.41 (v^) 0.01 (y/t)'
10056447 51.25 v 1.00 y'

By iteration i 10056447.11 11019.03 9938875.00


Try'y' 215,00 10056447.11 9949394.03 Incraase value of ' y '
1005&t47.11 11a70.28 10077696.@
Try'v' 2{6.00 10056447.11 10086766.3 Dcrease value of ' y '
Sag |n Dsck 210.00

= (y/t)+ (I/tf
Equation {2)
es = l. K4. stt8s at edge of Deck.

-1e1to19.83 lvmfif (Diaphragm)


gb at edgs 4.24 lumm" (bndin
24.07 Nlmff (total sress)

Eouation 1e; = sbg" - l$, ( y/t) + K4. f (Y/t st.ees at centre of Declc

pb at cenbe = -1otto.40.66 N/mrf (Diaphragm)


2.75 N/mnf (bn'dg.)
= 43,41 N/mm. (lotalsbgss)
Acceptable

It is the diaphragm stress at the edge wtlich cau$s th teneion at he outer edge
of thg DecI and hence the sgsss in the Inner Rim.

Figuro 6.9 Design of a single-deck floating roof for a storage tank designsd io API 650 Appendix C andlor BS A)54 ' page 13

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 169


6 The design ol tank rmfs - f,oating

Thsn radialforca on Inner Rim L= 19.E3 r 5.0o = 99.14 N/mm-cirr,

20.00 ,
:::=:I--r _
,

32.83 N/mm Bending mnt. = 49.17 x 1/19.00 = 7326.67 N. mm

99.'14 N / mm
66.31 N / mm

x 20.00
t-Tm- t
Secton modulus ,= = 66.67 mm

Thon bending 3he33|n Rim Plate = ff - 109.90 N/mmz


Aceeltablo

Find Ssction ModulG of the Inner Rim using an ere of 1 6 x thks. as the Seciion boundads.

--T
l.oeo.oo (16.1 )
f _+12.00
(16.r )
1320.00
- --7--
r= BizD' = /t31666'67 mm

Z = lly = 43466.67 mm!


C.S.A. = 13040.00 mm 2

Check lhat the comorassive strsss in the lnner Rim is accsptable.

From Roerk sth dition Table 17 Cas 7 ( Formulae for oircular rings )

Using load poinb at each mm of circumfenc, h6nc6 a very gmall angle between
load points approimates to a u.d.l. ac-ting on the lnnr Rim.

2 x Alpha = angle betwn load pointt 0.0037448'1 '


Alph = % angle btiveen load points 0.001 872406 '
= 0.@003268 rads.
llAlpha = 3602Pi Alpha r 30600.08429
1/Sin Alpha 30600.08429
1/Tan Alpha 30600.08128
Load / mm of Rim ciiqJrnfi'\ence 99.14 N/mm
No. of loed points on the cirdrmfrenc 96133.00 ( one / mm of drc. )
Horiz. load on lnner Rim 'H' 0.099 kN / Lod Point
Ploosrties of th6 efiectiv section ofth6 lnner Rim
Rim diamter 30.60 m
Radius of lnner Rim 'R' 15300.00 mm
C.S.A of fi efective edion 'A
13040,@ mm "
Sdion modulus Z = l/y(inplane 43466.667 mm!
Moment betrvsn loads 'H' is i
Mo = H x R/2 (U3in Alpha - 1/Alpha) 4.131 Nmm
Compression in Inner Rim is r
No=H/2(1/sinAlpha) 1516842.578 N
MolZ 0.00000950 N/mm 2:
=
No/A '116.322 N/mm r'
=

Figure 6.9 Design of a single-deck lloaling roof for e storage tank deslgned to API 650 Appendlx C and lor BS m54 - page 14

170 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


6 The design of tank rcofs - f,oating

Total comoregsivo strss in lnner Rim is :-


Mo/Z+No/A= 114322 N/mm 2

Allowable slrss = 183.333 N/mm'


ls comp. stross < Allowable stress ? Yeg accept

i/bmnt at loads 'H' is t


Mi = H x R /2 (l/Alpha - 1/ tan Alpha) 8.262 Nmm
Temion in lnner Rim is :-
Ni =H/2(1/tanAlpha) 1516842.578 N
MitZ= 0.000019O1 N/mm'l
Ni/A= 116.322 lumm '
Total tonsion in lnner Rim is :-
Mi/Z+Ni/A= 116.322 N/mm "
Allo,vable stress = 183.333 Nlmm 2
ls tensile stress < Allorvable sbess ? Yes accept
The atrgasgs are acceptod

Rsultino state of floalation.

j,,o

Not6 that the normal oorational floatation lsvel here 82 mm

Dosion of tho suoporting lgs.


Not6 that the legs are to b designed to carry only the woight of the roof and not the wight ot any
accumulaled rain water on the deck. To lhis snd it i5 important to ensure lhat when the tank is out of
ot s6rvic6, the drain bungs must bs removed from the deck io allow any rain water to drain io the tank
floor.

There arE two types of support l6gs.

9242 mm tor oulgr lsgs


3298 mm for inner l6gs

I
I

8 Innr deck legs arc on a 4.42 m. radius.


18 Ouler d6ct leg6 ar6 on a 10.00 m. rgdius.
11 Pontoon legs ar on a 16.46 m. radius.

Flgure 6.9 Deslgn of a singl+deck floaling roof for a storage tank designed to API 650 Appendix C and/or BS 2654 - pago t5

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 171


6 The design of lank rcofs - floatinq

hner deck legs.


Area of deck supported by the inner legs is 7.21 m. rad. = 163.25 np

Areaprtos t33f = 20.41 .rf


TotalwL of csntre deck = 9395S.9A ko. 333.@ kN
Load on one teg = s33.oo #+; 9.24 kN
( Ara ofdeck) ' -" -' =
Add tive load of 1.2ktunf = 24.49 kN
Load on one leg = 33.73 kN
Use 3' nb. scfi 80 pipe. 88.9mm o.d. x 7_62mm rrvall = 73.66mm i_d. cc.s,a. i948mfii,
=
Lenglh of leg
3299 mm
fc=L/A = *72738 = 17.31 N / mrff
1948
g+-
Ltt = 28.96 = 113.88 From BS 449 Tabte 17a Aflowabte stress = 66.00 N/mrf
Actual stress is less than allowable, design accepted.

Outer deck leos.


Area of deck supported by the outer legs is that v/hich is between i
12.07 m. rcd. aN
7.21 m. rad_ = ?94.76 .rF

Area prteg 294J0 = 16.39 6,


TotalM. of centre deck = 33955.93 kg. _^ 333.00 kN
Load on oneleg = 333.00 x ^^
j:.jo-- 7.41 kN
( Area ofdeskl tro.ez
Add live load ot 1.2kN/m, = 19.65 kN
Load on one teg = 27.07 kN
Use 3' nb. sch 80 pipe. 88.9mm o.d. x 7.62mm walt = 7g.66mm i.d. cc.s.a. = 194gmrf
Length of leg3242 mm

fc=L/A= 27CE,5'37
- 13.89 N / mml
1948

Ltr= za.w
H 111.95 From BS 449 Table 17a Allowabte stress = 66.00 N/mm2
Actual stress is less than allowable, design accpted.

Pontoon legs.

Arsa of deck supported by th pontoon legs is that which is between :-


15.30 m. rad. and 12.07 m. rad. = 277.41 ftf,
the toad on this area is sse.OO x
ffi = lflS.at KN

Add live load of 1_2 kN / rnz = 332.89 kN


Add weight of pontoons 37061.58 kg 363.46 kN
Total load = 821.96 kN
821'96 -
No. of pontoon legs = 11 Load per lss = 11
74.72 kN

Use 3" nb. sc+l 80 pipe. 88.9mm o.d. x 7.62mm wall= 73.66mm i.d. cc.s.a. .1948mrfl2
=
Length dleg 3091 mm
fc=L/A = 747?3=43 = 38.36 N / mrn2
1948
LIr= 309'1 = 106.73 From BS 449 Table 17a Allowable stress = 72.00 N I mnr,
28.96
Actual strers ts less than allowable, design accpted.

Figure 6 9 Design ola singre-deck floating roof for a storage tank designed to Apl650 Appendlx c and/or BS 26s4 - pags 76

172 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


6 The design of tank roofs - floating

lnternal roofs either float directly on the product, and therefore


there is no vapour space, or, the sealing membrane is carried
above the oroduct on oontoons and so there is a confined
vapour space. The likelihood of an explosion orfire in this space
is improbable as the saturated vapour will be too rich to support
combustion.
An important issue, which is relevant to the use of internalfloat-
ing roofs, is that the free space above the roof must be ade-
quately vented to prevent an accumulation of a potentially ex-
plosive weak vapour and air mixture, and this is usually
achieved by fitting large purpose made vent cowls around the
periphery of the tank roof, together with a vent at the crown of
the roof. These vents encourage the scouring of this space by
wind action.
The usage of capacity of the tank is governed by the limit of
travel of the roof within the tank. The lowest level is determined
by the roof not fouling any floor piping or shellflttings which pro-
trude into the tank. Also for maintenance purposes, personnel
will require access to the underside of the roof via the shell
mannore.
The upper limit is governed by the type of roof structure and/or
the depth of the shell brackets supporting the roof structure.
Large diameter tanks which have a truss type roof structure
which extends belowthe levelofthe top of the shellcan signifi
cantly reduce usable volume.

6.4.1 Types of internal floating roofs Prnoli loDrot, !600 mfr r 600 mm r 60 mr rhich

. Pan roof
. Honeycomb roof
. Pontoon and skin roof
6.4.1.1 Pan roof
The pan roof, shown diagrammatically in Figure6.10, consists
of a circular membrane with a vertical outer rim plate on to
which the rim gap seal is mounted. This type of roof is prone to
sinking because it does not have any closed buoyancy com-
partments. Leakage on to the roof can cause it to capsize and
sink. Hence, whilst cheap to construct, the operational disad-
vantage of this type of roof means that it is rarely, if ever used. C.os3 secton olPtna' rnd tinrninq
6.4.1.2 Honeycomb roof
The construction ofthis type of roof is shown diagrammatically Figure 6.11 A honeycomb type foof consiruction
in Figure 6.11. lt is made from panels of aluminium orplastic CauTesy af MB Engineering Services Lid
which consist of a upper and lowerskin separated by a matrix of
internal cells, or a plasticfoam. The panels are usually between
25 and 80mm thick and are connected together by purpose- A disadvantage in this form of construction is that punctured
made extruded sections. This type of roof can be prone to the panels which are contaminated with product make a drained
skin separating from the honeycomb but has the advantage of down, oufof-service tank, very difficult to gas free for mainte-
natural inherent buoyancy. lt can suffer being punctured with- nance purposes untilthe damaged panels are identified and re-
out loosing buoyancy, but the light construction can be dam- moved from the tank.
aged by turbulence due to slugs of air in the import pipeline.
6.4.1.3 Pontoon and skin roof

This roof is illustrated in Figure 6.12 and consists ofa number of


straight lengths of tubular aluminium pontoons. These pon-
toons are arranged in a ring around the periphery of the roof
with parallel rows of pontoons connecting from one side of the
ring to the other The rows of pontoons are connected together
by purpose-made aluminium extruded sections set at right an-
gles to the lines of pontoons the ends being joined to ihe outer
pontoon ring.

Attached to the matrix formed by these sections is a thin alu-


minium skin which forms the vapour barrier. The skin sits above
the product by about 150 to 200 mm and the gap is sealed at the
periphery of the roof by a vertical rim plate, the lower end of
which is immersed in the product. The peripheral rim gap is
Figufe 6.'10 A pan roof shown diagrammatically sealed with a pfeformed flexible wiper seal.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT '173


6 The design of tank roofs - floating

Anti.rotation root irtling


gauge Piping
I Peripheril roof
vnt/inspecllon hatch
I

t
Stp on
thiofhatcb

Oprbnal

Anti.rotalion
't18" g s.s
ground cables through fiting
bolted to
rim plate

Automatlcgaugo Rim pontoons

Anti-rolaton
lug"rvelded
to noor

Ult_a$all

Rim ponloons

and actuatorleg

Figure 6.12 The ponloon and skin roof - showing the normal appurtenances for an internal tloating roof
Courtesv of Ulthflote Comoratbn

These internaldecks are usually proprietary designs and so all


The required load bearing capacity for these roofs varies from design work for them is completed by the specific manufac-
Code to Code. The API Code has the most stringent require- turer They are usuallydesigned so that allthe component pads
ment, which requires the roof when iloating orwhen supported can be passed through a 24" (610mm ) diameter manhole. This
on its legs, to be able to safely carry a load which is equivalentto allows them to be retro fitted to existing bnks.
at leasttwo men walking anywhereon the roof, (2200 N overan
area of 0.1 m2), which translates to an isolated load of 22 kN
over 1m2. 6.5 External floating roof appurtenances
Similarlythe BS and European Codes require that at least three The diagram shown in Figure 6.13 shows the principle appurte-
men should be suooorted over an area of 3 m2 which is an nances which are required for the operation of a externalfloat-
equivalent isolated load of only 1 kN over 1m2. ing roof. The diagram depicts a single-deck roof but the princi-
ples are basically the same for all roofs.
The appurtenances provided on these type of roofs are also
shown in Figure 6.12.
6.5,1 Roof support legs
Ensuring electrical continuity between the deck and the tank is
very important in order to allow any charges of static electricity When the tank is empty, thefloating roofneeds to be supported
which are transmitted to the deck from the product to be re- atsome distance abovethe tankfloor. This is necessary sothat
leased safely. All conductive surfaces of the roof must be elec- the roof does not foul any heating coils, drain lines, shell-
trically connected and bonded to the shell either by electrical mounted propeller mixers etc. Also access will be required via
shunts in the seal (a minimum offourto API ) or in the case of the shell manholes for the maintenance personnel.
the BS or European Codes by multi-stranded flexible cables at-
The roof is therefore provided with support legs and these can
tached to the too surface of the deck and the tank roof or shell.
be seen in Figures 6.4, 6.5 and 6.7 and specifically in Figure
Two cables are required on ianks up to 20m diameter, and four
for largersizes. The European Code reconmends that the min-
6.14. The legs consist of two concentric tubes. The outer,
imum cross sectionalarea ofeach stranded cable should be 80
shorter tube, which is normally of 100 mm n.b. schedule 80
pipe, forms a housing which is welded into the roof. The inner
mm'. Care must be taken to ensure that the cables do not snag
tube, which forms the suppo( leg is normally of 80 mm n.b.
on any ofthe rooffittings during the operation ofthe roof and it
schedule 80 pipe and is secured to the housing with a steel pin
may be that spring loaded cable reels can be used to keep the
cables tensioned at all times.
which passes through both tubes.
The selection ofthe pipe sizesabove givesa radialclearance of
The fullCode design requirements can befound in thefollowing
4 mm between the tubes which is large enough to prevent the
publications:
assembly seizing up due to corrosion or the ing ress of detritus.
BS 2654 Aooendix E The legs normally have two pin location holes, one giving a leg
length for operational conditions and the other allowing a lon-
API 650 Appendix H ger leg which is used when the tank is coming out of service.
prEN 14015 -1 2000 Annex C This additional length increases headroom under the roof for

174 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


6 The design oftank roofs - floating

I RoqfdFin .,
2 Rolling ladder
3 Roling l.dder .!r$EY
4 Gaugers plalfom 12 Arlond. bl.der vent
5 4.c6. to gaug6B plaform
6 Suppon bgs
7 RlmEnr
I Dock mnhole
Figure 6.13 Pfincipalfloating roof appurtenances

tanks up to 60 metres in diamete( and one leg per 26 square


metres for tanks larger than 60 metres in diameter. Astructural
design check isthe made on the legsto ensure that they are ca-
pable of carrying the required loads.

The centre deck legs are located as near as possible on


eoui-soaced radii between the tank centre and the inner rim of
the pontoon.

The concentric tube construction of the legs allows product


vapour to escape through the annular space between the leg
Ltl and its housing and also through the leg location pin holes. This
can be prevented by covering each leg with a non-permeable
s fabric tube, closed off at the top and tightly clamped around the
leg housing at the bottom. They are known in the tank industry
as "leg socks".

6.5.2 Guide pole


Figure 6.14 The undercide of a floating roof showing the support legs and in-
ternal DiDewo|k
Couftesy of McTay Avertical guide pole is situated about one metre inside the tank
shell and its purpose is to prevent the floating rooffrom rotating
maintenance personnel. The adjustment of the leg pin position in the tank. The pole is usually made from 300 to 450 mm n.b.
is made manually, while the roof is floating, and hence it is rec- pipe. The lower end is connected to the tank floor (or lower
ommended that the leg size is limited to 80 mm n.b. as a larger shell) and at the top to the gaugers platform, which is an exten-
size would be too heavy to handle. sion to the tank top access stair. Only one of the connections
Where the leg housings arewelded into single-decks which are can be rigid and it is normalforthis to be the lowerone, the top
lap-welded on the top side only, it is recommended to stitch- of the pole passing through a large diameter ring at platform
weldthe underside lapsto give added strength inthe area ofthe levelwhich has three adjusting screws for plumbing the pole.
housing connection.
The pole passes through a trunking in the roof pontoons, the
The area of the floor on which the legs land is normally rein- top cover of which is fitted with rollers to prevent lateral move-
forced with afullywelded doubler plate which distributes the leg ment ofthe roof in the trunking. Radial movement ofthe roof is
loads into the floor plating. Also the boftom of each leg should not restrained here as this is provided by the roof seal system
be notched to allow producttrapped in the leg during service, to which tends to centralisethe roofin thetank. Excessive escape
drain out as the tank is drained down of vapour from the radial elongated slot in the cover of the
trunking is limited by the use ofa brass plate, which is a snug fit
The support requirements for a single-deck pontoon type roof
on the pole but is allowed to slide radially across the coverofthe
require careful consideration, as this type of roof is not as rigid
trunking, thus sealing the slot in the cover.
as the double-deck type.
An initial calculation for the numberofsupport legs required for The guide pole is very often used to house level-indicating
a single-deck roof can be approximated as follows : equipment. To ensure that the product level in the pole is the
same as the level in the tank, slots are cut in the pole to allow
For the pontoon support legs, allow one leg per 6 metres of
the liquid levels to equalise. This has the disadvantiage in that
tank circumference.
the slots allow the escape of vapour into the atmosphere, al-
The number of centre deck legs can be roughly calculated by though this may be minimised bythe use of a tubularfabric con-
allowing one leg per 34 square metres of centre deck area for certina type sealing system on the oubide ofthe pole.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 175


6 The design of tank roofs - floating

6.5.3 Roof seals tres and the open top of these creases is capped to preven:
vapour emission. The creases, as well as allowing the seal rinE
The gap behveen the inside ofthe tank shelland the outer rim of to conform to the shape ofthe shell, also act as stiffeners where
the floating roof is normally about 200 mm. This gap is provided the thrust from the pantograph mechanisms is transmitted tc
to ensure that the roof will notjam aga;nst the shell during oper- the seal ring.
ation. One of the disadvantages of this type of seal is that the
To preventthe escape ofvapourfrom this gap and to minimise U-shaped fabric seal can collect rainwater, shell corrosion
the amount of rain entering the product here, a sealing system products and any waxy residue deposited on the shell. To mini-
is requlred. This sealing sysiem has to be flexible enough to al- mise this, a second ring of short overlapping plates called a
lowfor any irregularities in the construction of the roof and shell weather shield can be attached to the pontoon rim and rest
when the roof is travelling up and down and for any radial or lat- againstthe shell at about 60'. This weathershield helps to shed
eral movement of the roof due to wind or other action. rainwater and any detritus from the seal. With regard to waxy
deposits on the shell, the upper edge of the ring of seal plates
When floating roofs were first devised, they were fitted with just
can be formed to act as a scraper on the shell to remove any
one primary sealing system but recent legislation, which limits waxy producb.
vapour emissions, has meant that a secondary seal is now re- I
quired to be mounted above the primary To ensure the dispersal of any static or lightning, a series ofthin
flexible stainless steel shunts are connected between the bolt
Many types of primary seal have been devised over the years
rings ofthe roofand the sealring thus giving electrical continu-
sincefloating roofs weredeveloped and a selection ofthese are ity between the roof and the shell.
discussed below together with the more recently developed
compression plate type of primary and secondary seal. 6.5.3.2 Liquid-filled fabric seal
6.5.3.1 Mechanical seals The liquid-filled fabric seal, see Figure 6.16, consists of a petro-
leum and abrasion resistant synthetic rubber type tube filled
This type ofseal has been in use for many years and its robust
with 200 to 250 mm depth of sealing liquid. This tube is posi-
construction gives years of maintenance free service, Figure tioned in the rim space and is supported at its lower end by a
6.15 illustrates such a seal. bottom ring on a hanger system.

Fgure 6.16 Llquid-filled fab cseal


Figure 6.15 Mechanical seal Couftesy of Chicago Bridge & lron Conpany (CB & 1)

Coutlesy of Chicago Bidge & lron Company (CB & I)


The sealing liquid ensures close contact of the tube on the tank
The seal consists of a ring of thin galvanised or stainless steel shelland the outer rim ofthe floating roof. The liquid may be fuel
plates, each about 4 metres long and 1.2 metres deep, bolted oil or the same liquid as that stored in the tank. In non-freezing
together with sealing strips and countersunk bolts. climates water may be used as the sealing liquid. The sealing
This ring of sealing plates is kept in close contact with the shell liquid makes the tube take up whatever rim space is available
by a series of weighted or spring-loaded pantograph mecha- around the circumference and automatically compensates for
nisms mounted on the outer rim of the pontoons. The lower discontinuities in the shell or roof rim profile. The fixed diameter
edge of the plates is immersed in the product and the upper flexible bottom ring is supported by a hanger system which in-
edge is roughly level with the top rim of the pontoons. The gap corporates bumper bars to limit the minimum rim gap and pre-
between the plates and the pontoons is sealed by a flexible vents pinching ofthe tube material. This flexible ring has a fixed
U-shaped fabric which is connected to the top of the ring of circumference and therefore automatically aligns to any dis-
plates and to the pontoon rim by clamp bars and bolb. continuities in the major or minor axes ofthe tank and roof. The
usual rim space range is plus or minus l00 mm on a nominal
Vapour can escape howeverwhere irreguladties in the shape of rim gap of 200 mm.
the shell allow gaps between the plates and the shell. To allevi-
6.5.3.3 Resilient foam-filled seal
ate this problem the seal ring can be made to accommodate
such changes in shape by the introduction of flexure points in This type of seal, shown in Figure 6.17, is similar to the liq-
the seal plates. These flexure points are formed by vertical uid-filled seal except that the tube is filled with pre-formed
shallow V-shaoed creases in the olates at about 560 mm cen- blocks of resilient urethane foam, ratherthan a liquid and there-

176 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


6 The design of tank roofs - floating

9nt advantage ofthis type of seal is that it can be fitted from above
ing the roofwithout the tank having to be taken out of service. This
:re type of seal is illustrated in Figure 6.18.
to Primary seals
The success of compression plate secondary seals led manu-
:he facturers to develop this type of design as a primary seal also.
on The technology, geometry materials ofconstruction and the fix-
NF ing method is the same as that of the secondary seal, the main
ta difference being thatthe primary seal deflects downwardssuch
thatthetip ofthe sealis usuallyjust above the levelofthe stored
ed liouid.
txy
tes This type of p mary seal is very often fitted in conjunction with
Iny its counterpart secondaryseal. lt is used for newtanks and also
as the replacement system for the older type of exisling seals
when it becomes due for retirement. As mentioned earlier, an
lin advantage of these seals is that they can be iitted from above
lolt
the floating roof. See Figure 6.19.
iu-
Seals incorporating foam dams
An effective way to contain and deal with a potential fire in the
rim space ofa floating roof tank is to provide a foam dam at the
ro- outer rim of the roof. This short vertical steel wall ensures that
ed Figure 6-17 Resilient foam-filled seal
SF Couiesy ot Chicago Btdge & lrcn Company (CB & l)
la
fore does not require a bottom hangersupport system. The re-
silient foam blocks ensure a good contact of the tube on the
shell and roof outer rim gap of 200 mm. The seal allows varia-
tions of t '100 mm in the rim space and excessive pinching of
the seal tube is prevented by limiting bumper bars mounted on
the lower edge of the outer rim of the roof.
Advantages of thls type of seal are that when it is mounted just
above the liquid level in the rim gap, any small tears or abra-
sions in the tube will not cause a serious collapse of the seal.
Also, when replacement is finally necessary this may be done
entirely from above the roof.
6.5.3.4 Compression plate type seals
In terms of the timescale of the evolution of floating roofs, the
compression plate type ofseal is a more recent innovation and
these are described as follows.
Secondary seals
Demanding environmental requirements required seal manu-
facturers to develop seals which would significantly reduce
even furtherthe vapourorodourlossesfromfloating roof tanks. Figure 6.18 Compression plate lype secondary seal
Itwasfound that even properly maintained primary seals, oper- Courtesy of McTay
ating in geometrically accurate tiank shells, permitted vapour
losses from the rim gap due to the swirling, scouring action of
the wind within the tank. To counter this, independently
mounted spring action compression plate secondary seals,
'tK formed from thin galvanised steel or stainless steelsheet, were
el mounted above the primary seal thus excluding the wind from
'lg the rim gap.
1g
The number and size ofthe plates are custom-made to suitthe
rle
profile of the shell, roof and the rim gap and the bolting pitch is
or
made to suit the existing vertical or horizontal seal mounting
er ring on the outer rim ofthe roof. The spring action, due to the in-
n-
duced compression in the plates ensures a close seal between
the abrasion resistant polymer seal tip and the shell. The tip is
to
bolted to the edge ofthe plate and thejoints between adjacent
lengths of tip are overlapped with a scarfed joint and bonded
te
with an adhesive compound.
Thejoints between adjacent compression plates are bolted and
sealed with a sofr gasketand allow relative movement between
the plates whilst preserving an impervious seal. In some cases
q- the plates are not bolted and sealed, but instead a continuous
)d flexible vapour barrierfabric is fitted behind the plates attached Figure 6- 19 Compression plate type primary and secondary seals
to the seal tip and the seal mounting ring on the roof. Afurther CouTesy of McTay

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 177


6 The design of tank roofs - floating

as the top-injected fire fighting foam spills down the inside face Several sets of foam generating and injection equipment are
ofthe shell, the foam dam contains and concentrates the foam provided, equi-spaced around the tank periphery on extensis,
within the rim space and does not allow it spillout overthe sur- plales set above and bolted to the shell top curb angle. Thb
face ofthe roof. Some ofthe olderfloating rooftanks were not equipment consists ofa foam generatorand pourer The equilF
provided with foam dams and a further refinement, which can ment is fed by piping from a fire fighting point in a safe positim
be included when fitting the compression plate type ofseals, is outside the tank bund area.
the inclusion ofa purpose-made foam dam. The design is such
During a fire, a measured amount ofa proprieiary foam making
that no hotwork is required to fit itas it bolts on to the sealfixing
compound is injected into the fire water system leading to the
ring. Again, the tank does not have to be taken out of service to
foam generating points on the tank. The foam generators are
have this refinement fitted. See Figure 6.20.
designed to draw air into the mixture, causing the foam to ex-
pand as it is injected into the tank via the pourer, which is a
downward facing cowling on the inside ofthe extension plate.
This pourer injects the foam on to the internal surface ofthe ex-
tension plate and hence on to the tank shell, causing it to flow
down the shell and collect and spread around the rim space.
The foam is contained and concenAaled within the area ofthe
rim space by a vertical metal foam dam attached to the upper
pontoon plates close tothe seal. This dam isset higherthan the
upper tip ofthe sealand thus the complete seal area becomes
flooded with foam and the fire thus extinguished. A typical ar-
rangement of the equipment on the tank is shown in Figure
6.21.

ootDL $d,ith i'n $.1Fdmds

Figure 6.20 Compression platetype primary and secondary sealswith a foam

Cowiesy of McTay

6.5.4 Rim vents

Depending upon how a tank receives product, there are in-


stances where entrained vapour may be released into the tank
from the filling pipeline. This surge of vapour would seek re-
lease from the tank via the rim gap and the resulting build-up of
pressure could cause damage to the sealing fabric. To prevent
*'I
this, a venttube may be fltted between the outer rim and the up-
per deck ofthe pontoon where eithera pressure reliefvalve or a
free vent is fitted.

6.5.5 Drain plugs

At least one screwed drain plug is fitted flush to the deck of the
roof and this is oDened when thetank is drained down and out of Figue 6.21 Foam fire fighting system
service. The open drain allows rainwaterto din from the sur- Courtesy of Angus Fire
face of the roof on to the tank floor and thus relieves the roof
support legs of any additional load. 6.5.6.1 Rim fire detection

6.5.6 Fire fighting The fire fighting equipment can betriggered to operate bya de-
tection system which is in the rim space. This can take the form
Fires in floating roof tanks are usually limited to the area be- of a small bore Dlastic tube which runs around the whole cir-
tween the shelland the rim ofthe floating roof i.e. the rim space. cumference of the rim area.
However, fires in this area arefairly rare, becausethe available
sources of ignition are generally limited to that of a lightning This tube is connected into a more substantial piping system in
strike, or a discharge of static electricity between the roof and both flexible and hard piping, which is connected into a fire fight-
the shell. The latter is virtually eliminated by the earthing sys- ing alarm or initiation control unit on the gaugers platform. The
temswhichare incorDorated into the tiank structure and seals. rim tubing is subjected to an internal pressure and in the event
ofa fire, the tubing melts releasing the pressure thus triggering
Nevertheless fire tighting systems are provided on tanks and an alarm and/or actuating the fire fighting system.
one such system is designed to deliver a flame smothering ex-
panded foam mixture into the tank rim space which quickly ex-
Another method is to have a series oftensioned wireswith fus-
tinguishes the fire.
ible links ananged around the rim space. Again, in the event of
Such a system may be set up in the following way: a fire a fused link would cause the alarm to be raised.

178 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


6 The design of tank roofs - floating

rre 6.5.7 Roof drains The hose system is outlined in Figure 6.23, and Figure 6.24
on shows a tubular frame welded to the tank floor which is de-
'lis signed to guide the hose away from the leg landing area.
The rainfall which accumulates on the surface of the floating
ip- roof is drained to one or more sumps set into the low points of 6.5.7.3 Helical flexible hose
on the top roof membrane. The sump is diained through a closed
The helical hose (see Figure 6.25), is a refinement of the
pipework or hose system which operates within the tank. The
straight hose as it is designed to take up the form of a helical
ng uppel end is connected into the side ofthe sump and the lower
spring, the idea being that it mainiains a constiant repeatable
he end to a low level shell nozzle and gate valve. To prevent the
lay-down pattern on the tank floor, expanding and contracting
roof from being flooded with product in the event of a failure in
with the rise and fall of the roof.
)x- the drain system, a non-return valve is fitted to the outletwithin
a me sump. Hoses can of course sustain damage due to malfunctions in
service and if punctured allow the stored product into the drain
The pipework system has to be flexible to allow for the move-
system.
rx- ment of the roof and this can be accommodated by using the
following: The gate valve on the drain nozzle at the shell ofthe tank is al-
ways kept closed exceptwhen draining water from the roof and
6.5.7.1 Articulated piping system
it is important to regularly monitorthe roof for the accumulation
'le
er This type ofdrain uses a solid steel piping system with a series ofwater, which must be drained off leaving the system dry es-
ofarticulated knucklejoints, see Figure 6.22- lt is ofrugged con-
es
struction but can suffer from seizure ofthe articulatedjoints due
to the slow movementofthe roof or lengthy periods ofinactivity
due to the roof being stationary This can result in the joints be-
ing strained causing them to fail and allowing product into the
drain system.
However, a variation of this type of joint has been devised
whereby a two-piece steel bracket, pivoting in one plane and
housing a short length of armoured flexible hose connected to
the face of each bracket, is used as the flexible joint.
6.5,7.2 Armoured flexible hose
This type of system eliminates the need for articulated joinb,
but it has been known for the hose to snag on internal tank fit-
tings orfor it to be trapped under a roofsupport leg as the roof Figure 6.23 An armoured iexible hose
orounds on the tank floor.

Figure 6.24 Alubularframe welded to the tank floor


Couftesy of McTay

n
f-

n
F

II

Figure 6.25 Helicalflexible hose


Figure 6.22 Arliculated pipe drainage system forfloating roof tanks Courtesy of McTay

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 179


6 The design of tank roofs lloaw

At this particular refinery the roof drainage was achieved by an


employee who, armed with a bicycle, would cycle from tank to
tank. He would climb the radial or circumferential tank stairway
and look down at the floating roof. lf accumulated rainwaterwas
present, he would descend and drain the water into the site
drains using the external valve. During his visit to the tank he
would check to see that no oil was present in the drained water.
indicating the beginnings of an internaldrain problem. He would
also look to see if the roof drain sump outlet was clear and not
blocked by sundry debris or seagulls' nests and that the tank
bund was not being undermined by the local rabbit population.
In addition to performing a useful purpose and having a pleas-
ant outdoor life, the combination of cycling several miles each
day and climbing several hundred feet up tank stairways kept
our friend as fit as a butcher's dog.
Sadly this idyllic state of affairs was not to be allowed to con-
tinue. New management, equipped with the cost cutting gene
Figufe 6 26 Cofnectons to ihe roofsump and the steetouttet piping to the were installed. The tank drain man and his bicycle were seen as
being rather old-fashioned and were removed from the payroll.
Half-hearted attempts to use clever drainage valves which
could discriminate between rainwater and oil, and conse-
pecially in cold conditions, when damage to the system can oc- quently allow the tank drain valves to remain constantly open,
cur due to freezing within the system. were made but this is an expensive and problematic area and
was consequently soon forgotten.
The drain valve must never be left open when unattended, as
this could lead to the tank bund being flooded with product in the Some little time later, one of the tanks came to the attention of
event of a failure of the drain system within the bnk. the facility management. lt was exhibiting contradictory symp-
Figure 6.26 shows the connections to the roof sump and the toms. The rolling ladder was inclined at an angle which indi-
cated that the tank was emptywhereas the Ievel indication sys-
steel outlet piping to the tank shell.
tem indicated that the tank was full. lt was decided that the
6.5.7.4 Drain design Codes rolling laddercould not lie whilstthe levelindication could, as in
The design Codes require that at least one roof drain shall be the past it had occasionally failed to register the correct situa-
provided as follows: tion.
API Code Without examining the tank further, filling was commenced.
Product soon poured overthe top ofthe tank shell and began to
The drain diameter should be:
accumulate within the bund. Because of the lack of oersonnel
at least 3" (80 mm) diameter, fortanks < = 36 m diameter. around the site, this situation continued for some time. Eventu-
ally the problem was spotted and the filling stopped. At this
at least 4" (100 mm) diameter for tanks > 36 m diameter. stage the following situation existed:
BS Code
. The bund was half full of an expensive and now useless
The drain diameter should be: prod uct
75 mm diameter, for tanks < = 30 m diameter. . This product had to be removed at considerable cost
100 mm diameter, for tanks > 30 m diameter. . The ground within the bund was saturated with product and
150 mm diameter, for tanks > 60 m diameter. required exoensive treatment
European Code . The floating roof had sunk some time earlier under the
The drain diameter should be; weight of undrained rainwater

75 mm diameter, for tanks < 30 m diameter. . The tank had to be emptied, cleaned and repaired

100 mm diameter, for tanks 30 to 60 m diameter. For allowing an effectively open-topped tank containing a vola-
tile product to pollute the atmosphere for an unknown period of
150 mm diameter, for tanks > 60 m diameter. time and for allowing a considerable spill to occur, a fine and a
6.5.7.5 "The man who drained the floating roofs" serious finger wagging was dealt to the company by the Health
and Safety Executive!
- A cautionary tale: All of which made the savings due to the elimination of the tank
Alarge refinery located in the UK, which shall remain nameless,
had a large number of floating roof tanks storing crude oil and drain man and his bike seem rather a poor deall
refined products. It was not all bad news however, the tank level gauging system
It is necessary to remove the accumulated rainwaterfrom float-
was undamaged and spot-on accurate.
ing rooftanks as they are only designed to support 10 inches of
water whilst floating. To achieve this the roofs are fitted with 6.5.8 Syphon drains
drains which take the rainwaterfrom a sump or series of sumps
on the floating roof down through the product to a lower shell This system automatically drains water from the roof mem-
outlet connection which is fitted with an external drain valve. brane and discharges it directly into the product where it gravi-
This valve was always kept closed because of concern at that tates to the bottom of the tank, to be collected in the floor sump.
time, about the possibility of failure of the roof drain, within the lntroducing water into the product may not always be desirable
product liquid. ln this circumstance an open drain valve would and this disadvantage has to be weighed against the advan-
mean that the tank would dump most of its contents into the tage of rainwater being automatically removed from the roof
bu nd. without the need for anV manual operations.

1BO STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


,6Jhe19f!9!ofta!!t99E W
an rain stops, when the excess head of water decreases and the
to system returns to equilibrium.
ay
As mentioned earlierthe syphon drains mustalways be primed
ite with water This means that when a tank with a single-deck roof
he is filled from being empty, the drains have to be fitted with an ex-
tension tube to prevent product escaping on to the deck
IO through the drain points, due to the natural displacement of the
rot roof. This is achieved by temporarily screwing a priming pipe
nk into the top of each drain tube and when the roof is floating, wa-
)n. ter is poured into the priming pipe until the level ofwater in the
ls- syphon tube is below deck level. The priming pipes are then
ch removed.
rpt Also when a single-deck roof tank is on hydrotest the priming
pipes must befitted to preventthe roof being flooded with water.
n- In this case the pipes remain in position throughout the test and
1e are only removed aflerthe priming operation mentioned above.
AS During periods of hot dry weather the drains should be topped
)[. up with water, as the water in the drains may evaporate and al-
ch low product to spill out on to the deck of the roof.
e-
For equilibrilm Hp x density of product = Hwx density of water When this type ofdrain is used in a double-deck roof, the addi-
'td tional depth between the h,rr'o decks gives much more flexibility
when changjng the specific gravity ofthe stored products, also
Figure 6.27 A syphon drain fltied to a stngte deck floaling roof
the need for priming pipes is eliminated.
of A diagrammatic representation of a syphon drain fitted to a sin-
gle-deck floating roof is as shown in Figure 6.27. 6.5.9 Emergency drains
s- The device which is built into the construction of the floatino
roof. consists ofa length oftube (usually 50 or80 mm bore)sei These can only be fitted to double-deck floating roofs and they
te
flush with the top surface ofthe roof membrane and extending are simply vertical tubes set through the top surface ofthe top
in
vertically into the product below the roof level. The lower end of deck and protrudejust below the bottom deck. Their purpose is
a- to allow natural drainage of rainwater in the event of malfunc-
the tube sits in a open top tray which is supported off the tube.
The length ofthe tube and the position ofthe tray is criticaland tion of the primarydrains. The top of these drains are normally
d. provided with a mesh screen to prevent them being blocked by
is calculated to suit the specific gravityofthe stored product and
lo the displacement of the roof within the stored product. The svs- detritus from the deck. The use of this type of drain has waned
el tem will only operate for products having the specific gravity because the open drain allows vapourto escapefrom the tank,
J- that the devjce is designed for, or for a product having a lower which is unacceptable nowadays.
specific gravity. Storing products with a higher specific gravity is
likely to cause the roof to flood with product. 6.5.10 Bleeder vents
The system relies on always being primed with water, as it is the
head of water in the tube and tray, acting against the head of This vent only comes into operation either when the floatinq
product, which keeps the system in equilibrium. During a period roof is being landed, and the tank is drained down, or when an
of rainfall, the water collects in the tube and increases the head empty tank is being filled. lts purpose is to vent the area below
over that of the constant head of product and the excess water the landed roof in its stationary position, allowing air to enterthe
spills out of the tray into the product. This continues until the space underthe roof as the product is evacuated from the tank,
thus avoiding a vacuum in the space and then to allow the air

)f
a
h

Roof on suppohlegs Roolfloating Roof on luppon bgs


tankfilling

f
:igure 6.28 Bleeder vents

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 181


6 The design of tank rools - floatina

under the roof to escape when the tank is being refilled, avoid_ platform itselfis accessedfrom the grade levelvia a
Ing a pressure under the roof. spiralstair-
case which follows the external contour of the shell, or from a
The valve is a simple device consisting of a short vertical straight radial staircase, orin some cases from an interconnect-
trunking which forms a valve seating and this is welded to a cor_ ing platform from an adjacent tank.
respondin9 aperture in the deck. Through the centre, and sup_
ported off of this trunking, passes a vertical guide tube 6.5.12 Rolling ladder
which
nouses a push rod on to which is attached a disc which forms
the valve lid. The length ofthe push rod is such that as the tank The rolling ladder is the means ofaccess on to the floating roof
is emptied, the rod contacts the floor plating before the from the gaugers platform. lt is shown in Figure 6.29.
roof sup_
pon legs land and the valve opens. freelyventing the
space be_ The upper end ofthe ladder is attached to the gaugers platform
neath the deck. Similarly, on refilling the tank th; valve closes
by hinged brackets. The lowerend is proviOed wjttian axlewitn
aner aI the atr beneath the roof has been expelled and the roof
a wheel at each side of the ladder The wheels run on a steel
floats. The diagrammatic sketch in Flgure 6.28 showsthe oper_
track mounted on a runway structure supported off the roof so
ation of the valve.
that, as the roof moves up and down, the hinged ladder can
However, this type of simple valve is not environmenially take up a varying angle as required.
friendly because, once open, it remains open, thus allowino va'_ The first ladders which were produced only had round rungs for
pours to escape when the roof is landed and drained down.
The treads as these were accessible at whatever angle the |tdder
alternative is to use pressure and vacuum valves, which will
onty open when there is a differential pressure across them and
willtherefore remain closed afterdrain down. Also the pressure
and vacuum valve will allow the release of vapour from under
the roof formed by solar means or imported slugs of vapour
from the filling line, whilst in service.

6.5.11 The gaugers platform

The gaugers platform is a relatively smallaccess area ofabout


Toursquare metres, usually elevated about 2 metres above the
top curb angle of the shell. The platform overhangs the shell to
allow the guide pole to pass through it so that a;cess can be
gained to the guide pole. which usually houses the product
level
indicating equipment ora dip hatch. Also the platform is used as
an attachment for the rolling tadder which gives access to the
Ttoaltno rool.

tne pltform is supported off a stiffened section of the top Figure 6.29 Typical rolling taddefwith self-levellinq treads
course ofshell plating bya fairly substantial steel structure. The Courtesy of McTay Engineeing

Figure 6.30 The iocalion ofsome oflhe common appurtenances found on a floatino roof
Cou4esy of McTay

182 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


6 The design af tank roofs - floating

)tr- happened to be at, but these proved to be unsafe for personnel


'ta venturing on to the roof. A much safer system was devised
which uses individually hinged stair treads having brackets on
their underside which are pinned to a common tie bar linking
them all together. This tie bar is fixed to a static bracket at the
gaugers platform in such a waythat, atwhatever angle the lad-
der may assume, the treads are always level.
lof Some tank operators nowexclude the use of rolling ladders, be-
cause there have been reports ofaccidents to personnelon the
rm roof created by certain products gassing off and causing pools
of harmful vapourto collect on the roof. Alternatively, they insist
'ith
on gas detection being carried out prior to allowing personnel
:el
on the roof.
so
an Figure 6.31 Typical dip hatch fitting
6.5.13 Deck manholes Couftesy of Endrcss+Hauser Systens & Gauging Ltd

for
One or more of these square or circular manholes are provided
ler
in the deck of the roof to allow access to the underside of the
roof from the top, when maintenance work is required whilst the
tank is out of service. Without such access maintenance per-
sonnel working on the roof, who were required to work on the
underside, would only be able to gain access by the circuitous
route involving ascending the steep rolling ladder, descending
the external staircase and entering the tank via the shell
mannote.

6.5.14 Pontoon manholes

Each pontoon of a floating roof is a separate buoyancy com-


partment and must be periodically checked to ensure that it is
dry and free from leaks. Hence each compartment has its own
inspection manhole.
These manholes are generally of light construction consisting
of a short circular coaming welded to the top plate of the com-
partment, the closure being a loose flat lid with a down-turned Flgure 6.32 Pos tion offoam darn in retation lo the seatassembty
lip which fits over the coaming to keep out the rain. The lid is fit-
ted with a handle for easy access to the compartment. gjve drainage for rainwater which could accumulate in the
space between the seal and the dam.
Figure 6.30 shows the location of some of the common aoour-
tenances found on a floating rool
6.5.17 Electrical continuity
6.5.15 Sample/dip hatch
In the event of a lightning strike on the tank, or a build-up of
The sample/dip hatch is fitted either to a nozzle which proiects static electricity within the tank due to product movements,
through one ofthe pontoons or it isfitted tothe top ofthe g;uge there needsto be a secure electrical bond between the roofand
pole. lt is illustrated in Figure 6.31 and may be used as follows : the tank to make certain that any electrical charge is conducted
directly to earth, thus ensuring that a spark can not be created
. To measure the depth ofproduct in the tank using a dip tape. between the roof and the tank which could cause a flre. The
This may be done as a check on the correct functionino of means of providing this continuity may be by :
the automatic level gauge.
. Providing thin flexible stainless steel shunt strips between
. To take a sample of the tank conren6. the top ofthe steel sealing ring of a mechanical seal and the
. To take the temperature ofthe tank contents. seal connection ring on the floating roof.
A long length offlexible cable attached to the gaugers plat-
6.5.16 Foam dam form and to the top of the roof pontoons. The length of the
cable in this case makes it prone to snagging on other roof
This topic was discussed earlier in Section 6.5.9.3. in coniunc- fittings so positioning of the attachment points requires
tion with primary and secondary compression plate type iloat- careful consideration.
ing roof seals. However, the normal construction for a foam
dam consists of a short vertical plate in 3 mm steel, which is Avariation ofthe above method is to bond the gaugers plaf
weldedto thetop pontoon plateata short distance from the seal form to the top of the rolling ladder structure with a short
assembly, see Figure 6.32. To give effective fire protection, the length of flexible cable. A position some way down the lad-
height of the dam plate must be above the tip ofthe roof seal so der structure is then chosen as a attachment point Jor an-
that the injected foam will completely cover the seal. other cable, the other end of which is bonded to the floatino
roof structure. This second cable is much shorter than that
The plate is given rigidity by vertical angle stiffeners at regular above, and by careful selection of the attachment points.
intervals around its circumference. Also, small slots are cut in the lay down path of this cable can be fairly accurately pre-
the lower edge of the dam plate at itsjunction to the pontoon. to dicted.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT ,183


184 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
7 Tankfittings and ancillary
equipment for ambient temperature
tanks
This Chapterdeals with the design ofthe various nozzles, manholes and other appufienances
that are required for the operation of the tank. Also, consideration is given to the access
requirements to the tankforthe operating personnel, and also to various fire fighting methods.

Contents:
7.1 Tank nozzles
7.1.1 BS 2654 requirements for shell nozzles
7.1 .1.1 Nozzles 80 mm outside diameter and above
7.1 .1.2 Flush type clean-out doors
7.1 .1.3 Nozzles less than 80 mm outside diameter
7. 1.2 API 650 requirements for shell nozzles
7.1.3 European Code prEN 14015 requirements for shell nozzles
7.2 Spacing of welds around connections
7 .2.1 BS 2654 requirements
7.2.2 API 650 requirements
7.2.3 Flush type clean-out doors
7.2.4 Eurcpean Code prEN 14015 requirements
7.3 Shell manholes
7.3.1 BS 2654 requirements
7.3.2 API 650 requirements
7.3.3 European Code prEN 14015 requirements
7.4 Roof nozzles
7.4.1 BS 2654 requirements
7.4.2 API 650 requirements
7.4.3 European Code prEN 14015 requirements
7.5 Roof manholes
7.5.1 BS 2654 requirements
7.5.2 API 650 requirements
7.5.3 European Code prEN 14015 requirements
7,6 Floor sumps
7.6.1 BS 2654 requirements
7.6.2 API 650 requirements
7.6.3 European Code prEN 14015 requirements
7.7 Contents measuring systems
7.7.1 Tank dipping
7.7.2 Level indicators
7.7.2.1 Float, board and target system
7.7.2.2 Automatic tank gauge
7.7.3 Temperature measurement
7.7.4 High accuracy servo tank gauge
7.7.5 High accuracy radar tank gauge
7.8 Tank venting
7.8.1 Free vents
7.8.2 Pressure and vacuum (P & V) valves
7.8.3 Emergency vents
7.8.4 FIame arrestor
7.9 Tank access
7.9.1 Spiral staircase

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 185


7 Tank fiftings and ancillary equipment tur ambient temperaturc tanks

7.9.2 Radialstaircase
7.9.3 Horizontal platforms
7.9.4 Vertical ladders
7,10 Fire protection systems
7.10.1 Foam systems
7.10.1.1 Base injection
7.10.1.2 Top foam pourers
7.10. 1.3 Rimseal foam pourers
7.10.1.4 Foam cannons
7.11 Water coolihg systems
7.'11. 1 Special case - Floating roof tanks
7.'l 1.2 Tank cooling methods
7.11.2.'l Water spray and deluge sprinkler systems
7.11.2,2 Fixed and trailer-mounted water cannons

186 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


7 Tank fittings and ancillary equipment for ambient tempenture tanks

7.1 Tank nozzles

7,1,1 BS 2654 requirements for shell nozzles

7.1.1.1 Nozzles 80 mm outside diameter and above


The BS Code requires shell manholes and shell nozzles of 80
mm outside diameter and above to be governed by the follow-
Ing rules:
Minimum wallthickness for various outside diameters shall be
as shown in Figure 7.1.

lrln.wall $iclo65s {lnm)


7.5

>10Olo=< 150 8.5

10.5 Frgure 7.2 Thickened insen plate


>2@ '12.5

Figure 7.1 Liinimum wallihicknesses for various outside diamelers


Fron BS 2654. table 5

With regard to shell manholes, the Code gives details of a stan-


dard manhole in Figure I of the Code but stipulates that this is
only suitable for tank heights up to 25 m. Tank heights are rarely
above this height, but if this is the case then the components of
the manhole and reinforcement would require analysis to en-
sure their suitability for the increase in pressure above a 25 m
neao.
The hole which is cut into the shell to accept the manhole or
nozzle obviously weakens the shell in this area and therefore a
means of providing reinforcementto compensate forthis weak-
ness is reouired. The Code requires that the cross-sectional
area of this reinforcement, measured in the vertical plane con-
taining the axis ofthe manhole or nozzle shall not be less than: Figure 7.3 Thickened insert plale

0.75 xd xt equ7.1

where
d = diameter of the hole cut in the shell plate (mm)
t = thickness ofthe shell plate (mm)
Reinforcement is provided by -The area replacement method.
The reinforcement may be provided by any one or any combF
nation of the following three area replacement methods. Note
that a corrosion allowance on any surface should be excluded
from the computation of reinforcement required.
a) The addition of a thickened insert plate as in Figures 7.2
and 7.3 or a circular reinforcing plate as in Figure 7.4.
The limit of the reinforcement is such that: 'do', the effective di-
ameter of the reinforcement, is between 1.5.d and 2.d. A
non-circular reinforcing plate may be used provided the mini-
mum requirements are complied with. Also, where nozzles are
close to the bottom ofthe tank, a "tombstone"-shaped reinforc-
ing plate shown in Figure 7,3 may be used as long as the Code
rules are complied with. Figure 7.4 Acircular reinforcing plate

b) The Drovision of a thickened nozzle or manhole barrel. As an alternative to the area replacement methods, the rein-
The portion ofthe barrelwhich may be considered as reinforce- forcement can be made by the provision of a thickened nozzle
ment is that lying within the shell plate thickness and within a barrel protruding on both sides of the shell plating as shown in
distance four times the barrel thickness from the shellplate sur- Figure 7.6. This method was devised by R.T. Rose (see Refer-
face, unless the barrelthickness is reduced within this distance, ence 7.1) and and was first introduced into the BS Code in the
when the limit is the point at which the reduction begins. Figure 1973 edition.
7.5 illustrates this method.
c) The provision of a shell plate thickerthan that required by The method limits a stress concentration factor I'to a maximum
the shell thickness formula or given in the Table of mini- value of 2 and this is derived from the graph shown in Figure 7.7
mum shell plate thicknesses, (whichever is relevantto the where a replacementfactor'y', based on the ratio of nozzle wall
tank under consideration). The additional thickness being thickness to the mean radius of the nozzle, is plotted against
used as all or a Dart of the reouired reinforcement. the ratio of the outer to inner radii of the nozzle wall.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 187


7 Tank fiftings and ancillary equipment for ambient tempercturc tanks

Figure 7.5 Provislon of a thickened nozzle of manhole baffel

0.{ 06
Replacement factor Y

y=1.5sv/#,+
wherc
I is the shell platethickness {in mm)
lD is the nozle body thickness {in mm)

;:'"'" rh asthe mean radilfor branch bodies (in mm)

Alldimensions a.e in millimetres


F gure 7.6 Provision of a thickened nozzle barrelprotruding on bolh sides of
the shell plaUng
Figure 7.7 Plol ofslress concentration factor v replacement factor
This method is usefulwhere space beneath a nozzle deniesthe
of service for maintenance.
use of a reinforcing plate.
A cautionary tale
The Code gives specific requirements with regard to the
welding of nozzles into shells and these vary according to shell A large UK-based refinery was fed by pipeline with oil and gas
and nozzle wallthickness and materialstrength. For nozzles 80 from the North Sea. The crude oilwas stored in a number of96
mm outside diameter and above, the barrel ofthe nozzle is set m diameter floating roof tanks. Each of these tanks was fifted
through the shell, albeit in some instances it may be flush with with three product mixers of the Plenty propeller type, fitted in
the inside face oJthe shell i.e. for floating rooftanks, to prevent connections in the bottom cou rse ofthe tank shell. The function
fouling the roof rim and seal. of these mixers was to keep the product stirred up and to
prevent the relatively high wax content from settling out of the
All nozzle welds must have a clearance of 100 mm from any
crude oil and accumulating on the tank bottoms. During the
other adjacent weld. The clearance is measured from the toes
early years of operation of these tanks the mixers were used
of fillet welds and from the centre line of butt welds.
regularly as envisaged by the tank designers and no problems
For shell mountings having openings of 300 mm or larger, occurred.
welded into shell plates thicker than 20 mm, then all lap or fillet
At a certain point in time, the terminal owners decided to in-
welds connecting the barrel or reinforcing plate to the shell and
stitute a review to see if operating costs could be reduced. This
all butt welds incorporating plates thicker than 40 mm at the
taskwas given to a group fitted with the financial gene, but sadly
prepared edges, shall be post weld heat-treated in accordance
not its technical equivalent! The collective "beady eye" even-
with the Code requiremenb.
tually fell upon the high power consumption and consequent
Cautionary note - There have been accidents, especially on cost ofrunning the tank mixers. ltwas decided to make savings
older tanks, where cast iron valves have been used on shell by the simple expedient of not running the tank mixers at all. All
nozzles and the bodies of these have failed due to overstress- went well for a while.
ing or freezing. Cast steel valves should always be used in
The roof then began to show an increasing disinclination to
these instances to obviate this problem.
behave properly at low product levels. The centre deck would
7.1.1.2 Flush type clean-out doors be flat, but the outer perimeter was uneven and at a hlgher
level. This was again overcome by increasing the minimum
Some stored products contain entrained sediment, whichtends
product level for tank operation. All was again well until the day
to settle out ofsuspension during a lengthy storage period. This
that oil began to appear from beneath the tank annular plate.
sediment builds up, generally in an uneven pattern, on the floor
This indicated a leak in the tank bottom plating and the flow of
ofthe tank and when landing a floating roof on its support legs it
oil into the local bund was such that it could not be ignored.
can cause twisting ofthe deck due to the legs landing on the un-
even surface. This is a particular problem with large floating So this meant that the tank would have to be emptied, cleaned
roof tanks storing crude oil coming directly from the field, as and repaired. Sadly the floating roof showed serious signs of
these tanks spend manyyears in service before beingtaken out distress as the liquid level was lowered and an investigation

188 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


7 Tank fittings and ancillary equipment for ambient temperaturc tanks

Fis No 28a Fig No 28b Fig No 29 Fig No 30

IVax UTS ot blr. @ur$ shell plating (Nhm'z) 460 460 >460

lvin. btm. cours width Io a@mnodde fulldoot height (mml 1830 600 1930 600

Md. size ol door openino Wx H (mm) 915'x 1230 30O" x 1230 915'x 1230 100" r 1230

[,lax. thl's. oi btm couEe (aF) 18,5 14.5 37 3T

Md. rhks. ol lnsed plar6 (mm) 40 37 37

Max. thks. ol roinforcins plare{mm) 40 4A

Fisurc Nos 28a & 28b limited to lsnks havins bonom shellcou6e no lhicke.lhaD 18.5 mm, $+'6reas Fig'r Nos 29 & 30 which inorPorats reinroaing Plales in thek dsign, en be
usd on shell plaiins up 10 37 mm tbick

'For Figurs ?8a & 29 the hight of th doo. opening is: lhe hEighl of th bottom shsll coLrrs, or 915 mm, whichevs is lhe smallr

- For Figurs 28b A 30 rhe hoighr of the door opning is limird ro 3008m forshellplat steels having a minimum u.I s. no than 460 N/mm1

Figure 7.8 Principalparameterc for each of the fourtypes of door

through roof leg fitting holes revealed an accumulation of waxy


material of uneven thickness up to 2.0 m deep in places on the
tank bottom. This was of sufncient load bearing capacity to
locally support the weight of the floating roof. The original mix-
ers had their Drooellers embedded in the wax and could not be
started. l\,4uch time was spent in agitated "navel gazing" until a
suitable specialist was found with a solution to the problem.
This involved the connection to the partially-filled tank ofa huge
pump which re-circulated the oil and eventually forced the wax
back into solution so that it could be removed from the tank and
disposed of. This process took months to complete and con-
siderable sums of money, many times morc that the cost sav-
ings so eagerly seized on earlier. The remaining tanks were in-
vestigated and all found to be suffering from substantial wax
accumulations which required the same expensive and
time-consuming treatment!
To assist in the disoosalofthe sediment once the tank has been
taken out of service, the tank may have built into the shell, one
or more large clean-out doors.
These flanged doors have can have openings, roughly one Figufe 7.9 Flush type clean-out doof wlth plaie reinforcemenl, slze of openlng
metre square, (although there are height limitations
ls - as
shown in Figure 7.8) with the bottom edge flush with the tank
915 mm x1230 mm

6
d
floor plating thus making for an easier internal cleaning
n
operation.
n The large size of the opening being in the highly-stressed
o bottom course of shell plating causes complicated stress pat-
e ierns and therefore has to be carefully designed to ensure that
e the strength of the shell is not compromised.
d
The tank Codes recognise this and in the BS Code there are
S
fully detailed arrangements for four different types of Flush
clean-out doors for the designer to choose from. All of these
l- designs involve the door being fitted into a shell insert plate and
S allthese assemblies have to be postweld healtreated on com-
pletion of fabrication.
The table in Figure 7.8 shows the principal parametersfor each
It
of the four types of door, these are identified by the figure num-
S
bers as used in BS 2654.
lllustrations of two flush type clean-out doors are shown in
Figures 7.9 and 7.10.
l
j A smaller, simpler and less expensive type of clean-out aid is s.thon a_c
r the combined water draw-ofi and clean-out sump. This fitting is
I basicallyformed by a half-section of 6'10 mm diameter pipe 980
mm long attached beneath a 460 mm x 5'10 mm hole cut in the Figure 7.10 Flush lype clean-out doorwith plate reinforcement, size ofopen-
ing 300 mm x 1230 mm
outer region of the floor plating. The external opening of the
sump is closed with a 'D'shaped flange and cover, see Figure the tank during maintenance operations. One disadvaniage is
7.11. that this sump can become blocked with excessive sludge and
hence, its use as a waterdraw-off point when in service, is lost.
This fitting is used as a water draw-off sump during normaltank
operations, with a nozzle and valve fitted at the low point on the The Code states that "the fillet weld to the underside of the bof
cover and as a clean-out opening when removing sludge from tom sketch plate or annular plate shall be deposited in the flat

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT ,I89


7 Tank fittinqs and ancillary equipmenl for ambienl temperalute tanks

NOTE. A gr.tingd.v b.lntd ro Awarning is given with respect to shell nozzles, which are close
th..udD arr sl.ty pre.urio. to the bottom ofthe tank. Such nozzles can rotate with the vertF
cal bending of the shell under hydrostatic loading and con-
nected piping can cause a restraint on the nozzle giving rise to
additional stresses in the nozzle and shell. Attention is drawn to
Aooendix'P'of the Code which deals with this problem but it
must be remembered that this theory can only be applied to
tanks over 36 m in diameter.
There is only an upper limitforthe outside diameterof reinforc-
ing plates and this is twice the diameter of the hole cut in the
shell. (The BS Code is between 1 .5 and 2.0 times the diameter
of the hole in the shell plating.)
The means of providing reinforcement together with complete
details for the fabrication and welding of nozzles in sizes from
'l%" (38 mm) nominalbore, to48" (1219 mm)nominalbore are
given in severaltables and diagrams in the Code, togetherwith
explanatory clauses.
Fig u re 7- 1 1 Comb ned water draw'off a nd clean-out sump
Similardetailed information is also given for four shell manhole
position, the bottom plate being reversed for this purpose be-
diameters: 500 mm, 600 mm, 750 mm and 900 mm.
tore final positioning on the tank foundation.' However. on the
sketch of the sump in the Code these welds are denoted "site There is a proviso in the Code regarding the portion ofthe barrel
welds". lt is normal practice to perform these welds in the shop which can be considered as acting as reinforcement ln cases
when they can be checked for soundness before going to site. where the strength ofthe barrel material is slightly less than that
Accordingly these welds are denoted as "shop welds" in Figure ofthe shell plate material, then the portion ofthe barrelconsid-
7.11. ered as reinforcement is reduced. Where the strength of the
barrel material is much lessthan thatofthe shellplate material'
7.1.1.3 Nozzles less than 80 mm outside diameter then the barrel can not be considered as contributing to the
Additional reinforcement is not required for nozzles less than reinforcement of the nozzle.
80 mm outside diameter provided thatthe thickness ofthe bar- The Code addresses instances where there may be a cluster of
rel is not less than that as shown in Figure 7.12. nozzles ctose together in one area of the shell and shows how
these should be spaced within one large reinforcing plate.

Min.'/vall thicknor. {m.n}


7.1.3 European Code requirements for shell noz'
5.0 zles
5.5

The prEN 14015-1 requirements are the same as given in the


Figure 7.12 Barrcl ih icknesses BS 2654 Code with the addition of the table of nozzle body
From BS 2654, table 5 thickness requirements that include minimum thickness for
These nozzles do not have to be set through the shell but may stainless steel nozzles and these are given in Figure 7 13
be set on the shellsurface provided thatthe plates are checked
close to the opening to ensure that no injurious laminations are Mln.wall thickno$ (mm)
present. lt is important that the welded joint to the shell has
sound root penetration. In the event of any doubt as to the
soundness of the root, it should be back-gouged and
5.0

back-welded. The internal bead of sound joints welded from 6.0

one side only are to be ground smooth and flush with the inside 70
bore. >150lo=<?oo 8.0

90
'2@
7.'1.2 API650 requirements for shell nozzles
Figure 7.13 Table of nozzle bodythickness requnemenls

The API requirements are similar but not the same as the BS re-
quirements. Only nozzles above 50 mm bore are required to 7.2 Spacing of welds around connections
have added reinforcement.
The minimum cross-section of reinforcement shall be calcu- 7.2.1 BS 2654 requirements
lated as follows:
The BS Code requires that the distance between the toes ofad-
d xt equT .2
jacentfillet welds or between the toes offillet welds and the cen-
tre line ofadjacent buttwelds or between the centre lines ofad-
where jacent butt welds, shall not be less than 100 mm.
d = diameter of the hole cut in the shell plate (mm) Welds to nozzle bodies shall not be closer to any weld which
t = thickness of the shell plate (mm) has been post weld heat-treated than:

Note: Only 75% of this value is required to the BS Code. 2.5,8 \ equ 7.3

However, the calculated minimum required design shell thick-


ness may be used in equation 7.2, instead ofthe nominal mini- where
mum shell plate thickness. (On smallertanks the calculated de- tp = wall thickness of the nozzle (mm)
sign thickness is often less than the nominal shell plate
thickness.) r = inside radius of the nozzle (mm)

190 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


7 Tank fiftings and ancillary equipmentfor ambie.: ::-:: : , : -:-.is
)5e
rti-
)n-
ItO
rto
trt
to

rc-
he
ter

lte
lm
tfe
1In Sh6[ vsrtical

)te Botqn 9bts8 or anndsr plal6


Not:
rel R-MH{{ = Rrinfofc.d opening (marhoL o( norzlc urith dia$ond rnrle rcinforchg phje, sce nguE 34A and j-5).
LTR-N = [p"' fyF Rinbleed Op.oilg&@k *,i&
ronbEtorc rfuF rcirfqri'|g plala scc FigurE f,-s, Dclail s lld b).
rat R.N Rchfo* d opaning (narnhob or no@zle with circ.r or reinforcing plui" or thickcrid itrscd Ftric, see Figt'n 3-s).
rd- s-N l,IorBehford Qcning (m$hob or trolrtc it|scrted ir6 rh! slE[ pcr lhr rftrmaie nck det{it of FiguE 348).
he
Variatrks ncfarE E Mioirnon Dirncnsior Bctwccn [&ld Tocs or \ rld Cencrtirte (IX3]
he Shrll, hl|gnFfi
Condirim A (2) B (2) c (2) D (4) E (2) F (5) G (5)
Nunbet
of r < 12.5 nuB A! 3.1.3.2 150 nun (6 in,) 75 mm (3 i$.) ?5 mr (3 iD,)
(t3t12m.l w!ktd e'2tl2l Ot Z'lZl
o! 3.7.3.3 ?5 nun t3 in.)
PWHT nr 2l lrt
75 mrn (3 in.)
for S-N
3.7-3.3 Tabl.
.3,7.3.4 Etct14r
.3.7.1.4 8t
'te
dy t> l2J mtn 3,7.3.1.a 8Wq EW o{
'or (r> V3 io) WcLdcd 250tlm{10 in.) 25() mrn {10 in.
EW6
t50 mrn (6 in.)
SlYor
250 mm (lO in.)
3.7J.3 75 mtn (3 in.)
ior S-N
3.?.3.3 Table 3{ 8t orll. r
8t
. 3.?.3.4
,> 12.5 fin F\trHT 3.7.32 150 mir (5 irl.) 75 nult (3 h.) 75 tnn (3 in.)
It> tll'l'Jl.\ <r lt)2r or 2I llt
J.t.5,t 75 (3 in.)
''lm
ot 2tl1t
?5 mrn (3 b.)
for S-N
Trble 16
. 3.7.!.4 E ql/2r
. 1.7.3.4 8r
Nqtes:
l. If t$ro ftquirensfs &! givrn, ih midmsm Fscing is the grst r value, crce$ for dincr|sit'n "f*. Se! r|otE 5,
Zt- drll rhickrrs. 8ly
lW = 6 titler $|c lqScsr wcld tizc for
thc l&gcrr fof rcinforEins pldc or or i[6e.r plst Frit$crj' (6[* or butr-wcld)
wetd (6lle*
Fridlery wcld
t- fiom tlrc l,oc of ftc Friphcry wcld !o tlE ccrt rlinc of thr ltEll b{ru-wcld,
3- 3. kr hts
l. &r tetks dcEignd
dcaistd tofo Afp.ndif,
AoDcndir A,A. s.c As.X.
AJ.2. Spochg 2ll" ,r toe
SDrElnc = 2llt rrp !o rle of
ro roe o sdjsrat wclds.
4. D = spscing di$tolc. crteblishcd by mirimum clevltiql hr l0
typc reinlorrcd qenings &ortl Ta6lc 3{, coluno 9.
5- Emhss6r oprbn io sllo$ ste cDcNlil8s to bc loclrcd in hsizoniai qrvcrtical shJl Uu-wchs. Sce Fisut
3-6.
:fl t = tltcll thicktrcss, r = .ldius ofopc[in& Minis m rFcing fordifiRsim ,. i6 the lcrsorof &or r.- ll

Figufe 7.14 Minlmum weld fequifemenis for opentngs in she s


Frcm API 65A, figure 3-22

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 19'1


7 Tank fittings and ancillary equipment for ambient temperaturc tanks

7.2.2 API 650 requirements 7.3 Shell manholes


The API Code is more detailed in its aoDroach and the actual
wording in clause 3.7.3. should be consulted. Basically the re- 7.3.1 BS 2654 requirements
quirements are as follows:
The BS Code gives a detailed sketch for a 600 mm diameter
For non stress-relieved welds on shell plates thicker than 12.5
shell manhole which is suitable for alltanks up to 25 m high. The
mm (%"), the minimum spacing between the outer weld of a
only part which has to be designed is the shell reinforcement re-
nozzle, or nozzle assembly and the centreline of an adjacent
quirements, to suit the thickness of shell to which the manhole
shell butt weld shall be the gfeater of eight times the size of the
is to be attached. This isdonetothesame rules as forshellnoz-
outer weld, or 250 mm (10").
zles in Section 7.1.1.
Where the shellplate is equalto orlessthan 12.5 mm (%"), this
spacing may be reduced to 150 mm (6") from vertical shell butt To ease the removal ofthe heavy manhole cover to gain access
welds and the greatet of75 mm (3"\ ot 2y2 times the shellthick- to the tank, a swing davit is often fifted in a cup type bracket
ness from horizontal shell butt welds. The spacing between the fixed, to one side of the manhole barrel.
outer welds of adjacent nozzles shall be the greater of 75 mm
(3"), or 2% times the shell thickness. 7.3.2 API 650 reouirements
Where stress relieving of the periphery weld has been per-
formed prior to welding of the adjacent shelljoint, the minimum The API Code is much more deiailed and caters for shell man-
spacing shall be 150 mm (6") from vertical shell butt welds and hole sizes of 500 mm. 600 mm. 750 mm and 900 mm diameter.
the greater of75 mm (3") ot 2y2 times the shell thickness from
horizontal shell butt welds. The spacing between the outer A general design sketch is given together with sketches of
welds of adjacent nozzles shall be the greater of 75 mm (3"), or welded joint options. Tabulated data is also given for the follow-
2% times the shell thickness. ing:

The Code contains a useful reference table in figure 3-22 which . Cover plate and bolting flange thicknessfor eight ascending
gives a pictorial representation of the application of the above design liquid levels up to a maximum of 23 m.
rules. This is shown in Figure 7.14.
. Manhole neck thickness based on shell and reinforcing
In certain instances it may be found that a nozzle has to be plate thickness ranging from 5 mm to 40 mm.
close to or even intersects a shell butt weld and the Code will al-
low this under rules given in figure 3-6. Where a shelljoint is in- . Bolt circle and cover plate diameters for the four sizes of
tersected, then 100% radiographic inspectjon of the weld is re- mannote.
quired for a distance of 1.5 times the diameter ofthe opening in
Instead of a circular reinforcing plate, there is also an option al-
the shell, measured each side of the centreline of the opening,
lowing a six sided reinforcing plate the sides of which are at 45"
except that the part of the shell joint which is being removed
to the horizontal centre line of the manhole.
need not be radiographed.

7.2.3 Flush type clean-out doors 7.3.3 European Code prEN 14015 requirements

The API Code is more flexible in its approach to the design of The requirements given in this Code are the same as those in
flush type clean-out doors. the BS Code.
The maximum size for the door opening is dependant on the
grade of shell material being used (similar to the BS Code) but
7.4 Roof nozzles
has more size options together with tabulated plate thlckness
and dimensional details. Formulae are given to calculate the re-
quired amount of reinforcement above the opening and to de- 7.4.'l BS 2654 requirements
termine the thickness of the bottom reinforcing plate. Various
methods are given to stiffen or support the bottom reinforcing The BS Code shows a sketch of a typical roof nozzle together
plate under differing foundation support conditions and the de- with tabulated dimensions for nozzle sizes from 25 mm to 300
signer is alerted to the requirement to allow for the rotation, due mm diameter.
to shell bulging, of these low connections when they have
oiDework attached to them. The duty of roof nozzles is not very arduous and their integrity
does not pose a serious threat to the soundness of the tank.
Roof nozzles are therefore lighter in construction than shell
7.2.4 European Code requirements
nozzles. The reinforcement ofthe aperture in the roof plating for
all nozzle sizes is 150 mm larger than the aperture in the roof
prEN 14015- 1 uses the same requirements as those for the BS plating and in all cases is made from 6 mm thick plate. Welding
Code but includes a further condition fot nozzle openings in of the nozzle on the underside of the roof is not required. All
shell plates which intersect with shell butt welds. Where this welded joints on the nozzle are 6 mm fillet welds, regardless of
condition occurs then the the size of the nozzle.
tangent to the opening in the
shell at the centre line of the The Code recommends that the necks of nozzles used for vent-
shell butt weld must be be- ing should be trimmed flush with the underside of the roof line.
tween 45" and 90' to the This is to ensure that vapour is not trapped by the neck which
centreline ofthe butt weld as would otherwise protrude below the roof line. The polar axis of
shown. q = 45" to 90' roof nozzles should always be vertical.
Although not mentioned in the Code it is generallythought to be
good practice to use flat-faced flanged roof nozzles with full
face gaskets for roof vents and other fittings which may be of
cast iron or aluminium construction.

192 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


I r",t!lt!!g: 3!9 "!9!ll9 : ! 19ryrn!t9!!19n!98!lelj!ks

7 "4.2 API 650 requirements components would be welded together.


The Code also mentions thatthe manhole covers can be ofthe
The requirements to the American Code are very similar to muliiple bolt type or hinged.
those of the BS Code with the following main exceptions;
'1) Larger diameter reinforcing plates are required for noz-
tl
zles greater than 100 mm in diameter.
7.6 Floor sumps
e
2) There is the option not to provide reinforcing plates for
7.6.1 BS 2654 requirements
nozzles up to 150 mm diameter.
3) The weld between the reinforcing plate and the roof plat- The BS Code offers three types of drain sumps. These sumps
ing is a 5 mm fillet weld instead of a 6 mm fillet weld. may be situated at the centre of the floor or at the periphery, de-
pending on the chosen floor slope. They are:
7.4.3 European Code prEN 14015 requirements . The combined water draw-off and clean-out sump (see Fig-
ute 7.11, can only be fitted at the periphery.)
The European Code is the same as the BS Code with the ex-
ception thatthe reinforcing plate thickness shall be the sameas
. The circular-fabricated sump, (Figure 7.15)
the roof plate thickness. also the fillet weld between the two . The spherically-dished sump, (Figure 7.16)
plates shall be the same as the roof plate thickness.
The bottom of all sumps must be adequately supported by the
underlying tank foundation io ensure that they do not "hang" off
7.5 Roof manholes the floor aperture and cause stress in the flange connecting the
sump to the floor plating.
7.5.1 BS 2654 requirements The fabricated sump tends to be more popular with tank fabri-
cators because difficulties can be encountered in trying to
The BS Code is very sparse in its guidance on roof manholes. obtain pressings of the correct dimensions {or the spherical
this guidance being as follows: type. However, the spherical sump is made out of one piece of
plate and therefore has no potential to leak. The fabricated
"The roof manholes shall have a minimum inside diameter of
sump welds must be subjected to rigorous inspection to ensure
500 mm. They shall be suiiable for attachment by welding to the
that they are truly sound.
tank roof sheets.
The manhole covers shall be either as specified by the pur-
chaser or of the multiple-bolt fixed or hinged type."
Because of the vagueness of the requirements, designers gen-
erally turn to the more detailed information given in the Ameri-
can Code. 63s hol
O
From a practical point of view it is important to avoid the use of
ASA 150 lb covers and flanges for roof manholes because of
their excessive weight.

7.5.2 API 650 requirements

This Code gives a detailed illustration and tabular information


for the design of roof manholes 500 mm and 600 mm in diame-
ter. They are of relatively light construction being in 6 mm plate.
The provision of a reinforcing plate is optional.
This Code also gives full details for h/vo types of rectangular roof
openings, one with a bolted cover and one with a hinged cover
with one locking point. Both types are limited to a maximum
opening size of 1800 mm x 900 mm, the provision of reinforcing F gure 7.15 Circular-fabr cated s!mp
plates is optional and they are intended for use on fixed steel
v roofs only (not floating roofs).
ri Again these rectangular openings are of light construction, the
)r necks and optional reinforcing plates being 6 mm thick, the -jR--
Alternotiv \\\
)f cover plates 5 mm thick and the flange of the bolted type being
detdil
s 10 mm thick.
,rl
The bolted type is limited to tanks having a maximum iniernal
)f pressure equal to the weight of the roof plates and the hinged
type is for use on non-pressure ianks only.
I.
l. 7.5.3 European Code prEN 14015 requirements
n
710 hot e
t This Code follows the BS Code but is more specific as it gives
@
bollom p lote
dimensions for 500 mm and 600 mm diameter manholes but
@ 900
does not specify steel thickness.
e
The illustfation in the Code shows the neck and bolting ftange
)! as jf being rolled from one plate, this is unlikely io be the pre-
'e'red method of consiruction and it is more likely that the two Figure 7.16 Spherically d shed sump

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 193


/"r*;i:!

7 Tank fittings and ancillary equipment for ambient tempercturc tanks

7.6.2 API 650 requirements liquid is read from the tape at the pointwherethe tape changes
from being dry to wet. There is an art in obtaining a correct dip
The API Code offers details for four sizes of sumo each based by this method because of the following factors:
on the size ofthe drain line. . Care must be taken to ensure that the weight only just
Brief details taken from the tabulated data in the Code are touches the tank bottom, as allowing further tape into the
shown in Fioure 7.17. tankwillgive a false increased reading in the dip depth. With
experience, tank dipping personnel learn tofeelforthe tank
bottom and can obtain reliable repeatable results.
oidtnotor or .unp {mm) . Judging the point where the tape changes from dry to wet
may be fairly easy when dipping a tank containing, say mo-
50 610 300
lasses, but not so easy with light distillate products. Com-
80 910 450
pounds have been developed which can be applied to the
r00 1220 6@ tape in the area where the expected level is thought to be
150 1520 900 and these show more clearly wherethe dryto wet point is on
the tape, hence resulting in a more accurate reading.
Figure 7.17 Details for four sizes of sump based on size of drain line
There are several types of rooi nozzle dip hatches on the mar-
ket and a selection is shown in Figure 7.19.
It can be seen that these sumps are somewhat larger lhan
the
BS Code sumps, especially those for the larger sized drain
lines.
The fabrication detail for these sumps is shown in Figure 7.18,
which is reDroduced. from the Code.
The API Code gives positions forthe sumps measured from the
shell of the tank which indicate that they are close to the shell
but, if required, they may be placed anywhere in the floorto suit
the floor drainage requiremenb.

7.6.3 European Code prEN 14015 requirements

The sump requirements here are the same as those for the BS
Code.

7.7 Contents measuring systems


It is important for a tank operator to know how much product a
tank is holding at any particular time to enable the planning of
import and export requirements. There are a number of ways of
doing this and some ofthese are described in the following Sec-
trons.

7.7.1 Tank dipping

The most primitive method, which has been in use for many
years, is the dipping method whefeby a weighted tape measure
Figure 7.19 Different types of roof nozzle dip hatches
is dropped through a hatch in the tank roof. When the weight
Couiesy of Endress+Hauser Systems & Gauging Ltcl
touches the tank bottom. the taoe is withdrawn and the level of

l"r&
iF
iNN
ffi
1..%d
ll
N N t t**-**
{
D.rcb .!-.4 ffi*!"*
{alt a|6 accptabl}

**-va4
D.i.ll b l)!|.ll c
.J
D.lrll (l
iloi.:Th .clion Plocdrs sndl incrrda t!6 ic{('ii si69e (a) a hor sl|ailb od in n' botuft pbb o. a stlnp shal b pE..d jn dr6
tin(bibn blore lotlrn plecraerl; (b) N rtat e$ntoo shali b mad to onftm ro lhe $p6 ol |h6 d6vDt 9r,rT. lro Ejr,llp shal be pul
in pb{, and lti txrnaim sidl b compactsd arctrd fl sl''p attr placeft6nt and (c) lhs sirp sfi6ll b iild6d !o t bolbm.

Figure 7.18 APlWater draw-off sump

194 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


7 Tank fiftings and ancillary equipment for ambient tempercturc tanks

7.7 ,2 Level indicators

There are a number of proprietary mechanisms on the market,


which are capable of constantly monitoring the level of product
in the tank, and a few of these are as follows:
7.7.2-1 Float, board and target system
This method is notveryaccurate but itgivesa good indication of
where the liquid level is in a bnk.
A graduated board is attached to the tank shell over the full
height of the tank. Afloatslts on the productand is kept in place
by two guide wireswhich pass through eyes one on each side of
the float. The guide wires are stretched taut between the floor
and roof of the tan k and a flexible stranded wire attached to the
float is led over the top ofthe tank by pulleys. lt is led to a target
pointer, which is guided to move up and down the graduated
board as the level of the product changes. lt is important to re-
member however, that when the target is at the bottom of the
graduated board, the tank is full (and not empty, as logic may
seem it to be) and vice versa.
The illustration in Figure 7.20 shows the workings ofthis type of
lever gauge.
7 -7.2.2 Aulomalic tank gauge
This system is a vast improvement on the above board and tar-
get arrangement and operates as follows:
Figurc 7.21 Aulomalc tank gauge
The float is guided between guide wires as in the above exam-
Couftesy of Endress+Hauser Systens & Gauging Ltd
ple but in this case a flexible tape is attached to the float and this
tape is fed through small-bore piping and pulley elbows sup- the gauge head allows the tape to coil and uncoil as the product
ported off the roof and shell of the tank and is led to a gauge level changes and a serjes of pulleys and sprockets in the
head near the base of the tank. A springloaded mechanism in gauge head are connected to a drum which gives a visible read-
out in metres and millimetres in a window on the gauge head.
This type of gauge is illustrated in Figve7.21 and can have a
transmitter atlached enabling the level signal to be sent to a
central control room and hence all the tanks on an installation
can be monitored in this way.

7.7.3 Temperature measurement

Afurther refinement, which can be incorporated into the auto-


matic tank gauge system, is the ability to read the average tem-
perature of the product jn the tank. This is accomplished by
housing equally spaced individual thermocouples in a perfo-
rated verticaltube positioned near the level gauge. The gauge
mechanism is programmed to switch in only those thermo-cou-
ples, which are submerged in the product, and the signals from
these are automatically averaged out and read on a monitor in
the control room.
This facility is useful to operators as it enables volumetric ad-
justments to be made to their product inventory to allowfor tem-
perature variations.

7.7.4 High accuracy servo tank gauge

This type of gauge is based on the principle of liquid displace-


ment. lt is illustrated in FigLIe 7 .22.
A displacer js suspended from a stainless steel wire. which is
stored on a grooved drum housed in the gauge enclosure. A
highly sensitive torque-measuring device continuously mea-
sures the effective weight of the displacer, which, under steady
state level conditions, is half-immersed in the liquid. Should the
level change, the displacer undergoes an apparent change of
weight. The gauge microprocessor senses the change in
weight and causes a servomotor to rotate the measurinq drum
until balance is restored.
Figure 7.20 Floai, board and target levet gauge Density is determined by measuring the effective weight of the
Coutesy af Mothewell Control Systems Ltd displacer when completely immersed. Sample readings, re-

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 195


7 Tank fiftings and ancillary equipment for ambient temperature tanks

The radio wave signal is emitted from the rod antenna and radi-
ates outwards "seeing" all the tank internals. The reflected ra-
dio wave is then collected by the same antenna and the gauge
compares the difference in freq uency between the outward and
return radio waves. The frequency difference is proportional to
the distance travelled. This frequency difference then under-
goes a number of processes including Fourier transform tech-
niques and peak location algorithms which are then used to dig-
itally locate the peak frequency corresponding to the product
level reflection from which the liquid level is then calculated and
displayed on a liquid crysbl display inside the unit.
Having established the levelof product in the tank, this has then
to be translated into a capacity and this is done by reference to
the tank's calibration table whereby capacities can be read offa
table in I mm level increments.
Each tank, on completion is calibrated by a specialist company.
The earliest form of calibration was by the "strapping method".
This method, amongst others, is governed by rules set down by
the lnstitute of Petroleum, see Reference 7.2.
This method involved the circumference of the tank being
strapped with a measuring tape at many points over its height,
enabling the diameterofthe tank to be calculated at each level
and hence the capacity relating to each measurement, estab-
lished. The volume at the bottom section ofthe tank which often
Figure 7.22 High accuracy servo tank gauge contains drain pipework, heating coils etc. (known as dead-
Courtesy of Motherwel Cantrol Systems Ltd wood), can be found byfilling itwith water, which is metered into
corded at configurable intervals as the displacer, travels down the tank and recorded against corresponding depths.
through the liquid, provide density profiling. l\.4ore modern laser measuring methods are used nowadays
Water interface level and tank base measurement are achieved which operate from inside the tank, they are much less labour
by recording the point at which the gauge recognises the effec- intensive and give very accurate diameter measurements over
tive displacerweight in waterand at the tank base respectively. the height of the tank.
Her Majesty's Customs offlcials take a great deal of interest in
7.7.5 High accuracy radar tank gauge correct tank calibration, level measurement and the recording
of tank capacities as the movement of many petroleum prod-
This type ofgauge, (see Figure 7.23), achieves level measure- ucts incurs the payment of duty.
ment by measuring the time of flight for a radio wave to travel
from the radar gauge to the liquid surface and back again. 7.8 Tank venting
Normallythe gauge is mounted at the top of the tank with its an- This subject is dealtwith in detail in Chapter 8 sojusta briefde-
tenna pointing down towards the surface ofthe stored product. scription of the vent fittings is given here.

7.8.1 Free vents


CERT|FIED AS fiCREASED
SAfETY TO ALIOIV ACCESS These are provided on non-pressure tanks and allowthe tank to
breathe due to product movements in and out of the tank and
for diurnal effects. An illustration is shown in Figwe 7.24.
Sometimes the free vent fitting incorporates a dip hatch, en-
abling one roof nozzle to be used for two purposes.

RADAR GAUGE
'9OOd 'AI{X
HOI'9ING 19 CRTIFIED

IEIiPER T1IRE BI'LB

Figure 7.23 High accuracy radariank gauge Figure 7.24 Ffee vent & dip hatch
CouTesy of Mothewell Control Systems Ltd Coutlesy of Whessae Varec

196 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


7 Tank fittings and ancillary equipment for ambient temperature tanks

dF 7.8.2 Pressure and vacuum (p & V) valves flexible seal ring on the underside ofthe weighted cover These
'a-
units are available in sizes ranging from 250 mm to 600 mm di_
These are used fortanks operating underan internal pressure. ameter and an example is shown in Figure 7.26. The larger
nd The vent opens onlywhen the set internal pressure is exceeded sizes can also be used as roof manhotes.
to - for insiance, when product is impo(ed to the tank. On the vac_
uum side, the valve opens when the set internal vacuum is ex- 7.8.4 Flame Arrestor
ceeded, as is the case when product is exported from the tank.

rct
The illustrations jn Figure 7.25, show a valve which uses FIame arrestors prevent flashback through an open tank vent
1d
weighted pallets as the valve opeEting mechanism, other and may be fitted between the vent nozzle and the vent fittino.
types of valve use a spring-loaded method. They prevent the passage offlames into the tank bv a tube bank
made up ofa core of numerous narrow passages. Aphotograph
ln and diagrammatic vjew are shown in Figurc 7 .27.
to
'a There is some doubt as to the worthiness of these units and
negative viewson theiruse on storagetanks is expressed in the
API 2000 and API 2210 publications. Some of the vlews ex_
v. pressed are as follows:
f'.
)y The simultaneous occurrence ofan ignition source in the vi_
cinity ofthe vent and the release from the vent of a mixture
capable of transmitting flame is considered to be highly un_
rg
likely.
rt,
CI Flame arresters are not considered necessary for use in
)- conjunction with P & V valves venting to atmosphere be_
rn cause flame speeds are less than vapour velocities across
j- theseatsofP&Vvalves.
:o
Friction loss through the flame arrester reduces the flow
rate through the vent fitting.
,s
. Ine narrow vapour passages of the flame arrester can
)l
block up and thus cause pressure or vacuum related dam_
)r
age to the tank envelope.

n
g
r{E-
F

-qy

Figure 7.25 Pressure and vacuum reliefvalve


Couftesy of Tyco Valves & Contrcts

7.8.3 Emergency vents

The purpose of an emergency vent is to release a sudden rise


in intemal pressure which is beyond the capacity ofthe normal
vents.. Their use.is dependant upon the type of product being
stored in the tank and whether or not the tank has a franqibl6
roof. A sudden rise in pressure may be caused by events iuch
as an externalfire, a burst heating tube ora exothermic reaction
in the tank.
The emergency vent consists of a base unit with a wejghted
hinged cover. The seal between the base unit and the cover is
maintained by the knife-edged rim of the base unit acting on a

r gure /.zrj Emergency venl


Figure 7.27 A typicalflame arrestor
Cauiesy of Tyco Vatves & Controls
Counesy of Tyco Valves & Controls

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT ,I97


7 Tankfiftings and ancillary equipment for ambient temperature tanks

7.9 Tank access


For safety reasons a tank should have two means of egress
from the roof. For a single tank, which is not interconnected with
another, then the second means ofaccess is usually by a verti-
cal-caged ladder.
The BS 2654, API 650 and prEN 14015-'l Codes all specify
similar design requirements for access ways but in using these
the designer must also be aware of any local and/or client re-
quirements and safety issues.
Whilstthere are some differences between the tank Codes, the
principal requirements are as follows:
. Minimum clear width of a staircase, platform or walkway
shall be 600 mm.
Minimum height to the top handrail of a horizontal platform
or walkway shall be 1070 mm.
Minimum depth of a stair tread shall be 200 mm.
lvlaximum slope for a staircase 45' (50' in API)
Handrailing is required on the inside stringer ofa spiral stair-
case where the gap between the stringer and the tank shell
exceeds 200 mm.
The normal "going" and "rise" for treads of a spiral stair-
cases is 200 mm.
The maximum vertical rise between intermediate platforms
of a staircase is 6 m.
. API requires the design to be based on a concentrated
moving load of 4450N, whereas the BS Code requirement Figure 7.28 Handrail construclion
is for the design to be based on a load of 2400 N/m2 plus
wind load. Thereafter the erector/welder climbs up the staircase and
weldsthe subsequent treads in place as heascends (using
. Handrailing is to be capable of taking a load of 1000 N the appropriate safety equipment).
(890N to API) in any direction.
There are long-term disadvantages with this type of staircase,
. Treads which are welded to the shell are prohibited by the and these are:
BS and European Code for shell thicknesses over 12.5 mm
on steel having a UTS greater than 460N/mm2 (Yield 275
. Being welded directly to the shell makes corroded treads
N/mm'z) difficult to replace (galvanised treads cannot be used be-
cause of the health risk in welding on to a galvanised sur-
. Vertical ladders over 4m high shall be fitted with safety face).
cages. BS 4211 allows a maximum height between interme-
diate platforms of 9m but it is normal to limit this to 6m on
. Where tank shells are thermally insulated, there are numer-
tanks. ous penetrations in the cladding where the dogleg supports
and treads pass through and offer a path forthe rain to get in
Four means of accessing tanks will be considered: and cause corrosion on the shell.
. Spiral staircase . The tread replacement issue can be solved by using bolt on
. Radial staircase treads where a short length ofdrilled angle bar is welded toe
on to the shell to which the tread is bolted. Similarly at the
. Horizontal olatform outertread support a short length ofdrilled flat bar is welded
. Vertical ladder to the support to carry the tread.
. Because ofthe shortcomings ofthe weld on staircase, most
7.9.1 Spiral staircase spiral staircases today are constructed with a inner and
outer stringer and bolted galvanised treads. The stringers
Probably the most common means ofaccess is the spiral stair- are suooorted off brackets welded to the shell but the limita-
case. This staircase follows the contour of the tank shell as it tions in the Codes regarding the welding of permanent at-
rises from ground level to the roof ofthe tank. The construction tachments to shells must be observed.
ofthe staircase can take severalforms and the traditional one is . The double stringer spiral staircase is to be preferred for
that which is shown in BS 2654, figure 25, details of which are thermally insulated tanks because ofthe smallernumberof
shown in Figure 7.28. penetrations in the cladding.
This type of staircase is simple to fabricate and erect Erection
Figwe 7.29 shows a double stringer spiral staircase being
on the tank is as follows;
erected on a new tank and Figure 7.30 shows a completed
. Obtain an accurate height ofthe tank and assuming the rise staircase.
of each tread is to be 200 mm then a calculation will estab-
lish the position for the lowest tread on the tank 7.9.2 Radial staircase
. The first eight or so treads can be welded to the shell to-
gether with the 25 mm square bar supports (known in the This type of staircase is often used to access large diameter
tank business as "dog leg" supports) from ground level. tanks, which have large bunded areas. The staircase com-

198 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


7 Tank fittings and ancillary equipment for ambient tgmpercture tanks

Figure 7.31 Radialslalrcase on rooflank

Figure 7.29 A double stringer sptatslaircase being erecled


CoutTesy of McTay

ld
rg

Fig!re 7.32 Horizontal platforms


Couftesy of Royal Vapak

e- dial staircase for access from the bund area.

The platforms have to allow for movement of the tanks due to


product and wind load and foundation set ement. One end of
tr-
the platform is therefore fixed to hinged brackets on one tank,
which allow vertical movement; the other end is restrained lat-
in
erally butallowed to slide ln the horizontal direction to allowfor
tank movement. Safety chains are connected loosely between
)n this end of the platform and the adjacent tank to prevent the
)e platform falling in the event that there is excessive movement
te between the tanks.
)d

7.9.4 Vertical ladders


r0
Tank operators do not favour vertical ladders as a main means
t- of access to a tank roof because they are tiring to climb and re-
t- quire the full use of alllimbs during the ascent, hence the carry_
Figure 7.30 Double si.inger spiralstaircase ing of any sundry equipment is difficult. However, as a second-
Coulesy of Royal Vopak
ary means of escape from a tank roof under emergency
)r conditions when the primary route is blocked or othenrise un-
lf mences at the bund wall and progressively rises via the inter- available, then they are most welcome. Such a means of
mediate platforms to the tank roof. Support for the staircase is access is shown in Figure 7.33.
rg usually by 'A frames under each intermediate platform. Figure
Id 7.31 shows a typical arrangement on a floating roof bnk. Self-closing safety gates should be provided at the top of each
ladder section to prevent personnel inadvedenfly stepping into
the open space at the top of the ladder and sustaining a ;asty
7.9.3 Horizontal platforms
accident. When twoormore people are following each other it is
recommended to allow the ladder section to be cleared by one
This form of access, shown in Figure 7.32, is favoured on person before the next one starts their ascent or descent. This
multi-tank installations where the tanks are ljnked together by prevents any boot detritus, equipment or person from falling on
platforms and onlythe extremity tanks each have a spiralor ra- to the person below

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 199


7 Tank fittings and ancillary equipmentfor ambignt tempemturc tanks

' Fo* enffi aE placd 6xt mat lo th6 bntr in .fth a position th*, tn lha wnt of
6 tir, toam cn bs spEygd on to th tank tom s safe di.tanc. This hdnod is nor
rcomh.tdBd as lhs pdma.y fqn of prclction tof tank os ,8 m in diamtf

Figu.e 7.34 Pdncipal foam systems

determined application rate at the base of the tank, above the


bottom water layer. The foam rises through the stored product
to form an extinguishing blanketat the surface. The rising foam
causes rotational currents, which carry cold product to the
burning surface, which can aid extinction.
The concept of base injection only became possible with the
development of fluoro protein type foam concentrates, which
have high resistance to product contamination and good fluid-
Additionallythe finished foam must have excellent burnback
ity.
resistance (the ability of a foam blanket to resist direct flame
and heat impingement) and stability.
Figure 7.33 Vertical ladder
The system requirements are:
Cowlesy of Royal Vopak
a) A pressurised supply of fresh or sea water
b) Suitable foam concentrate induction equipment to pro-
7.10 Fire protection systems duce a 3% solution of foam concentrate
As one can readily understand, the planning for the prevention c) Foam concentrate storage facilities
offire, especially in petrochemical installations, is high on their d) H;gh back pressure foam generators (HBpGs)
managements' priolity list, as the consequences of an inferno e) Non-return valve
can have disastrous results, not only to the installation but to
the surrounding area and environment. f) Bursting disc (where a non-return valve is not considered
sufficiently secure to prevent leakage of product back
The subject is well-documented in the National Fire Protection along the foam line)
Association, Institute of Petroleum and British Standard Codes. g) lsolation gate valve on the tank (normally lefr open)
References 7. 3lo 7.6 provide useful information on this impor-
tant issue. h) Suitable interconnecting pipe work and valving

For the purposes ofthis Section the protection of storage tanks Systems may be fullyfixed with all components permanently in-
by the use offoam and waterwill be considered. stalled, or alternatively semi-fixed, using portable HBpGs for
connection to suitable tank inlets or product lines.
7.10.1 Foam systems The number and diameteroffoam inlets willdeoend on the tank
diameter and the type of stored product.
The foam methods considered to be the most widely used and Figure 7.35 may be used as a guide for the number of inleb.
regarded to give an acceptable overall level of protection are The minimum foam application rate is 4.1 litresimin/m, (0.1
referred to in this Section. The design guidelines are to be gpmift2) and this rate will decide the size of the foam inleb.
found in References 7.3 to 7.6.
Inlets must be positioned above anywaterlayer in the iank and
The foam fire fighting system works by introducing a foam mak- mayterminate flush with the tank wallor be fitted with stubs pro-
ing concentrate into the fire fighting water main. This produces truding into the tank. The latter may discharge horizontally or
a solution, which is fed to a foam generator, and the resulting may be angled vertically. Discharge downwards should be
foam is directed to the fire. avoided, particularly if the foam can enter a water bottom or im-
For fixed roof, floating roof and Internal floating roof storage
tanks there are three principal foam systems available and Fla3h loint r >37.0' c
theseare;base injection, top foam pouring andfoam cannons. uD !o 24 1 1

These systems are categorised in Figure 7.34. >24 10 36 2 1

7.10.1.1 Base injection >36 !o 42 3 2


>42|o 4A 2
Base injection systems (also known as sub-surface foam injec-
>48 lo 54 5 2
tion systems) are suitable for use on fixed roof tanks containing
liquid hydrocarbons with the exception of Class 1A hydrocar- >54 io 60 6 3
bon liquids or alcohols, esters, ketones, aldehydes, anhy- >60 ona addltionEl inlet 465m' oI 6xp&ed pmdud 697mr df xposd produd
drides, or other products requiring the use of alcohol-resistant
foams. In operation, specialised equipment designed to oper-
ate against a back pressure introduces aspirated foam at a pre- Figure 7.35 Number and diameleroffoam inlels

2OO STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


Wte!t9tr1!!9j3!!t
pinge on the base of the tank. Where more than one inlet is re- escaping via the foam pipework)
quired, they should be spaced equally around the tank shell, us- fl Foam oourer
ing either separate inlets, or alternatively a single inlet feeding
into an internal manifold with outlet oiges towards the tank Normally each ofthe fixed tank shell units are supplied by indi-
circumference. vidual lines from a safe area outside the tank bund but they can
be supplied by one line to the tank which splits at a manifold to
Correct design will take into account pressure losses in the fol- feed each unit.
lowrng areas:
The number offoam inlets is as shown in Figure 7.35 and this,
a) Friction loss in pipe work, fittings and valves together with a minimum foam application rate of 4.1
b) The maximum static head of the stored product litres/min/m'? (0.1 gpm/ft2) willdetermine the size of the foam in-
lets. The foam solution flow ihrough each inlet should be simi-
c) Pressure loss through the foam induction equipment and
lar. By dividing the total minimum foam solution application rate
foam generators
by the minimum number of inlets required, the flow rate per
Features of the base injection system include: pourer unit is established.
a) Rapid response with minimum demand on resources, wa- Certain low boiling point flammable stored products, gasohols
'te ter supply, foam compound and manpower and high viscosity heated liquids may require higher or, in cer-
ct b) Desig n application rates of foam are achieved with 'l 00% iain circumstances, lower application rates than that stated
m of the foam reaching the surface of the stored product. here. These should, in all instances, be determined by test.
te c) High resistance of the system componenis to damage Design notes
during tank explosion or fire. lf two or more inlets are required they should deliverthe foam at
d) Circulation of cold product dissipates hot product layers the same rate to the surface of the tank and that they are ar-
lh near the burning surface and aids extinction. ranged at equal spacing around the shell.
Aschematic ofa base injection system is shown in Figure 7.36. All pipe work, valving and riser systems should be designed to
lk give approximaiely equal flow rates from each pourel
The selection of HBPGS and foam concentrate requirements
are by reference to data produced by the manufacturers of the Tests have shown thatfoam willtraveleffectively across at least
proprietary equipment and foam concentrates. 30 m of exposed burning product surface. Thus on very large
tanks, it may be necessary to increase the number of pourer
7.10.1.2 Top foam pourers
units above the minimum recommended number.
Top foam pouring systems are used to protect fixed roof tanks
The foam inlets to the tank should be 300 mm above the maxi-
and fixed rooftanks fitted with internal covers. ln each case the
mum designed product storage level.
systems are designed on the basis that the fire risk comprises
the total surface area of the stored product. Cautionary note
The sysiem operates by introducing a foam concentfate into a ln the event of an exploslon in a tank causing ruptures at the
fire water feed line outside the tank bund area. This line is led to roof{o-shell joint and distortion in the upper shell plating, if this
a foam generator, foam box and pourer all of which are is in the area of any of the foam units, these units may be ren-
mounted in line at the top of the tank shell. When inliiated, the dered ineffective.
foam solution is propelled to the tank where the foam generaior Protection of bitumen storage tanks
aerates the solution and delivers the resulting foam thfough a
bursting disc in the foam box. A pourer unit immediately inside For fixed protection on bitumen tanks the only suitable systems
the tank shell and connected to the foam box, directs the foam are inert gas or steam injection into the vapour space. Water
'l- down the shell to form a blanket which extinguishes the burning must not be used as this is likely to result in a hazardous, un-
prooucl controllable froth-over or a steam explosion owing to the vapori-
)f
sation ofthe water at the high storage temperatures used for bi-
The system requirements are: tumen. For further information refer to Reference 7.6.
a) A pressurised supply of fresh or seawater lllustrations and examples of top foam pourers are shown in
b) Suitable foam concentrate induction equipment to pro- Figures 7.37 to 7.39.
duce the required percentage offoam concentrate in wa- 7.10.1.3 Rimseal foam pourers
ter
The basis ofthis system has already been described in Chapter
c) Foam concentrate storage facilities 6, Section 6.5.6.
o d) Foam generator (immediately under the foam box) The concept of a rimseal protection system is based on the as-
)-
)r
e) Foam box with bursting disc (this prevents tank vapours sumption that, in the event of a fire, the fire will be contained in
e
t-
FOAM BLANKET

l BURSTING DISC GATE

Figure 7.36 Base lnjeclion sysiem schematic


Counesy of Angus Fire

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 201


I l3!!ltl!9:3!4!flf@yg!Jp!:!!!9! blent temperaturc tanks

the seal area between the foam dam and the tank shell and the
system design is based on treating only this annular area. This
means that if a fire should occur it must be detected earlv and
tackled rapidly before the roof becomes damaged and ailows
the fire to spread
surface area. Should- often to the extent of engulfing the entire
a situation arise in which th-e flre does
spread to the whole exposed surface area then a rimseal oro_
tection mechanism alone (as dictated by design of the system)
is unlikely to achieve extinguishment. lf this ii perceivjd as a
possibility, ihen consideration should be given to a top pouring
system designed to provide total coverage ofthe roof area. -
The minimum recommended foam solution application rate for
nmseal systems is 12.2 litreslminl m2.
Figure 7.37 Top foam pourer schematic
Couftesy of Angus Fie The minimum number of rimseal foam pourers is dictated bv
the height of the foam dam and is as follows:
. For a 300 mm high foam dam the maximum spacing be_
tween foam pourers should be j2.2 m.
. For 600 mm high foam dams this can be increased to a
maximum of 24.4 m.
7.10,1.4 Foam cannons
Fixer and trailer-mounted foam cannons are suitable for pro_
tecting all types ofvertical storage tanks and though subject to
performance limitations they can be used as the primary pro_
tection system to protect tanks up to 1g m in diameter.'l-iow_
ever, they are often better suited and more commonly installed
as rther a secondary fixed foam system or to tackle spill fires
with the added benefit of being able to be used for tank coolinq.
A foam cannon in operation is shown in Figure 7.40.
The single most important considerataon when proposing foam
cannons as the primary system is that, to be effective, ex_
panded finished foam must first be delivered to the seat of the
fire. As, in most systems, the foam cannons will be close to
ground level, the foam produced willfirst be required to reach
up and over the tank shell. This requirement may prove difficult
to achieve because of:
a) The height of the tank
b) The distance between a tank and the cannon position

Fgurc 7.38 Top foam pourer unil


c) The prevailjng weather conditions
Courtesy of Angus Fire d) The fire updraught
e) The high probability that a partial rupture of a fixed roof
tank may only leave a small aperture through which the
expanded foam can be targeted
Afurther problem exists in that expanded foam is applied force-
fully to the surface of the burning product, which leads to in_
creased contamination of the foam. The effects of this mav be
reduced by directing the foam stream onto the inside of the iank
shell and allowing it to run down onto the su rface ofthe product.
However, in a live fire situation this may prove impossible to
achreve.
System deslgn criteria
In all primary protection systems using foam cannons it is as-
sumed that all the calculated foam solution requirement actu-
ally reaches the area to be protected. As has alreadV been ex-
plained. to achieve the minimum foam solution reouired.
consideration must also be given to the potential foam solution
losses that will occur due to access and windage problems.
Enough equipment must therefore be available to ensure that
under all conditions the minimum application rate is beinq
achieved. This will. in most circumstances, result in consider_
able over-capacity in terms ofequipment resource. This is often
of the order of 2:1
The minimum specific design requirements can be summa_
flsed as:
Figure 7.39 Foam pourcr and water detuge pipework (al cenlre oftank)
a) The mjnimum foam solution application rate should be 6.5

202 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


7 Tank fittings and ancillary equipment far ambEr: :e-a+-2.--i -a-. :

rne rate of water is 10 litres/min/m2 of vertical tank surface - :e--


has tact with the fire.
tnd
For the calculation of water requirements, the area sholro !
trre assumed to be that based on a nominal half of the veftca
)es height ofthe tank. Water should not be applied to the tank roo.
rro- but foam may be used at a rate of 6.5 litres/min/m2. based ol.
)m) tank cross-sectional area.
This rate may reduce to 4 litres/min/m2 for tanks equipped with
lng fixed foam pourers.

for 7.11,2 Tank cooling methods

The methods by which tanks may be cooled can be summa-


by
rised as follows:
7.11.2.1 Water spray and deluge sprinkler systems
This is the most efficient method ofdelivering water, evenly dis-
Figure 7.40 Afoam cannon in operation - 15,000 tiire/min offoam sotr.jlion tributed and at the correct application rate, to the outside roof
Courtesy of Angus Firc and shell of the storage tank.
There are two principal ways of accomplishing this:
litres/min/m2 for all types of foam concentrates on ianks
containing liquid hydrocarbons. 1) Using concentric rings of piping supported about 300 mm
ro- above the roof. These rings are fitted with spray nozzles,
:to b) The minimum foam solution application rate may have to
which give an overlapping spraypattern to coveithewhole
be increasedto tackle specjalrisks i.e. gasohols, Class 1A
ro- roof with water The shell is similarly protected, usually
hydrocarbons, etc.
with one spray ring atthe top ofand about 600 mm clearof
ed c) Greater minlmum foam solution application rates may theshell. Spray nozzles fitted to this ring and angled down
also be required for hot fuels afrer a prolonged pre_burn. slightly are arranged to spraywateroverthe whole cjrcum_
rg. d) Foam cannons should not be considered as primary pro_
tection mechanisms on vertical fixed roof storaqe tanks
tm over 18 m diameter.
)x- e) The minimum foam solution discharge duration time
he should be:
to
cn
ult
-
-
Crude petroleum and hydrocarbons wjth flash ooints
below 37.8'C - 65 mins.
Hydrocarbons with flash points between 37.g.C and
&
ry..
93.3'C - 50 mins.
-*.'-* )J\
@aJ
7.11 Water cooling systems /.-'\\
i/\\
The. individual tank design, layout and piping system for any
particular installation will be a function both ofthe phvsicalfac_
\w-
rof tors like terrain. site elevation, drainage, etc. and oi the govern-
ne ing Standards regarding permissible tank spacings and posi_
tion within the installation.
Despite taking all reasonable precautions as demanded bv
these considerations, a fire in an individual storaqe tank wiil
)e generate signlficant radiated heat, which can damioe and/or
1k ignite adjacent tanks which would not otherwise be d]recflv in-
:t. volved. A deep-seated fire in even the smallest diameter iank
to can create major problems unless cooling wateris applied to its
close neighbours.
Tank cooling is therefore recommended as essential to com_
s- plete the protection ofa particular installation and the followino Figure 7.41 Walerdeluge system with conicatdiffuser
guidelines are given in the part 19 of the lp Code. (Referenci
x- 7.5).
Tanks within two tank diameters distance downwind of a tank
)n
fire, or one tank diameterdistance in other directions, should be
s. protected by application of water spray at minimum recom-
at
mended rate of 2 litres/min/m2.
rg
l-
)n
7.11.1 Special case - Floating roof tanks

With rimsealfires in floating roofianks, the shellwhich is heated


from the fire may be cooled with waterwhilst attempts are made
to achieve and maintain an effectivefoam blanket, and to avoid
re-ignition from hot surfaces. The recommended application Figurc 7.42 Delail of sptash. plate

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 203


7 Tank fiftings and ancillary equipment for ambient tempenlurc tanks

hydraulic detection system


7.11.2.2 Fixed and trailer-mounted water cannons
Both static and oscillating water cannons are a cost-effective
means of delivering water to cool slorage tanks and the num-
ber, capacity, position and deployment will ultimately depend
upon individual site requiremenb. However, access problems
and local water supply considerations must be taken into ac-
count when @nsidering their introduction.

7.12 References
Figure 7.43 Roof deluge system using a coronet
7 .1 Reinforcement of Manholes, R. T. Rose, British Wetding
Courtesy of McTay Joumal, October 1961.
ference and run down the shell. 7.2 Tank Calibration, Sect'on 1, The Institute of petroleum,
2) The deluge system consisb of a single water main being Petroleum Measurement Manual, part ll.
led to the crown ofthe iank roof where the water is directed 7 .3 NFPA 1 1 &andard for Low -, Medium -, and High - Ex-
vertically on to the roof and ls evenly spread overthe roof pansion Foam, 2002 Edition.
by a conicalnozzle atthe end ofthe ouflet pipe or by a cor-
onet attached to the roof plating, (shown schematicaly in 7.4 NFPA 30 Flammable and Combustibte Liquids Code.
Figures 7.41 and 7.43). 7-S BS 5306 Seclion 6.7: 1988 Specification follow axpan-
As the waterstreams down the roof it is directed on to the shell sion Foam systems.
by splash plates fitted to the curb angle at the pedphery of the 7.6 lP Model Code of Safe Practice: part 19, Fire precau-
shell. These plates are angled so that as the water hits them it is tions at Petroleum Refineries and Bulk Storage lnstalla-
directed against and runs down the shell. See Figure 2.42. tions.
These systems can be fed from a waterdeluge valve, which is 7.7 Bitumen, lnstitute of Petroleum Code of Safe practice,
automatically triggered, by some form of electric, pneumatic or Paft 11.

204 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


8 Tank venting of ambient temperature
tanks
This Chapteris confined to the venting ofambienttanks. The venting oflowtemperaturetanks is
dealt with in Chapter 20.
The requirementrs of the various tank Codes and of the most influential venting Code API 2000
are discusssd and examples of suitable venting devices are provided with infonnation on their
installation and relief capacity calculation methods.

Contents:
8.1 lntroduction.
8.2 The tank design Code requirements
8.2.1 APt 650
8.2.2 BS 2654
8.2.3 DrEN 14015
8.2.3.1 The evaluation of venting requlrements of prEN 14015
8-2.4 APt 2000
8.2.4.1 The evaluation ofventing requirements ofAPl 2000
8.2.4.2 Means of venting
8.2.4.3 Pressure limitations
8.2.4.4 Relief valve installation
8.3 Typical relief valve equipment

8.4 References

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 205


8 Tank venting of ambient tempera!ure .,n^s

8.1 Introduction caal andsafety reasons. lt is interesting just how the different
ambient tank design Codes address this subiect.
It is probable that tank ventjng problems have brouoht more
storage tanks to griefthan any other single cause. Tale-s of such
lartures abound. The draining of the hydrostatic test water 8.2.1 APt 650
whilst failing to allow for any, or at least sufficient air to re_enter
the tank is a particular classic. The draining of the test water is This Standard lReference g. ?) is curiously
relaxed reoardino
often done at the end ofthe tank test and o;e ofthe last activi- this issue. lt is only in Appendix F (Design oftanksfor sna inl
ties ofthe day is to open the tank drain valve before leaving the ternal pressures) that there is any mention of the subject.
site and allowing the bnk to empty overnight.
F.2.'1 suggests that vents shall be sized and set so that at their
The efforts of the tank to express jts displeasure at being sub_ rated capacity, the internal pressure under any normal operaf
jected to unacceptable levels of internal vacuum (or ing conditions exceeds neither the internal design pressure.
in m-odern
parlance, internal negative pressure) via sundry creaks and nor the maximum design pressure (this latter is the pressu re for
groans, followed by early elastic shape changes, are thus non-anchored tanks limited by uptift at the base ofthe tank shell
played to an absent audience, and the following riorning as described in the earlier Chapter on bnk design).
brings
a serious surprise. The tank which has been the subjeciof se-v_
F7.7 (which is for anchored tanks with desjgn pressures up to
eral months concentrated effort to bring to completion is now in
2.5 lb/in,) states that venting shall be supplied by the purchaser
a crumpled heap. Replacement, or repair costs are added to bv
In accordance with Apl Standard 2000. The manufacturer
Iiquidated damages to fu(her rub the embarrassed contractor's shall
provide a suitable tank connection. The vents shall be
nose in this unfoftunate situation which could so easily have checked
during or after the testing of the tank.
been avoided.
This.suggests that the tank purchaser is responsible for per-
The author's experience sadly involves such incidents. In one
forming the ventsizing calcutations, providing the equipment
case tne vacuum vent was propped open with a piece of wood
necessaryand informing the tank manufactureras to whatcon_
which fell out during the night causing the valve to close, result_
nection sizes are required. ln the author's view, this is an unsat_
ing in a total roof failure. In another case, a suitable vacuum
isfactory situation as many tank purchasers do not have the
valve was installed, but complete with its transit packing still in
technical abilities to undertake this responsibilitv or a clear un_
place. This had the effect of jamming the valve closedl
derstanding of the importance of getting it right.
Storage tanks, despite their apparent size and robustness, are
in reality quite fragile structures and require to be keot within 8.2.2 BS 2654
their design pressure and vacuum envelope. Comparatively
small excursions from this safe territory can bring about dra_ This Standard provides the option forthe venting requirements
matrc consequences.
to be specified by the purchaser, or to be determined (presum_
To ensure that fixed roof tanks are maintained in their safety ably by the tank manufacturer) in accordance with a sei of rules
zone, provtston must be made to allow the tank to vent to atmo- which are provided. These rules fall jnto two parts, the general
sphere. This is usually achieved by the pfovision ofopen vents, rules which are summarised below and the more speciic rules
pressure reliefvalves. vacuum reliefvalves and as an extreme wh ich lead to the calculation of req uired venting rates for partic_
form of pressure relief, a frangible roof arrangement. The de_ ular tanks and lead to vent sizing. This latter set of rules are ba_
sign and details of frangible roofs is covered in ChaDter 4. sically a metric version ofApl 2OOO, and as such do not warrant
Bursting discs are not popular for this service. The performance repetition in this Section.
ofbursting discs at the low pressures required by storage tanks The general rules include:
is not good. The differences between the maximum ind the
minimum anticipated bursting pressures is large and would re_ . The venting system provided shall caterfor the followino:
surt In unnecessary venting and disc replacement. The Derfor_
mance of bursting discs improves as the design pressure
a) Normal vacuum relief
increases, but this is of litfle use to the tank designer.
b) Normal pressure relief
Events to which fixed roof tanks can be subiected to reouire
them to need venting provisions include: c) Emergency pressure relief (this latter shall be
specified in accordance with BS 2654 unless
. Liquid movement into or out of the tank causinq disregarded at the purchasels discretion)
outbreathing or inbreathing of air. product vapours. a mix_
ture of air and product vapours or In some crrcumstances . Where emergency pressure relief is required, it shallbe pro_
purge gas.
videdbysuitableventsorbytheprovisionof afranqibleioof
. Thermal changes to the tank (often diurnal) necessitating loint.
inbreathing or outbreathing. . The numberand sizeofvents shallbe based on theventino
. The rupture of internal heating coils. capacity obtained from Appendix F (i.e. the metric Ap]
2000), and shall be sufficient to prevent any accumulatjon
. Outbreathing as a result of exposure of the outer surfaces of pressure or vacuum from exceeding the values given be_
of the tank to fire.
. Process-related events such as the import ofwarm Droduct. . Valves may be fitted with coarse mesh screens to prevent
off-specification product liquids or vapours and similar hao_ the ingress of birds. The use of fine mesh screens as anti
penings. flash protection is not recommended because of the possi-
bility of blockage, especially under winter conditions. Con_
sideration should be given to the possibility of corrosion
8.2 The tank design Code requirements when selecting the material for the wrre screen.
The protection of fixed roof storage tanks from the harmful ef_ . The set vacuum plus the accumulation to permit the valves
fects of excessive levels of internal pressure or vacuum is to achieve the required throughput shall not exceed va. This
clearly a matter of considerable importance for both commer- is the vacuum to be used for the design ofthe tank shellsec_

206 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


B Tank venting of ambient tempercture tanks

nt ondary wind stiffening which has been the subject of earlier This list is most helpful, but for some reason omits to mention
Chapters. the accidental import of hot liquid. This is a particularly danger-
. ous condition, especjally where the tank contents are volatile or
The set pressure plus the accumulation to permit the valves
have a water heelwhich may suddenly boil.
to achieve the required throughput for normal pressure re-
lief shall not exceed the design pressure. It is interesting that venting resuliing from changes jn baromet-
rg ric pressure is omitted from this list.
. No specific rules are provided forthe emergency pressure
accumulation, but the following shall be considered: Having listed the venting components, this document then
goes on to describe how they may be evaluated. This section is
)tr
a) lf it is expected that the design pressure is to completely new and as such should represent the latest think-
(- be exceeded by the emergency pressure accu- ing on this subject. For this reason the specific requirements of
mulation, then it shall be verified that the this document are described in Section 8.2.3.1.
3.
strength of the roof-to-shell junction is ade-
)r The document does make a number ofgeneral points, amongst
quate and whether tank anchorage is required.
)ll which are:
Note: This particularly applies to column,supported tank . Free vents can be applied to non pressure tanks.
o roofs with low roof slopes and to small bnks.
)r . Pressure and vacuum relief valves must be used for
ll
b) Account shall be taken ofthe differences which low-pressure, high-pressure and very high-pressu re tanks.
can occur between the opening and closing
d pfessures (blowdown) of vents of different . The set pressure plus the accumulation to achieve the de-
types. sired flow capacity shall not exceed the tank design pres-
sure nor the tank design internal negative pressure.
rt . The Standard does not cater for protection against . lf very high emergency outbreathing rates are required,
t- overpressure caused by explosion within the tank, and them additional emergency vents shall be supplied or the
:- where such protection is required special consideration tank shall meet the requirements of Annex K (frangible
should be given to the design ofthe tank and the venting de- roof).
vices.
. Flow resistance due to connected pipework or possible
back pressures within the system shall be considered.
8.2.3 prEN 14015
. The pressure and vacuum settings of emergency relief
This draft Standard has departed from the usual practice offol- valves shall be such as to not operate during the normal re-
lowing the requirements of API 2000. Asubcommittee of Euro- lief valve operation.
pean venting specialists was set up to write the requirements . For the sizing ofthe emergency relief valve system, the flow
for venting systems which appears in Annex L. This Annex de- capacities ofthe normalpressure and vacuum reliefvalves
scribes the sources ofthe tank venting requirements as follows: can be taken into account.
. Normal pressure venting requirements resulting from the . When storing flammable liquids which can lead to an explo-
maximum anticipated rate of import of product to ihe tank. sive atmosphere within the tank, the venting system shall
. be capable of prevent;ng the transmission of flame into the
Normal pressure venting requirements resulting from the
tank. This presumably means the use of flame arrestors
maximum anticipated increase in tank surface temperature.
which are not universally approved of in some circles, due
. Normal vacuum venting requirements resulting from the to their tendency to block up with certain products with the
maximum anticipated rate of export of product from the passage of time.
IAN K,
8.2.3.1 Evaluation of the venting requirements from
. Normal vacuum venting requirements resulting from the prEN 14015
maximum anticipated decrease in tank surface tempera- Normal outbreathing and inbreathing
ture.
This is otherwise known as the normal pressure and vacuum
. Emergency pressure venting requirements resulting from relief and is made up of liquid import or export and thermal
the exposure of the tank to an external fire. effects.
. Other emergency conditions. These are listed for both pres- Liquid movement outbreathing
sure and vacuum relieving systems and include: This falls into three categories dependent upon the liquid stor-
age temperature and the vapour pressure:
Malfunction of a gas blanketing system
a) For prod ucts stored below 40 'C or with a vaDour pressu re
- l,4alfunciion of a tank heating system regulation less than 50mbar
- Leakage of a tank heating system equ 8.1
- Exceeding the maximum allowable pumping capacity where:
due to incorrect connections within the pumping system
Uop = outbreathing requirement in normal m3/hrofair
- Chemical reactions
Upt = the maximum filling rate in m3/hr
- Poor pipe cleaning b) For spiked products (i.e. with methane) the maximum
Product transfer by pressurised gas venting capacity shall be increased by a factor of 1.7 to
take into account the gas evolved from spiked products
A sudden cool-down due to cold ljquid being sprayed during filling, hence:
into a hot and empty tank
U.o = 1.7Uor equ 8.2
l\4alfunction of a sprinkler system
c) For prod ucts stored above 40 'C or with a vapou r oressure
Excessive liquid flow out of the bnk greater than 50mbar, the outbreathinq shall be increased

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 207


8 Tank venting of ambient tempercturc tanks

by the evaporation rate whjch shall be specified bythe pur-


chaser. ^,1
,r" lt equ 8.6
Liquid movement inbreathing
4"
In this case:
wnere:
equ 8.3
wnere: h = heat transfer coefficient (WmrK)

U,o = the inbreathing requirement in normal m3/hr = thickness ofthe insulation (m)

Up" = the maximum ljquid export rate in m3/hr Lin = thermat conductivity (WimK)

Thermal outbreathing Note: As an example, for an insulation thickness of 0..10 m.


a
thermal conductivity of 0.05
This falls into two categories: -W/mK and an inside heat
transter coefficient of 4Wlm,K. the reduction factor is
a) Tanks without thermal insulation catcutated to be 0.11
ii For a partially insulated tank the reduction factor shall
be
u", =0.25V_0rl 1-:1tn!q l
I
equ 8.4
grven Dy:
L -l

where: +, =fu+.1,-*.] equ 8.7

APap= accumulation pressure in mbar gauge


where:
Uor = thermal outbreathing in normal m3/hr of air
A = total area of the tank surface area (shell and
Vr = tank volume in m3 roof) (mr)
Note <5 mbarg or is unknown, use the bracketed
1; if aP"p
Airp = insulated surface of the tank (mr)
term =1.0
Fora tankwithin an outer containment tank the reduction factor
Note 2:The 0.25 factor is valid for latitudes between 5g" and
shall be given by:
43'. North of 58. use 0.20 and south of aa" use O.Ci.
b) Tanks with thermal insulation R" = 0.25 + 0.75& equ 8.8
See below for the reduction factor for insulation or outer
containment tanks. where;
Thermal inbreathing A. = tank surface area not inside the outer contain_
This falls into two categories: ment tank jn m, (probably part of the shell and
the tank roof)
a) Tanks without thermal insulatiorl
Emergency venting
u,, =cv-o71 1- AP"" Inthe case ofan externalfire ora malfunction ofothersystems
I
equ 8.5
L 140 + pve I
such as a
.tank_
blanketing arrangement. outbreathing beyond
the capability ofthe normal venting equipment provided miy
be
where: required. For this eventuality it is necessary to fit additi;nal
emergency venting equipment.
C = 3 for hexane and products with similar vapour
pressUres and/or stored at temperatures below Exposure ofthe external surfaces ofthe tank can give rise to
an
25 .C expansion of the gas volume within the tank (within a few min-
utes) and boiling of the tank contents (after several hours
C = 5 for products with vapour pressures higher
exposure).
than hexane and/or stored at temperatures
above 25 .C Where a frangible roof-to-shelljoint is not provided, emergency
vents must be supplied to cater for whichever ofthe following ii
Pvp = vapour pressure ofthe liquid at the highest
deemed to be appropriate:
temperature (mbar)
. The flow rate due to gas expansion shall be given by:
APav = accumulation vacuum (mbar gauge) (internal
negative pressure) Ur. = 15Vro h" equ 8.9
Urr = maximum thermal inbreathing requirement
(normal m3/hr of air) -1 hl equ 8.10
Note 1: lf the vapour pressure is unknown use C = 5
1.
Note 2:The factors C = 3 and 5 are valid for latitudes between
58'and 43'. North of 58" use 2.S and 4 and south of43"
use 4 and 6.5
.40
"f-"ot8 equ 8. 11
Note 3: lf Pup is unknown the bracketed term becomes 1.0
b) Tanks with thermal insulation or outer containment tanks where:
The thermai out or inbreathing is reduced when the tank is fully
suface area of the tank shell heated by the
or partially lnsulated, or fitted with an outer conbinment tank.
fire (m,)
i For fully insulated tan ks the reduction factor shall be given
hi
by: heat transfer coefficient (W/mrK)
Rni reduction factor for insulation if availaote

208 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


9 E!U9Jf!9!!9nbJ9!!E!!yf .ef1!!t

8.6 Note: Only a tank shell height of up to 9.0m above the bottom . Steam out. lf an un-insulated tank is filled with steam, the
corner is to be considered in calculating the surface condensing rate (particularly aided by rainfalt) may exceed
area. the venting capacity provided.
. The flow rate due to product boiling shall be given by: . Un-insulated tanks. A warning about such tanks in rain-
storm conditions, especiallywhen the vapour space is hot.
U,, = 4 x 1oa A..o
8'z Elr equ8.12
H" The Standard does not give rules for evaluating the ventjng re-
quirements caused by these events, but does at least list them
where: and state that they should be considered.

Hv = heat of vaporisation of the product (kJ/kg)


8.2.4.1 lhe evaluation of the venting requirements of Apl
La 2000
-"at M = molar weight of the product (kg/mol) API 2000 gives its formulae and tables in both English and met-
'is
T = boiling temperature ofthe product ('K) ric units. Only the metric versions are given below
Note 1: For hexane (lV= 86 kg/mol, H" = 335 kJ/kg, T = 342 "K) Normal outbreathing (pressure) and inbreathing (vacuum)
be
and similar products where no insulation is fitted (i.e. As is the case for prEN 14015, these are the venting require-
1.0). this equation simplifies to: ments resulting from liquid movements and thermal effects.
).7 Ure = 238\0 "' Liquid movement outbreathing
Note 2:The flow rate calculated for product boiling will always Requirements are given for liquids with flash points above and
covef the requirement for gas expansion. below 100'F:
a) Liquids with flash points above 100 "F (37.8 .C) or a nor
8.2.4 APt 2000 mal boiling point of 300 'F (148.9 "C): venting equivalent
to 1 .01 Nm3/hr per cubic metre/hour of the maximum filling
rate
API 2000 has been around for many years and is undoubtedly
the grandfather of tank venting Codes. lt covers non-refriger- b) Liquids with flash points below 100 "F (37.8 'C) or a nor-
ated tanks (i.e. ambient tanks) and refrigerated tanks up to de- mal boiling point of 300'F (148.9'C); venting equivalent
sign pressures of 15 lbiinr. to 2.02 Nm3/hr per cubic metre/hour of the maximum filling
rate
.8 The following covers the Code requirements for non-refriger-
Note 1:An explanation of the basis of these requirements in
ated tanks only. given in Appendix A oi API 2000.
In common with the othertank Codes, Apl 20OO tists the usual Note 2;A warning about situations where the liquid js fed into a
main causes of venting being required as: tank at or near to its boiling point and higher venting
. Liquid movement into or out of the tanK. rates may be required is given.
Note 3:Table 1B shows these requirements in meiric units and
. Tank breathing due to weather changes (e.g. pressure and is shown in Fioure 8.1.
temperature changes).
]S . Fire exposure.
J
. Other circumstances resulting from equipment failure and (Nnp,hr ot Af per Cubic Meter per Hour of Liquid Ftow)
3
operating error. B. Mtric Unils

The Standard then lists and describes the "other circum-


stances" in some detail. In brief these are: tt*a
""|jlj*, *.Hj," rl@bl
Pressure transfer blow-off. This can occur at the end of fill- mT.bL2B
ing from trucks or similarwhere a surge ofvapour enters the
tank. A similar situation may occur after connected line pig- 149,C
Boniig Poirt < 0.94 2.t2
ging. ' uaE m tre Fd q eb8 poot ey b. us.d wnd boo r aqit !lc, 6e 0a+ Ehr

Inert pads and purges. Usually related to failure of the pres-


sure regulating system.
Figure 8.1 Normal venting requiremenls
External heat transfer devices. This could be a heatedjack- Fron API 200A, bble 1B
eted tank where failure of a control valve or a temperature
sensang element has occurred. Liquid movement inbreathing

lnternal heat transfer devices. The venting provided should be equivalent to 0.94 Nm3/hr per
Vent treatment system. This could be the failure of a system cubic metre/hour of emptying rate.
designed to collect and dispose of vented producb.
Thermal outbreathing
Utility failure.
Change in temperature of the input stream to a tank Requirements are given for liquids with high and tow flash
points and boiling pointsl
Chemical reactions. Usually associated with the inadver-
tent import of an incompatible materialwhich reacts with the a) For liquids with flash points above 100 .F (37.8 "C) or a
stored product. normal boiling point above 300 'F (148.9 "C): venting at
Liquid overfilling least that shown in column 2 of Table 28 (Figure 8.2).

Atmospheric pressure changes b) For liquids with flash points below 100 .F (37.8 .C) or a
normal boiling point below 300 "F (148.9 .C): venting at
Control valve failure least that shown in column 4 of Table 28.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 209


B Tank venting of ambient temperature tanks

lnbreaddllg
Ib* Capgciry
(va$'rn) Outbrcrrimrg

Colulrn 2! Col|mLD 4c

nadr Poinl> 37.8'C Flaih Point < 37.8"C


orNormal Boiling or Normal BoiliDg
Poinr > 148.9"C Poitrr < 148.9.C
C\ibic Metrr Nm3/h Nrd3Ar Nm3/h
10 1.69m
2t 3.3"1 2.O2 3.31
,m 16.9 10.1 16.9
200 31.7 m.2 33.7
3m 50.6 30.3 50.6

1ffi t18 70.8 ll8


1,000 169 t69
I J00 253 t52 E3
2,000 331 20.2 337

3,180 536 388 536


4,m0 g7 472 u7
5,000 187 537 7A'l
6,000 E96 er2 896
7,000
8,000 1,071 682 7.07'l
9,0m 1,136 726 1,136
10,0@ 1,210 807 12tO
12,0@ r,145 888 1345

15,000 1,615 L04'l 1.615


18,000 rJ45 I,126 LJ45
20,000 r377 L3m LA7'l
25,000 2,r79 1,3'18 \r19
30.mo 2.495 vn 2,495
Nots:
l Fot ta*! with a dpacity of 20,000 b3nEls (3,1m orbic meErs) or morE, the rcquirEmeds for th vaqri.un
coDdition arc vc.y clos to fte $eorEticalty cirEputd valuc of 2 SCFH of !fu pcr squa. foot (0.577 Nm3/h pr
sqoaE mt4r) oftotal shcll snd roof arEa. For tanlis *'ltt a capacity of lcss tha! z),om barlEls (3,180 clbic
tdetrsi, lhe rEquirEments foi l}c r.aolu.rn cordition bar/e beeo based oD I SCFH of air for each banel of tank
clpacity (0.169 NnrA per crbic rnetcr). Thjr is srbrtarrially cquivaleot lo s rnin rate of lenFtlre c.br[ge
ol 1m"F (37.8'C) per hol]r fu dte !6por spa. (s.. Appe$dir A). An cngiDrrdng rcvicw should be coodrct d
for udnsulaled t *iwhrE d|e l'zpor spa.e rEmperatuE is mainiain d {bo,.r l20oF (48.9"C) (&e 4.2.5.14).
0
Fcr srock! witi s 6Ash poilr of I 00"F (3?.8'C) or abor, the ourbieathirog Equrrernent bas bcetr arqrEd !o be
60 percetrt of the irhtadirg lquiremen! The roof and stlcl tcn3pra$rcs of a tlnk caDnot ris as rapidiy
utrdr aDy conditioD ss they fall. foi.rar+le, during a suddcn cold tEin-
cFor stocls with a f.ash point bclsv 100"F (37.8'C), dIe outbrcading requiremsnt has bcer assumed ro be
equ8l io lhe iBbrEaftirg rEquiremetrt to Ellow for veporizalion at the liquid surface and for $c bigher spcinc
qravity of lhe tu! vrpors.
o lnEeolale for intcrEpdiata tank lizcs. Tank with a capacrty of more thrn 180,000 barrels (30,@ c1$ic
rDters) rcquire individual sirdy. Refer to Aplendix A for additioMl informatioo about lhe basis of this table.

FigLrre 8.2 Requirements for themalvent ng capacjty, (meidc units)


From API 2440, bble 28

Thermal inbreathing o heat input from fire exposure (watts)


(see Figure 8.3 for the basis of this)
The venting provided should be at least that shown in column 2
of Table 28 in Figure 8.2. wetted area of the tank shell (m,)
(see footnotes a and b of Table 38 (Figure
For the case of heated un-insulated tanks where the vapour 8.4))
space is maintained above 120 "F. an engineeflng review is
suggested. environmental factor from Table 48
(Figure 8.5)
Emergency venting
latent heat of vaporisation of the stored liquid
For tanks where the roof-to-shelljoint can be considered frangi- at the relieving pressure and temperature
ble according to the rules ofAPl 650, there is no need to provide (kJ/ks)
for emergencyventing. Care should be taken to ensure that fail-
ure of thls joint does not occur during normal seryice.
'Wethd
For tanks which do not have such a frangible roof{o-shell joint, ArE{
Sudace Design Pressue Heat I-npqt
emergency venting for fire exposure must be provided. The (squarE rb) 06rg) (WaEs)
venting requirement is given by: :18.6@
>18.6 rrd d3 <1.034 Q=2Z4PM956
4f0 <1.034
^r,
,n'. = ru, u$[f]" equ8.13
>93 srd
>260 betwceu 0.07 sod
0 = 630,,1O040336
Q=43,2ff11o82
1.034
a@ <0.0? Q = 4,t29,700
where:
Figlrre 8.3 Heat input from fire exposure
Nm3/hr= venting requirement(normal m3/hrof air)

210 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


I Tank venting of ambient tempenture tanks

(squaEEetrrs) (Nn3ih) (tqu{ErDetE$) (Nh3rr)


zEF.- 913
ffi
I A721
t2r7 45 22
5 t52l 50 9895
6 1,825 60 10,971
'l 2,130 't0 11,971
8 \434 80 12'911
\7J8 90 13,801
1t 3.347 110 15,461
130 15,?51
r5 4.563 150 t6532
t7 5,172 t'75 17,416
t9 5J80 2M tE'.20
6217 230 1q102
25 6,684 2@ 19910
n 1.4t1 >2#
'l1E wited uE{ of I tark or 3rom8e r.cslcl lhall
be calorlated !s follows:
Spbale 8Dd Sph!roid5-1!r wtled .t is cqusl b 55 p.rcctrt of tlIE toirl surfa.e 6r3 or $e surface alea to r beight of 30 feet (9.14 sEtars)
above 8lde, whidcir k grlt r.
Hdizonbllbtr&t-Tbc wcded Ee! i! cqurl tt 75 petce ofthe totrl surfacE aftr or $ $rface erEa b a ho8ht of 30 feet (9.14 roeteis) above
8rrdc, whicbcvs i! grcster.
V.nicd lsl'flll|e ws.d 2de{ is qual i,o tbe total swfscc &re{ of tbe vciticrl rtall to 6 beight of 30 feet (9.14 Eeter!) rbove grade. For a vu,
tical h$k stiDg o! tlc Eroun4 drc arca of thc grouDd plrtcs i! Dor ro bc itrclu&d as wetted afta- For a vcrrical rsnk supporrld above 8rade, a
pqtioo of th rte. of the totrom is !o bc iaclud.d rs additioEal wetr.d surfec. The pntion of tt botrom lri{ exposed to s ffrE dcpends oo rlle
diin|t r ad clqruion oflbe tanl sbo\E glsde. Eogineqing judgtrtrt fu to be used i.o e\luating tbe portion of the dta rrpos.d to fire.
DFoq wctrd surfaccs
largcr th'r 18m squarE flt (2-60 squaE netsr6), s S.tiotrs 4,3,3,2.2 6d 4.3.32.3.
Nol:
thbL 3 3nd t|c cdslaits ll07 rtd 2O8l i! Equtions 2A &d 28 rEsFcti!ly \^E &ri\d ftom Equarioo 1 ed FigurE B-1 by usile lhe tatent
iEsr of \Bporizado! of bexale (144 BTU pcr poud or 33.9m J&g) ar atmorptsic Fessure ald thc moleo.dar weiBht of hqarc (86. t7) ald
asrulllirg a por t mpcrallte of 60'F (15.6'C). This Eethod will Fovide res'tls widin au ac.ptable abglec of acauzc-y for mary f,uid! hav,
iDg sirnilE pmpertics (scc Appctrdix B).

Figure 8.4 Emergency venting requked for fire exposure versus wetted surface afea (mehic unils)
Frcn API 2000, table 38

Tanr hrigi/Conf gurarion hsulatiotrCooductance lffuluionThickEat


(wadmz'K) (crn) F Facto.

Bae nelal taok 0 I_0


hsulated tarl3 12;7 2.5 03b
lt.4 5 o.lib
10 0.0?5b
3-8 15 o.o5b
2.8 20 0.03?5b
25 0.03b
1.9 30 o.m5b
CoDcrE& tant d fireproottrt (semie c)
Warer-lpplicatioD f..ilitiesd *- 1,0
Dpressuling andcmptyiDg faciliticsc _ 1.0
UudergmDrd rtqage n
Edth'covErEd rbr.ge above giade -
O.t
Lppoondnert away froln lanlf o.5
N
Tbe..illd.arion +aI rcsbr didlodg!||cnjby fte-dghting cquitrlcnt, rbrll bc Eotcomh$tibl, and shalt nol decompo{ at tqnperatrnes up io
ffin"F (53?,8"C). Thc tt!.r is .tiPonsiblr to derer[dle if ttre insulatiotr will relist dislodgEnr by dre availsbL f&-fighrirg cquipEeDr.
If rhe
insulatioa does oot 6ccr tltl96 diLri4 oo crdit for insutrtion shsl be tdr!. Th conducta&. !"lucs d brs.d oD i;daior,rltt tl. .rout
conductivig of 4 BTU pcr bottr pcr rqur& fmt F'F p.a iDoll of ftichrss (9 WatB per squarc nElr par 'C per centiEcter of dichess). " The
urc! i5 Gipo$ible for dctcr&idng ttc ac[rdl condudrtrcc yalue of tbe il|lulation IrEEd. The conscrvrrivc value of4 BTU per hour
t pe._F Pr incb of didocss (9 walts
Fr squarc
E F squ.r mcEr F. 'C per cetrtirdelr of thiclsarr) fo. dle dlcrerl conductiviry i; u!.d.
'Tbese F fa4o.5 dl balcd ots thc tb.f,tlal sbo\{tr and a ternpcratul! ditrerEstisl of 1600T (888.e"q w*n r:sing a neat rnpur
value of 2l BTU Fr hollr pcr -coductancc-values
squrc foot (66,200 wattr per squatE rpreD in accedanoe with thc conditions assur*d in ApI Ricommnrted
'000
Praatice 52l. rfilrn &esc coDdiliolr! do Dot exis!, eDgi[cllilgjudgoert lhould be used io set ct a diferrtrt F factor or to provide
ot!r means
f0( Fot.ting tbc bdk flsrE 6rE cxposur!.
cusr tbe F faotor for atr cquivabDt ooDdqchce yElue
of i$DlarioD.
dun{br idcal cotditiotrs' warrr fitE5 covering
tbe Ectal surfac.s can abso(i most iocidcut radiadol Thc rEliability ol watr application depends
otr Ealy faclors. FtEzitrS \rathc(, huh trildr, clogSrd afsEms, urdepcodablc antcr supply, rtld irnk suface clnditiors
cai gevent rmiform
watet covtiage. Bc{usc of thcac ulc.f,tiitrties, !o redrction in etrvirontnnlrl faclols is .;;mr&udad; bowcier, as stated prwiously, pmperly
eFplird war.. c8r b. vcry frciive,
pepgs-surgg deviccs nay bc u!ad, tot uo ctrdit 6hall bc atlowcd in lizilg tl|e vcntirg device for fue er,posure.
tThc fo[lwirl8 ccoditiotrs most bc rlct A
llope of rot-Lss thrD I FrEcntawa] ftoItr or u"f sml *pmviael for ai lelst 50 feet (15 met rs)
low'rd_ttc imPounding rtE3; thc itoFouD{rg ared shal have a caFcity that is lot tcss th!, $e c parity of &e lEgcst tan} that can
dain ioto iq
the &ailage lFbdl toutca ftotlt odler t'".!.. to dtci! irnpoubdiDs atlas sball not scrioully qpose tte taa!; aoa itrj;mpoudding
arla fm tbc t r1(
!! ecl ss dtc iEpduding atE s for lt odrcr tants (whrtlEf, rEmot (r with dikes eourld r]re oder u*s) sbrl be locared so [at wher up area
is fi d to ceplcity. i$ Uquid kvcl ir tro closr tha! 50 iet (15 rrercrs) to tl,e tanl.

Figure 8.5 Envkonmental faclors for non-refiigerated above-ground tanks (metric units)
Fron API 2000, table 48

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 211


9f9!!!9!!!9 oryllEllleJlp9trlur9 ta!!:

T = temperature of the relieving vapour ("K) 8.2.4.3 Pressure limitations


M = the molecular weight of the vapour Fortanks which are designed to Apl 650 Appendix F (Design of
An alternative simplercalculation method is given which gives a Tanks for Small Internal Pressures) the pressure relief devices
lesser degree of accuracy. shall be sized and set so that at the rated capacity ofthe device,
the internal pressure under any normal operating condition
8.2.4.2 Means of venting shall not exceed the internal design pressure or the maximum
API 2000 provides a considerable amount of sensible advice design pressure. Both of these pressures are specillcallv
regarding the types of relieving devices to be used and how defined in Appendix F of API 650.
these should be installed and maintained. A small part of this
For other API 650 tanks, the pressure relief devices selected
advice is repeated here. For those who have a serious interest
should limitthe pressure in the tanks to prevent excessive liftino
in this subject, the complete text of this Standard, together with
of the tank roof sheeting. For a tank with 3/ 16" thick roof sheets:
the companion Standards API Rp S20 and Apl Rp 521 should
this limits the pressure to 3.5 mbar
be studied in detail (References 8.5 and 8.6).
8.2.4.4 Relief valve installation
Normal venting
This Code provides much sensible advice on the qeneral de-
Normal venting for pressure and vacuum shall be accom-
plished by a pressure/vacuum (PV) valve or an open vent with tails of how relieving devices should be installedL Amongst
rnese are:
or without a flame arresting device as described below. Relief
devices fitted with a weight and a lever are not recommended. . Installation details shall provide direct access to the tank
. PV valves are recommended for petroleum products with a vapour space and not be capable of being sealed off by the
flash point below 100 'F (37.8 "C) and where the ftuid tem- liquid contents.
perature exceeds the flash point. A flame arrestor is not . Where block valves are installed between the reljeving de-
considered necessary where PV valves are used as the vices and the tank (for maintenance purposes), arrange-
vapour velocities across the valve seat are considered to ments shall be made to ensure that when one relievinq
exceed the flame speed. device is isolated, the remaining devices shall provide th;
. Open vents with flame arresting devices may be used for full relieving capacity. This in effect means the supply of a
the tanks described above. spare relieving device and a system to ensure that no more
than one relieving device can be isolated at anv one time.
. Open vents without flame arrestors may be used in the fol- Block valve interlocking is a commonly used solution to
lowtng cases: achieve this.
For tanks in which petroleum or petroleum prod ucts with . Inlet and outlet connections and details shall be carefully
aflash pointof 100 "F (37.8'C) orabove are stored, pro- considered to ensure that any pressure drops occurrjng do
vided the contents are not heated and the fluid remains not detract from the ability of the relieving arrangement to
below the flash point. provide the full relieving capacity required.
For heated tanks where the storage temperature of the . lf discharge pipework is fifted, itshall lead to a safe location.
petroleum or petroleum products is below the flash shall not sub.iect the relieving devices to condensation and
point. not discharge vapours into enclosed spaces.
For tanks of capacity less than 9.46 m3 used for any . For tanks located inside buildings, the venting system shall
product.
discharge outside the building and frangible roofjoints shall
- For tanks of capacity less than 477 m3 used for crude oil. not be used.
. ln the case ofviscous oils, such as cutback and penetrating . lf relieving systems from more than one tank discharqe into
grade asphalts, where the danger of pallet sticking or flame a common header. considerable care shall be exercised to
arrestor blocking exists, open vents without flame arrestors ensure that no problems arise from liquid traps, back pres-
may be used as an exception to the rules above. sures, throttling and unforeseen interactions between the
relieving systems from different connected tanks.
. In areas subject to strict emission regulations, open venis
may not be acceptable.
Emergency venting 8.3 Typical relief valve equipment
Tanks with frangible roofjoints do not requjre emergency vent- There are a number ofwellknown manufacturers oftank reliev-
ing devices. For other tanks the Code offers the following ing equipmeni around the world. All produce a range of prod-
advtce: ucts suitable for use with ambient storage tanks.
. Larger or additional open vents may be provided subject to Because ofthe low pressures associated with these tanks, it is
the same provjsions as given in Section on Normalventing. usualto use pressure reliefvalves which are dead weight-oper-
ated rather that the pilot-operated types which are more usual
. Larger or additional PV valves. at the higher design pressures associated withlowtemperature
. A gauge hatch which permits the cover to lift under abnor- tanks. The dead weight pressure relief valves are also much
mal internal pressure. cheaper than their pilot-operated equivalents. A typical dead
weight operated valve is shown in Figure 8.6.
. A manhole cover which lifts when subject to abnormal inter-
nat pressure. For vacuum relief the valves are also dead weight-operated
and a typical example is shown in Figure 8.7.
. Otherforms ofconstruction which can be proved to fulfilthe
requrred purpose. For reasons of economy in terms of reducing the number of
tank roof connections and isolation valves (where fitted), it is
. A rupture disc device (unlikely to be suitable for the low common to combine the pressure and vacuum valves into a
pressures usually associated with ambient bnks). single item and a typical pressure and vacuum relief valve is
shown in Fiqure 8.8.

212 STORAGE TANKS & EQUTPMENT


8 Tank venting of ambient tempetature tanks

of
ES

ln
m
Iy

:d
rg

Figure 8.6 Dead welghtoperated valve


Couiesy of Tyco Valves & Controls
e-

'rK
te

e-
e-
rg
'te
a
re
e.
to
Figure 8-7 Dead weighloperated vacuum reliefvalve
Courtesy of Tyco Valves & Controls
liy
)o All types of relief valves are manufactured in a range of sizes to
io suit the flow rates required. These typically range from 2" up to
12" NB.

n. For emergency relief (i.e. the externalfire exposure case) the


to pressure reliefvalves described above may not have sufficient
capacity for the flow rates involved and valves specifically de-
signed for this higher flow regime are available. One such is
ll
shown in Figure 8.9. These valves are commonly supplied in
r,l
sizes up to 24" NB and some are designed to fulfil a second use
as tank roof manways.
io
lo It is usual for the valve manufacturers to provide data concern-
S- ing the pressure/flow characteristics of each valve in their
'e range of products. This enables the tank designer to select the
number and sizes of the valves required for relieving duties.
ldeally this data should be derived from physical testing of the
valves. Atypical pressure/flow curve is shown as Figure 8.10. lt
is usual for these pressure/flow curves to be provided for air.

For pressure relief some adjustment must be made for the


characteristics of the oroduct vaoour. Some manufacturers
provide proprietary software which includes the pressure/ flow
data and can make appropriate allowances for different product
Figure 8.8 Typical pfessure and vacuum reliefvalves vapours and for suction and exit losses to aid the designer
Coutlesy of Tyca Valves & Contrals
For tanks with fixed foofs storing certain products, often with in-
ternal floating roofs, it is common to require the space above
the liquid or internal roof to be blanketed with nitrogen gas. To
control the flow of this purge gas into the tank and ensure mini-
mum wastage, tank blanketing valves are available and an ex-
ample of these is illustrated in Figure 8.11.

8.4 References
8.1 Welded SteelTanks for Oil Storage, API 650 Tenth edi-
Fgure 8.9 Emergency vent and manhole cover flon, November'1988. The American Petroleum lnsti-
Coutlesy of Tyco Valves & Controls tute.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 213


8 Tank venting of ambient tempenturc tanks

Figuro 8.11 Pilot-opeEtod presutE/vacuum valve


Coutl3sy of TW Valvss & Contgls

lic tanks for the storage of liquids at ambient tempen-


g tures and above Pad 7.. Sfee, fanks. DIEN
z + 6. a1012|
14015-1:2000
-
Flgure 8.10 A typical pressure/flow c |ve 8.4 Venting Atmosphedcand Low-Pressure Slonge Tanks:
Non-reftigented and Refigeratecl, Apl2000, Fifth edi-
tion, April 1998, The American Petroloum Institute.
8.2 Btitish Standard Specification for Manufacture of vefti-
cal steel welded non+efrigercted storage tanks with 8.5 Slzing, Selection and lnstallation of Pressure Relieving
buft welded shells for the petroteum rndusqy, BS Devices in Refinedes, Paft 1 - Sizing and Selection, Apl
2654:1989, BSI London RP 520, The American Petroleum Institute
8.6 Guide for Pressure relieving Devices and Depressunls-
8.3 Specification for the desqn and manufacture of site lng Sysfems, API RP 521, The American Petroteum In-
built, veftical, cylindical, flat-bottomed, welded, metal- stitute

214 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


9 Non-vertical cylindrical tanks and
other types
This Chapter is a very brief review of some of the storage tanks which do not fit into the
'conventional" vertical cylindrical category. Some are very much proprietary designs and
products and some are more pressure vessel than storage tank.
More detail, either from suppliers of the first category, should not be difficult to obtain or from
literature covering pressure vessel design, such as European Pressure Equipment, which is
part of this series of reference books

Contents:
9.1 Rectangular tanks
9.2 Spherical tanks
9.3 Horizontal vessels

9.4 Bolted cylindrical tanks


9.5 Factory-manufactured tanks made from non-metallic materials
9,6 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 215


s N o n -,",J!.9? !9!!!![3!13!!: u!! ol!9

9.1 Rectangular tanks


Rectangular tanks are a common sight in towns, factories and
airfields around the UK and elsewhere. They are almost always
factory-manufactured in transportable modules to proprietary
designs and are commonly called Braithwaite Tanks. They are
restricted to quite modest capacities when compared to the ver-
tical cylindrical types. This has much to do with the fundamental
unsuitability of the rectangular form to liquid containment.
Whilst the conventional tank's shell is stressed by the liquid
contents in simple tension, the stressing ofa rectangulartank is
more complex. The liquid loading on the flat sides requires stiff-
ened panels and often internal bracing. lt is usual for the panels
to be supplied suitable for bolting together with sealing ofthese
joints. For water storage and for other products where cleanli-
ness is importani, the panels may have a factory-applied coaf
ing on both inner and outer surfaces. An advantage of these
tanks is that they are available "off the shelf' and do not require
particularly skilled labour for their erection. They can also be
easily dismantled and re-erected elsewhere.
It is usualfor such tanks to be suDDorted on elevated steel or
masonry structures which must be suitably designed for the
loadings.

9.2 Spherical tanks


Spheres fall more correctly into the field of pressure vessels.
However, they are such a common sight that they deserve a
Figure 9.1 Atyplcal sphericaltank under construction
brief mention. They are designed to pressure vessel Standards Cowtesy of Whessoe
such as ASN.4 E VIII, BS 5500 and EN 13445. The sphericalform
is well-suited to resist the internal pressures arising from the
product liquid and the vapour. For this reason, spheres were
very much in evidence for the land-based storage of products
such as LPG and this is discussed further in Chaoter 17. Spher-
ical tanks are also a common component of liquid gas carriers
and this is also covered in Chapter 17.
The support of spherical tanks is most commonly achieved by
the use of legs which attach to the sphere at the equator lt is
usual for these legs to be braced together with diagonaltie rods
to provide the necessary lateral support to resist wind and seis-
mic loadings. Such a sphere is shown in Figure 9.1 together
with the arrangements for access to the iop of the vessel where
the pressure relief valves and the level insirumentation are lo-
cated. The liquid inlet and outlet connections are to be found in
the bottom cap of the sphere. To ensure that any leakage from
the sphere is contained, a local bund is usually provided and an
example of this is shown in Figure 9.2.
There have been some spectacular accidents in the past in-
volving spherical vessels storing volatile and inflammable prod-
ucts. Some ofthese have come about by the ignition of product
leakage, possibly coming from the bottom liquid connections,
which has not been ableto drain awayfrom the vesseland has
consequently "cooked" the sphere to the point where the in-
creasing heat input causes the internal pressure to increase at
a rate that the pressure relief valve system cannot cope with,
leading to an explosive failure of the vessel.
Current thinking is to provide a bunding system from which the
leaking liquid can be rapidly removed to a spill containment pit
where a foam blanketing system can hopefully prevent or at
Figure 9.2 Sphefical tank wlth local bund
least minimise the effect of ignition. For reasons which are obvi- Cautesy of Whessoe
ous, the fireproofing of the supporting legs of spheres is a man-
datory requirement.
The safety problems, both realand perceived, which have been
The sphere illustrated in Figure 9.2 has external cladd ing, sug- associated with spherical vessels has caused them to be less
gesting that it is an insulated sphere, possibly for the storage of popular choice for certain owners and in certain geographic lo-
semi or fully refrigerated LPG. The application, maintenance, cations than was the case in times past.
longevity and repairof such insulation and associated cladding
systems for spherical vessels has caused many problems for A big sphere would be around 22 m in diameter which would
the owners of such vessels in the past. have a gross liquid capacity of some 5575 m3. Above this diam-

216 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


9 Non-veftical cylindrical tanks and other types

eter, problems of plate thickness and site stress-relief tend to


Drovide a size limitation.
Asecond means of support for spherical vessels is to provide a
cylindrical skirt or a cup type of arrangement. This is commonly
known as the "Man type" ofsupport and is often considered as a
proprietary design, available only from certain designers and
suppliers.

9.3 Horizontal vessels


Above ground horizontal vessels have been used for many
years for the storage of modest quantities of various products.
These range in size from the simple 'gas pigs'for domestic gas
supply of around 0.5 m3 up to vessels for high pressure gas
storage orfor component parts ofmounded storage systems of
around 4000 m3 for each vessel.
Figurc 9.5 Mounded slorage tank system under construclion
The high pressure gas vessels were a common sight at major Courtesy of
gas works at one time in the UK. They were an early form of
peakshaving forthe gas network before the adventofthe liquid
natural gas tanks at strategic locations around the country for
the same purpose. These vessels were built in groups of six or
more and were upto 6 m in diameterand 100 m long, Theywere
constructed from factory-built units at the maximum transport-
able length, which were site-welded together and the closing
seams site stress relieved. An example ofsuch a facility during
construction is shown in Figure 9.3.
Asimilarfacilityfor the storage of liquid propane is shown in Fig-
ure 9.4. This consists of sixvessels, each 12 ft (3.66 m) in diam-
eter and 120 ft'(36.6 m) long.

Figure 9.6 IVlounded storage lank being laid on prepared sand beds

For safety reasons, such above ground facilities for the storage
of products such as LPG have become unpopular. The current
trend for the pressure storage of LPG is to use mounded stor-
age systems. Here horizontal pressure vessels are used which
are supported on a bed of sand or other suitable soil, and after
construction are backjilled and buried. This arrangement pro-
vides protection from fire and missile damage. This arrange-
ment also allowsforthe storage oJdifferent products or product
mixes in the separate vesselswhich is convenient for operators
of LPG terminals.
Figure 9.3 Site welding of high pressure gas vessels Guides tothe design ofmounded storage facilities are provided
Coulesy of whessoe by the UK Health and Safety Executive and the Engineering
Employers Materials Users Association, (EEMUA), (Refer-
ences 9.1 and 9.2). Figures 9.5 and 9.6 show a typical
mounded storage tank system under construction. In this in-
stance the vessels were 8 m in diameter and because ofthe re-
mote location of the site in the Philippines, were constructed in
modules from imported edge-prepared flat plate in a temporary
workshop on thejob site. These werethen laid on the prepared
sand bed and welded into the comDlete vessels.
In-ground horizontal cylindrical storage tanks are widely used
as garage forecourt tanks for the storage of the various motor
fuels. At one time these were simple steel tanks buried in the
ground. Problems of corrosion and subsequent leakage of the
products into the surrounding soil, and the escalating costs of
remedialworks and litigation has caused this area of activityto
be reconsidered and modern facilities have secondary contain-
ment, leak detection and anti-corrosion measures built into
them. An excellent book covering the Codes, regulations and
Figure 9.4 Liquid propane storage facilily design ofthese tanks from an American perspective is given in
Courlesy of lthessoe Reference 9.3.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 217


I Non-vettical cylindical tanks and other types

9.4 Bolted cylindrlcal tanks


As for the rectangulartanks described in Section 9.1, these are
made from factory-manufactured panels which are assembled
by bolting at the job site. They are restricted to modest capaci-
ties and have the advantiage of quick and cheap erection and
being re-useable. For water storage, theirdesign and construc-
tion in the USAis the subjectof the American Water Works As-
sociation Code, ANSUAWWA D103-97, (Reference 9.4\.

9,5 Factory-manufactured tanks made


from non-metallic materials
There are a number of manufacturers who sDecialise in the
manufacture ofl-anks made from Dlastic materials. These are
available in capacities up to 70 m3, diameters up to 3.5 m and
heights of 10 m. Many are available "off the shelf and made
from plastic materials which are tailored to the corrosive nature
of the particular product to be stored
Some ianks of this type come with built-in bunding anange-
ments and one such example is shown In Figure 9.7.
Figure 9.7 Non-metalllc lank with built-in bunding
Couftesy of Allibeft Buckhom UK Ltd
9.6 References
9.'l Mounded and buied LPG tanks, K. W. Blything, J. 9.3 Handbookof storage tank systems, W. B. Geyer, spon-
Gould, B. L. Prescott and R. G. J. Robinson, AEATech- sored by SteelTank Institute, Lake Zurich, lllinois, Mar-
nology, Health & Safety Executive, March 1996. cel Dekker. New York. ISBN 0824785894.
9.2 Guide for the design, construction and use of mounded
hoizonbl cylindical yesse/s forpressun'sed storage of 9-4 Standard for factory coated bolted steel tanks for water
LPG at ambient tempehtures, Publlication No. 190 : sforage, ANSUAWWA D103-97, AWWA Denver, Colo-
2000. EEMUA. London. oo.

218 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


10 Material selection criteria for
ambient temperatu re tan ks
The basic rules of material selection are covered in this Chapter and a glimpse of a little ofthe
work and experience which lies behind the selection criteria is provided.
This is a big subjectand those whowish to practice or study in this area would be welladvised to
look to the various publications on this topic.

Contents:
10.1 General

10.2 Brittle fracture considerations


10.3 Design metal temperature
10.3.1 Minimum design metial temperature
10.3.2 Maximum design metal temperature
10.4 Requirements ofthe tank design codes
10.4.1 API 650 requirements
10.4.2 BS 2654 requirements
10.4.3 prEN 14015 requirements
10.5 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 219


10 Material selection cdteia for ambient tempercture tanks

10.1 General ent temperatures is derived from the USAS 8.96.1, now pub-
fished as ASME 8.96.1 :1999, (Reference 70.6). Alternatively,
The development of the current material selection criteria for those interested could adaptand usethe guidance given in API
ambient temperature storage tanks is an interesting tale. The 620 Appendix Q (Reference 70.4 for service below tempera-
move from riveted to welded shells brought brittle fracture onto tures of -60 'F.
the scene in much the same way as the various failures of the
Liberty Ships focussed attention on the same phenomenon in
the ship building world. The paper byCotton and Denham (Ref- 1 0.2 Brittle fracture considerations
erence 10. t) follows the develooment of the rules for steel se-
lection from the early days ofwelded tanks up to around 1980. At the time that API 12 C was originally wriften, little or nothing
was known about the phenomenon of brittle fracture and the
The first Code to provide rules for welded storage tanks was factors which influenced it.
API 12C (Reference 70.2), first published about 1935. lt was
this Standard which was the industry Standard until the mid As storage tanks, particularlyfor oilbased products, increased
1950s and formed the basis for the subsequent Standards API in size, it was either a fortunate or an inspired decision of API
650 (Refercnce 1 0.3) a nd BS 2654 (Refe re nce 1 0.4) whtch are 12Cto limitthe maximum shellplate thicknessto 1.5" (40mm);
the design Codes for most tanks for ambient temperature ser- a figure which remains as the limit to this day in BS 2654, prEN
vice used today. The forthcoming European Code takes a route '14015 and for many materials in API 650 (in some cases a
which has been influenced by both ofthese Codes, but is prob- higherlimit of 1.75" (45 mm) is permitted). Plate thickness is an
ably more BS than API in its final draft form, prEN 14015 (Refer- important variable involved in the complex issue of brittle frac-
ence 10.5). ture avoidance in welded steel structures. As the knowledge
The vast majority of ambient tanks are constructed from carbon surrounding this subject expanded, it was considered indeed
and carbon manganese steels and the Codes concentrate their fortunate that this limit had been imposed.
attention on these materials. API 650, which it should be re- Early storage tanks were built in comparatively modest sizes
membered is written for tanks for the storage of petrochemical
using steels of low strengths. From the early 1960s onwards,
products, does have rules for the design, material selection,
there was an increasing demand for tanks of larger capacities,
fabrication and erection of storage tanks constructed from
driven by the increasing volumes of oil-based products being
stainless steels. These are given in Appendix S which is transported and stored around the world. Large tanks mean
discussed in Section 10.4.1.
that greater volumes can be stored on the same area of land,
BS 2654, which is also restricted to the petrochemical industry and many existing refineries and terminals were restrlcted in
products but isfrequently used forthe storage ofproducts such the amount of space available to them. This required the indus-
as water, wine and food related materials where cleanliness tryto leave the safe and wellunderstood territoryof smalltanks,
and product contamination are important, surprisingly has no thin shells, weak steels and lowjointfactors. The appearance of
rules for stainless steel tanks. This has not stopped the provi- BS 2654 : Part 3 (Reference 70-8) was an indication of this
sions of this Standard from having been used and adapted for change.
this area of activity.
The change to the use of stronger and thicker steels, higher
prEN 14015 includes rules for both carbon and carbon manga- joint factors and the increased consequences of a sudden fail-
nese steels and for stainless steels. lt was the original intention ure in the new larger tanks meant that the incomplete under-
thatthis Standard would be published in two parts, thefirst cov- standing ofthe factors surrounding the subject of brittle fracture
ering steel (C, CMn and SS) tanks and the second covering alu- needed to be addressed.
minium alloy tanks. This second part of the Code failed to ap-
pear due to a general lack of interest. There is little activity in This was reinforced by the sudden failure whilst under hydro-
this area of tank building and it was not possible to assemble a static test of a floating rooftank at the Esso Fawley Refinery in
committee with sufficient knowledge and interestto prepare the 1952 described ;n detail in Reference 70. 9. A photograph of
document. Asfaras the author is aware, the only set ofrules for this tank after the event is shown in Figure 10.1. The floating
the design of aluminium alloy storage tanks for service at ambi- roofis intact, butdumped on the ground some one quarterofa

Figure 10.1 The iloaling rooffailure at Fawley in 1952

220 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


10 Material selection citeia for ambient temperature tanks

ub- tank diameter laterally from its starting position, and the tank at temperatures which are determined bythe minimum temper-
ely, shell is literally cast around the site in pieces. atures to be expected at the particular location where they are
API to be constructed. Taking some credit for the thermal inertia of
In the UK this work involving the Wells Wide Plate Tests, the
)la- thetankand its contents, thedesign metaltemperatures are not
Pellini Drop Weight Test, the introduction of the CTOD test and
based on the absolute minimum temperatures to be statistically
the study of the relationship between these and the more eco-
expected atthesite, butare chosen based ontheaverage mini-
nomical and convenient Charpy V-notch impact testing for ma-
mum daily temperatures conditions to be expected plus an al-
terial quality control, which is described in Reference 10.1.
lowanceforthe thermal inertia ofthe stored product. When the
l\y'uch of this work was sponsored by, and brought into a sem- tank is empty and will respond rapidly to the actual minimum
ing
blance of order, by the Oil Companies lMaterials Association temperatures, thestresses arelowand it is argued thattheywill
the
Low Temperature committee, which was made up of technical be insufficient to cause problems of possible brittle fracture.
experts from companies such as Shell, lCl and BP togetherwith
;ed the Welding Institute. This group took upon itself the task of re- The Codes describe the minimum design metaltemperature as
\PI structuring the requirements for briitle fracture avoidance and follows:
n), presented its recommendations to BSl. This work gave rise to
EN the current requirements in BS 2654 where the Charpy V-notch . API 650 The design metaltemperature shall be assumed to
impact test temperature is different from the design tempera- be 8 "C (15 'F) above the lowest one day mean ambient
an ture. This is an essential difference between the BS and API ap- temperature ofthe locality ofthe area where the tank is to be
3C-
proaches to material selection. installed. For mainland USA these are shown in Figure
lge 10.2. For other areas of the world, suitable equivalent data
must be obtained.
_ad
10.3 The design metal temperature
. BS 2654 The design metal temperature shall be specified
:ES 1 0.3.1 Minimum temperatures by the purchaseron the basis ofthe official weather reports
over at least 30 years. The design metal temperature shall
The three design Codes all exclude from their scope the stor- be the lowerofthe lowestdaily mean temperature (one half
ng age of products which are refrigerated below ambient tempera- of the daily maximum iemperature plus the daily minimum
an tures. lvlany tanks are insulated and store products which are temperature) plus 10 "C or the minimum temperature ofthe
above ambient temperature, hence they are not fully siressed tank contents.
in
ls-
(S,

of
ris

ET
|-
)r-
re

c-

cf
's
a

Compiled lrom U.S. Wsah Burcauand


Mei6orologlcsl Div. Depr. ot Transport ol
Dominion ol canada Records !p ro 1952-

Fgure 10.2 lsothermal lines of lowesl one-day mean temperatures ('F)


Fron API 650, figure 2-2

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 221


10 Material selection citeda for ambient temperaturc tanks

For a storage tank constructed for service in the UK where


the shell temperature is controlled by ambient conditions,
the minimum design metal temperature shall not exceed 0
'C. For a storage tank constructed for use outside the UK
and where no long term data or weather reports are avail- 1S93
able, the design metal temperature shall be the lower ofthe
lowest daily mean temperature plus 5 'C and the minimum
temperature of the contents.
EN 10023,3
ln the interests of operational flexibility, the minimum design
temperature shall not take into account the beneficial ef-
fects of heated or insulated tanks.
. prEN 14015 The minimum design metaltemperature shall
be the minimum temperature of the contents or the temper-
atures given in Figure 10.3. The minimum design metal
temperature shall not be lower than -40 "C. Note that this
does allowsome advantage to be taken oftank insulation or
heating. 'i The maxhum rhickoess sharl be lhe lower ol lhai sp6llied ln rhis labre and Ihal dtiv6d tom

NoTE cEv l@fr ladle analysls < O 421o. plales ihickq lhan 20 mm.

lowest one dat Mhlmum design mtal l.npsratur.

Figure 10.4 Hoi rolled products fot use at elevated temperatures {> 100 "C)
Fron prEN 14015, kble 6.1.1-4
Wamr$an orequalro-10'C

10.4 The requirements of the tank design


Codes
LOOMAT All ofthe tank design Codes provide quite specific rules for ma-
NOTE 1 LODJ,TAT is rhe row*r recoded averag tehpebture based ovr any 24 hour pedod, terial selection. Certain Codes, in particularAPl 650, provide a
The aveqe tempeture is half(mdihumremp.al!rc plus minimum ImpeBtu). considerable amountof information on the subjectand thevari-
NOTE ? The hlnihum design melal lehpemtlre td rhe Iank shall not lakB into ac@unt the ous subsidiary requirements which will need detailed study by
benelicial effect ot healing or nsulalion for dsign m6lal tmpntuf* wam* lhan or qual b
those whowish to applythese rules for speciflc circumstances.
NOTE 3 Foi minimum desigi meia tenpe6tur6 berow 0"C, lhen lh beneicial eneci of What follows in this Section provides only some of the require-
insulalion or heatinq shallbe aEeed bulthedsign m.iallompralure should not be wemerthan
ments and highlights the main points involved. lt should be re-
membered thatthis isa bigger question than merely the choos-
Figure 10.3 Minlmum design metal tempetaiure based on LODI\,4AT ing of a suitable steel for the various parts of the tank. Site
Fron prEN 14015, table 5.2.2 welding is often carried out in far from ideal circumstances, at
elevated and exposed locations, in poor weather, subject to
10.3.2 Maximum temperatures salt-laden winds to name but a few of the practical problems.
Weldability, welding processes, the need for preheat and the in-
fluence of hydrostatic testing need to be given due
The Codes aliow maximum design temperatures as follows: consideration.
By way of a slight diversion from the main subject, API 650 still
. APl650 The basic Code and material selection allows for allows the full height hydrostatic test to be side-stepped, albeit
operating temperatures up to 90 "C (200 "F) without modifi- with some nimble footworkto argue that "sufficient water to test
cation or qualification. For temperatures up to a maximum the tank is not available". This led to the catastrophic failure of
of 260 "C (500 'F), Appendix [.4 provides detailed rules for the Pittsburgh tank and the dumping of its contents into the
material selection and tank design at elevated tempera- river, an event which made the savings associated with hydro-
tures. static test avoidance look rather poor value to the tank erector
(or rather re-erector - as it was a cut down and relocated tank
. BS 2654 Where the operating temperature is over 150 "C, from another site), and equally to the tank owner.
consideration shallbe given tothe effect ofthat temperature
on the yield strength (of the chosen shell material). lf it is proposed to follow this route, originally perhaps devised
fortanks erected in desert locations where there really is nowa-
. ter. but where temperatures are such that brittlefracture is not a
prEN 14015 The maximum design metaltemperature shall
problem (remembering that not all deserts are hot), then it is
not exceed 300 'C. For design metal temperatures in ex-
recommended that material grades are adjusted by persons
cess of 100 'C, the elevated temperature yield stress val-
with sufficient expertise to compensate.
ues of steels shall be certified by the steel supplier.
Alternatively, steels complying with the table in Figure 10.4
shall be used. 10.4.1 API 650 requirements

Plate materials for bottom and roof plates and nominal API 650 understandably concentrates its efforts on the use of
thickness shell plates (providing they are 20% thicker than steels manufactured to American Standards.
required by design calculation)do not require elevated tem- It does provide guidance for the use ofsteels made to Canadian
perature yield stress values to be certified by the steel sup- (CSA) Standards, some ISO Standards and general rules for
plier. When the maximum design metal temperature the use of steels made to other national Standards.
exceeds 250 'C, steels which are proven to be unaffected
by ageing shall be used. The method of proof shall be The steels are placed in eight categories in generally ascend-
agreed between the tank contractor and the steelsupplier' ing order of toughness. These are:

222 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


10 Mateial selection criteria for ambient temperature tanks

I
Group CroupII Group III Group tlIA
Rolled,
As As Rolled, As Rolled, Killej Normalized, Killed
Sernfiled Kilied or Sedkilled Fine-Grain Pnctice Fine4nin Pmctice
Ma@rial Nors Maieriat Notes Malcrial Nores Marerial No0es

A283MC 2 At3rMB ? A s73M-400 Al3lMCS


A 285M C 2 A 36M 2.6 A 5t6M-380 A s73M-400 10

A l3lMA 2 G40.2IM-260W A5r6M-415 A5l6M-380 l0


A 36M 2,3 Gnde 250 5,8 C4o.2lM,260w 9 A 5l6M-415 r0
G|ade 235 3, s cnd 250 5.9 C40.2IM-260W 9, t0
Crade 250 6 crdde 250 5,9, l0

croup VI
Normalizd or
Group Iv GroupM Gtoupv Qoenchcd and TemperEd,
As Rolcd, Kiled Kiued
As Rolled, Killed
Normalized, Killed Fine-Grain Practice
Fine4rain hactice Fine-c|din hactice Fine-Crain Pmcdc Reduced Carbon

Malcdal Notes Material Notes Material Notes Mardal Noles


A573M'450 C
A 662M A 573M485 l0 A l3lM EH 36
A5?3M-4S5 A 5?3M-485 A516M450 l0 A633MC
A 5l6M-450 G4021M,300W li
9, A 5t6M48s l0 A 633M D
A5l6M-485 G40.2IM-350W 9,11 c402lM-300W 9, 10 A 53?Mclass 1

A662MB C40.2IM-350W 9, l0 A53TMClass 2 t3


G4O.2lM-300w 9 A 678MA
G40.2lM-35Ow 9 A678MB t3
Ens 4.9 A731MB
E355 9 a tdl
@275 5,9

Notas:
l. Most of l,he listed Elat rial specifcatio numben refcr to ASTM specifications (inctudirg Gnde or Claes)i ttEre sre, bow-
ctErt sorde a\ccptiols: G40.21M (including Grade) is a CSA specification: Grads E 275 aDd E 355 (inctuding Qualiry) are
coolaiBd itr ISO 630; atrd Gnde 3?, Crade 41, and ctade 44 ar rElatd ro national standards (see 22t.
2. Mlst b senikilcd or killed.
3- Thichess S 20 rnE.
. 4- Mzrimum DrangEoese contenr of 1.5%.
5. Thhtnss m rnm maximum when .ootrolled-mlld steel is uscd in place of normalized stel.
6. Margarrse conlent shall be 0.80-1.2% by tle{t aralysis fo! lhicl$esses gater than 20 mltr, cxcepr thar for each rducrior!
ofo.ol below lhe sPecifed carbon ma\imus! a! increase of 0.06% mrnganese above th spetifed maxinum $iill be per-
Di!!d uP io lh rnadmum of 1-35%. Thichesses S 20 mm shall have a m
ganese content of0.8-1.2% by hear analysis.
7. TbbbEss <25 Bm-
8. Mustbe kiled
9. Must be killd atrd n1rde ro fne-gllill prratic.
10. Must be norrnalizd
I I' Must hsv c$emistr, (heal) modifd !o a rnaximum carbon content of 0.2o% and a rnaximom dranganese conrnl ot 1.60%
(,n'2.2.6.q.
lzltoduc.d by the thermo{Dchad.al cotrtrol pocess CIMCP).
13. Sa. 3,7.4.6 for tasts on simulat4d tcst couDons for mrielial used in srlss-relio/ed asscmblies.

Figure 10-5 [,{ate algroups, Sl Unils


Fron API 650, table 2-3a

. Grouo I As rolled. semi-killed Plates more than 40 mm thick shall be of killed steel made to
. croup r As rorted, kired or semi-kired li, ,,?liffi'ijffi: 3il,,X""X';;T:Xiffi$iii]'ij;il"rllil i";
. Group lll As rolled, killed, fine grainpractice heat treated shall be impact tested.

. Group lllA Normalised, killed, fine grain practice When the toug hness of the steel must be demonstrated, each
. Group lV As rolled, killed, 1ne grain practice
'
plate as heat treated shall be Charpy V-notch impact tested in
the longitudinal (or the transverse) direction, at or below the de-
. Group IVA As rolled, killed, fine grain practice sign metal temperature, to provide the energy values given in
. croupV Normalised, killed, finegrain practice Fig-ure 10.7. Each test shall consist of three specimens and the
averaqe ofthese shall equal or exceed the values given in the
. Group Vl Normalised or quenched and tempered, killed, Table. lf anyone specimen falls below two thirds of the specified
fine grain practice, reduced carbon minimum value, a further set of three specimensshall betaken
and each must equal or exceed the specified minimum value.
ThiS listing is shown in Figure 10.5.
Plates less than or equal to 40 mm thickness can be used at or For thin plates where sub-size specimens must be taken, the
above the design metaltemperatures indicated by Figure 10.6, energy values shall be at least proportional to the values re-
without being impact tested. quired for full size specimens.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 223


1 0 Mateial selection citeia for ambient tempercture tanks

32 34
1_00 1r5 1.50
ThdlB, trctrdino 6ct6 aimE
ltlobs
r. fte GM4 ll ard Gtrop v IrEs cotictt ai thjctaF6sss t6 tls 125 m (t, h.)
2. fte Gdp ttt arid cd.p tttA fm cdiorb at ftLkNs tss fB 12,5 m (r/2 hJ.
3, Themt dets in 6dr ldp EE tstd in Tabte 2-3,
4. Thrs figrrs b rFr sppncadE 1o conrb0dJold dd* {s 22J.4).
5. Us th GdD llA ad Grc(p VIA cllE t{ rtp and frE (se 2552d14 2.5-54-

Figure 10.6 Minimum pemissible design metal temperature for mate als used in tiank shells without impact testing
From API 650, figurc 2-1

Average lmpacr Value ofThree Specirnensb


lrngirudinal
Plarc Mate.ial, &d Thickress (?) in mm (in.) J n,rbf

GmupsI,lI,l ,,rd IIIA t8


r 5 tnaximum thicknsses in 2 .2.2 tttough 2.25

Orolps ry,IvA, v, and \4 (cx@pt quenched | <44 r< 1J 41 30 27 20


and tcmpercd and TMCP) 4 <t 345 l5<tsl.75 48 35 34 25
45<r<50 t:t5<ts2 v4a41 30
50<r< lm 2<ts4 685054/o
Cmup vl (queoched arld tempercd and IMCP) | <44 ,s lJ 4835:.4'25
40<t<45 I5 <r< 1.75 54 44 4t 30
45<r<50 135<t<2 6t 45 48 35
50 <rs lm 2<ts4 685054!.o
a) Se Table 2-3.
b) Iderpohior is p.rmidd to the neEEstjoul (fr-1b0.
Nob: Fbr plsle riflg naDges, the mjnirnun impall resr rcquircmcnrs for afi rhichess$ shal b rhole
fortS 40 n(lJ in.).

Figure 10.7 lvlinimum impacl test requkements for plates


From API 650, table 24

In addition to the requirements for plates, the Code provides . The materials shall be considered in three groups depend-
deiails of material selection rules for structural shapes, piping ent upon their minimum tensile strength:
and forgings, flanges and bolting.
Less than 485N/mm2 I requidng 20 J average
In fear ofbecoming tediously repetitive, it must be remembered -group
of three full size specimens
that this section of the Code is a minefield of detailed require-
ments for material selection and the advice of those familiar - Equal to or greater than 485N/mm2 but less than
550N/mm2 group 2 requiring 27 J average of three
with ib use would be well worth seeking. -
full size specimens
The requirementsforthe mechanical and toughness properties
of weld-metal and heat affected zone (HAz), are quite complex - Greater than 550 N/mm2
-
group 3 requiring 34 J aver-
age of three full size specimens
and are probably best left to those familiarwith this Code and its
various Drovisions. For plates thickerthan 40 mm, enhanced values are required.

In simple terms the following briefly summarises the require- API 650 allows plates to be ordered on an edge thickness or a
ments: weightbasis. The edgethickness ordered shallnot be lessthan
the computed design thickness orthe minimum perniltted thick-
. The welding procedures shall produce weldments with the ness. Similarly, the plate weight ordered shall be great enough
mechanical properties required by the design toprovideanedgethicknessnotlessthanthecomputeddesign

224 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


10 Material selection criteria for ambient temperature tanks

thickness or the minimum permitted thickness. For plates or- ..-_.. Mn Cr+l\ilo+V Ni+Cu
equ 10.'l
dered on either basis, an under-run of not more than 0.01', is 5 15
permitted fof both computed and minimum permitted thickness
prares. The carbon equivalent based on the check analysis shall not
exceed 0.43% calculated using the following formula:

10.4.2 BS 2654 requirements ^- ^ lvln


equ 10.2
6

It should be remembered that BS 2654 has been the subject of


For steels with a minimum tensile strength greater than 420
standstill for a number of years now due to the work being car- N/mm'?, the phosphorus plus the sulphur shall not exceed
ried out in the preparation of the new European Code prEN 0.08%.
14015. This means that it quotes materials to British Standards Steels shall be either aluminium treated with a minlmum alu-
which have been superceded by European Standards. For ex- minium/nitrogen ratio of 2:1 orhave a nitrogen content of less
ample, BS 4360 (Reference 70.70) has been replaced by EN than 0.01%.
I 0025 (Reference 1 0. 1 1 ).
The following impact properties are requifed:
Steels shall be made by the open hearth, electric furnace or one . For plate thicknesses not exceeding 13 mm in materials
ofthe basicoxygen processes. Semi- andfully-killed steels are with specified minimum tensile strengths up to and includ-
permitted, but Bessemer and rimming steel are excluded.
ing 490 Nimm2, impact tests are not required
The carbon equivalent based on the ladle analysis shall not ex- . l\4aterials with specified minimum tensile strengths less
ceed 0.43% for plates from 20 mm up to 25 mm thick and 0.42% than or equalto 430 N/mm2 , thickerthan 13 mm shall be im-
for plates thicker than 25 mm. The carbon equivalent is calcu- pacttested to show not less than 27 J at +20 "C oratthe test
lated using the following formula: temperature indicated in Figure 10.8, whichever is the
Saole I S aoLe A
*?0 .10
Scote A -Hinimum design metol
lenpe|"olufe "[ {see 2.2 ) 60
Scut I - l'4inin!lrl !rolef fenpproture 35
durinq tesi o[ {see nolel
i :.:|::::|;::ri :::. | :r:li:::l:: :::: /4 ',/ 1.: .i4
.;< /a r a
* 15 / .1 25 =

/1. /a:
/ 7-
ta, .

/ r' .l ,/:

/ I Z,
::t: /::
::)a {,,1 ') 4
_t
l:-, r.1 Ilt 1r'.
+l ++
_-'Tt +
;
,=l F + +f
:r-; ::n: ;:::il E
..i.1:; it+
I ,l+ t
1r it :l
12.5

4t, i
4l ,/ li
ll rii
-30 -20 -10 0 *10

Chorpy V test iemperotufe oC

lrdiermed,ate values may be determined by inrerpotation.)


NOT. Scale A on lhe ordinale is lo be used in delermining minimum Charpy V requiremenis for the thickn$5 and
hinim!m design remperature concerned, For the pu.poses oI rhis nore, conversion of the measured impad vatue io the
27 J (or 41 J lor neelswirh rpecified minimum tensile srrengrh gresler rh3^ 430 N/mm:) vatue may ire hade on the
ba!s
ol l 35 J per "c, such extrapolation being limited ro a maximum range ot 20 'c- For exampre, it rire acruat varue by ;5r
s 33 75 J at _20'C fo' a steel of specitied minimum rensite si,ensrh grearer than 4oo N/mm1,
the equivatenr len
remperarur tor ?7 J may be a$umed to be ,25 "C.
The .equlrements derjved from scale A r6ke into account an improvement in satetv wbich may be anricipared as a resuli
of the hYdrostatic test. During rhe first hydrostaric lest the degree oi security again5! b.iille lrsct!re hay be rarher tess
than on lubseqL,ent loading. Anention is drawn to tbe mo.e conservative requiremen!s ot scate I when considerarion k
to be given to the !se of this scale durinq hydrostaric tesring of tank she'ls constructed ot steels with specified
minimum
iensile slrengih grealer rhan 430 N/mm1. The applicarion of ,.ale B, or any arternarve plocedure
regardrng rhe preca!riu,,!
lo be raken du.inq warer testing lo sateguard th tank from brirrle iracrure, is lhe subject ol asreem;nr berween
purchaser and rhe manutacrurer (see 3,3{b)1. the

: gure 10 8 [.4inimum Charpy V-notch impact requirements


Eron BS 2654: 1989, Figure 1

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 225


10 Material selection citeria for ambient temperature tanks

lower. Three specimens shall be tested, the value taken be- 10.4.3 prEN 14015 requirements
ing the average ofthe three results. The minimum individual
value shall not be less than 70% of the specified minimum Ratherthan present basic requirements for the toughness/tem-
average varue. perature/steel strength combinations, prEN 140'15 gives spe-
Note: Provided the design metal temperature is +10'C or cific steel types taken from the various European steel Stan-
above, it is not necessaryto test materials with a speci- dardsfor particular circumstances. The steelStandards are EN
fied minimum yield strength not exceeding 300 N/mm', 10025, EN 10028 (Reference 10.12\, EN 10'113 (Reference
and less than 20 mm thick. 10.13) and EN 10210 (Reference 10.14\.

. Materials with specified minimum tensile strengths greater Steels shall be selected by the use of Figures 10.10 to 10.14.
than 430 Ni mm2 .and uo to 490 N/mm2 thicker than 13 mm lmpact testing shall be carried out in accordance with EN
shall be impact tested to show not less than 41 J at -5 'C or 10045-1 (Reference 10.1q. fhe TOok tule again applies to the
at the test temperature indicated in Figure 10.8, whichever minimum individual specimen value.
is the lowet Three specimens shall be tested, the value When the material is less than 10 mm thick, 10 mm x 5 mm
taken being the average of the three results. The minimum
specimens shall be taken which shall demonstrate 70% of the
individual value shall not be less than 70% of the specified
energy values specified for full sized specimens.
minimum average value.
. Materials with specified minimum tensile strengths greater
than 490 N/mm2 and of all thicknesses shall be impact
tested to show not less than 41 J at-15'C oratthe testtem-
perature indicated in Figure 10.8, whichever is the lower. 2 3

Three specimens shall be tested, the value taken being the


average ofthe three results. The minimum individualvalue
shall not be less than 70% of the specified minimum aver-
age value.
5

Note: The energy values apply to full size specimens For


sub-standard specimens, see the provisions of BS
4360. 6

It is a requirement of this Standard that annular plates shall be


of the same material specification in terms of strength and im-
pact requirements as the first course shell plates.
The approval of welding procedures and the mechanical and
toughness values required are again an area best left to those
experienced with this work. In very simple terms, tensile
strengths at least equalto that ofthe plate materialand Charpy
V-notch impact values of at least 27J at the same temperature
as required for the testing ofthe plate materialwillbe required.
t/t
For thickness requirements, the rules are slightly different from
those given in API 650.
For shell plates where the thickness is determined by minimum
thickness requirements, bottom, roof and annular plates, the
thickness (measured at any point more than 15 mm from the 010 30 40 50
plate edge) shall not be less than the specified thickness by
more than one halfofthe total plate thickness tolerance given in 7* D*ignneralthp@tur6
Figure 10.9. 1 SleellvPes l, Vand X
2 sleltyp.s Vl 5 Stl ty?6 lll and Vlll

For shell plates (but, interestingly not, roof plates) where the 3 steeltypes lland xr 6 Steslt ts lv and lX

thickness has been determined by calculation, the edgethick-


Figure 10.10 l\,4inimum tempetaturc at which each type of steel can be used
ness (again measured at any point more than 15 mm awayfrom
Fron prEN 14015-1:2000, figute 6.1.1
the plate edge) shall not be less than the calculated thickness.
All dimensions 6re in millimetres

Over 2000 Ov.r2500 ov6r 3000 Over 3500

2000 includins 2500 includins 3O0O includi.s 3500

Under 5 0.80 1.00 1.00


51o under I 0.90 1,20 r.60 1.60
I to under 12.5 1.10 1.30 1.60 1.70 1.90
12.5 to under 25 1.10 1.30 1.60 1.70 1.90
1.10 1.60 't.70 1.90
40 10 under 80 1.20 1.70 1.90 2,10
80 to under 150 2.20 2.30 2.40 2.50 2.50

NOTE. See 19,3.2 whicn staies thai, unless otheMise specitied, the thicknesstoletanceshallbe halfrhe total
rhicknes5 toler:nce qiven iu table 8 over a.d under the specified thicknss,

Figure 10.9 Toial thickness tolerances for plates


Fran BS 4360:1979, table I

226 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


10 Mateial selec$on uiteia for ambient temperaturc tanks

m- EN 10@5 sz6JR62 12
tg. l9t6
6235 JO 1-5-12 30
:N s235JaCa 1-5-t2
ce s235J2G4 1-6-12
azIS J8 'l-12 12
4. a?5JO 1-t-12 30

:TI 5t5 J2cg 1-6-12


ne Sts J2G,, 1.4- 12

Oprb. I S.e!r.ldn! pr!..$ b b ftgori.d


m oplon I C6r' ncr b.[. oary.t s 0.42 tr dibr rh&kd rhe 20 m
re O!!cr 12 lr'Ea..ttor docunedad.n !6r! b6 h 5@ddE wft EN 10204 C{r tt6 .xc.[
6. uftd dlck'c Cda (aO Dor. lorbn, nflld hi.h6 6hdl pt.ra)
!t!6doqlnnirdo.hBlt ln .ddse wlf| EN 1020a 16r |8r 2r

ig93 S?5 NL l -2ng! 4

EN iofi:ra s?6 M 1-2'19.


ls3 fl6 Mt l -2-1r

o!&nt si.dhalng p|lcolr b be rrobd


Otdorr 2 CE1/nM hdbodFr.30.42 6. thb6 hbq![n'z0|rn
O9!o 19. CtErDt !n!.t tld b h. qrid at m sri pH. n|bt.rtEn 20 m
" thc fi6dn@ ni.la!.a .i{l b. lh b|d d flt *.dnd h 6 . t tb &d th.t dai.d run
Frsx.6.t.1.
'h.p.don docqEot d6.lEll b h ss!.jrs slh EN tO2O4 Cdt 3.t a @dtu ncrtd fitckB
Dbb! (as.oof, bonoh.nl' idntld tldcra dE[ ehEl *rF itedn rb!fi.id b. h sntr|..
wilh EN !0204 T6| E@n zz

Figure 10.'l1 Hot rolled products s 275 N/mm, yild slress


Frcm pEN 14.0111:2000, Eble 6.1.1-1

EN 10025 10

1086 s356 JO l-6-1? 16

s355 J2C3 1-5-6-12-20 40

s355 J2G4 1-6 ' &- 72"20 40

st55 K2G3 1.6-A - 12-20


9355 K2c4 't.5-6-i2-20 40

oplon r sr.6tndl prE@. b !. Gpo.t d


Qlion 5 CEVAombdbd!l)/rk<o.rt2brdab6ttibrrh atoh
Opdon 6 e, Cu, Mo. ND, tll ll .rd V io b
'@id.d
otdon 12 tlp.dion 4'crtrItrlrbn.tul ! h acc.dan wdr EN 1020:l clrr 3_t B d@Dt
tor mmhi n{*rEr F&i65 (.s.ru.r. botlq nltfisi fi*.!. endt tt6b.)
iitr6 &dnn.'naton.n60 ! h .ceo.daft. wlh EN 10204 T6t rldt 2.2
opdo.r20 Cnapy lqrp.rr i.e! b be @d.d or on ech lrib dc*6r trq 20 nm

Fl$|l 6,1.1

EN tofi+2 s3561{ 1-2'1!h


t9g 355l\|t t.2- t& ro
ErN rot13it S3s5ll rto

tp.E3 s355 t-& 't -?-r9a 40

optdrr godflddngpDcollb!3|lpo.td
oP{on 2 CEV ilrn lad. andlar 3 0.42 tu ptab! ! .tr il.. 20 nxn

OpUon 19. Chlpy Irnpd tc.tio t'. ctritt od d och f,|!b tl|htlr ts 20 nm
u IrE ma*Ntn !*;rrr!!. .t! b3 rha to*. ot thd .pCttsd h n$ blb dd th.t dtnd tdi
I lilt .don dochsn rlon d|al te h accDnb.E ridb Et{ t02!t Cd! 3..t B x.sor fo. nmird
It lc6!r lqE G,g. rcol, lobn ffinhar t!ch.!! .n { rrd6) {hde deuB&ik n srlt bo h
.ccorda.. {ttl Et{ J0204 '|d 21
T.d t!F(

Figure '10.12 Hot rolled producb > 275 f,l/mrn2 and s 355 trmrP yi6td stross
Fron pzEN 1401+1:2000, table 6.1.1-2

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 227


10 Material selection citeia for ambient temperature tanks

Steel desionation
Grade - Number
Austeniiic

X2CINilS-9 1.4307
X2CrNil9-11 '1.4306
X2CrNiNl8l0 1.4311
XsCrNilS-10 1.4301
Opr 1
on srelmaking p@ess io be cpon d XBCrNiS lE-9 1.4305
opiron2 cEV frffi radre ia ysrs < 0.4? ror prabs rhicker r[an 20 nn X6CrNiTil S-10 1.4541
opdon 19a chaay hpact te* b be caded our !o each 9lale lric*er i|lan 20 mm X6crNiNbl S-10 1.4550
fte maximufr rhlckn6s shan be the rows ol ind roecified in Ihir rabl6 and Inat dnved frqn X1CrNi25-21
i )(2CrNiMo lT-12-2 1.4404
nspeclim dodneniation shall be in acoodance wth EN 10204 Ced 3.1 B xept ror nomina!
lhickn*s plares (e.9. rco( bonom.nd nomlnallhicknesr s hll p btas) wheG do@m nlalion shalrbe in X2CrNiMoNl T-11-2 1.4406
accodan u{h EN 10204 T4t Eoo.l 2.2.
X5CrNiMolT-12-2 1.4401
Xl CrNiMoN25-22-2 1.4466
X6CrNiMoTilT-12-2 1.4571
Figure 10.13 Hot rolled producis > 355 N/mm2 yield slress X6CrNiMoNblT-12-2 1.4580
Fron prEN 14015-1:2004, hble 6.1.1-3
X2 CrN il\ro 1 7- 1 2-3 1.4432
X2CrNiN4oN17-13-3 1.4429
X2CrNil\4o17-13-3 1.4436
X2CrNiMol S-14-3 1.4435
X2CrNiMoNlS-124 1.4434
s275 JOH
XzCrNiMoNl S-15-4 1.4r'.34
s275J2H X2CrNiMoNlT-13.5 1.4439
X'lNiCrMoCu3l -27-4 1.4563
5275 NLH Xl NiCrMoCu2S-20-5 1.4539
Xl CrNiMoCuN25-25-5 1.4537
Xl CrNiMoCuN20-18-7 1.4547
Xl CrNiMoCuN2S-20-7 1.4529

Austenitic-ferritic

X2CrNiN234 1.4362
Figure 10.14 Structural steel products
X2crNiMoN22-5-3 1.4462
fton prEN 14015-1:2000, table 6.1.2
X2CrNi[.4oCuN25-6-3 1.4507
X2CrNil\roN25-7-4 1.4410
X2CrNiMoCuWN25-74 1.4501
Stainless steels selecled from EN 10088-1
Figure 10.16 Stainless steeis for tank fabrication
Fron prEN 14015-1:2400, table 6.2.1
:13
. The approval procedure shall demonstrate that the yield
stress and tensile stress ofthe weldedjoint shallexceed the
Figure 10.15 Conditions for waiving impact testing minimum required values of the materials being joined.
Fron DiEN 14015-1:2000. table 6.1.6
. Vertical shellwelds shall be impact tested atthe test tem-
perature required for the plate material and shall show not
lmpact testing is not required for bottom plates otherthan annu-
less than the value required forthe thicker plate material be-
lar olates.
ing joined.
lmpact testing of annular plates in not required when the shell
plate attached to them does not require impact testing. . Horizontal shell welds shallbe impact tested at the test tem-
perature of the thicker plate being joined, or at -10 "C,
lmpact testing of shell plates and items aftached to them may
whichever is the least stringent, and show not less than
be waived according to the conditions provided in Figure '10.15.
27 J.
For stainless steels a number ofgeneral rules are provided and
a table ol acceptable austenitic steels is given in Figure 10.'1 6. The thickness requirements are similar to those of BS 2654.
Ferritic steels may be used up to a maximum thickness of Specifically they are:
10 mm. . The measured thickness at any point more than 25 mm
Information is also provided for the material selection of mount- from the edge of any nominal thickness bottom, shell, roof
ings, flanges, structural sections, pipes and welding con- or annular plate shall not be less than the specified thick-
SUMADIES. ness less one half of the total thickness specifled in EN
10029:Table 1: class D (Reference 10.14and Figure 10.17)
For materials which have been produced to specifications other
than the nominated European Standards, Annex F provides de- . The measured thlckness at any point more than 25 mm
tailed requirements for their selection and use. from the edge of shell and roof plates whose thickness has
The requirements for weld-metal and HAZ properties are again been calculated shall not be less than the calculated mini-
subjects requiring detailed study. The basic requirements can mum thickness (i.e to EN 10029: Table 1: class C - only
be summarised by: oositive tolerances).

228 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


10 Mateial selection criteria for ambient temperature tanks

Toleranceson ih nomi.altnickn.ss (see ?1.1)! M.ximum rhi.Lness dincrence !nlin ! plst

> il< 5 - 0,4 + 0,8 - 0,3 + 0,9 0.6 + 0,6 {J,9

0,4 ,0,3 -0 | 1,5 + 0,?t 0,9 0,9 1,0 1,0

> 8< 15 + 1,2 0,3 + 1,4 -0 + 7,7 lJ,85 + 0,rJb 0,9 1.0 1,0 1,1 t,t 1,2

> l5< 25 0,6 + l,lJ 0,3 + 1,6 -0 0,95 + 0,95 l,t) l,l 1.2 t.2 1,3

> 25< 40 0,8 0,3 + r,9 -0 1,1 + I,t 1,1 1,2 r,2 1,3 1,3 1,4

> 40< 80 + 2,5 + ?,8 - 1,4 + 1,.1 1,1 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6
> 80< 150 - t,6 + 1.6 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,5 r,6 l.?
: 150 < 250 0,3 + 3,3 ,0 + 3.6 + I,a 1,4 1.5 I,i

F gure 10.17 Tolerances on thicknesses


Fran EN 10029:1991, table 6.2.1

with butt welded shells for the petroleum industry, BSI


LOnOOn.

10.5 prEN 14015-1: October 2000: Specification for the de-


sign and manufacture of site built, veftical, cylindrical,
flat-bottomed, above ground, welded, metallic tanks fol
the storage of liquids at ambient temperatures and
above - Paft 1: Stee/ tarks, CEN Brussels.
10.6 ASME B 96.1:1999 - Specification for welded alu-
b) Calculated thickness plates
minium-alloy field-erected storage tanks.
(see 6.1.8.1) (see 6.1.8.2)
10.7 API 620: Tenth edition, Febuary 2002: Design and Con-
e - nomi.lthickness (botlom, annular, shell or rool platet struction of Large, Welded, Low-pressure Storage
e" -caiculated m nimum ihickness oJ plale including any corosio. allowance
tanks: Appendix Q: Low-pressure Storage Tanks for
Liquefied Hydrocarbon Gases, API Washington.
I - total th ckness lolerance
10.8 BS 2654: Paft 3 :1968 Higher des/grn stresses, BSI
i minus % iotallhickness toierance
LOnOOn.
l: plus %lotalthlckness tolranc
10.9 Why Starage Tanks Fail, F.J.Feely and l\il.S.Northup,
The Oil and Gas Journal, February 1954.
Figure 10.18 Plate th ckness tolefances 10.10 BS 4360:1979 - Specification for weldable structural
Fram prEN 14A15-1:200A, bble 6.1.8 slee/s.
'10.11 EN 14425: Hot rolled products of non alloy structural
This is illustrated in Figure 10.18, which t is hoped will clarify steels - Technical delivery conditions: 1993.
this matter. lt is curious just how often this apparently simple
matter is misunderstood or merely gets inio a muddle between
10.12 EN 10028-2: Flat products made of stee/s forpressure
vesse/ purposes-Paft 2: Non alloy and alloy steelswith
ihe various parties involved, particularly where corrosion allow-
2n^ac rra ennlia.l
specific elevated properties - 1993 and EN
10028-3:Flat products made from steel for pressure
'e vesse/ pn./rposes - Patl 3: Weldable fine grain steels
normalised - 1993.
10.5 References
'10.13 EN 10113-2: Hot ro ed products in weldable fine grain
10.1 A Review ofthe Developmentof Fracture Safe Designs structural steels- Paft2: Delivery conditionsfor normal-
lt and Codes for Oil and LPG Storage lanks, H.C.Cotton ised/normalised rolled sfee/s - 1993 and EN 10113-3:
and J.B.Denham. Hot rolled products in weldable fine grain structural
steel s - Paft 2 : Del ive ry cond ition s for thermo-mechan-
10.2 API 12 C Specification for Welded Oil Storage Tanks, ical rolled steels - 1993.
American Petroleum Institute (fifteen editions from
1936 to 1961). 10.14 EN 10210-1 Hot finished structural hollow sections of
non-alloy and fine grain structural steels - Part 1 : Tech-
10.3 APt 650: Tenth edition, November 1998: Welded Steel nical delivery conditions.
Tanks for Oil Storage, API Washington.
10.15 EN 10029:1991 - Specification for tolerances on di-
10.4 BS 2654: 1989: British Standard for the manufacture of mension, shape and mass for hot rolled steel plates 3
veftical steel welded non-refrigerated storage tanks mm thick and above.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 229


230 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
11 Fabrication considerations for
ambient temperature tanks
Inthis Chaptersome ofthe more important aspects oftankfabrication are ouflined, togetherwith
advice on good practices which should be observed.

Contents:
11.1 Material reception
11.2 Stainless steel materials
11.3 Plate thickness tolerances
11.4 Plate fabrication

11.5 Roof structures


I 1.6 Tank appurtenances

11.7 Surface protection for plates and sections


11.8 Marking

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 23'I


11 Fabrication considerations for ambient tempercture tanks

11.1 Material reception be re-used for plate storage between marking, cutting and
rolling operations.
All materials received into the fabrication area or workshop
must be checked for conformitywith the requirements set out in Some mills willsupply the platewith a plasticfilm fixed tooneor
the purchase order to the supplier in terms of quantity, quality, both sides of the plate, this only being removed after erection,
dimensions, surface finish, appearance, inspection documen- welding and weld pickling is completed at site. Care on the se-
tation, material certificates and where applicable, installation lection of the type of film and adhesive is important, as it has
and maintenance documentation etc been known for the adhesive to be very reluctant in releasing
the film, resulting in strips being left on the plate surface. Also, if
The steel plates and sections which willform the liquid contain- the adhesive is not completely removed from the steel, a tacky
lng elements of the tank must be carefully checked against the coating is lefr on the tank surface, which attracts atmospheric
millcertificates provided with the steelto ensure thatthe physi- grime and dust. There are excepted test methods available,
cal and chemical orooerties are in accordance with the steel which can detect carbon steel contamination of the stainless
specification that they were ordered against. lt is common prac- steel materials, and use of these can obviate embarrassing
tice for the purchaser's inspector (and any third party inspector, blemishes appearing on the tank during or after erection on site.
as appropriate) to inspect material prior to despatch from the
steel mill.
1 1.3 Plate thickness tolerances
In determining the allowable plate thickness tolerances the BS
11.2 Stainless steel materials
2654 Code groups tank plates into two categories as follows:
When fabricating in stainless steel materials within an area
where carbon steel materials are also fabricated, it is very im-
1 ) Shell plates whose thickness has been determined by ref-
erence to the table of "lvlinimum specified shell thickness"
portantto keep these materials separate from any carbon steel
given in the Code (i.e. shell plates for which the thickness
materials in order to prevent any surface contamination of the
by calculation, is less than the minimum allowed for a
stainless steel by carbon steel scale, filings, weld or grinding given tank diameter).
splatter and swarf.
Annular floor plates, floor plates and roof plates. These
The recommended course ofaction in such cases is to quaran- plates shall have a minimum thickness not less than the
tine an area of the workshop for use exclusively for stainless specified thickness less half the total tolerance given in
steel fabrication. The proposed fabrication area should be the table of BS EN 10029, class D.
cleaned of all carbon steel detritus and the floor sealed with a
In simpleterms these plates areallowedto bethinnerthan their
proprietary non-slip concrete sealant. A typical quarantined
specified thickness.
area is shown in Figure 11.'l . Care must be taken especially in
handling and placing plates, any plate grabs, handling equip- 2 ) For shell olates whose thickness have been determined
ment and lay down cradles should be faced in stainless steel, or by calculation and that are thicker than the "Minimum
in the case of cradle supports, these can be faced with timber. specified thickness", for a given tank diameter, the thick-
The plates should be covered when not being worked on to pre- ness of these plates shall not be less than the calculated
vent contamination by airborne particles. thickness, i.e. table 1 of BS EN 10029, class C.

When rolling shell plates to curvature, the rolls of the machine This meansthatthese plates can not be thinnerthanthe calcu-
should be covered with strong template paper to prevent any lated thickness.
carbon steel particles from being impressed into the surface of The API 650 Code has a simpler approach stating that all shell,
the plate. Failure to do this can result in rust streaking on the annular floor, floor and roof plates may have an underrun on
plateswhen they have been erected on site and this is verydiffi- calculated or minimum permitted thickness of not more than
cult, if not impossible and very expensive to, completely re- 0.25 mm.
move.
Fabrication personnel must be discouraged from walking on
1 1.4 Plate fabrication
the plates as boot marks are also hard to remove and are un-
sightly on the external surface ofthe tank. Stainless steel plates Floor and roof plates (which are generally, but not always, of
are often supplied from the mill on timber pallets and these may lapped construction) which are produced in a reversing mill, do
not require any edge preparation, as the mill production pro-
cess gives a square edgetothe plateswhich is suitable for flllet
welding. Plates produced by a strip mill will have rounded
edges making root penetration difficult during filletwelding and
in order to ensure a sound weld there are two alternatives;
a) Use two runs ofweld, the first to ensure root penetrataon
and the second as a capping run.
b) Trim the plate edges square thus giving a suitable weld
DreDaratlon.
Rectangular lap-welded roof plates which are laid on to a sup-
porting structure are flat plates, usually in the range of 1.5 m x
4.8 m to 2.0 m x 6.0 m, this is to allow these relatively small
plates to form naturally to the curvature of the roof.
Rectangular lap welded floor plates are generally supplied in
two size ranges, depending on the bnk diameter:
Tanks up to 12.5 m in diameter 1.5mx4.8m
Tanks > 12.5 m in diameter 2.0mx7.85m
Tanks > 12.5 m in diameter have a ring ofthicker annularfloor
Flgure 11.1 Quarantined area forstainless steel fabrlcation plates and the number of annular plates is usuallythe same as
Couftesy of McTay the number of shell olates oer course. This is in order to main-

232 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1l Fubrigution !q!!t
"o,"id"ruti.
rd tain a constant spacing between the butt welds in the annulaf betier to have the plates slightly under-rolled (> tank radius)
plates and ihe first shell course vertical butt welds all around the than over-rolled (< tank radius) because undef-rolled plates will
tank. However, larger tanks having shell plates approaching generally pull in to the correct diameter whilst over-rolled plates
of
10 m long, may have two annular plates per shell plate. This is leave the completed course aftef erection taking a "gull wing" or
)n,
to allow narrowef annular plates to be used. scalloped appearance which is difficult to get rid of. Care must
e-
be exercised to ensure that the plates are entered square-on to
AS Floor plates larger than those quoted above may be difficuli to
the rolls, as any slight offsetfrom square will result in a plate tak-
1g handle due to the flexibility of large, thin flat plates.
ing on a helical and not cy indrlcalform, which will make erec-
.if The shell plate length and width shall be cut to a tolerance of t2 tion of ihe plaie into the tank very dlfficult, if not impossible.
ky
.ic mm and the dlagonal measurements must not differ by more
Plywood templaies about 1 to 1% m long afe used to check the
than 3 mm.
radius ofthe shell plates as they afe being roLled to shape. N,4a-
SS The BS Code gives a standard range of tank diameters from 3 chines having veriically-mounted rather than horizon-
rg m to 'l'14 m, with capacitles against tank heights in one metre in- ially-mounted rolls tend io give a truer radlus because the hori-
e_ tervals up to 25 m in height. This is useful for purchasers to zonially rolled plate naturally flattens itself due to its own weight
judge the size of a tank fequired for a certain capacity, but very and long plates have to have the ends supported by overhead
often it is the plot of land that is available for the tank which de- cranes when checking the radius.
cides the tank diameter, which can be any size and not neces-
Because of the way that most plate rolling machines are built,
}S sarily in line with the diameters stated in the table.
the extreme ends of the shell plates do not get rolled and are left
S: Recommended standard shell plate lengths are also given and wiih "flats" on them. To overcome ihis, the ends are pressed to a
these are quoted as a function of r and when applied to the pre-set radius priof to rolling.
S standard diameters, give an equal number of plates per shell
The Codes do not insist on pre setting the ends of the shell
SS course. These plate lengths have generally been adopted by plates but this is generally known to give a beiter final shape to
a tank constructors although slight "tweaking" is sometimes nec-
the tank (see peaking and banding in Chapter 12).
essary for tanks having out of the ordinary diameters.
The API Code does allow the thinnef shell plates of the larger
ie The standard BS code plate lengths are stated as follows:
te diameter tanks to be left flat and for them to be pulled into radius
tn
during erection. The allowable limits are shown in the table be-
Shellplate length (m)
low (taken from API 650, clause 4.3.1.)

itl Nominal plate thickness (mm)

:c
't'l
(-
There are no recommended standard widths for shell plates but
the limiting factor is generally the widih which is available from
the mill. Common widths are 1.0 m, 1.5 m,2.0 m, 2.5 m and However, with the present day demands to produce good qual-
3.0 m. ity, good-looking tanks, without flats and wrinkles, most fabrica-
The factors, which have to be borne in mind when selecting tors roll all their shell plates.
shell plate sizes, are: Several Dlate mills have orovided themselves with fabrication
a) The weighi of the plate for handling by crane; in the fabri- facilities or they have teamed up with a localfabricator enabling
cation shop, on site and during transportation. them to offer edge prepared, rolled and surface finished plates
plates ready for direct delivery to site.
b) The width capacity ofthe fabrication shop machinery
Having folled the shell plates, it is advisable to ensure that they
c) Limitations on maximum width or weight for iransport pur-
do not loose theif shape during storage or transportation and to
poses. especially by road or rail.
stack ihem in purpose-made curved cradles, or if only one-off
d) Shell courses made in wide plates may require each ring short journeys by lorry are involved, then they should be
of the erection staging on the tank to be raised from its ini- chocked with baulks of timbef on the bed of the lorry. When
tial position and re-attached higher up the course to en- transporting by sea, it is worth employing a stevedoring com-
able completion of the vertical welds. pany which is expefienced in handling the export of large bun-
The API Code does not include guidance on the size of shell dLes of steel plates, as the consequences of their unfamiliarity
plates. can be disastrous, as is witnessed by ihe photographs in Fig-
Cutting plates by shearing, which are to be eventually butt- ures 11.2 and 11.3.
welded is limited to a thickness of 10 mm by the BS and API
Codes, except that by agreement with the purchaser, the API
code extends this to 16 mm. The limitation is imposed in order
to ensure a good clean joint surface for the subsequent
butt-welding.
Plates may be also be trimmed to size using oxy-acetylene cut-
ting equipment or by the use of a planning machine.
The weld edge preparation may also be completed using the
above methods and there is also a machine available which has
serrated clamping rollers allowing it to crawl along the edge of
the plate while machining the weld bevels as it progresses
along the plate. This machine has the advantage of being able
to work on both flat or curved plates.
Rolling of the shell plates to the correct curvature is important in
order to obtain a good cylindrically shaped tank. Arguably it is Figure 11.2 Shell plates stacked awaii ng shoi b asting and priming

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 233


11 Fab cation considerctions for ambient tempetature tanks

lf there are a number of nozzles requiring heat treatment then it


is advisable, if possible, to keep these together in one shell
plate.
Clean-out doors are completely shop-fabricated and PWHT
prior to being sent to site.
Allfabrications should be dimensionallvchecked before and af-
ter post weld heat treatment.

1 1.7 Surface protection for plates and sec-

tions
It is common practice to protect the surfaces of carbon steel
materials by shotblasting or pickling, to remove mill scale and
Figure'11.3 The same plales on the quay befofe loading on board priorto delivery then to prime with a suitable primer to prevent surface deterio-
to lhe docks ration. Pickling is rarely performed nowadays due to Health &
Safety requirements and the difficulty ofdisposing ofexhausted
These plates had to be returned to the fabrication shop for pickling fluids. This makes the final painting easier on site as
re-rolling, an expensive and frustrating experience all due to a onlysweep, or pencilblasting is required priorto applyingthefi-
lack of understanding of materials handling by the shipper nal paint system.
Care has to be taken to ensure that the shop-applied system is
11.5 Roof structures kept clear of those areas, which will be welded on site, and
these must be masked during the priming operation. Alterna-
After the various structural components comprising the roof tively, instead of masking the edges, a weldable primer can be
structure have been fabricated, the normal procedure is to used but this willdepend upon whetherthis suits thefinal paint
erect one complete bay ofthe structure on the shop floor. This is system.
in order to check the radius ofthe structure, the chord lengths of
the purlins and the main shell attachment brackets. Any dis-
crepancies found in the structure are Jar more easily rectified on 11.8 Marking
the shop floor ratherthan at site wherethe structure may be be- To enable the various fabricated components to be assembled
ing erected at, say a height of 20 m. together correctly on site, each part has to be marked with a
unique numbering system which relates to a marking plan
made up in the drawing office or template loft. The marking plan
1 1.6 Tank appurtenances shallalso identitythe position that the markings must occupyon
Nozzles and manholes are normally pre-fabricated in the shop the various components. Hard stamping may be used but the
such thatthe flanges are welded to the barrels and the reinforc- symbols should not be less than 13 mm high and low stress
ing plates rolled to suit the tank radius but supplied loose. stamps with a minimum nose radius of 0.25 mm should be
Staircases which have stringers rolled to a helical shape, usu- used. Plates less than 6 mm thick should not be hard-stamped.
ally have one section of staircase bolted up with the treads. This Where hard stamping is used, the position of the marks is usu-
is temporarily erected in the fabrication yard, to allow the cylin- ally ringed in paint to identifywhere these small markings are on
drical radius and overall lift to be checked and also to ensure the components.
that the treads are truly horizontal. Markings in paint or ink should be at least 50 mm high and care
Nozzles which require to be postweld healtreated (PWHT)are must be taken to ensure that the composition of the marking
shop-welded into the relevant shell plate (or part shell plate) materials will be compatible with the materials being marked
and sent to the PWHT oven. lt is advisable to fit temporary stiff- and the product, which will be eventually stored in the hnk.
eners to the shell plate so that it keeps its shape and doesn't Shell plate markings should be on the inside surface of the
warp whilst being heat-treated. prares.

234 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


it
{l
12 Erection considerations for
ambient temperature tanks
Tank constructors are fortunate beings within the construction industry, in that they are not
usually responsible for the construction ofthe tank foundation and accordingly there is a clear
demarcation of responsibility between the civil contractor and the tank contractor. Everything
below the top finished surface of the foundation is the responsibility ofthe civil contractor and
eveMhing above the responsibility of the tank contractor.
BI
d This Chapter discusses the. various elements involved in the construction of the tank after
handover at the foundation.
&
Contents:
d
s l2,l The foundation
i-
12.1.'l Foundation tolerances
12.,1.1..1 BS 2654
s
o 12.'1.1.2 APt 650
F 12.1.1.3 DrEN 14015 - 1
e 12.2 Building a tank
tr '12.2.1 Laying the floor
'12.2.2 Erecting the shell by the traditional method
12.2.3 Tolerances
12.2.3.1 Radius tolerances
12.2.3.2 Peak and banding
1 2.2.3.3 Plate misalignment
12.3 Floating roofs
12.4 Wind damage
12.4.1 Safety measures against wind damage
12.5 Shell welding sequence
12.6 Joints in wind girders
12.7 The roof structure
12.7.1 Roof plating
12.7.2 Wdding sequence
12.8 Erecting the shell by the jacking method

12,9 Other forms of construction


1 2.9.1 Column-supported roofs
12.9.2 Pre-fabricated roof sectiorr
12.9.3 Air lifting a roof into position
'12.9.4 Floating roofs

12.10 Inspecting and testing the tank


12.1 0.1 Radiographic inspection
12.10.1.1 BS 2654
12.10.1.2 APt 650
12.10.1.3 DrEN 14015 -'l
12.10.2 Floor plate ioint testing
12.10.3 Shell-to-boftom joint testing
12.10.4 Fixed roof plate ioint testing
12.10.5 Floating roof testing
12.10.6 T6ting of shell nozzles and apertures
12.10.7 Hydrostatic tank testing

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 235


1 2 Ercction considerations for ambient tempenture tanks

ential across the base of 40 mm is three times that allowed by


12.1 The foundation
the BS and API Codes, when considering foundations without
The inspection of the foundation prior to its acceptance by the concrete ringwalls. Admittedlyan extreme case has been sited
tank contractor isthe first important decision to be made by him here but extreme cases do sometimes occur.
before commencement of erection and the following areas
The European Code does howevergo on to saythat"The toler-
should be checked carefully:
ance the erectoraccepts on the inclination orslope ofthe foun-
. The diameter ofthe foundation is large enough for the tank. dation shall be such as to enable the final vertical tolerances of
It has been known for a foundation to be constructed exactly the tankto be achieved". lfthis loose approach to allowabletol-
as the tank diameterwithoutallowanceforthe overlap of the erances is not tightened up in the Code, then it will surely lead
floor beyond the shell. to heated arguments between the civil and tank contractors on
. the hand-over of the foundation, as to what is accepbble.
The civil contractor has clearly marked the cardinal com-
pass points on the periphery and the centre point on the The surface of the foundation, other than the area under the
foundation. shell plating shall be to the following tolerances:
. The slope (if any) ofthe surface ofthe foundation matches The sag in the as built surface measured with a 3 m long
that of the tank floor design. straight edge shall not exceed 10 mm.
. The holes or cut-outs for the sump(s) are in the correct The difference between the design level and the as-built level
place. shall not exceed the following values :
The surface ofthe foundation meets the allowable leveltol- Difference in 'deslgn' to 'as-built' levels
erances given in the relevant Code. Diameter of tank 'D' lm)

The positions, dimensions and condition of any anchor 10

bolts, straps or pockets should be checked as acceptable. D>101o<=50 D / 1000

D>50 50

12.1.1 Foundation tolerances

The part of the foundation which supports the shell receives 12.2 Building a tank
most attention in the codes. This is because differentials in As with most construction tasks there is always more than one
level in this area can lead to the erection of a distorted shell. way of carrying out the various stages of the work to effect a
The Code requirements vary slightly and a summary is given successf ul comDletion.
below. Tolerances at the periphery ofthe foundation under the AIso method siatements, risk assessments, safety procedures
shell plating are as follows:
and numerous other forms of documentation have to be pro-
12.1.1.1 BS 2654 duced prior to opening up the site but these aspects will not be
The maximum differential in level betvveen any two points 10 m dealtwith here, otherwise Sforage lanks & Equipmentwillcon'
sume another tree I
apart measured along the periphery shall not be more than ! 6
mm with a maximum between any two points on the periphery The following sequence for the construction of storage tanks
of t 12 mm. has been used for many years and is offered here to give the
12.1.1.2 APt 650 reader a reasonable understanding of how a tank is built.

For foundations having a concrete ring wall:


12.2.1 Laying the floor
The maximum differential in level between anytwo points 9
m apart measured along the periphery shall not be more
Taking the case for a standard lap-welded floor, with orwithout
than t 3 mm with a maximum between anytwo points on the
peripheryoft6mm. annular plates, the process is as follows:
Using the foundation centre point, the outer radius of the
For foundations which do not have a concrete ring wall:
tank floor is scribed onto the surface of the foundation and
The maximum differential in level between any two points 3 the floor start mark given on the drawings is orientated from
m apart measured along the periphery shall not be more the cardinal points given by the civil contractor.
than l3 mm with a maximum between any two points on the
lfthe underside ofthe plates is to be painted (usually with a
periphery of r 13 mm.
bitumen solution) this should be applied as they are laid
For foundations formed by a concrete slab:
Annular plates must have the correct weld gaps and after
The area of the foundation measured 300 mm radially in- laying and tiack welding in position, each one must be
wards from the outside ofthe tank towards the centre (or the checked to ensure thatthe outer edges are the correct dis-
width ofthe annular ring offloor plates)shall comply with the tance from the centre of the foundation. They should be
requirements above for ringwalls. The remainder of the welded as soon as possible afrer laying. The annular butt
foundation shall be within t 13 mm ofthe design shape. joints should be pre-set by lifting and chocking them about
'150 mm above the foundation, this will minimise distortion
12.1.1.3 The European Code prEN 14015 - 1
during welding. They can be left in this position until the
The difference in level between anytwo points 5 m apart around completion of the required radiographic inspection.
the periphery of the tank shall not be greater than 0.1% of their
oerioheral dishnce.
The centre strake of the rectangular plates is laid, com-
mencing withthe centre plate being placed on the line of the
This is not as stringent as the BS and API Codes- Take tor ex- floor setting out line. The remaining plates in this strake are
ample a tank shell having a circumference of 80 m (25.5 m di- then laidfrom the centre outtothe periphery The strakes ei-
ameter). This gives 16 points around the peripheryat 5 m apart. ther side are laid in a similarwayand finally the outer sketch
There could be a constant fall between each of eight points plates are put in place. During the whole of this process,
(from 0" to 180') of 5 mm giving a totalfall across the base of 40 care has to be taken to ensure that the minimum laps are
mm. This presupposes that there will be a identical rise in level maintained betvveen the plates which is normally = > 5 x
over the remainlng section (180' to 360'). The maximum differ- plate thickness.

236 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


12 Erection considerctions fot ambient temperaturc tanks

)y
Jt
d

f-
t-
)f
t-
d
n

Figure 12.1 Laps in floor plates where three thicknesses occur

To avoid plate distortion, it is important to weld the plates in the


following sequence:
First weld the annular plate butt joinb.
Then, starting at the centre of the floor, weld the short trans-
verse lap joints working outwards each side ofthe centre to the
periphery of the floor.
Repeat this sequence for the strakes of plate each side of the
centre strake.
Similarly, repeat again on the strakes adjacent to those last
welded until all the transverse welds are completed.
The longitud inal joints are now welded, starting at the centre of
the floor and working outwards to the periphery from each side
ofthe floor centre line which js transverse to the setting out line.
Where three thicknesses occur in the floor lap joints the upper
F gure12.5 D fferent types of erection equipment
plate is joggled, or cut and joggled as shown in Figlre 12.1.
The outer edge of floors which do not have annular plates, are 4) Flush off the joint with weld metal and g rind flush where the
joggled and welded (as illustrated diagrammatically in Figures shell passes over the joint, (see Figute 12.4).
12.2 to 12.4) according to the following procedure:
Care has to be taken when laying rectangular plates on conical
1) Tack weld the plates in position and weld a light pass 230 shaped foundations because the plate laps will "scissoi' g iving
mm long, welding towards the bnk centre (Figure 12.2). varying overlaps between adjacent plates and these laps have
2) Put a 200 mm wide joggle plate under the joint and ham- to be checked to ensure that the minimum lap dimension is
mer the joint to joggle the lower plate (heating the plate will complied with.
assist the process), (Figure '12.2).
The plates forming the lap joints have to be kept in close contact
3) Complete the welding in the area ofthejoggte, bywelding
while being welded and one way is to use concrete-filled oil
towards the centre of the tank, (see Figure 12.3).
drums which can be rolled along the joints while being
tack-welded. Other methods using different types of erection
equipment are shown in Figure 12.5.
\

ffi / ,
Lrsnt Pass On completion of the welding of the floor, the required number
of annular butt welds must be inspected by radiography and all
the weld seams vacuum box-tested for leaks by the method
given in Section 12.10.2. fhe erection of the shelt plating can
now commence.
Figure12.2 Jogglng and welding ofoutef floof edges

12.2.2 Erecting the shell by the traditional method

Stacks of shell plates are laid just outside the foundation area.
Each stack consists ofone plate from each shellcourse with the
*Po// inside surface uppermost and the bottom edge of the plates
f/,'t nearest to the foundation. The bottom course olate is on the too
of the stack, the second course next and so on. with the too
course plate being at the bottom of the stack. Timber choc<s
are put undereach end ofthe stack to preserve the plate curva-
Figure12.3 Welding in area ofjoggle
ture.

Blank erection nuts are accurately positioned and welded to the


Remove reinforcement
in way of the shell plate inside ofthe plates as they lieon the stacks. Each plate usualty
has six nuts along each horizontal edge and two on each vedj-
cal edge. The nuts are welded on three sides only , but the nuts
that are used as l;fting pojnts are welded all round. These nuts
are used to attach the plates of each course together and to
connect each course to the one above using key-plates and
Figure12.4 Flushing off joint carrot wedqes.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 237


12 Ercction considentions for ambient tempemturc tanks

Figure12.6 Welding of blank ereclion nuts to the shell plates


Couftesy of McTay

Welding of blank erection nuts to the shell plates is shown in


Figure 12.6. (Plates were stacked in the tank in this case be-
cause of a shortage of storage space around the foundation.)
Clips which will be used to mount the tank erection staging on
are also positioned and welded to the inside face ofthe plates.
Figure 12.7 shows the positions of the various pieces of erec-
tion equipment.
The inside radiusofthe shellplates is scribed accuratelyonthe Figure 12.8 Key-plates and shims on a verticaljoint
Couftesy of McTay
floor plating. Two rings of blank nuts are welded to the floor
plates at 600 to 900 mm pitch along the line of the scribed ra-
use ofshim plates ofthat thickness and flatwedges. Key-plates
dius, the inside nuts set about 20 mm from the line to allowfor
and shims on a verticaljoint is shown in Figure '12.8.
wedging and the outside nuts the thickness of the bottom
course awayfrom the scribed line. These nuts are welded along
one long and one short side only. 12.2.2 Tolerances
The shellstart mark, forthe bottom course verticaljoints, given
on the tank drawings, is accurately marked on the floor and the After completing the erection ofthe first course it is checked for
first course of shell is lifred plate by plate into position. Ca.e compliance with the allowable Code tolerances.
must be taken to keep each plate ofthis first course vertical us-
There are slight differences between the Codes regarding the
ing angled stays welded to the plates and floor
magnitude of allowable erection tolerances and the erection
Each plate is keyed to the adjoining plate using key-plates and contractor must familiarise himself with those of the Code to
carrot wedges as shown in Figure 12.7. The required weld gap which the tank is being built. In particular, the European Code is
between plates, which is usually 3 or4 mm, is maintained bythe very detailed in this respect.

By way of example the BS Code requirements are quoted be-

12.2.2.1 Radius tolerance

The internalradius measured horizoniallyfrom the centre ofthe


tank at floor level shall not vary from the nominal internal radius
by more than:

Allowablo devlallon on radlus lmm)

<= 12.5

r25
L..id crb !46 |'y ns ml
So for a 30 m diametertank t19 mm on radius gives a !38 mm
tolerance on diameter.

The plates of the course must be vertical to within 1 in 200.

For, say a 2 m wide course this would allow out of verticality of


!10 mm.
This standard of verticality applies to each course erected and
also to the overall height of the shell.
12-2.2.2 Peaking and banding

There must be no significant change in the shape of the tank at


Figure 12.7 Posltions ofvarious pieces of erection equipment
the joints between adjacent shell plates.

238 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


12 Etection considerations for ambient temperaturc tanks

For verticaljoints any deviation is termed "peaking" and this is Access staging for the erection personnel is erected on the in-
measured using a 1 m long horizontalsweep board madeto the side ofthe shell. The staging brackets are attached to ihe shell
correct radius of the tank. plates using clips which must be securelywelded to the shell by
For horizontal joints, the deviation is called "banding" and is welding along the top edge and 20 mm down one side, this, to
measured with a 1 m long verticalstraight edge sweep board. prevent the clips from being levered off the shell when moving
the staging brackets.
The maximum allowable deviation to the BS Code for horizontal
and verticaljoints is; Normally a three plank width of staging with handrails, stan-
chions and toe boards is erected and this staging is moved up
Plates < = 12.5 mm thick : 10 mm the tank as each course is erected. Typical access staging is
Plates > 12.5 mm < = 25 mm thick : 8 mm shown in Fioure 12.9.
Plates > 25 mm thick : 6 mm
12.2.2.3 Plate misal ignment
Plates which are joined by butt welding shall not be misaligned
by more than the following:
For completed vertical joints:
Plates < = 19 mm thick, 10% of the plate thickness,
or 1.5 mm whichever is the larger.
Plates > 19 mm thick, 10% ofthe plate thickness,
or 3 mm whichever is the larger.
For completed horizontal joints:
Plates < = 8 mm thick, 20% ofthe upper plate thickness,
or 1.5 mm whichever is the smaller. Figure 12.9 Access staging on the tank sheli
Couftesy af McTay
Plates > 8 mm thick, 20% ofthe upper plate thickness,
or 3 mm whichever is the smaller
12.4 Wind damage
The above misalignment tolerances assume that the centre
The one thing a tank contractor fears most is high winds, be-
lines of all course thicknesses are coincident with each other.
cause an uncompleted or partially erected and welded tank is
That is to say, the step in thickness between courses ofdifferent
very vulnerable to severe damage from high winds as the se-
thickness is the same on the inside of the tank as that on the
quence of photographs in Figure 12.10 demonstrates.
outside. However, for large diameter floating roof tanks it is of-
ten a requirement to have the inside face of all courses flush The tank in question was 22.5 m diameter x 16 m hiqh.
with each other in order to give a smooth surface for the roof
seal to act against. In these cases the step due to the difference
in thickness is all on the outside of the shell.
e
n
12.3 Floating roofs
3
s For ease ofconstruction access, it is common practice fortank
erectors to build the floating roof on the floor of the tank afrer
one, or maybe two shell courses have been erected. Alterna-
tively the complete shell may be erected and an access ,,letter
box" is formed in the shell by leaving plates out of the bottom
ano secono courses.
On completion of the floating roof, the BS Code states that the
gap between the rim of the roof and the shell shall not exceed
Il3 mm from the nominal gap.
The Code goes on to say that at any other elevation otherthan
that which it was erected, the difference in gap should not ex-
ceed 150 mm, or such other value as may be agreed between
the purchaser and the manufacturer for a particular seal
design.
Having completed allthe above checks and the first course is
set correctly, it should be lightly tack-welded to the floor plates
to prevent any high winds from causing the shell to lift and
spring over the retaining nuts.
The positions of the manholes in the first course should be ori-
entated on the shelland the openings cutto facilitate the move-
ment of men and materials into and out of the tiank.
Each successive course is erected in turn on the orecedino
course, using the same key-plate and shim method for the vert;
cal and horizontal seams. The gap between the verticaljoints in
adjacent courses is normally /3 of a plate length. staggered
clockwise or anti-clockwise but the minimum gap should not be
less than 300 mm. The shell is completed byfitting the curb an-
gle or compression plate to the top course. Figure 12.10 Example ofsevere wjnd damage to a ranK

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 239


12 Erection considerations for ambient tempercturc tanks

rank quYhg method

Figure 12.11 An effeclive method of guying a tank

-:

(h adrar ianchion omir ror cl'ity )


'.d
Fgure 12.10 Example of severe wind damage 1o a lank (cantinued)

12.4.1 Safety measures against wind damage

. Never leave a uncompleted shell course at the end of the


working day even if it means working late to complete it.

. Guy-offthe tank during windyweather and when leaving the


tank overnight, as illustrated in Figure 12.1 1. An effective 1

method of guying a tank is by using 'Tirfor'wire tensioners


on guy wires which are connected to the shell by welded
cleats or clamps and into the ground with multi staked an- Figure 12.12 Clamp ng the ends of overlapping slaging boards
chor bars, or alternatively large concrete blocks may be
used as anchor points.

. The tank erection staging can be adapted to form a tempo- 12.5 Shell welding sequence
rary wind girder by clamping the ends of overlapping stag- 1
The following sequence is based on manualwelding although
ing boards as shown in Figure'12.12.
the principles are just the same when using automatic welding
. Temporary steel angle wind girders stitch-welded to the machines, except that when welding with the latter, the weld
.'
shell will greatly assist in resisting buckling of the shell due seam is completely welded in one pass.
to high winds. These girders can be repositioned on the To ensure the minimum amount of distortion in the welded shell,
shell as erection progresses. there is a very simple rule which should be followed and this is;

. Erect the first three shell courses in the usual way and take . Fair up, tack, removing the shims and key plates as this
the safety precautions given above during this erection pe- work proceeds and then fully weld the vertical seams on two
riod. At this iuncture, cease erection and weld the vertical adjacent courses before fairing, tacking, removing the erec-
joints in the first two courses but only 75% of the third tion gear and welding the horizontal seam between them.
course, leaving the upper 25o/o free for fairing up to the lf this procedure is followed, and assuming the correct welding
fourth course when it is erected. The first fur'o horizontal procedure, electrodes and heat input is adhered to, then a
joints are then welded. This method makes the shell much good-shaped shell will be the result.
stiffer and more able to withstand high winds.
This sequence can be adhered to when following the "three
On completion ofthis partial welding, the shell erection recom- course" erection procedure described in the preceding para-
mences and the orocedure is repeated untilthe whole shell is graph and also when erecting by the 'lacking method" de-
erected. scribed later.

240 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


12 Ercction considerations for ambient temperature tanks

However, where a shell has been completely erected using the


conventional erection aids, then for expediency, a variation of
the above ideal sequence is offen used as follows:
On completion of the erection of the whole shell, the shell
erectors will leave a complete ring of access staging on the
top course on the inside of the shell.
The welders commence welding the shell from the outside
using access staging which they erect as they proceed up
the tank. The sequence of welding is as described above,
i.e. weld two courses of vertical seams and then the hori-
zonial seam between them. However these welds are not
welded on the inside at this sboe.
. The welders arrive at the top of the shell having completed
all the external welding.
. These welds have now to be back-gouged from the inside
by pneumatic chipping, grinding or air arcing the root of the
welds to sound metal. This commences at the top of the
Figure 12.14 Compleled slructufe with king posi removed
tank, using the access staging already left in place by the
erectors. The welds are then cleaned down from the too to
the bottom of the tank.
Atemporary king post is erected on a load spreading grillage at
. The welders then complete the welds working from the bot- the centre of the tank floor and guyed-off to the periphery of the
tom to the top of the tank. floor using wires and 'Tirfor' tensioners. Vertical adjustment is
Using this sequence means that at the completion of the shell provided by two hydraulicjacks placed either sjde ofthe post on
welding, there are two rings of access staging at the top ofthe the grillage which act against lugs welded to the post. Ascaffold
tank, one on the inside and one on the outside. These may now tower as constructed around the king post to give personnel ac-
be used by the erectors whilst erecting the roof structure and cess to the top of the Dost.
plating. The centre bobbin of the structure is secured to the top of the
For manual metal arc welding, the British and American Codes post and the roof trusses are lifted and bolted into position. the
require that hydrogen-controlled electrodes be used for shell brackets being landed on previously marked positions on
courses constructed in the range of higher tensile steels and the inside ofthe shell and toggled in place with erection equip-
the Codespecific requirements should be referred to especially ment prior to finally welding the brackets to the shell. The com-
for courses over 12.5 mm thick. pleted structure, with the king post removed is shown in Figure
12.14.
The specific requirements regarding welding are extensjvely
covered in the Codes with regard to: weather conditions, pre- Variations of this procedure are as fo[ows:
heating, storage of electrodes, cleaning ofwelds, allowable un- . On the tank floor, erect two adjacent trusses to the centre
dercut, back gouging, weld repalrs etc., and the reader is ad- bobbin and fit the purlins, secondary and tertiary rafters.
vised to refer to the relevant sections of the Code for these This assembly is lifted using a mobile crane and placed on
details. to the king post and the shell brackets connected to the
shell. This gives a fairly rigid framework to work off when fit-
12.6 Joints in wind girders ting the subsequent individual trusses etc.

The butt-welded joints between the sections of wind qjrder . Dispense with the king post and erect the complete struc-
should not run into the surface of the shell plating as thi; can ture on the floor of the tank leaving the shell brackets loose.
cause undesirable defects jn the surface of the shell. To pre- Using two or more mobile cranes, the complete structure is
vent this, "mouseholes" are cut at the joints as shown in Figure lifted to the correct level and secured to the top ofthe shell.
12.13. This js shown in Figure 12.15. The lift has to be carefully
monitored to ensure that all cranes take the same load and
that the structure is lifted evenly. The erection supervisor
12.7 The roof structure
Having completed the erection ofthe shell the roof structure is
now installed. Assume that the structure in this case is a
trussed type as described earlier in Chapter 5 .

Figure 12.15 Four cranes lifting a 33 m diameier roof structure


Figure l2 l3 Vousehole arjoint beMeen wi'ld g|oers Cauftesy af McTay

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 241


1 2 Erection considerations for ambient temperaturc tanks

allthe crane drivers in orderto


has to be in radio contact with
pass instructions to them as they cannot see how the lift is
progressing from their position outside the tiank. Also prob-
lems may be encountered in ensuring the liftforthis method
of erection.

12.7.1 Roof plating

The centre crown plate is laid firstfollowed bythe centre strake


across the tank diameter. This strake is laid from each side the
crown to the curb, all laps being a minimum of5 x the plate thick-
ness and towards the centre of the tank (opposite to the way
tiles lie on the roof of a building). All plates are tack-welded to-
gether, but not attached to the roof structure. The two strakes
adjacent to the centre strake are then laid in the same se-
quence and these strakes are also lapped towards the centre of Figure 12.16 Two 25 m ianks nea ng completion
the tank and tack-welded in position. This sequence is repeated Coutesy of McTay

untilthe whole roof is sheeted. The outer roof sketch plates are
flame cut to suit the curvature of the curb angle.
Some ofthese sketch plates may be temporarily removed to al-
low light into the tank while other opeEtions are being per-
formed inside the tank.

12.7.2 Welding sequence

The short transverse laps of the centre strake are welded flrst,
starting at the crown and working out towards the curb except
that the lap to the sketch plates is not welded yet.
(
This sequence is repeated on the two adjacent strakes to the c
centre strake and so on until all the short transverse laps are t
welded, with the exception of the outer sketch plates.
The longitudinal laps betweenthe centre strake and thetwo ad-
jacent strakes are then welded, starting at the crown and work-
ing towards the curb. The welding stops short of the outer
sketch plates. This sequence is continued until all longitudinal Figure 12.17 Arrangement of hydraulic climbingjacks
welds are complete except for the sketch plates and the weld
between the roof plating and the curb angle.
weight ofthe tankwith it. The tiank is lifted in stages until it is high
The laps of the sketch plates are welded next, starting with enough for another course of shell to be erected beneath the
thosefurthest awayfrom the centre strake, and working around previous one, this can be between 1.5 to 2.5 metres.
clockwise and anti-clockwise to the outer ends of the centre
Thejacking posts are fixed to the tankflooron a load spreading
strake. Finally the periphery of the roof plating is welded to the
pad and secured in position by two raking struts set at45" each
curD angre.
side of the post, these also being fixed to the floor plating, as
The Dositions for the roof nozzles and fittings can now be shown in Figure'12.17.
marked off and the roof sheeting flame-cut to allow them to be
As each course is erected, the vertical joints are welded fol-
welded into position. Two tanks nearing completion are shown
lowed by the horizontal joint between the adjacent courses. lt
in Figure 12.16.
can be seen from Figures 1 2.1 8 and 1 2.1 9, that all the work is

12.8 Erecting the shell by the jacking


method
This method is gaining in popularity because it keeps the con-
struction activities at a lowerelevation and is therefore safer for
the construction personnel.
The foundation checks and the erection and welding ofthe floor
is as previously described but the shell is erected in a com-
pletely different way. Depending upon the overall height of the
jacks being used, the top two, or maybe three shellcourses are
erected and welded in the conventionalway and the roofstruc-
ture, sheeting and nozzles are completed.
The tank designer willhave calculated the number ofjacks that
are required giving due regard to the overall weight of the tank
shell (excluding the bottom course) the roofstructure, sheeting
and fittings and also taking consideration of the effect of high
wind loads on the tank.
The jacks consist of a vertical post which has a specially de- Figure 12.18 Tank being erected by thejacking method
signed hydraulic jack which climbs up the post carrying the Courtesy of lly'hessoe

242 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


12 Erection considerations for ambient temperature tanks

Figure 12.19 Tank being erected by thejacking method


Coul$y of Whessae

carried out virtually at ground level and is therefore much safer


for the construction personnel.
Figure 12.21 A pre,fabricaied lop section being tifted into place
Caulesy of McTay
12.9 Other forms of construction
periphery ofthe roof, to sealthe small gap between the roofand
shell. This seal is formed by a thin flexible membrane material.
1 2.9.1 Column-supported roots
A number of steel guide cables are fixed to the centre of the
Column-supported roofs have to have the columns guyed-off floor, led vertically through sealed apertures in the crown ofthe
correctlyduring erection as the partially erected roof is vulnera- roof and across the externalsurface ofthe roof plating to the pe-
ble to a spiral type of collapse. Figure 12.20 shows a partially riphery ofthe roofwhere they are led through pulleys and verti-
erected column-supported roof. cally to anchor frames above the top of the shell.
High efficiency electric fans are connected to the shell man-
12.9.2 Prc-fabricated roof section holesand these pressurisethe area underthe roofand cause jt
to lift within the shell. Only about 6 to 10 mbar air pressu re is re_
On smallertanks it is possible to completely erect the roofon to quired to move the roof, and as it rises, the friction between the
the top murse ofthe shell and then to lift this section on to the guide cables and the roof plating stabilise the roof and keep it
remaining shell. The vertical shell butts in the adjacent courses level during the lift. At the top of the tank, the roof comes up
are only welded for 75% of their length to allow for fairing up against the underside of the compression area and is tempo_
when the two sections are joined. An example of a pre-fabri- rarily toggled into position ready for the final welding ofthjs lap
cated top section bejng lifted into place is shown jn Figure joint.
12.2't. Figwes 12.22 to 12.25 show the sequence of evenb.

12.9.3 Air lifting a roof into position 12.9.4 Floating roofs

Thjs method is used for large diameter dome roof tanks. The floating roof is built at some level above the tank floor and
The roof-to-shell compression area has to be ofthe tvpe which access to build it is gained either over the shell, by restricting
has a conical roofsection as shown in Chapter5, Section S.4.1. the erection of the shell to the bottom and mavbe the second
The roof structure and sheeting is completely constructed on
the floor of the tank and a temporary air tight seal is flxed to the

Figure 12.20 A partially erecied cotumn-suppoded roof Figwe 12.22 31 m diameterdome foof onder construction

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 243


12 Erection considerctions for ambient temperature tanks

1 ) A set ofvertical square or round support pins are welded to


the tank floor in a grid formation on which the roof plates
are placed. The height of each pin is calculated to allowfor
any floor slope and the contour of the roof, the minimum
height being that amount by which the support leg hous-
ings protrude below the underside of the roof plating.
The roof is built on this matrix of pins and when complete,
wateris pumped intothe tankand the roofisfloated upto a
levelwhereby the support legs can be dropped into place
and pinned (usually in the high, maintenance position).
The water is then drained out and the support pins re-
moved and any drain lines, heating coils etc. can be fitted
to the floor area.
Aseries of illustrations showing parts ofthe erection sequence
are shown in Figures 12.26 to 12.32
Construction note: There is a variance between the Codes in
the requirements for the single side fillet welding of the bulk-
heads between pontoons to the inner and outer rim plates and
to the top and bottom pontoon plating, (see Figure 12.30).
The BS 2654 Code requires single side fillet welding to the in-
I'gure 12.23 31 m-diameter dome roof'eadv fo-lhe a tl;fl (guide cables can ner and outer rim plates and to the bottom pontoon plate but al-
De seen al me roor cenrrel
lows the joint between the bulkhead and the top plate to be left
unwelded.

Flgure 12.26 Laying lhe bottom deck of a 36 m diameier double deck floaung
F gfie 12.24 31 m diameter dome roof being airlifled inlo place

Figure 12.25 The dome roof being secured priorto finalwelding

course, or by leaving plates out ofthe bottom two courses ofthe


completed shellthus forming an access "letter box". The former
method is to be preferred as this affords easier crane operation
and direction by the banksman.
Figure 12.27 Bulkheads and top deck stiffeners of a 36 m double deck lloating

Two erection methods are outlined as follows: Counesy of McTay

244 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


12 Erection considetations fot ambient temperature tanks

FqLre 12.jll0noi"m-ler - rSl" deLk floa_ ng -oof. co -.]pla ao s.5 ppol


F gure 12.28 Top deck of 36 m d ameier double deck floatlng roof being f tted egs n posilior. eady Io be flo.led Lp lo il. ^o rPLlele\atiol

curely in place with scaffold poles and clips. The roof is


completely erected and welded on these supports and all
the roof support legs, nozzles, manholes eic., are fitted to
the roof. Once ihe legs are in place and pinned in position
the supports and scaffolding is removed from the tank
through the shell manholes, (see Figures 12.33 and
12.34).
When a single deck roof is constructed using this method, the
outer rim of the pontoons is usually supported off temporary
brackets welded io the shell.

, =- 1\ -""!
-'F
Figure 12.29 20 m diametef slngle deck roof ponloons being erected on p ns
couftesy of-1McTay

gure 1 2.32 20 m d ia meter slngle deck floating roof at lts correct elevation
at F
(the org nal support p ns can now be removed)
:
!
:

Figure 12.30 20 m diameter s ngle deck roof ponioons being erected on p ns"

The European prEN Code in addition to the BS requirements


requires this topjointto be welded only on alternate bulkheads.

The API 650 Code requires all four edges to be single side fil-
let-welded.
\ 2) A grid formation of vertically adjustable scaffold supports
:
(Acrows) are set to suit the final level of the underside of Flgure 12.33 A 45 m diameter s ngle deck roof supported off scatfold ng
the roof pontoons and deck. These supports are held se-

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 245


12 Erection considetutions for ambient tenperaturc tanks

For each horizontaljoint type and thickness (based on the thin-


ner plate), one radiograph is required in the first 3 metres of
joint, followed by one radiograph in each additional60 metres.
Annular floor plate loints
Forjoints which have been welded from both sides, one radio-
graph is required on 10% of the totsl number of radial joints.
For single-sided butt joints made using a permanent backing
bar(the more usualmethod) then one radiograph is required on
50% of the total number of radial joints.
12.10.'1.3 DrEN 14015 - 1

Shelljoints
Radiography to the European code ls presented in a similar
way to that ofthe BS Code in that there are three shellthickness
bands, but the amount of radiography is generally greaterthan
the BS Code within each band.
*oport system for a single deck type roorola 45 m di-
5H:[S|,1:;a*o "*OrO This Code also differentiates between steel yield strengths.
Courtesy of McTay Steels having yield strengths equalto or more than 355 N/mm',
require more radiography than those below this value. Also ul-
trasonic examination ofcertain welds is called for in this Code.
12.1 0 lnspection and testing the tank The Code also gives radiographic and dye penetrant examina-
tion requirements for stainless steel shell plates. These are
generally not as extensive as for carbon and carbon manga-
12.10.1 Radiographic inspection
nese steels.
In the interest of brevity and the prevention of boredom, the ex- Annular floor plate ioints
act requirements of each of the BS, API and European Codes The Code gives an option to radiograph or ultrasonically exam-
are not reproduced here. The reader is advised to consult the ine the joints to the following extent:
relevant Code for the complete information as required.
One full length radiograph (400 mm) from the outer edge ofthe
Of the three Codes, the BS Code has the simplest approach plate or US examination over the full length of the joint. This
and a less demanding quantity of radiography than the other shall apply to one joint in four.
Codes.
However, for annular plates in steels having a yield stress = >
12.10.1.1 BS 2654 355 N/mm'? and > 10 mm, the requirements are as above but
shall apply to one joint in two.
Shelljoints
The requirements are set out as a perceniage of the overall 12.10.2 Floor plate joint testing
length of vertical and horizontal shelljoints in three thickness
Danos. On completion of the tank, the floor joints can be tested for
Annular floor plate ioints soundness by one or more of a number of methods :

The requirement for the annular floor plate butt joints is based . By the vacuum box method, see Figure 12.35, whereby a
on three thickness bands. open-bottomed box with a seal around the edge is placed
over a section ofthe floorjointwhich has been painted with
Forthe thickest plates, allthejoints require to be radiographed.
a soap solution. Avacuum is drawn in the boxwhich has a
For the mid range, half the number of joints require to be toughened glass top and any leak paths in thejointwillshow
radiographed. as bubbles due to air being sucked from under the floor
through the imperfection in the weld.
For the thinner plates, a q uarter of the number of joints req uire
to be radiographed with a minimum of four being required. The recommended vacuum varies between 210 and 350
mbar.
12.10.1.2 APt 650
. By pumping air underneath the floor at a pressure sufficient
The API Code has a different approach but the quantity of radi- to lift the plates off the foundation. The pressure, which
ography is generally more than that required by the BS Code. should not be more than 7 mbar maximum is held by the
Shelljoints construction of a temporary dam of clay or other suitable
material around the periphery of the floor. Asoap solution is
The verticaljoints are divided into three thickness bands.
then applied to the internal floor joinG for the detection of
For the thickest band, thejoints have to be 100% radiographed, leaks.
plus all 'T'junctions have to be radiographed.
. By the use of a tracer gas and a suitable compatible detec-
For the mid thickness band, one radiograph is required in the ton The gas is pumped and trapped underthe floor in a simi-
first 3 metres ofjoint, followed by one radiograph in each addi- lar way to the previous method and the detector is passed
tional 30 metres, plus all 'T'joints have to be radiographed. over the joints and senses the escape of gas through any
leaks.
Also for the bottom course only in this band, two additional ra-
diographs are required, one of them being as close to the bot- . By the use of dye penetrant or magnetic particle examina-
tom as oossible. tion methods.
For the thinnest band, one radiograph is required in the first 3 The most common method favoufed by most tank contractors
metresofjoint, followed byone radiograph in each additional30 is the vacuum box method although this is often supplemented
metres. with a dye penetrant or magnetic particle examination.

246 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


However, the API Code furthef states rhai c., a:-::-:-: ::-
t\/een the purchaserand tl'e co'tracto.. rh" a j:, i :, :^ .,. -.
methods may be waived if the fo low ng examrnat cis :-: ::l
formed on the entire circumference of ihe weids:
'1) Visual examination of the initiai passes of the nre. a-:
outer welds.
2) Visual examination of the completed inner and o,te-
WEIOS,

3) Examine the completed inner and outef welds bv ejtner


liquid penetrant. magnetic particle. or righr angle uac -u-
box and soapy solution.

12.10.4 Fixed roof plate joint testing

The most common and positive method is to pressurise the un-


derside of the roof space when the tank is full ofwater while un-
der hydrostatic test. For non-pressure tanks, the roof space is
pressurised with air to 4 mbar, when working to the Apl Code
and to 7.5 mbar to the BS Code. For low Dressure and hioh
pressure tanks to the BS Code. the air test pressure rs 3 mbir
above the design pressure. Asoapy solution is applied io all the
welded joints to check for any leakage.
The roof test pressure can be monitored using a simple water
Figure 12.35 Vacuum box and pump manometer 'U' tube made from clear plastic tubing clipped to a
vertical wooden board which can be temporarilV attached to the
roof handrailing near the top roof access platform. The tube is
12.10.3 Shell-to-bottom joint testing connected to a fitting on the nearest convenient blanked roof
nozzle. Note that '1 mbar = 1 cm of water gauge.
This applies to joints formed with a fillet weld both sides of the The air supply stop valve must be accessible at roof level and if
shell plating and they may be checked by one of the following there are no pressure & vacuum valves or emergency vents fit-
methods: ted to the roofthen an emergency quick release valve must be
fitted to one of the nozzles to enable any excessive build up of
. The BS Code is not specific in this area but internal weld is
air pressure to be released.
normally tested for leaks using a vacuum box in a similar
way to that described above for the floor plating. The box in Alternatively, the roof joints may be checked bythe vacuum box
this case has one side, as well as the bottom missinq and it method. This may be the preferred method where large vent
is forced into the corner formed by the floor and sh;ll and openings have been cut in the roof plating of tanks which are to
seals around the open edges of the box give a air tjght seal be fitted with internal floating covers. However, in these cases
to the tank. Soapy water applied to the corner weld prior to the roofjoints can be air pressure-tested prior to cutting the vent
placing the box shows if there are any leaks in the weld. apenures. In any event it may be argued that a minute leak path
in a roof weld does not matter where large vent openings are
The problem with this method is that the coniractor has to present in the roof anyway.
stock a numberofvacuum boxes to cover the ranoe of tank
shell diameters. The European Code will accept dye penetrant, vacuum box or
an arr pressure test as alternative ways oftesting roof joinb.
. By the use of dye penetrant or magnetjc particle examina-
tion methods.
12.10.5 Floating roof testing
Contractors usually perform a dye penetrant or magnetic
particle examination the first pass of the internal weld fol_ The centre deck plate, pontoon bottom plate and the rim Dlate
lowed by an examination by the vacuum box method. welded joints should be tested as follows:
. The API Code requires the first pass internal wetd to be BS and API Codes spraying with penetrating oil on the un-
thoroughly cleaned and examined both visually and by ei_ derside and checking- by
for evidence of leaks on the top sjde and
ther the Dye penetrant. Magnetic particle, Vacuum box inside of rim plates.
method, or by applying a penetrating oil to the gap between
European Code by the vacuum box method or bv dve
the shell and the floor. This latter alternative is not recom- -
penetrant examination.
mended because of the difficulty in removing the oil prior to
subsequent welding operations. When the weld is found to The fillet welds connecting the bulkheads between pontoons to
be sound, the inside and outside welds are completed and the inner and outer rim plates and to the pontoon bottom shall
visually examined for defecb. be examined for leaks using penetratjng oil (or in the Eu ropean
Code. the dye penetrant method) prior to the installation of the
. Alternatively, after completing the initial weld passes on the pontoon top plates. When continuously welded, the welds con_
inside and outside, they are thoroughly cleaned and vjsually necting the pontoon top plates shall be visuallv inspected for
examined. After completing the welds, the space between pinholes or defective welding. In the case of the European
them is pressurised with air to 103 kpa and tested with a Code these latterwelds must be inspected bythe dye penetrant
soapy solution for leaks. method.
This method is also included in the European Code for bo! Compartments which are completely welded can be individu-
tom shell plates more than 30 mm thjck. The air pressure to ally tested with an air pressure of 7 mbar and a soaov solution
be applied to the void between the welds in this case beinq applied to the welded joints under pressure which have not
30 kPa. been previously tested with penetrating oil. The BS and Apl

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 247


12Eu!!o, rutio, f.,
"on "id" "

Codes offerthis test procedure as an alternative to the one out- 3) Water used for testing a stainless steel tank must be
lined in the previous paragraph. chemically analysed to determine the pH value, chlorine
content and the presence of any other potentially corro-
However the European Code requires that both procedures
sive elements.
above shall be carried out unless the design of the roof pre-
cludes a air pressure test in which case all welds shall be dye 4) When the test is conducted during cold weatherthen the
penetrant tested. test water temperature should be checked for suitability
against figure 1 of BS 2654.
The primary drain system shall be hydraulically tested prior to
the tank hydrotest and the roofdrain valves shall be kept open 5) The rate of fill, the number and duration of dwell periods
during the hydrotest and observed for leakage. during the test and the final period before emptying, is to
be agreed with the foundation designer. Also a datum
During the tank hydrotest, the lower deck, the lower pontoon foundation survey must be established priorto the test and
deck and all the submerged roof joints shall be observed for settlement surveys taken during the test programme.
leakage. Clause A.5 of 852654 gives very good guidance on this
tooic.
Also during the first filling with product the roof decking and
pontoon compartments shall be observed for leaks caused by 6) Establish the maximum tiank Jllling height.
the deeper immersion in the stored product which is likely to 7) The European Code contains advice on the hydrotesting
have a lower specific gravity than water of tanks which are designed to hold products with a s.g.
greater than 1.0, and this is as follows:
12.10.6 Testing of shell nozzles and apertures a) Construct a temporary extension of the shell to allow
the testwater levelto be increased above the design liquid
The welds attaching nozzle reinforcing plates to the tank are level. This extension should be high enough to create a
tested for leaks by pressurising the space between the shell overload of at least 10%.
plate and the reinforcing plate with air and applying a soapy so-
lution to the welds to detect leaks. The reinforcing plate has a
Authors note: This may be possible for open top tanks
but would appear impractical for fixed roof tanks. Also it
hole drilled and tapped in it to take the pneumatic connection.
would seem impracticalfor products having a high specific
The BS Code states that pneumatic testing of reinforcing gravity. For instance sulphuric acid has a s.g. of 1.84. With
plates is not required unless specified by the purchaser but the inclusion of a 10% overload this would require a tem-
when it is specified it shall be done at a pressure of 1 bar. porary extension equal to the original height of the tank,
clearly impractical.
Not withstanding this statement, it is normal practice for a con-
tractor to pneumatically test the reinforcing plates prior to the b) The first filling with the high s.g. product should be un-
hydrostatic tank test. dertaken under careful supervision, observing the same
caution as would apply to the original hydrosiatic test. In
The API and the European Code require the reinforcing plates the case of tanks constructed of carbon and carbon man-
to be pneumatically tested. ganese steels, consideration should be given to using ma-
The BS and the European Code also require the nozzle welds terials with enhanced levels of notch ductility, i.e. use a
to be dye penetrant or magnetic particle tested. type of steel one or two types higher than would otherwise
be required.
12.10.7 Hydrostatic tank testing 8) Establish a water disposal point and the maximum allow-
able rate for the disposal ofthe water. Also check with the
To ensure that the tank is free from leaks, on completion of con- local authority for permission to dispose of rust contami-
struction it is filled with water to its design level. What must also nated watet
be appreciated is that in testing the tank in this way the founda- 9) When the tank is filled with water to the maximum height
tion is also being proved to take the load from the tank. There- and the roof air test is being performed, the operation of
fore it is vital that the foundation designer is consulted with re- any pressure & vacuum valves and emergency vents can
gard to the allowable rate of loading for the foundation to be tested.
prevent excessive settlement or slip failure. 10) Prior to emptying the tank, all roof nozzles and manholes
lvlost tanks in petrochemical service store products with a spe- which were closed off for the test must be opened up to
cific gravity, (s.9.), less than 1 .0 and hence the loading that the prevent a vacuum forming in the tank which could cause
tank experiences during the hydrotest will not be achieved in disastrous consequences.
service. This effectively assures a factor of safety during the Note: The European Code requires a testfortank stability un-
operation of the tank. der negative pressure and the following procedure is
Also the initial hydrotest causes plastic yielding in welds where adopted:
there are localised high stress concentrations. in the tank has been lowered to one
Afterthe liquid level
metre above the top ofthe draw-ofi nozzle, the tank sta-
The following matters have to be considered priorto commenc-
bility under negative pressure (depressurisation) shall
ing the hydrostatic test:
be tested.
1) Availability ofwater source on the bnk site.
Allthe openings shall be sealed off exceptforthe nega-
2) ls fresh orsaltwaterto be used (salt water has a s.g.of tive pressure valve (pressure/vacuum) and the water
1.03). level shall be reduced until the design vacuum is ob-
lf salt water is used, then the tank must be thoroughly tained.
hosed down with fresh water ater being emptied. Extreme care has to be exercised during this testto en-
A tank fitted with an aluminium or stainless steel internal sure that the design vacuum is not exceeded as this
floating roof must be tested with fresh water. could cause a tank collapse.

248 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


F 13 Foundations for ambient
temperature storage tanks
v

This Chapter includes a brief review of various consideralions relating to foundations for above
0 ground, vertical cylindrical storage tanks, taken in the main from the tank design Codes.
n
d- This is a specialist subject, and thosd who wishlo pursue it in more depth are advised to seek
more detailed materialfor further studv.

Contents:
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Design loadings
13.3 Foundation profiles
13,4 As-constructed foundation tolerances
13.4.1 API 650 requirements
'13.4.2 BS 2654 requirements
13.4.3 prEN 14015 requirements
13.5 Site investigations
13.6 Soil improvement
13.7 Settlement In service

13.8 Foundation types


13.9 Leak detection and prevention of ground contamination
13.10 A cautionary tale

13.11 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 249


13 Foundations for ambient temperaturc stomge tanks

toms in floating roof tanks, with the need to remove all of the
13.1 lntroduction tank contents quicklyfor tank decommissioning and for tank in-
This Chapter concentrates its efforts on the foundations for ternal cleaning operations.
conventional storage tanks, i.e. above ground, vertical cylindri-
Fortanks fitted with central drain connections, a slope down to
cal tanks for the storage of liquids at or above ambient
thetank centre sump ofa minimum of 1:120 is considered suit-
temperatures.
able. These tanks usually have a drain line running within the
It is clearly important that storage tanks are provided with suit- tank, from the central drain to a suitable connection as low as is
able foundations and there are numerous considerations which possible on the tank shell. This is considered a better arrange-
must be taken into account where tank foundations are mentthan running the drain line beneath the tank bottom to the
concerned: tank periphery This has beenthe cause ofleakageand ground
contamination problems in the past.
. The initial shape of the foundation is important to the tank
erector. A level foundation, especially in the area immedi- For tanks with one or more peripheral drains and sumps, the
ately beneath the tank shell, will make the tank erector's tank bottom must be coned up to the tank centre, and a slope of
task easier and helo to ensure that the finished shell is 1:120 is considered suitable. In setting out the as-built slope,
made to good shape tolerances. The various design Codes consideration must be given to the anticipated edge-to-centre
provide guidance as to acceptable foundation tolerances. settlement which will occur during hydrostatic testing and
operation.
. The behaviour of the foundation in the short term during
tank erection and hydrostatic testing, and during service for Tanks with a sloping bottom from one side to the other are quite
the life time of the tank is important. Excessive or uneven unusual, for reasons connected with the difficulties associated
settlement during erection or testing would clearly be an with the cutting and erection of the first course of shell plates
embarrassment in terms of cost, time and reputation to all Again a 'l:120 minimum slope taking account ofanticipated set-
concerned. Rectification of foundations which are inconve- tlement would be normal.
niently located beneath tanks is an expensive and time con-
suming business. The tank itself may suffer damage 13.4 As-constructed foundation tolerances
resulting from the settlement which will exacerbate the
proDlems. To assist in ensuring that a tank is constructed with a shell
shape as true as is possible, particularly important for floating
. Poor foundations may threaten the integrity of the tank. roof tanks to prevent roof jamming, it is important that a founda-
There have been numerous examples of storage tanks tion as close to the design profile as possible, especially around
which have su{fered sudden bottom failures as a result of the periphery ls provided. lt is quite usual that the foundation
foundation shortcomings. contractor and the tank contractor are different companies, ei-
. The initial and ongoing costs offoundations must be given ther both employed by the owner, or one as a subcontractor of
careful scrutiny. A"cheap and cheerful" foundation may ap- the other. The point in time when the foundation is handed over
pear less attractive when the costs and service outages as- from oneto the otheris often a sourceofa contractualand tech-
sociated with excessive settlement are made a part of the nical argument, so it is necessary that clear guidelines are pro-
financial equation. vided as to what is required. The various design Codes make
efforts to define what is required.
. The costs associated with ground contamination, particu-
larly by oil-based products are such that leak detection and
13.4.1 API 650 requirements
provisions to prevent ground contamination are now com-
mon, and in certain parts of the world mandatory
API 650 has much to say on this issue in its attempts to provide
clear definitions and it is probably worth repeating these in full.
13.2 Design loadings The Code divides tanks into those with foundations in a hori-
zontal plane (the vast majority) and those with sloping bases.
The loading on the foundations of storage tanks divide into
three separate areas. For the former:

. The central area of the base during operation is subject to . Where a concrete ring wall is provided under the shell, the
uniform loadings from the tank product and non-uniform top of the ringwallshall be level within t 3 mm (%") in any I
loadings arising from the influence of the seismic events on m (30 ft) of the circumference and :! 6 mm (%") in the total
the contained liquid which are described in Chapter '15. Dur- circumference measured from the average elevation
ing tank testing this area of the foundation is subjected to
loadings from the hydrostatic head of the test water' For col-
. Where a concrete ringwall is not provided, the foundation
umn-supported roofs, there are point loads associated with under the shell shall be level within t 3 mm (%") in any 3 m
the column feet which are a combination of the self-weight (10 ft) of the circumference and within :t 12 mm (y""1in lhe
ofthe columns plus the relevant parts ofthe roofloadings total circumference measured from the average elevation
. The areas of the foundation immediately beneath the tank . Where a concrete slab is provided, the first 0.3 m (1 ft)ofthe
shellare the su bject of line loadings arising from a combina- foundation (or width of the annular plate), measured from
tion of self-weight, insulation weight, wind, snow vacuum the outside ofthe tank shell radiallytowards the centre, shall
and seismic loadings. comply with the concrete ringwall requirements. The re-
mainder of the foundation shall be within :! 13 mm (%") of
. Where the tanks are fitted with holding down bolts or straps,
the design shape. lt is not made clear if this latter require-
the foundation must be designed to resist the calculated up-
ment is to be applied to the complete perimeter onlyorto the
lifts arising from the various loadings. The derivation of
whole base slab area. lf it is the latter, then this seems an
these loadings is described in Chapter 4
onerous requirement for the foundation contractor'
For the sloped foundations the elevations around the circum-
13.3 Foundation profiles ference shall be calculated from the high point and the actual
(measured) elevations shall notdeviate from the calculated flg-
It is usual for tanks to be fitted with drains for reasons assocl-
ated with the removalof unwanted impurities such aswaterbot- ures by more than the following:

250 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


13 Foundations for ambient temperature storage tanks

. Where a concrete ring wall is provided I 3 mm (%") in any 9


Diameter of tank Difference
m (30 feet) ofthe circumference and i 6 mm (%") in the total
circumference D

. Where a concrete ringwall is not provided t 3 mm (%") in mm

any 3 m (10 feet) ofthe circumference and !12 mm (%") in D< 10 10


the total circumference
10<D<50 D / 1000
The Code states that the measurements shall be made prior to
the water test rather than prior to building the tank. lf this in- 50<D 50
cludes the foundation tolerances, which it appears to do, then
this is unhelpful in sorting out the possible differences between
Fgure 13.1 Foundaton surface loefances
contractors and providing well-defined hand over criteria. Fram prEN 14415, table 16.2.3

13,4,2 BS 2654 requirements that the ability of the soil to bear the imposed loadings, the ne-
cessity for soil improvements and the anticipated settlements
BS 2654 does specifically address the handover of the founda- can be evaluated. [,4any storage tanks are constructed at
tion from one contractor to another and suggests that it is nor- coastal locations on poor estuarine soils with poor load bearing
mal for the owner to provide the foundation to the tank contrac- properties. In these situations it is often found necessary to en-
tor. lt states: hance the load bearing properties of the soil, or to modify the
tank proportions to decrease the imposed loadings.
The too of the foundation levels shall be checked at a handover
stage to the tank erector and the differences in level ofthe sur- Some storage tanks are built at sites where the nature of the
face of the tank foundation between any two points 10 m apart sub-soil is well known. In these cases much useful information
around the periphery of the tank shall not be greater than t 6 can be obtained by the study of the performance of similar
mm and the envelope of the peripheral surface levels shall lie structures on these sites.
within 12 mm above to 12 mm below the design levels.
Where this information is not available, a geotechnical site in-
These are locally, and in some cases globally less demanding vestigation must be carried out. The tank design Codes provide
that the API reouirements. some guidance regarding this matter
It does suggest that forfloating rooftanks, for the reasons men- API 650 suggests that the necessary information should be ob-
tioned above, that tighter tolerances may be required. tained from soil borings, load tests, sampling, laboratory testing
and analysis carried out by suitably experienced persons or
13.4.3 prEN 14015 requirements companies, preferably familiar with similar structures in the
same area.
This drafr Standard also addresses the handover ofthe founda- BS 2654 suggests that a site investigation is carried out in ac-
tion tothe tankcontractor. lt requiresthat, before the erection of cordance with BS 5930 (Reference 73. t).
the tank, the erector shall ensure that the location, height,
shape, geometry horizontal plane or slope, surface finish and prEN 14015 suggests that wherever possible, storage tanks
cleanliness of the supporting foundation shall conform to the should be sited in areas where the subsoil conditions are homo-
following: geneous, and have good characteristics in respect of load
bearing and settlement. Prior to the start of the design and con-
. Peripheraltolerances struction of the foundation, a thorough geotechnical investiga-
The purchaser shall specify the datum height of the tion should be conducted to determine the stratigraphy and
foundation and its permissible variation physical properties of the soils underlying the site. lvleasure-
ments should include soil resistivity, conductivity and Iocal wa-
- The difference in level between any two points around
ter table depth and variability. In areas subject to seismic excita-
the foundation shall not be more than 24 mm
tjons, either the local building regulations should be consulted,
- The difference between any two points 5 m apart around orifthese do not provide sufficient data, then a Seismic Hazard
the periphery ofthe tank shall not be greater that 0.1% Assessment (SHA) should be conducted by persons or
of their oerioheral distance companies suitably experienced and skilled in this type ofwork.
The tolerance the erector accepts on the inclination or The Codes are agreed that certain sites should be avoided, or if
slope of the foundation shall be such as to enable the fi- they must be used, perhaps for economic reasons, then must
nal vertical tolerances of the tank to be achieved be subjected to special consideration. API 650 provides the
. most comorehensive list which is as follows:
Foundation surface tolerances
. Sites on hillsides, where part of a tank may be on undis-
- The sag in the as built surface measured with a 3 m long
turbed ground or rock, and part may be on fill or another
template shall not exceed 10 mm
construction where the depth of fill is variable
- The difference between the design level and as bujlt
. Sites on swampy or filled ground, where the layers of muck
level shall not exceed the values given in Figure 13.1
or compressible vegetation are at or below the surface, or
This document also has some sensible advice on the provision where corrosive materials may have been deposited as fill
of detailed information for any holding-down devices which will
require accommodating in the foundation and for the dimen- . Sites underlain by soils, such as layers of plastic clay or or-
sional checking of anchor pocket positions and the anchor ganic clays, that may support heavy loads temporarily, but
installation. settle excessively over long periods of time
. Sites adjacent to water courses or deep excavations, where
1 3.5 Site investigations lateral stability of the ground is questionable
At any site where it is proposed to construct storage tanks, it is . Sites immediately adjacent to heavy structures that distrib-
necessary to have knowledge of the sub-surface conditions so ute some of their load to the sub soil under the tank sites,

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 251


13 Foundations for ambient tempercturc storcge tanks

thereby reducing the sub soils capacity to carry additional ward force exerted on the tank bottom corner by the bottom
loadings without excessive settlement plates. There are rules in the various design Codes to allow
. Sires wheretanks may be exposed to flood waters, possibly
these calculations to be made.
resulting in uplift, displacement or scour Clearly a tank with a coned up to the centre bottom is better
suited to cope with this form ofsettlement as it has to pass from
. Sited in regions of high seismicitythat may be susceptible to
the cone up, through flat to the cone down before serious ten-
liquefaction
sile stresses are imposed on the bottom plates. Some owners
. Sited with thin layers of soft clay soils that are directly be- have theirown rulesfor situations wherethis type ofsettlement
neath the tank bottom and can cause lateral ground stability is anticipated. In addition to the cone up preset, some of these
proprems involve an improved bottom plate joint (perhaps a two pass sin-
gle-sided llllet, a double-sided fillet or butt welding) and a
stiffening of the tank bottom corner
13.6 Soil improvement
Tilt, as long as it is pure tilt, is anotherform ofsettlement which
lf the subsoil is found to be inadequate for the imposed loads most tanks can accommodate without undue problems, with
withoutexcessive or uneven settlement, and the tank cannot be the exception of floating roof tanks where some binding may
relocated to another area where the soil conditions are better. occur.
then the Codes are agreed that one of a number of means of
soil improvement may be used: Differential settlement around the tank periphery is usually
problematic. Floating roof tanks change shape giving rise to
r Removal and replacement of unsatisfactory material by roof jamming at quite small settlements of this type, and fixed
suitable compacted fill rooftanks can be distressed by their attempts to bridge gaps. lt
. lmprovement of the soft or loose material by vibration, dy- is often difficult to separate the components due to tilt and differ-
namic compaction or pre-loading with an overburden of ential settlement from a set of bottom level readings. The
other material method given in API 653 (Reference 13.2) is useful and Figure
13.2 is taken from that document showing howthis is achieved.
. Sub-soil drainage with or without pre-loading
SpeciUc guidance as to what represents acceptable limits for
. Stabilization by chemical grout injection the different forms ofsettlement applied to the different types of
. tanks is not easy to find. The design Codes are not helpful. The
Provision of a reinforced concrete raft with or without sup-
poning piles tank maintenance and repaircodes are more forthcoming (Ref-
erences 13.2 and 13.3).
The design, specification and undertaking of these forms of
The hydrostatic testing ofthe tank is the point atwhich the foun-
foundation improvement should be left to those experienced in
dation design is first called upon to perform its intended duties.
this type of work.
BS 2654 includes some sensible advice regarding tank testing.
The testing of the first tank in a new area is critical and should
13.7 Settlement in service be carried out with caution and comprehensive settlement
The prime function of the tank foundatlon designer is to provide
a foundation at an economic cost, which will protect the tank
from excessive settlements during its construction, hydrostatic
test and service life. A conventional storage tank may be sub-
ject to a settlement which is made up of a combination of the
following:
. Globalsettlement. This isthe uniform downward settlement
of the completed structure
. Differentialsettlements:
Tilting of the tank across its diameter
Edge-to-centre settlement along a radial line to the tank
centre
Differential settlement around the tank periphery
Storage tanks have differing tolerances to these various differ-
entforms ofsettlement. The tolerance is also a function ofthe
tank type and geometry For tanks built on poor but uniform
soils wherethe main settlement is globalwith little accompany-
ing differential settlement, and the connecting pipework hasthe
necessary flexibility, settlements measured in meters have
been recorded without undue detrimental effects. There are
sites where this order of settlement is a part of the life cycle of 10 12 14 16 1a 20 22
the storage tanks. They are designed with permanent shell
jacking brackets, or suitably stiffened for lifting by other means
such as airbags. When these tanks have settled by an agreed
O4-ofrh.o h
rltcc{on td pol.r'l U,= od{tdano ednFd ot pohl '1i
amount, they are lifted and the foundation is refurbished at the sr= Ur- {& Ur-d r,! U'+r), ror@mde (+) wlton abN..e. cl':
original elevation. s11- t4r(2uft+1t2!t2l
- (-) u'en bdw aNs rorodrnpJei
4, =(+) 'os
The ability ofa tank to accommodate edge-to-centre settlement
can be calculated with some degree ofconfidence. This form of
settlement is almost invariably a downward movement of the
centre ofthe bottom relative to the tank shell. lts limiting value is Figure 13.2 Graphical represenlationof tankshell settlement
a function ofthe tensile stresses in the bottom plates and the in-
Frcn API 653, tigure B-3

252 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


13 Foundations for ambient tempeftture storage tanks

measurement provisions. The testing of subsequent tanks in 13.8 Foundation types


the same area may be adjusted, dependent on the results of
this first test. The Codes are in agreement that a number of different types of
For tanks where the ground conditions are good and settle- tank foundation are acceptable. These are:
ments are anticipated to be modest, it is acceptable to half fill
the tank as quickly as is practicable before stopping and taking Earth foundations without a ringwall. A typical example is
settlement measurements. lt should then be filled to three quar- shown in Figure 13.3. The capping with sand bitumen is
ters full and then to the full height with pauses for settlements at something which both the British and the European Stan-
each Doint. The full water load should be maintained for 48 dards are keen, if not insistent on. API 650 makes no such
hours, and if no significant settlementtakes place, the tank can specific requirement. The plastic tubes are for early indica-
be emptied. tion of bottom leakage and to help to prevent foundation
washout problems. (See Section 13.10).
For tanks built on weak ground, a much more cautious test
method is proposed with slowfilling rates and frequent pauses, Earth foundations with a concrete ringwall. Atypical exam-
some prolonged, for settlement rates to slow or stop. Clearly in ple is shown in Figure 13.4. The ringwall is of reinforced
these situations, sufficient time must be allowed in the con- concrete and details are given in the Standard forthe design
struction programme for the extended test period. of this ringwall. Cautionary words are included in all of the
Standards regarding the possible problems of differential
settlement between the ringwall and the material within the
ringwall (usually compacted fill) and its effects on the local
suooort of the tank bottom.

Earth foundations with a crushed stone or gravel ringwall.


See Figure 13.5 for a typical example. lt is important that
the exposed shoulder is Drotected from erosion. lt should be
remembered that heavy rain falling on a storage tank can
result in a vigorous waterfall around the periphery of the
nK.

A concrete slab foundation. Figure 13.6 shows a typical ex-


ample. This pafiicular example indicates a thin slab with a
thickened peripheral region. On occasions, the slab diame-
ter is increased to provide additional support to the tank.

A concrete slab foundation with supporting piles. Where


piles are not or cannot have their integrity proven by field
Figure 13.3 Typicallank ioundaiion wiihout a ingwall
From BS 2654, figure 35 testing, it is suggested thai the slab is designed to accom-
modate the failure of an individual oile.

-75 mm (3")mn or @npaccd. creansa.d

Remove a.y lnsuilabe maI,a aod


rcplace wilh su able l l i lhan

f I
thooushry Mpacl till

Notesi
1. S4 8.42.3 br GquircrunE io. relnfoferent. is not posible. eler lo Acl 316 hr addiisat d@toDment
2. Thb top.r lhe c..crr nngell shall be srMlh a.d tv6r.lhe
d* 6trngh lharl be al bas120 MP (3000 tbtin.2) arEr 3 Flngwalls lial ex@ed 300 mfr (12 in) in widlh shall haE
2a days. Fatnbmnt rdier nLt be siaggeEd end shal b3 Bba6 disr.ibuied on boh la@s
hpped io d@rop turl stre.gm h rh bo.d. r ,rE!!@.i.e ot ts!6 4. Se 8.4.2.2 lor be p6nion ol ltE lank shell on |he nn!ral1.

Figure 13.4 Example of tank fou ndation with concrete fingwall


From API 650, Appendix B, tigure B-1

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 253


13 Foundations for ambient temperature storage tanks

Nore: Any un.!(able rol6n6r 3lr!r be mftd 6.d .pr8dd wm .llrade lir; dre ill rhalr lhn be
Figurc 13.7 Crushed stone ringwall with under-tank leak detection at the tank
penmeler
Fron API 650, Appendix B, tigure I-2

Figure 13.5 Example offoundation with crushed stone ringwall


Fram APl650, Appendix B, figure B-2

Figure 13.8 Earthen foundaiion with undeFtank leak detection ai the lank per-

From API 650 Appendix I,ligure I-3

4 MeBbrane 7 Bund surfac 13.9 Leak detection and prevention of


5 Foundatlon rai I Chat (when rcqlied) ground contamination
3 50 mm sand/bitumen 6 Aurlllarysal 9 Holdlng doM bolt API 650 has much more to say on this subjectthan do the Brit
ish or the European Codes, which only give a passing mention
to it.
Figure 13.6 Typical concrete slab foundation
From p,EN 14015, figure 14.1-3 ADDendix I of API 650 is devoted to under{ank leak detection
and subgrade protection. lt includes the note stating: "APl sup-
ports a general position of installation of a Release Prevention
The 50 mm thick sand bitumen capping suggested by the Brit-
Barrier (RPB) under new tanks during initial construction. An
ish and European Codes is not universally popular. lt is in-
RPB includes steel bottoms, synthetic materials, clay liners and
tended to provide a measure of corrosion protection to the un-
other barriers or combinations of barriers placed in the bottom
derside of the tank bottom plates. lts effectiveness has been
of, or under an above ground storage tank, which have the fol-
challenged, in much the same way as the usefulness of painting
lowing functions: (a) preventing the escape of contaminated
the underside of bottom plates has. The argument centres
material and (b) containing or channelling released materialfor
around the possible effects of protecting only a part of the bot-
leak detection." Quite a clear statement of intent.
tom plating. That is to say, only a part of the bottom plating is in
contact with the sand bitumen in a similar fashion that only a A number of double steel bottom designs are included in this
part of the bottom plating is protected by paint due to damage category and these are described in Chapter 3, Section 3.4.
by welding operations, making the corrosion situation worse
The Appendix gives detailed requirements for a number of dif-
than protecting none of this surface. There are strongly held
ferent systems. Leak detection for tanks with crushed stone
and conflicting views on this issue. Where cathodic protection
ringwalls and earthen foundations are illustrated in Figures
of the tank bottom plating is to be installed, BS 2654 suggests
13.7 and 13.8.
that the sand bitumen layer is omitted.
Two different systems for tanks supported by concrete slabs
The 300 mm minimum elevation of the finished foundation are shown in Figures 13.9 and 13.10.
above the local grade requirement is to help with drainage of
Provisions required around a draw-off sump are shown in Fig-
water away from the tank, to prevent floating in the event of lo-
ure 13.11, and for a tank with a coned down to the centre bot-
calflooding and to keep the tank bottom above the local water tom see Figure 13.12.
table in the event of settlement for underside corrosion
preventron reasons. This section of the Code also deals with tanks where the bottom
is supported by grillages. The use of a grillage allows the tank
For tanks which require holding-down anchors, the foundation bottom to be visually inspected for leakage, something which is
will normally be of the concrete ringwall or the slab type. To re- considered necessary for a small number of products. Typical
sist the uplifr forces, the dead weight of the ringwallor appropri- grillage arrangements using parallel and radial supports are
ate portion ofthe slab can be used. Tee-shaped ringwalls which shown in Figure 13.13. Grillage support is restricted to tanks
mobilise part of the local sub grade and ground anchors are with shell plate thicknesses up to 13 mm and maximumtemper-
also a possibility. atures of 90 'C. By agreement, the shell thickness limit can be

254 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


13 Foundations lor ambent rcmpetdlurc s@tage ..a -:

y'.*)

zJ
\:r)
Figure 13.9 Reinforced concrete slab with leak deiection al1he oerimeter
Fron APl650 Appendix l, figure l-6

Flgure 13.13 Tanks supported by gr llage members


From AP|650 Appendix l, figure l-11

Pils (l Equitsdi Acl3so extended. This section of the Code provides guidance for bot-
lom plate thickness and grillage spacing.

Figure 13.10 Reinforced concrete slab with radlat grooves for teak detect on
Another useful document for those interested in this subject is
From APl650 Appendix l, figure 1-7 EEN,4UA Publicaiion No. 183, (Reference 13.4). This provides a
wealth ofsensible information on tank foundations, tank bottom
design, corrosion prevention, inspection techniques, Ieak de-
tection and sub-grade protection from pollution. lt includes a list
of references and an interesting figure, which gives a simple
correlation between tank age and probability of bottom leak-
age, shown in Flgure 13.'14, based on a statistical analysis of
data from various oil companies.

13.10 A cautionary tale


The subject ofihis tale is a large floating rooftank on a major re-
finery site. The tank was constructed in the 1960s. The tank
D6h pipo wfih opt@l t6F.
Dleh.rg6 to l.6k dstecdon was constructed on a base similar to that shown in Figure 13.3
except that the plastic drain pipes were not fitted, which was
common practice in those days. The tank survived its hydro-
Frqure 13.l1 Typicaloraw ofl sumo arrangemenL static test and was put into service. After a brief period in ser-
From APl650 Appendix l, figure l-B vice and at a point when the tank was close to being full of prod-
uct (crude oil), a part of the periphery of the foundation pad
suddenly washed out and the tank discharged its contents into
bond.d lo &mp (Altenstiw the bunded area.

20t
b 15t

:"E 101
gJ
(!

o
10 20 30 40
Tank Bottom Age (years)
Figure 13.12 Centre sudrp for downward-stoped boltom Figurc 13.14 Probabilities ofieakage from tank botloms ptotted agatnst age
Fron API 650 Appendix l, figute l-9 Frcm EEMUA Publicalion No. 183, figure 1

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 255


13 Foundations for ambient temperature stonge lanks

When the tiank was examined, it was found that a substantial focus attention on the design oftankfoundations and helped to
failure had occurred in the welded seams ofthe lap-weldedtank form the guidance that is found in the various Codes today.
bottom plating. The sequence of events was deduced to be as
follows:
. A small leak in the tank bottom plating occuned. This could
13.11 References
I
have been an original defect or had appearedduring the hy- 13j BS 5930:1999 - Code of practice for site investigations,
drostatic test or in oDeration BSI London
I

I
. The lackofdrain pioes meantthatthis leak went undiscov- 13.2 API 653:Second edition December 1995 plus Addanda
ered 1,2 and 3. Tank lnspection, Repair Alteration and Re-
I

I
. The pressure built up behind the tank pad shoulder until it consfrucrbn, API Washington
suddenly washed out locally 13.3 EEMUA 159 (1994) Userb guide to the maintenance
I
. The loss of support for the tank bottom in that area caused and inspection of above ground, veftical, cylinddcal,
the tank bottom plating to fail, and the tank contents were steel storage tanks, EEMUA London
discharged into the bund. 13.4 EEMUA 1 83 (1999) Guide fot the prevention of boftom
I

This was an expensive incident, especially when the cosb of leakage from veftical, cylinddcal, steel storage tanks,
Drevention would have been so modest. It did however serve to EEMUA London

I
I

I
t

I
I

!
F.
E

t
tI
I

i
i
I

I
I

256 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


14 Layout of ambient temperature tank
installations
The layout of a storage tank installation mustmeetwith good practiceand also the relevant legal
and local authority requirements.
The topics discussed in this Chapter are based on the information set out in the UK's Health &
Safety Executive publication 176, (see Reference 14.7). Following the guidance in this
document will normally ensure compliance with the law.

Contents:
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Above ground tanks
14.3 Fire walls

14.4 Separation distances for small tanks


14.5 Separation distances for groups of small tanks
14.6 Separation distances for large tanks
14.7 Separation from other dangerous substances
14.8 Storage of flammable liquids in buildings

14.9 Underground tanks


14.10 Further guidance
14,11 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 257


1 4 Layout of ambient temperaturc tank installations

14.1 lntroduction When selecting the location of a single or multi-tank installation,


consideration should be given to the distiance of the proposed
The guidance given in the HSE publication, Reference 14.1, storage from:
generally applies to flammable liquids with a flashpoint of55'C . the site boundary
or below. This includes all highlyflammable liquids (as defined
by the Highly Flammable Liquids and Liquefied Petroleum . on-site buildings, particularly those that are occupied
Gases Regulations 1972, see Reference 14.3) and all petro- . fixed ignitjon sources
leum soirit and Detroleum mixtures as defined in the Petroleum
(Consolidation Act) 1928 (Reference /4.4) and the Petroleum . storage or processing of other dangerous subsbnces
(N,fixtures) Order 1929, (Reference 74.5). lt includes all liquids . road or rail ianker transfer facilities.
that are classified as flammable, highlyflammable or extremely
Other factors to @nsider are:
flammable for supply according to CHIP: Chemicals (Hazard
Information and Packaging for Supply) Regulations . the position ofthe tanks (above ground or belowground);
199616-20, Reference 14.6
. the size and capacity ofthe tanks:
The guidance is also relevant to liquids with a flashpoint above . the design of the tanks (fixed rooforfloating roof).
55'C which are stored attemperatures above theirflashpoint.
Tanks should not be located:
The location and layout of a storage installation should be se- . under buildings
lected with care. The aims are to protect people and property
from the effects of a fire at the tank, and to protect the tank from
. on the roofs of buildings
fires which may occur elsewhere on site. As a rule, if the tem- . in positions raised high above ground level
perature ofa steellank is allowed to rise above 300 'C, then the
structure of the storage tiank will be adversely afiected and it
. on toD ofone another
may rupture. . above tunnels, culverb or sewers.
Tank locations inside buildings should be avoided. (See how-
Storage tanks may be located above ground, underground or in
ever Section 14.8.)
mounds. Each location has different advanhoes and disadvan-
tages.
14.2 Above ground tanks
. Storage atground level, in the open air, has advantages be-
Above tanks ground should be sited in a well-ventilated position
cause leaks are more readily detected and coniained, and
separated from the site boundary, occupied buildings, sources
any vapour produced will normally be dissipated by natural
ventilation. Examinations, modifications and repairs are of ignition, and process areas. Figure 14.1 shows a plan of a
typical layout for storage tanks with separation distances. The
also easier, and corrosion can be more readily identified
layout of tianks should alwaystake into accountthe accessibility
and controlled.
needed for the emergency services.
. Underground or mounded tanks give better fire protection The separation distances willdepend on variousfactors butpri-
and save space. But leakage, resulting from damage orcor- marily on the capacity of the iank. Advice on separation dis-
rosion, may be difiicult to detect. This could lead to ground tiances is given for "small" tanks, generally associated with
contiamination, environmental problems and possible fire small to medium chemical processes, and for "large" tanks as-
and explosion risks to nearby buildings and basemenb. sociated with refinery and other large-scale storage facilities.

KEY

d, e dd f Ee Section ! 43

Figure 14.1 Typical storage tanks layout plan

258 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


The separation distances given are unlikely to give complete be good practice and have been widely accepteo a_, ^:-::--,
protection in the event of a fire or explosion involving the tank, The minimum separation dislance is the min mum disia.:: ::,
but should allow sufficient time for people to be evacuated, pro- tween any point on the iank and any bu ldlng. boundary. pf.,
vided there are good means of escape. They should also allow cess unit, or fixed source of ignition.
sufficient time for additional fire-fighting equipment and emer-
gency procedures to be mobilised.
14.5 Minimum separation distances for
Under certain circumstances, it may be necessary to increase
the separation distances or provide additional flre protection. groups of small tanks
Such circumstances mayfor example, be where there are prob- Small tanks may be placed together in groups. A tank is consid-
lems with: ered as part of a group if adjacent tanks are withjn the separa-
. tion distances given in Figure 14.2. The aggregate capaclty of
the local water supply.
the group should be no more than 8000 m3 and the tanks should
. where the site is remote from extefnal helo (such as the fire be arranged so that they are all accessible for fire-fighting pur-
authority). poses.
. where the tank is close to a heavily populated area. The recommended minimum separation distances between in-
dividual tanks in a group are given in Figure 14.3. lf a serious
fire develops involving one tank in a group then it is unlikely that
14.3 Fire walls these between-tank separation distances will prevent damage
A fire wall may be used to give additional protection to small or even deslruction ofthe adjacenttanks. However, they should
tanks. They are not usually practicable or economic for larger allow sufficient time for emergency procedures to be imple-
lan Ks. mented and for people to be evacuated from areas threatened
Where a fire wall is installed, it should be at least the height of by the incident.
the tank, with a minimum height of 2 m, and should normally be For the purpose of determining separation distances from site
sited between 1 m and 3 m from the tank. lt may form part ofthe boundaries, buildings, process areas and fixed sources of igni-
bund wall or a building wall. Afire wall should normally be pro- tion, a group of small tanks may be regarded as one tank. The
vided on only one side ofa tank, to ensure adequate ventilation. minimum recommended separation distances for groups of
The wall should be long enough to ensure that the distance be- small tanks are given in Figurc 14.4. The minimum recom-
tween the tank and a building, boundary process plant or mended separation distance between adjacentgroups of small
source of ignition is at least the appropriate distance set out in tanks is 15 m.
Figute 14.2, measured around the ends of the wall.
To be effective a fire wall should: 14.6 Separation distances for large tanks
. have no holes in it "Large" tanks are considered to be tanks with a diameter larger
. have at least half-hour fire resistiance than 10 m.
. be weather-resistant The minimum recommended separation disiances for large
tanks are given in Figure 14.5.
. be sufficiently robust to withstand foreseeable accidenial
The information is based on the Institute of Petroleum N4odel
damage.
Code Of Sa{e Practice, part 19, (Reference 14.2).
A reinforced concrete or masonry construction is recom-
menoeo.
Loading/unloading bays for road tankers should be located
in a safe, well-ventilated position. The minimum recom- Tank size Recohmended separar'on distance
mended distance of a filling point from occupied buildings,
the site boundary and fixed sources of ignition is 10 m. Less rhan oreqlarto loo mr The m n mum required ior saie
construcl on and operal on

Greatef than 10mJ Equalio or greater than 2 m


14.4 Separation distances for small tanks butless than 10 m in d ameter

For the purposes of this guidance "small" tanks are considered Figure 14.3 l\,4inimum between-tank separation dlstances for groups ofsmatl
to be tanks with a diameter of less than 10 m. Figure 14.2 shows
the minimum recommended separation distances for single
small tanks. The distances are based on what is considered to

SepaEtion distance {m) Tolal capacity of the group (fr!) Separalion d'stance m

Less than oreqla to 3


Grealerlhan and less than orequailo 5 Greaterthan 3 and ess than or eqlalto 5
I
Greale.lhan 5 and ess rhan orequatro 6 Grcaterthan 15 and essthanorequa io 100
33 9
Greaterihan 100 and ess ihan or equalto 300 I
Greaterihan 33 and less lhan oreqoa to I
100 Greateflhan 300 and ess than ofeqla to 750

Greater than 100 and less than or equa 10 Grealer lhan 750 and less than or equa lo 8000 15
to 250
'Bulal east2 m from doors pla n-glazed windows, orother openngs ormeans of
15 escape. Also nol be ow any opening (inctlding buiidtrg eaves and meansoiescape)
lrom an upper floo., regardless of venicatdistance
' But at least2 m lrom doo6, plain-glazed windows, or oiher open ngs or means ot
escape. Also nol belowany openins (inclldng buildlns eaves aid meansofescape)
rrom an uppe. floor, regardless oivenicald stance.

Figure 14.4 I\,4inimum recommended separaUon d stances fof groups of smatl


Figure 14.2 Minlmum separation dislances for small lanks tanks, from slte bounda es, elc

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 259


14 Lavout of ambient tempeftture tank installations

Minimum separationfron any parl of the . a lightweight roofor other means of explosion relief. Where
this is not reasonably practicable an acceptable alternative
Between adjacenl fi rcd.oof lanks Equa to the smaller ol the lol ow ng: is to provide sufficient mechanical ventilation to remove
(a) the diameter ol the smaller tank flammable vapour released in the event of an incident;
(b) halllhe d amete. ollhe arger lank
(c)15 m . a high standard of natural ventilation, using high and
lowJevel openings in the walls (typically 2.5% of the total
BeNveen adjacenlnoatng rooi lanks 10 m forlanks upto and ncluding 45 m
wall and roof area) leading directly to the open air Alterna-
tively, permanent mechanical ventilation can be used,
15 m fortanks over 45 m d amerer equivalent to at least five air changes per hour;
The spacng s determned bylhe size of
. fire separation (by means of a partition of at least 30 min-
BeNveen anoallng rooi tank and a Equallo the smalerof the foLlowlngl
utes fire resistance) between the part of the building hous-
(a) ihe diamelerofihe smaller tank ing the tank and other parts of the building, or other
(b) ha llhe d ameter ot lhe larger lank buildings within 4 m; and adequate means of escape.
. adeouate means of escaoe.
Belween a group ofsmalltanks and any The tank should have the following features:
. effective means of preventing the spread ofleakage. Where
Between a lanka.d lhe site boundary,
any des gnated non-hazardous ar,aa,
appropriate the building walls may form part of the bund,
prccess area or any fxed solrce oi
15 m providing they are impervious, have suffcient strength and
doorways are fitted with kerbs, ramp6 or sills;
Figure 14.5 lMinimum separauon dlslances for larue lanks . vents which discharge to a safe place in the open air
Adequate means of cooling the tank surface in the event of fire
in the building may be needed In some cases this may be done
by the fire brigade using portable equipment, but in others a
fixed water installation may be necessary Adequate. drainage
is essential to avoid tank flotation and local floodinq.

14.9 Underground tanks


The minimum recommended separation distance from any un-
(flashpoint <32"C - 65'C) derground tank to any building line is at least 2 m, to avoid un-
dermining the building foundations. lt is advisable to increase
thisdistanceto 6 m fora basement or pit. to minimise the risk of
(flashpo nt <32"C 65'C) vapour accumulation.

Figure 14.6 lvlinimum recommended separaUon dlslance frorn LPG storage 14.10 Further guidance
Guidance on the layout of storage tank installations is also con-
tained in the publications listed below but HSE 176, (Reference
74.1)would seem to be the favoured document because ofvery
factthat the Health & Safety Inspectorate willreferto itfor guid-
14.6 Separation from other dangerous ance and as a basis of good practice.
substances Refining Safety Code, ModelCode of Safe Ptactice Paft3,fhe
Separation may also be used to prevent or delay the spread of lnstitute of Petroleum
fire to and from storage or process areas where other danger- European ModelCode of Safe Practice in the Storage and Han-
ous substances may be present in quantity. Figure 14.6 shows
dling of Petroleum Products. Paft 11: Design, Layout and Con-
the minimum recommended separation distances from LPG sfructlon, European Petroleum Organisations (European Tech-
storage. nical Co-oDeration)
Figure 14.2 may be used to estimate separation distances from
ets for su b sta n ce s a nd p re paration s da n g e rou s
S afety d ata s h e
other hazardous subsiances. lf published guidance exists, for
for supply. Guidance on regulation 6 of the Chemicals (Hazard
the particular hazardous substance concerned, the recom- lnformation and Packaging for Supply) Regulations 1994. Ap-
mended minimum separation distance is the greater of the dis- proved Code of Pracfice, 162 HSE Books 1994, ISBN 0 7176
tances given in Figure 14.2 and the relevant guidance.
0859 X.
Approved supply list. lnformation approved for the classifica-
14.8 Storage of flammable liquids in build- tion and labelling of substances and preparations dangerous
ings for supply. CHIP 96 and 97, 176 HSE Books '1997, ISBN 071
761412 3.
Flammable liquids should not normally be stored in bulk tanks
in buildings. lf storage is required in buildingsthen onlythe min- Approved guide to the classification and labelling of sub-
imum amount should be stored and for the minimum time, pref- stances and preparations dangerous for supply. CHIP 971,
erably no more than that needed for one day or one shifr. 1100 HSE Books 1997, ISBN 071 760860 3.
Additional safety measures may be needed for the building. CHIP 2 for everyone, HSG126 HS Books 1995, ISBN 0 7176
These include: 0857 3.
. a single-storey and generally non-combustible construc- The storage of LPG at fixed instal/afions, HSG34 ME Books
tion; 1987, ISBN 011 883908 X (currently under revision).

260 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1 4 Layod ol amM @te d trsa&E
Fire prccautions at petroleum refineries and bulk storaga instat- 14.3 The Highly Flammable Liquids and LiAueH Wn
lations: model code of safe practice paft /9, Institute of Petro- Gases Regulatbns 1972, Sl 1972t517, HrrSO lgta
leum, Wley 1993, ISBN 047 194328 2. tsBN 011 020917 6.
The k*ping of LPG in cylinders and similar containers CSA, 14.4 Petroleum (Consolidation) Act 1928 Chafrer 32,HW
HSE Books 1986, ISBN 071 760631 7 (currently under revi- '1928.
sion).
14.5 Petroleum (Mixtures) Order 1929, HMSO i929, |SBN
Code of practice for ventilation pinciples and designing for nat- 01 1 100031 9.
ural ventilation, BS 5925: 1991.
14-O The Chemicals (Hazard lnfonnation and packaging tor
SuppD Regulations 1994, 51 199413247, HMSO 1S94
14.11 References ISBN 011043877 I as amended by The Chemicats
14.1 Slorage of flammable liquids ir tanks, HSE 176, HSE (Hazard lnformation and Packaging for Suppty)
Books 1998, ISBN 071 761470 0. (Amendment) Regulafions 7996, St 1996/1092, HMSO
1996, ISBN 0 1'1054570 2 and The Chemicals (Hazard
14,2 Fire precautions at Petroleum Reftneies and Butk s/.or- lnformation and Packaging for Suppty) (Ameidnent)
age lnstallations, Model Code of Safe Practice patt 19, Regulations t99Z Sl 1997/1460 HMSO 1997, |SBN
The Institute of Petroleum. 011 063750 X.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 261


262 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
15 The seismic design of ambient
temperature storage tanks
This Chapter describes the most commonly used method ofdesigning verticalcylindricalliquid
storage tanks for seismic loadings- This method is taken from API 650 Appendix E. Some
indications of the origins of the various methods of calculation and the formulae used are
orovided.
The equivalentdesign sections of BS 2654 and the forthcoming Euronorm are a lso described.

Contents:
15.1 lntroduction
15.2 The API 650 _approach
'15.2.'1 The basic seismic data

15.2.2 The behaviour of the pmduct liquid


'15.2.3 The overtuming moment
15.2.4 Resistance to overluming
'15.2.5 Shell comDression
15.2.5.1 Unanchored tanks
15.2.5.2 Anchored tanks
15.2.6 Ailowable longitudinal compressive stresses
15.2-7 Slosh height and freeboard considerations
15.2.8 Other conditions arjsing from seismic loadings
15.3 The BS 2694 approach

15.4 The prEN 14015 approach


15.5 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 263


15 The seismic design of ambient temperature stoftge tanks

produce sufficient material for even the most enthusiastic stu-


15.1 lntroduction
dent of this subject.
The design of liquid storage tanks to resist seismic loadings is a
subject which is taken very seriously these days. Despite the
collapse of a large steel water tank during the Long Beach 15.2 The API 650 approach
earthquake of 1933, nothing was done to provide a framework
of rules for the seismic design of liquid containing tanks until af-
ter the Alaska earthquake of 1964. This seismic event caused
15.2.1 The basic seismic data
widespread damage and subsequent fire to a large number of
petrochemical fuel tanks. The site contained a numberoftanks Before the task ofdesigning a particular storage tank for a seis-
of different sizes, different proportions and filled to different lev- mic event can start, it is necessary to have some idea of the ap-
els with products with different specific gravities at the time that propriate set of seismic criteria which are to be applied. The
the earthquake struck. The study of the levels of damage sus- definition ofthe appropfiate seismic design datia for a particular
tained by the various tanks allowed the various theories relating site location and geology is a complex business. This can be
to seismic design to be tested. The Alaska event is described in seen in Chapter 26 which deals with low temperature tank de-
References 15.1 and 15.2. sign where the subject of seismic design is considered in a
greater level of detail.
Two further seismic events involving damage to storage tanks
also contributed evidence to the discussions. These were the For ambient tanks it is usual to adopt a simpler approach and
'1971 San Fernando and the 1974 Lima Peru eafthquakes de- this is reflected in the rules provided in API 650 Appendix E.
scribed in References 15.3 and 15.4 This Code allows tvvo aporoaches to the selection of the seis-
mic design criteria:
The credit for the production of a workable and "user friendly"
set of rules for the safe design of liquid storage tanks to enable Firstly it takes as its starting point the American Uniform Build-
them to resist seismic loads owes a lot to the document com- ing Code (UBC) (Reference 15.11).fhis document divides the
monly known as TID 7024 (Reference t5.5) and to the work of United States of America into seismic zones ranging from zone
Wozniakand Mitchell (Reference 15.6). The proposalsgiven in 0 (no seismic event to be considered)to zone 4 (the most oner-
this paper by Wozniak and Mitchell were adopted with minor ous seismic event). This is illustrated as Figure 15.1.ltalso pro-
changes as Appendix E ofAPl 650 (Refe rence 15.7). Appendix vides guidance regarding the appropriate seismic zones for lo-
L of API 620 (Reference 75.8) uses the same design method cations outside the USA. This tabulation is shown in Figure
BS 2654 (Reference 75.9) has "borrowed" the same rules, al- 15.2. The UBC approach is to express an earthquake event as
though not the seismic zones from the UBC, (The American a horizontal acceleration which can be applied to the structure
Uniform Building Code). in any direction.
This Chapter devotes most of iis efforts to the seismic design of The second approach has more in common with the practices
ground based ve(ical cylindrical tanks as these form the large
for low temperature tanks. By agreement between the pur-
majority of ambient tanks. TID 7024 provides some guidance
chaser and the manufacturer, the horizontal accelerations may
on the design of rectangular and elevated tanks. be determined from site specific response spectra produced by
The seismic design of liquid containing storage tanks has been the purchaser. The accelerations should not be less than those
a popular subject for study over the years and there are hun- derived from the use ofthe UBC. Forthe impulsive component
dreds of articles and papers covering work which has been car- of the liquid and the tank and roof self-weighb, the values
ried out. lt is proposed to include in this Chapter only the most should be based on 2% damping, and for the convective com-
immediately relevant references. lf more are required, then ref- ponent ofthe liquid, should be based on 0.5% damping. Unless
erence to chapter 6 of Philip Myers' book ( Refercnce 15.10)will the tanks are in some way special, this more exacting approach
provide a list of 61 papers and reference to these in turn shou ld is rarely adopted.

-\
l''r-Tt

Figure 15.1 Selsmic zone map ofthe lJnited States


From the Unifam Building Code

264 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1 5 The seismic design of ambbnt temperature sto@ge tanks

t.oc6lion Seismic Zone Locaton Sl8nlc Zone


AFRICA Mali
Algeria Banako 0
Alge. MaudtaDia
Orar 3 Nornkchott 0
Maurillus
0 Pon lruis 0
Bdtin
0
Port Lyautcy I
G8borone 0 P.abqt 2A
B'rrundi Tangrer 3
Bujumbt'ra 3 Mozambique
Maputo 2A
Douala 0 Nigcr
0 Niamey
Cap Verde Nigria
0 Iba&n
Cantral African Rcpublic Kaduna
Batrgui 0 llgos
Chad Rpublic of Rwanda
Ndjrmcna 0 KiCali
Congo scrcd
Brazavillc 0 Dakar 0
Djibouti 3 Seychetles
EgvPl 0
2A
Cair0 2A 0
Pod Said 2A Sonalia
Equatorial Cuinea Mogadishu 0
Malabo o South Africa
Etbiopia Cap Town 3
3 Dulban
3 2A
Gabon Naral 1

Libreville 0 2A
Gatubia
Banjul 0 2A
Ghana Tanzania
Dar es Salaam 2A
CuiDea Zanzibtl 2A
Bissau t Togo
Conaky 0 I
Ivory Coasl Tunisia
Turis
Abidjan
Kenys
0
Ugada
t3
Nairobi 2A rial|Ipal! 2A
Lsotho ' Uppervolta
2A OuSado!gou 0
Uberia z,j,ir.
I Brkavu 3
Libya Ki$hasa 0
Tripoli 2A tubumbashi 2A
Wielirs AFB 2A 7ar$ia
Malagisy Rcpublh Lukasa ZA
Thna!arive 0 Zimbrbwe
Hardrc (srlisbury) 3
Blantyre ASTA
Lilongw Afghribran
Zonba 3 &bd

Figure 15.2 Tabulation of tho seismic zones woddwide - pagg t


Fromthe Uniform Buildino Code

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 265


15 The seismic design of ambientlewenfiJre slorage fanks

Locttlon Sa|amlozone Locellon SstEmlc Zdao


Bib|3ir Lao6
MBnamr 0 VllirtidD 1
Bangladcsh Irbdiron
3 Bdifill .3
BIunei Maley6is
Bandu Sci Begiunn I IOah LumFrr 1

B!rmt N.P3l
Mandalay 3 K'btnandu
RangooD 3 otlla!
2A
China
B6ijirg \ Pddsran
Chctrgdu '3 ftlth.bad I
' Guangzhou 2A Ksncni
Nenjing 2A hiorc 2A
.{
aiogdto 3
ShaoShi Qatrr
SbenB|{t|t Doha 0
'tbiwm Srudi Anbia
Atl Al Balh I
Tihrva Dhr$r I
2A Jiild.! 2A
xisrggang 2A Khnis Mwl|arf I
Riysdh 0
cypro6
Nicosr:a Sing.poi!
India
All I
Bor|bry 3 Soulh Ydncn
Calqna 2A Adr[ Cily 3
Madr3l I Sri btrk.
Ncw Dclhi Colodbo 0
Indorcsh Syri.
4 Aloppo 3
Bendung
Jakrna 4 Dimrsrs 3
Medatr Thailand
Sursbrya BrIgko* I
ChiuB irri 2A
lmn
Songlllla 0
Islbiar I
Shiraz
Tabriz Tn!ftcy
2A
Tehmn
2A
I'!q lsnir 4
aaghdad Isi'rbul
Bisra 1
Kal"nluJsel 3
lsrael Unild Arab En ntes
llaifa Abu Dhabi 0
3 Dubai 0
l
Ho Chi Minh (Saigor) 0
Fukuoka 3 YDetr Aran Republic
Ilrzi(e AFB l Sanal
Mis8v,,a AIB 3
AT'I,ANTIC OCEAN AREA
Naha, Okinewa
ft*a/Kobe
Sapporo 3 Atl
Tokyo 4 Bcrtnudt
3 AI I
CARTBBEAN SEA
hlruna Islsods
Jord!tr AI 1
3 Cubr
Korca AI
Kimhrc 7 Domiricar nepublic
KwanAi! I Sanlo DoninSo 3
I Frcndr Wbsl lndis
0 Ma iniquc
KuNeil Grensda
Kuwiii I Sli
Geolgcs 3

Figure 15.2 Tabulalion of the seismic zone6 worldwide - pags 2


From the Unltom Bulldlng Code

266 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPiIENT


1 5 The seismic design of ambient tempenture stgnge tanks

Locatlon Ssls|nlczone Loca{on Sabtnlc Zon


Haiti Paris 0
3 stralbouB 24
Ocrnrny, Fcdelsl Republic
3 Bcdin 0
Kngsion
Bo 2A
lreward Islalds 0
Ait 3 Brcm.d
Dusseldorf I
Triridad & Tobago Fnnlfurl 2A
A[ 3
Halnbury 0
SENTRAL AIVGRICA Municll I
Blizo sNugan 2A
Blmopar 2A Vaihigcn 2A
Caral Zon!
AI 2A 3
Co$a Riaa Krvrlla
San Jo6c 3 Makd
Rhodcs 3
El Sakador 4
Sruds Bty
San Salvador
Thessaloniki
Guatemala
Gualrr||ah H!ngary
Budapa{ 2A
Honduias
3 Icebrd
Tcg|rcfgrlpa 3
Kcfla!ick
Mexico Rcytiavik
Ciudad Jtlarcz 2A
Irelard
cudalajffa 3
0
3 Dubli'l
Hentosillo
0 l|aly
Mrzatlan 2-4, Avia@ AFB 3
0 Brirdisi 0
Mcrida
3 3
Mcrica City
0 3
0 MiIan 2A
3 Naplas 3
rijuNna
3
Mcar.gra 2A
Manrgua 3
Sicily
3
Coior 3 24
Tudn
Galclr 2B
3
1
EUROPE Malta
Albania 2A
Tiran, 3
Nelherla s
Alt 0
Salzbor8 ZA Norway
ZA Oslo ZA
Bclgiun Polmd
I ZA
Blllss.ls 2A I
B06oia-Hcccgovina I
B.lgade 2A Podugal
Bulgaria LiSon
sofi3 3 Opporto 3
Croaria
Tagnb 3 3

Czecb06lovekia Russia
Blalislava 2A 0
Prague 1 St. Pelrlsbulg 0
Spoin
Copenh"gcn I Barcelora 2L
Fnlard Bilbao 2A
Heliloti I Madrid 0
Rott 2A
Seville 2A
Bordca$r 2L
Lyon I
Malseille 3 Colebo{g
Nic! 3 Stoclhols I

Figure 1 5,2 Tabulatlon of the selsmlc zones woddwide - pagg 3


Ftufi fie Unitom Building Code

STORAGE.TANKS & EQUIPMENT 267


15 The seismic de'ign of ambient.bnpenture storage tanks

II

Ldcellan Sdanrlczona kcalloo SeEfilC bn


I Swi@crlald
I Bir! Urn
I
I Piu'" 4
I Zurich Urugday
UkAin. 0
I tricv 0
I Unilid (ingdom Carecas
B|last
I
Ediiburgn PACIFIC OCSAN AREA
Edzel
Classow^cnfrew Bisbaoe
Haftilton Cantatra
I Uvqpool
I.oddon P.nh
"AI Sydmy
I Thu$o I Carolin blrrds
I NORTI{ AMEIICA Kolsr, Psh! ls. 2A
I GrEcnland 0
AII I Frji
Crradr Suva
Agcnda NAS ZA JohrEon Island
I Cal$!y, Alb 1 All
I Cturcni4 Man 0 l,{adann Istards
Cold l,ah., Alb I Guam
I Bdmortoq Alb
E. ltffrnoo AIB
I
2A
Salpa!
Tirisd
t Forr W liams, Onl
frobirhr N.W. Tei
0 Mrlsbrll Islaids
All
0
I Nar Z.3latrd
Hrlifax 1 3
Monbeal, Qucbc. 3 llbliEton 4
O0awe,onl 2A Papau New Guincr
Sl, Joh!'sNfd 3 Porl r'roruby
Tbronb, Ont I PliIlFh Islrndo
3 BaSuo
Wimcpcg, Man t Cbu
SOUTII AMERICA l,Liila 4
S:mot
0 All
Bolivia \lblc khnd
la Paz 1
All 0
Sanra Cruz I The above compilation is a parial ltsriry of silmi@ zonnr for
Blazil cities aod countries outside of the Unitcd Stares. Il has beetr Dr}
BldD 0 vidd in this cod prinanly as a source of inlormario4 and iray

Brasilia
0 sic
not, i'l all cases, reflcct local ordtlances or cunent ifc in-
0
0 rffhen an authority having jlrisdiction requir-! seisoic dasign
0
Recife 0 forc.s tlal lre higler tha! wolld be indicsted by the above zorcs,
Fio {bJanciro 0 lhe local rcquircments shall govem. When an aulhority havingir-
Salvador 0 risdiction requires seisrfc desjgn forces lha! arc lower lhar
Sao Paulo I wduld b. indjcated by the abovE z$es, and these farces have
Chilt bcer developd with cotsider8tiotr of regjooat tectoiics ard urF
Sa iago 4 to-dale geologic and seismologic fufomation, th6local rcquir-

Colombia rl,hen no local siuic d$ign rcqldrcrlgnb cris!, prsperly dc-


I
Bogora 3 termircd iDformarion on sitc-specifc grourd tuotiotr! olay b
Ecrador used to jlstify a lower seisBric zone. Such sile-spacifc grollld
Guataquil 3 motiotrs siall hav bsetr dlvelopd with p4per comidcnlion of
Quito regiooal tectonias and local geologlc and seisnologic inforlDs-
Parrguay tion, rnd ihll have no Elor &atr a 10 pGrcr{ chrnce of bobg e,r.
t 0 ceeded iB a SGyear period.

Flgura 15.2 Tabulallon of the seismic zonss worldwide - page 4


From the Uniform Builditlg Code

268 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


15 The seismic desjgn of anctea: :a-aa.a:--=::: :: -. !
=::
s.i\nrc FacLo. Seismr Zone FlcLor 'lype
(lmm F,guE E- I o. oder souroes ) (horzon'3t acceierario! l A soil ponle wirh ejrher a) a !o*-tii.
l 0.075
oareii
chemderizd by a she2J walc velocin EaE
1A 0.r5 0E 760 r/s (2500 ftis) o. by ohd;!a!k
2B
neds of clAlindion d.!k eit
or b) srjtr or
020 conditions wb*e lhe $il deprh is le$ da Sl
3 0.30 n (200 fi).
040 52 A soil prcnb wir! stiff or derse soit condfuons i.:
*bE lire soil depLh exc*ds 60 h (200 hl.
Figure 15.3 Seismic zone factor
53 A soil profile l2 ft {4q n) or moE ir .teprh con- I i
Fron APl650, Appendix E, table E-2
taining norc than 6 m (m n) of sofr ro mediun
stiffclnybutmoFrhd t2n({Oft)of sonclay.
The API 650 Appendix E design acceleration for the impulsive A soil profiic coffai ng moE ihe 12 n (40 f0
component of the liquid togetherwith the self-wejght ofthe tank
shell and roof is the product of three variables. ihese are: Nor: The sne fs.ror shal be esrablsbed ftom properly substandared
gcot@hnic.l dar!. ID localions wher dE soil pDPcniei aE Dor tnopn
. The zone factor (Z) from the UBC which is given in Figure in s!frcie de6il ro dercmtue th. soil Plofiie
rypq lon pro6l. S.l
shal bc us.d. Soi] pofte .ta ned not be a$Med unless the builiinE
15.3. ofbcial deremines rhsr soilproEte Sa nay b pllgt
ar rhe e or ,;
ihe evnl ttar loit pofitc 54 $ eslablished by gmrectuij@t dau
. The importance factor (l) which is normally 1.0 and which
should not exceed 1.25. This higher value should onty be Figure 15.5 Site coefficients S
applied to tanks which are required to provide posfearth- Frcn API 650, Appendix E. table E-3
quake service or tanks which store toxic or explosive sub_
stances in areas where an accidental release of their
contents would be dangerous to the safety of the general 15.2.2 The behaviour of the product liquid
public.
. The lateral force coefiicient C1 which shall be 0.60. The way in which the liquid in a vertical cylindrical container be_
haves when subjected to an earthquake was clarified bv one of
The corresponding acceleration for the convective component
the "giants" of seismic engineering. G.W. Housner. This is de_
of the liquid is again the product of three variables which are:
scribed in Refere,ce 75.72. This theory which is used to this
. Z as above day, divides the liquid withjn the tank into two comDonents.
These are termed:
. I as above
. . The impulsive component
The lateralforce coefficient C2 which is a function ofthe nat_
ural period ofthe first mode ofsloshing (T) and the site coef_ . The convective component
ficient (S). The impulsive component is that part of the liquid in the lower
T is determined from: paft of the tank which moves with the tank as thouqh it were a
solid. lt experiences the same accelerations ani displace_
r = k(D05) equ 15.1 ments as the tank and the subgrade upon which the tank is
founded. The tank is presumed to be rigid. This is not exacflv
Note: This equation requires the tank diameter to be in feet. lf
true, but for ambient tanks it is normalto make this presumotion
the diamete_r is in metres, then the equation becomes
and it provides answers ofsufficjent accuracv. The influence of
T=1.811k(Do5) tank flexibility. especially for steel tanks, is discussed further in
Where k is taken from flgure E-4 shown in Figure 15.4 Chapter 26 on the seismic design of low temperature tanks.
The natural period of vibration associated with this component
is a function ofthe size and the stiffness ofthe tank itseliand is
't.0 usuallyto be found in the 0.i secto 0.4 sec range. Atypicalre-
sponse spectrum for a seismic event is as shown in Fioure
o8
/, 15.6. Cleady the impulsive component with its natural fre_
0.6
0.5
t,0 4,0 7.0

Figure 15.4 Factor k


Fron API 650, Appendix E, figure E-4

or can be calculated from the following equation: o


0.578
. . (s.az equ 15.2
I
6
LfI/H ?
E
For values of T less than or equal to 4.S sec: b

0.753
^.T equ 15.3

For values of T greater than 4.5 sec:


3.3755
^ t- equ 15.4 PEFTOO (SECONDS)

Figure 15.6 Design response specAa


S is taken from Table E-3 (Figure .15.5) Fron Uniform Building Code

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 269


15 The seismic design of ambient tempemture storage tanks

1,0
I

w"tw, _
{
* o.u
I --r-
s 0.4
X I

* o.2

Figurc '15.7 lt4odel ol the impuls've and conveclive componenls 1.O 4.0 7.0
DIH
Figure 15.9 Etrective masses
Frcn API 650, Appendix E,ligurc E-2

Ta Short
Tank diameier (m) 42 OA 52.00
Liquld n I height (m) 2A A7 18.83

lmpulslve mass ftorne) 27011 l6t 2%) 16443142.7o/o)


Convectlve mass af onne) 13212132 8a ) 22071157.3%)

Fiqure 1510 A comoarison belween the rmoulsve and convective masses fo'
a 40 000m3 tank of iiifferenr orooorlions

t?471
coshl 11 l- 1.0
Figure Model of the im pulsive and convective componenls, with the
l 5. S
x, nn lDHl
H -'"
self-weights ofthe tank shelland roof added equ 15.8
367 /3.6?r
quency will be subject to accelerations which are close to the
-
D,',H lDiH'
maximum values shown.
where:
The convective component is that part of the liquid in the upper
part ofthe iank which is free to form waves or to slosh. This part Wr = weight of the impulsive liquid component
of the liquid has a much longer natural response time than the W2 = weight ofthe convective liquid component
impulsive portion and is usually to be found in the 5 sec to 10
sec range, again depending upon the tank size. Reference Wr = total weight of the tank liquid contents
again to Figure 15.5 shows that this portion of the liquid will be Xr
subjected to much lower accelerations.
= height from the tank bottom to the centroid of
the impulsive liquid
The way in which the tank contents are modelled is shown in Xz = height from the tank bottom to the centroid oJ
Figure 15.7. The impulsive component is rigidly linked to the the convective liquid
tank wallswhilstthe convective component is attached by weak
springs. The complete model including the self-weighb of the H = maximum liquid filling height
tank shell and roof is shown in Figure 15.8. Note: As long as the units used are consistent, then these for-
mulae work in both Sl and US customary unib.
The proportion of the product liquid which falls into the impul-
sive and the convective portions is a function ofthe tank shape, lf the tank is tall (i.e. D/H less than 1 .333), then it is suggested
and the calculation methods are different for short tanks with that W1 and X1 are modified to:
DiH greater than 1.333, (the majority of tanks fall into this re-
gion) and for tall tanks with D/H less than 1.333. IL=r.o o.zra9 equ 15.9
WTH
API 650 Appendix E ignores tall tanks and gives the effective
masses of the two components and the respective heights to
their centres of gravity in graphicalform, shown in Figures 15.9
!HH=o.soo o.os+ I equ 15.10

and 15.10.
To see howthis works out in practice for a short tank (the major-
The equations forming the basis ofthese graphs for short tanks ity of the larger ambient tanks fall into the short category) the
are: example ofa tank of40,000 m3 has been adopted. Two different
tank proportions have been chosen and the values of W1, W2,
tanh 0.866 9 Hj and H2 calculated.
vvr
- H equ 15.5 The results are shown in Figure 15.11. Clearly the taller tank
& 0.866q shows a higher proportion of its contents to be impulsive than
the shorter tank where a higher proportion is convective.

& D 3 67
equ 15.6 15.2.3 The overturning moment
w.= o.zgo H,unnlIDH' I F

The overturning moment due to seismic forces to be applied to t


!rl = o.szs equ 15.7 the bottom ofthe tank shell shall be determined from the follow-
ing equation:
'I

270 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


15 The seismic design of ambient temperaturc storage tanks

1.0
15.2.4 Resistance to overturning
0.8

t Resistance to the overturning moment calculated in equation


i o.t 15.11 which applies at the bottom of the tank shell mav be oro-
vided for anchored tanks by the weightof the tank shelliogeiher
r{ 0.4 with any portion ofthe tank roofwhich is supported by the tank
shell and by the tank anchorage. For unanchored tanks, the re_
0.2
sistance may be provided by the weight of the tank shell to_
gether with any portion of the tank roof which is supported by
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6-0 7.0 8.0 the tank shell and the weight of a portion of the tank contents
DIH adjacent to the tank shell acting on the outer part of the tank
bottom.
Figure 15.11 Centroids of seismic forces
Fron API 650, Appendix E, figute E-s The evaluation of this liquid holding down component is as fol-
lows:
M = Zt(ClWsXs +C1WHr +C1W\ rCrWrXr) equ.15.11 In US customary units:

Where the hitherto undefined variables are: wL = 7.gtb\EGH equ 15.15


Ws = total weight of the tank shell This is subject to a maximum value of:
W, = total weight of the tank roof (fixed or floating) wL = 1 25GHD equ 15.16
together with a portion of the snow load as
specified by the purchaser This maximum value of the liquid holding down effort is based
on a maximum permitted radial dimension of the uplifted por-
Xs = height from the bottom of the tank shell tothe tion of the tank bottom equivalent to about 7% of the iank
centre of gravity of the tank shell radtus.
Ht = total height ofthe tank shell where:
C1 = lateral force coefiicient for the impulsive com_ wL = maximum weight ofthe tank contents that may
ponent and is taken as 0.60
be used to resist the shell overturning moment
Cz = lateral force coefficient for the convective com- in lb/ft of the shell circumference
ponent tb = thickness ofthe bottom plate immediately be.
This moment is the moment due to the liquid acting on the tank neath the tank shell (inches)
shell only plus the moment due to the self-weighiof ihe shell Foy = minimum specified yield strength ofthe bottom
and roof. lt is sometimes known as MEBp or moment excludjng ptate immediately beneath the tank shell
base pressure. (lb/in'?)
There is a second moment whjch is useful for the design of G = design specific gravity of the product to be
storage tanks known as MrBp or moment including base pres_ sloreo
sure. This moment, as its name suggests, also includes the in_
fluence ofthe liquid tank contents upon the tank bottom. This is H = maximum design liquid tevel (feet)
used for the tank foundation design and is calculated from the D
same formula as equation 15..11, but with X1 being replaced by
= tank diameter (feet)

X., andXrby Xr. These new moment arms are calculated from In Sl units:

the following: wL = ggtb1EycH equ 15.17


For short tanks (i.e. D/H greater that 1.333):
this is subject to a maximum of:

0.866
q wL = 196GHD equ'15.18
+=0.,,1,,., ...[ tanh 0.866n 9 ,,]] equ 15.12 Where:
H is in N/m
For tall tanks (i.e. D/H tess than 1.333): to ts In mm

x_n Fby is in MPa or N/mm2


IHH=0.500+0.060: equ 15.13
H tstnm
For all tanks: D isinm

15,2.5 Shell compression


Y=,0 equ'15.14
15.2.5.1 Unanchored tanks
The API method divides the means of calculating the maximum
For the detailed design of tank foundations, it is often useful to compressive force in the tank shell into four methods deoend_
ent upon the value of:
separate the moment applied to the tank base area only and
this figure can be obtained bythe subtraction of MEBp frornM rvy'[o'1w, + w,;]
Bp.
The actual distribution ofthis loading on the tank bottom js dl-
scribed later. wnere:

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 271


15 The seismic design of ambient tempercture storage tanks

= weight of the tank shell and that portion of the stress, see Section 15.2.6), then the tank is structurally
tank roof supported by the tank shell in N/m or
lb/ft of shell circumference
unstable. Note that .:
121
is the calculated longitudinal shellcom-
pressive stress in US customary units, as is F,, i.e. lb/in2.
Wnen rr,y'[o'?(w, + w.)] is tess than 0.785, there in no uplift of
In this case the API Code makes the following suggestions:
the tank shell and consequently the compressive loading in the
shell is distributed in a linear fashion across the tank diameter . Increase the thickness of the bottom plate under the shell.
as in simpie bending. In this instance the neutralaxis ofthe tank This will increase the liquid holding down efrort.
remains in a central position.
. Increase the shell thickness. The way in which the calcula-
Thus tions are carried out is that the lower shell thickness arising
. 1.273M
equ'15.19
from the basic hydrostatic conditions is checked to see if it is
'D' stable. lf it needs to be increased in thickness to meet the
two criteria given above, then all ofthe upper shell courses
where: should be increased in thickness by the same proportion,
unless a more sophisticated analysis is carried out to deter-
b = maximum longitudinal compressive force at
mine the actual compressive stress at the bottom of each
the bottom of the tank shell in N/m or lb/ft of
shell course in turn.
shell circumference
w.)]
. Change the proportions ofthe tank to increase the diameter
wnen ([o'?(w, + ls greater than 0.785 but less than or
and reduce the liquid filling height.
equal to 1.5:
. Anchor the tank in accordance with Section 15.2.5.2.
b+ wL
b can be calculated from the term the value ofwhich is 15.2.5.2 Anchored tanks
wt+wL
found from Figure E-5 (Figure 15.12) using the calculated Anchoring the tank shell causes the tank's neutral axis to re-
. .. ,lf , ._l main at the central oosition and as for the first of the unan-
varue or rv/ ^t ( wr + wL r
LU l. chored tank cases described above, the maximum longitudinal
The bottom of the tank is lifted for a part of the circumference compressive force is given by:
and a liquid holding down effort is created. The neutral axis of
the tank is moved progressively away from the tank centreline D=wr +1.273M
D2
and the shell compression is concentrated in a decreasing por-
tion of the shell circumference. The explanation for this mecha- When tanks are anchored, it is clear that no liquid holding down
nism and the description ofthe derivation of the equations used can be utilised to reduce the uplifting loads as it requires the
is best left to the paper by Wozniak and Mitchell (Reference shell to lift to mobilise the term wL.
15.6).
The anchorage system shall be designed to provide the follow-
When the value oflvy'fo'(w, + w.)] is greater than 1 .5 but less ing minimum uplift resistance in N/m or lb/ft of shell circumfer-
than or equal to 1.57 then b can be calculated from the follow- ence:
ing: 1.273M
't.490
* w, equ15.21
D+WL _ equ 15.20
D'
r -ro 5

l. 0.637M plus any uplift, again in either N/m or lb/ft of shell circumfer-
ence, due to internal pressure. Uplifr due to wind loadings on
t DP(', . vv,)]
the tank shell and roof do not need to be considered in combi-
nation with seismic loadings.
When MlD'7(wr w.)l is greater than 1.57 or *n"n .,!, is
Anchorage is normally by means of bolts or straps. The points
greater than F" (the allowable longitudinal compressive shell of attachment of the anchors to the tank shell must be made
with due consideration to the local stress concentrations
caused. This part of the tank shell is already highly stressed in
hoop tension and local vertical bending. An acceptable design
procedure is given in Reference15.13.
The design of the anchorage should consider the following:
. The strength of the attachments to the tank shell shall be
greaterthan the specified minimum yield ofthe anchors so
t that the anchors will yield before the athchments fail.
{ . The spacing of the anchors around the tank shell shall not
exceed 3.0 m exceptthatfortanks of less than 15 m in diam-
eter the spacing shall not exceed 1.8 m.
. Anchor bolts shall have a minimum diameter of 25 mm, ex-
cluding any corrosion allowance.
. The maximum allowable stresses shall be:
0.8 1.0 1.2 1,1 1.6
For the anchors an allowable tensile stress equal to 0.8
M lID"(wt+ |9L)l
times the minimum specified yield stress (this is 0.60
Not6: This ligure may b used 10 compL.te b when M / {d( pr + kJl
is gGal6r than 0.785 bd bs rhan or 6qB1 lo 1 .5 (se E.5.1 ). times 1.33)

Figure 15.12 Compressive fofce b For other parts, 1.33 times the "normal" allowable
From API 650, Appendix E, figure E-5 stresses taken from section 3.10.3 of the Code.

272 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


15 The seismic design of ambient temperature storcge tanks

The maximum allowabledesign stress in the shellatthe through the numerous papers which are listed in References
anchor atiachment shall not exceed 170 N/lpa (25.000 15.16 and 15.16.
lbiinr) with no increase atlowed for seismic loading.
The classical buckling strength ofa perfect cylinder is given by:
. The embedment of the anchor into the foundation shall be
of sufficient strength to develop the specified yield strength s =0.6r
R
equ 15.26
of the anchor.
. The purchaser shall specify any corrosion allowance to be
The value of given by equation 15.22 above (which represents
most storage tanks of normal proportions) is one third of that
applied to the anchors. The uncorroded anchors shall be
given by equation 15.26.
used to determine the design loads forthe attachments and
the embedments.
15.2.7 Slosh height and freeboard considerations
. When specified by the purchaser, the anchors shall be de-
signed to allow for thermal expansion of the shell arising
API 650 Appendix E does not provide any specific rules for liq-
from temperatures greater than 90 'C (200 'F).
uid sloshing. lt does give a general warning that "the purchaser
shallspecify anyfreeboard desired to minimise or prevent over-
15.2.6 Allowable longitudinal compressive stress flow and damage to the roofand upper shellthat may be caused
by sloshing of the liquid contents". lt seems curious to place this
The maximum longitudinal compressivestress in the tankshell responsibility on the tank purchaser. The tank designer is, or
($ in US customary units or . in St units) shall not exceed
should be in a much better place to make decisions relating to
12t ^b ^.
1000t the freeboard to be allowed for seismic sloshing in any
the maximum allowable compressive stress Fu which is calcu- particular circumstances.
lated from the equations given below These equations take Forfixed rooftanks it is usualto arrange a freeboard sufficient
account of the reduction in the compressive buckling stress to prevent the liquid sloshing wave plus any associated run up
caused by deviations from the perfect cylindrical shape due to
of product liquid up the tank shell from impacting upon the tank
the fabrication and erection processes and the stabiljsing ef- roof itself. Refererce 75.75does indicate means of calculating
fects of internal pressure due to the product liquid. pressures on the underside of the tank roof olates in cases
It must be borne in mind that the worst case seismic
desions are where insufficient freeboard has been allowed. This document
all based on a tank filled to the maximum operatingfill h;ight. A is, to the author's mind, a quite excellent publication and essen-
good presentation of the influences of these vaiables is qiven tial reading for those interested in the seismic design of storage
in Reference 15.14. NKS.

In US customary units: For floating roof tanks it is usual to allow sufflcient freeboard to
ensure that the roof seals remain within the heioht of the tank
WhenGHD,,
--" is greater than or equal to '106. shell. The presence of the floating roof is not;onsidered to
modify or inhibit the sloshing behaviour of the product liqujd.
1061 For fixed roof tanks with intefnal floating roofs, it is usual to al-
,D equ 15.22 low sufficient freeboard to ensure that the internal roof and the
tank roof, or its supporting structure, do not come into direct
laHn2
conlact.
When + is less than 106:
To enable these decisions to be made, it is clear that the heioht
1n6r
F"=r_+600JGH equ 15.23
of the sloshing wave must be calculated for any particular t;k
geometry and site location. ln the absence of any means to
make this calculation in API 650, it is not uncommon practice to
In Sl units; borrow the following formula for the height of the first sloshing
mode from Appendix L of API 620:
wnenGHD,.
- rs greater than or equal to 44:
I
\Drl"ll
t2

_.D83t -
d = 1.124ztc.rzrann fa.rzl
L
equ15.27
equ 15.24
where:
cHn2
When :+ is tess than 44: d = height ofthe sloshing wave in feet. lt is recom-
mended that an allowance for liquid run uD the
R?T tank shell of 1 foot is added to this height
Fa =ffi+7.5JcH equ 15.25
15.2,8 Other considerations arising from seismic
However in all cases Fa shall not exceed 0.5 Fb/
loadings
where:
Fv = minimum specified yield strength ofthe bottom There are a number of other areas of tank desiqn for seismic
shell course in the appropriate units (Mpa, loadings which occasionally arise for ambient tanks. These are
N/mm2 or lb/in2) briefly described below Some ofthese are revisited in Chapter
26 (Seismic design of low temperature storage tanks) where
t = thickness ofthe bottom shell thickness exclud- seismic design is considered in more detail.
ing any corrosion allowance.
. The columns ofcolumn supported roof type tanks must be
The buckling of vertical cylindrical shells has been the subject designed to resist the lateralforces imposed on them by the
of a great deal of theoretical and test work over the vears. contained product liquid during the design seismic event.
Those interested in studying this subject in more detail could do The work of Wozniak and Mitchell (Reference 15 6) gives a
worse than to look atthe work of Wozniak and Rotter. orto oick suitable and well-tried procedure for this.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 273


15 The seismic design of ambient temperaturc storcge tanks

. lt is sometimes necessary to calculate the local pressures for the actual specific gravity of the stored liquid which could
imposed on parts of the tank shell and bottom during the well be 0.8 or lower, whilst performing the seismic calculations
seismic design event. This could be for detailed design of for the same tank using the higher value of 1.00.
internal fittings or for an assessment of the applied hoop
stresses on the complete tank shell. Chapter 26 provides
means of performing these calculations. 15.5 References
. In extreme seismic events, there may be a tendencyfor the 15.1 Oil Storage Tanks, Alaska EaLthquake of 1964, The
tank to slide off its foundation. This is an interesting subject, Prince William Sound Alaska Eafthquake of 1964, vol
about which there are differing views held by those knowl- ume ll-A, US department of Commerce, Coast and
Geodetic Survey, 1 967, J.E.Rinnie.
edgeable within the industry This is again considered in de-
tail in Chapter 26. 15.2 Behaviour of Liquid Storage Tanks, The Great Alaska
Eafthquake of 1964, R.D.Hanson, Engineering, Na-
tional Academy of Sciences, Washington, 1973.
15.3 The BS 2654 approach
15.3 Damage of Storage Tanks, Engineering Features ofthe
Appendix G of BS 2654 admits in its introductory note to being San Fernando Eafthquake, February gth, 1971,
based on Appendix E ofAPl 650. "Based on" is something ofan PC.Jennings, Earthquake Engineering Research Lab-
understatement. What is presented is Appendix E ofAPl 650 in oratory Report 71-02 Cal. Tech. June 1971.
metric units!
15.4 The Lima Eafthquake of October 3rd, 1975. Damage
There are a number of minor changes: distributlon, R.Huisid, A.F.Espinosa and J.de las Casas,
. In line with the philosophy of BS 2654 in designing all tanks Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol-
for the maximum anticipated product specific gravity, all ume 67, no. 5, pp 1441-1472, October 1977.
seismic calculations are based on an assumed product 15.5 Nuclear Reactors and Eafthquakes, by Lockheed Air-
gravity of 1.00. craft Corporation and Holmes and Narver lnc.,Chapter
o 6 and Appendix E ERDA, TID 7024 August 1963.
In place of the UBC zone coefficients which at one time
were only available for mainland USAand a few other loca- 1 5.6 Basisof Deslgn Provisions for Welded Steel Oil Storage
tions, the laterallorce coefficients are based on the ratio of Ianks, by R.S.Wozniakand W.W..Mitchell, presented at
the horizontal acceleration to gravity. This seems quite dan- the Session on Advances in Storage Tank Design, API
gerous as the Code gives little guidance as to exactly what Refining,43rd midyear meeting, Toronto, May 1978.
this acceleration should be. Should it for example be the 15.7 API STANDARD 650: Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Stor-
peak ground acceleration (PGA) which is the acceleration age, The American Petroleum Institute, Tenth Edition,
at time zero, or the acceleration appropriate to the natural November 1998 plus Addendum 1, March 2000.
frequency of the impulsive portion of the tank contents?
These are ouite different numbers and there is often confu- 15.8 API STANDARD 620: Design and Construction of
sion as to what should be used. API 650 and the UBC used
Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage lanks, The
American Petroleum Institute. Tenth Edition, Februarv
together represent a coherent design system and there is
2002.
less room for confusion and error. The more recentversions
of the UBC provide guidance for zone coefiicients for many 15.9 BS 2654:1989: British Standard for the Manufacture of
locations worldwide and it may be considered wise to make verlical steel welded non-refrigerated storage tanks
reference to this data. with butt-welded shells for the petroleum industry, BSI
LOnOOn.
. The Code introduces the concept of the Operating Basis
Earthquake (OBE) and the Safe Shutdown Earthquake 15.10 Above Ground Storage larks, Philip E.lvlyers,
(SSE). For the OBE it suggests design seismic loads with a N,4ccraw-Hill, ISBN 0 07 044272 X.
'10% probability of being exceeded in the structure's life- 15.11 2000 Uniforn Building Code, the International Confer-
time. ln this event the allowable stresses should not be ex- ence of Building Officials, Whittier, California, ISBN
ceeded. Forthe SSE it suggests a seismic design load with 1 884590 94 2.
a 1% probability of being exceeded in the structure's life-
time. In this event the ultimate strength should not be ex-
15.12 Earthquake Pressures on Fluid Containers, by
G.W.Housner, A Report on Research Conducted under
ceeded. This all seems a little loose. The lifetime of the
Contract with the Office of Naval Research, California
structure is controversial and the means of determining and
Institute of Technology, Pasedena, Earthquake Re-
applying the allowable stresses is not made very clear search Laboratory August 1954.
15.13 AlSl E-1, Volume ll, Patl Vll, Anchor bolt chairs.
15.4 The prEN 14015 approach
15.14 Royal Aeronautical Society Structural Data Sheet, No
The new Euronorm for ambient tanks (Reference 15.17\ is cut 04.01.01, (latet published by the Engineering Services
rently in draft form. lt is anticipated that the industry comments Data Unit).
will be incorporated into this document during 2004.
15.15 Seismic desbn of storage tanks, Recommendations of
Annex G of this document is entitled Recomrrendations for a Study Group of the New Zealand National Society for
seismic provisions for storage tanks. Earthquake Engineering, December 1 986.
It is almost identical to the Aooendix G of BS 2654. 15.'16 Guide linesforthe seismic design ofoitand gas pipeline
As for BS 2654 the requirement is for a specific gravity of the sysferng Committee on gas, liquid fuel lifelines, ASCE
tank contents to be taken as 1.00 for the seismic calculations. November 1984, ISBN O 87 262424 5.
This may well be an oversight as one of the differences be- 15.17 prEN 14015 - 1:2000, specification for the design and
tween this document and BS 2654 is that the requirement for a manufacture of site built veftical, cylindrical, flat-bot-
minimum product liquid specific gravity of 1 .00 to be used in all tomed, above ground, welded metallictanksforthe stor-
cases for the tank shell design has been removed. lt would age of liquids at ambienttemperatures and above - Parl
seem inconsistent to design the tank shell course thicknesses 1 : Steel tanks.

274 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


16 Operation of ambient temperature
tanks
This Chapter provides some outline guidance on the usage, operation and maintenance of
above ground vertical cylindrical storage ianks operating at ambient temperature.
This guidance has been taken from number ot sources, the references oJ which are included to
enable the reader to obtain more detailed information on the various toDics discussed.

16.1 Tank type


16.1.1 Fixed roof tanks
16.1.1.1 Fixed roof tanks with internalfloating mvers
16.1.2 Floating roof tanks
16.2 Product identification
16.3 Operation of tanks
16.3.1 Filling rates
16.3.2 Prevention of overfilling
'16.3.2.1 Procedures
'16.3.2.2 Communication
16.3.2.3 Tank gauging and sampling
16.3.2.4 Internal floating covers
16.3.2.5 Mixing of products
16-3.2.6 Sloos tanks
I 6.3.2.7 Rundown temoeratures
16.4 The operation of fixed roof tanks
16.4.1 Fixed roof ianks with intemal floatino covers
'16.4.2 Tank conosion
'16.4.3 Hazardous atmosDheres

16.5 The operation of floating roof tanks


'16.5.1 Roof type
16.5.2 Pontoons
16.5.3 Tilting roof
16.5.4 Mtxers
'16.5.5 Access to floating roof
'16.5.6 Venting
16.5.7 Managing leg supports
'l 6.5.8 Static electricity control
16.5.9 Foam dams
,16.5.10 Floating roof seals
16.5.10.1 Vapour saving
'16.5.10.2 VaDour loss
'16.5.1 1 Effects of roof type on drainage
'16.5.12 Overflow drains
16.5.13 Collection sump details
16.5.14 Roof drain plug
16.6 Static electriclty
16.6.1 Precautions to minimise or avoid static charges
'16.6.2 Earthing and bonding

16.7 Heated storage


16.8 Tank and bund drainage
16.8.1 Tank drainage
16.8.2 Bund drainage
16.9 Tank maintenance
'l 6.9. 1 Permit-to-work systems

STORAOE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 275


16 Operation of ambient temperature tanks

16.9.2 Notice of issue of a permit


16.9.3 Working in tanks
16.9.4 Work on equipment in operation
16.10 Personnel and equipment requirements
16.1 1 Maintenance
16.'11.1 lsolation
16.'l '1.2 Entry to tanks
16.'1 '1.3 Gas-freeing
'l6.12 Tank cleaning
16.12.1 Tanks which contain, or have contained leaded products
16.13 Tank inspection
16.14 Operational malfunctions
16.15 Further guidance
16.16 References

276 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


16 Operation of ambient temperature tanks

16.1 Tank type safety and environmental reasons. There is a preference for
floating roof over fixed roof tanks as the size of the tank in-
The type and nature ofthe product to be stored are the most im-
creases, as the vapour pressure of the stored product in-
portant criteria in selecting the type oftank to use i.e. fixed roof,
creases and when the flash point is below the storage
floating roof or fixed roof with an internal floating cover
temperature.
For hydrocarbon liquids, two lnstitute of petroleum oublica-
The roofconsists of an arrangement of buoyancy pontoons and
tions, Refererces 16.1 and 16.2 and NFPA 30, Reference
floats on the stored product. lt is sealed against the shell ofthe
76.3, use systems of classification based on the closed flash
tank by a specially designed seal arrangement, (see Chapter 6,
point of the individual products to determine appropriate re-
Section 6.5.3). The roof is provided with support legs which can
quirements. These classificatjon systems are different and it is
be adjusted to hold it in either of two positions. The upper posj-
important to define which applies when considering, for exam-
tion should be high enough to allow access for tank cleaning
ple, a Class l, ll or lll product.
and maintenance personnel and equipment. The loweroperat-
ing position should keep the roofjust above the inlet and outlet
16.1.1 Fixed roof tanks nozzles, the drain lines, heatingcoils, side entry mixers and any
other accessories located near the tank bottom.
Fixed roof tanks are generally used in refineries and storage
The tank shell must be provided with an adequate earthing sys-
terminals where the product stored does not readilV vaporise at
the ambient or stored temperature conditions. Thus ihey are tem and the roof and all fittings, such as the rolling access lad-
used for Class lll and unclassified products, commonlv for der must be electrically bonded to the shell as a protection
Class ll (1) and rarely for Class I and ll (2). The size of theiank
against lightning and static electricity. Also a internal fittings
and the flash point of the product will atso influence the choice
such as gauge floats, cables and mixers must be earthed to
prevent the accumulation of static electricitv as djscussed in
of tank. These tanks are operated with a vapour space above
the liquid. Section '16.6 and Chapter 6, Section 6.5.2.1 .

Depending on the products to be stored, flxed rooftanks can be


designed for storage at atmospheric pressure in which case 16.2 Product identification
they are equipped with open vents. Alternatively, for Class I and
lvlany of the products stored in tanks are highly inflammable,
ll products, they can be designed for pressures up to a maxi- others may be corrosive or hazardous to health. These prod-
mum of56 mbarto tank Code BS 2654. Higher pressure tanks
ucts could cause pollution of the ground, ground water, sea,
are permitted underdesign rules to tank Codes Apl 650 Appen- rivers or the atmosphere if they are allowed to escape. There
dix API 620 and European Code prEN 14015-1.
F,
could be a threat to the health of the employees working in the
These pressurised tanks are vented bythe use ofroof-mounted area of the tanks and to the general public and also a serious
pressure and vacuum valves. (See Chapter 8.) risk of explosion or fire.
Weak (orfrangible), shell-to-roof joints can, under certain con- For these reasons, tanks should be clearly marked by a means
ditions be incorporated to give structural protection to the tank which meets the requiremenis of NFpA 704, Reference 16.4, or
in the event of an unexpected excessive build up of internal an equally equivalent system. The marking should not be ap_
pressure. (See Chapter 3, Section 3.8). plied directly to the tank but should be located where it can be
Fixed roof tanks which are built stricfly to the requirements of readily seen, such as on the shoulderofan access-way or walk-
BS 2654 and API 650 are considered to be capable of with- way to the tank or tanks or on the piping outside the bunded
standing an internal vacuum of 6 mbar and 2y2 mbat rcspec- area. lf more than one tank is involved, the markings should be
tively, without the need to prove this by design. prEN .14015 will Iocated so that the product of each individual tank can be easilv
allow a vacuum rating of up to 20 mbar for the category 'very identified.
high pressure tanks" (up to 500 mbar pressure) but there will be
a need to ensure by design that the shell, roof and floor are ca-
pable of withstanding the imposed loads due to this hjgher
16.3 Operation of tanks
vacuum.
16.3.1 Filling rates
16.1.1.1 Fixed roof tanks with internal floating covers
Such tanks are used, for example, where: Tankfilling ratesshould be limited to minimise the aeneration of
. Snow loading on a floating roof may be a problem. static electricity in the product. Free water dropleis or another
second phasewillhavean effect by electrostatic charging ofthe
. Contamination by rainwaterof a product stored in a floating product. These materials may be introduced either with the in_
roof tank is unacceDtable. going product, or by disturbing tank bottoms during filling. Thus,
. There is an environmental or vapour loss problem with fixed it is recommended that anyfree water be regularly drained from

roof tanks. the tanks. When product is pumped into a tank which may have
a flammable atmosphere, a residence time of at least 30 min_
. Contact of the stored product with air should be avoided. utes should be allowed after the pumping has stopped before
Venting of these tanks is provided by means of large openings manually dipping or sampling.
around the periphery of the roof and a centre open vent. The Splash filling of hydrocarbons may result in the production of a
peripheral openings are fitted with weather cowls and bird flammable atmosphere (vapour or mist) inside the tank. To
screens with a mesh not lessthan 6mm square. The large ven! minimise the risk ofelectrical discharge, the filling velocity in the
ing area so provided assists in reducing the vapour concentra_ pipeline should be restricted to 1 m/sec. (even with a dry prod_
tion in the space between the fixed roofand the internalfloatinq uct) until the outlet of the fill line in the tank is covered to a mini_
cover to below the lower flammabitity limit. mum depth of 0.5 m for fixed roof tanks or until any floating roof
or internal cover is floating when the rate mav be increased.
16.1,2 Floating roof tanks The maximum rate, which is governed by the fiiction losses in
the pipework, is in the region of 7 m/sec.
Floating roof tanks are generally used for Class I and Class ll Electrostatic charges can be generated when a svnthetic taoe
products to minimise product loss due to evaporation and for or cord (which may be used during dipping or sampling) is al-

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 277


;is

16 Operction of ambient tempeature tanks

lowed to run rapidlythrough an operator's gloved hand. In view 16.3.2.5 Mixing of products
ofthis, only naturalfibre tapes and cords should be used. Tanks Sudden mixing of products ofdifferent vapour pressures at dif-
should only be manually dipped while receiving product if the ferent temperatures can cause the rapid development of
product is of high conductivity i.e.above 50 picosiemens/metre vapour, or foaming in the tank. This can occur when:
(ps/m). Forfurther information regarding static electricity, refer
to Section 16.6. . Stratified layers ofthese products are disturbed bythe use
of a heating coil of the breakdown of an emulsion.

16.3.2 Prevention of overlilling e When hot product is added to a tank containing a high
vapour pressure prooucl.
16.3.2.1 Procedures . When a high vapour pressure product enters a hot tank.
Clear formal written procedures should be established for the 16.3.2.6 sloos tanks
receipt of product into a tank installation. These will vary in ac- Heating coils in operation in slops tanks should always be com-
cordance with the method of receipt employed i.e. cross coun- pletely covered by the product. (Refer to Section 16.7.) Addi-
try pipeline, marine, rail or road. These will also depend upon tionally, water should be regularly drained from slops tanks.
the quantities and grades of productto be delivered, the rates of
delivery the numbers and capacities of the tanks to which deliv- Where product is discharged into a slops tank from a process
eries are to be made, and the method of controlling the opera- vessel under gas pressure, precautions should be taken to en-
tion ofthe inlet valves to the tanks. The procedures for change- surethat, in an emergency, gas cannotbe released tothe atmo-
over oftank and product grade, in addition to avoiding the risk of sphere in large quantities via the tank.
overfilling, should ensure segregation of grades and avoid risk 16.3.2.7 Rundown temperatures
of contamination. Rundown temperatures should be controlled to ensure that
1 6.3.2.2 Communication products are delivered to tanks in a condition which will not
cause a hazard due to the development of vapour or a
There should be an efficient system of communication estab- froth-over. In the case offloating rooftanks and flxed rooftanks
lished between all personnel concerned in the operations, in or- with internal floating covers, a check should be made to con-
der that the procedures referred to above are properly carried firm that the roof seal can withstand the rundown temperature.
out, and so that immediate action can be taken in the event of
an emergency.
16.3.2.3 Tank gauging and sampling
16.4 The operation of fixed roof tanks
There are not many moving parts on a fixed rooftank butthe fof
A reference depth should be clearly marked near dip hatches
lowing items should be periodically checked for serviceability :
which are used for gauging.
. Pressure and vacuum valves
Dip hatchesfor manualgauging oftanks storing Class lor llpe-
troleum products should be opened as infrequently as possible, The weight pallets should be examined for corrosion and
consistentwith obtaining tank gaugings for control of inventory that they move freely within the valve. For spring loaded
and tank filling. valves the action of the spring should be checked.

Dip hatches should be properly closed when not in use lfatank Check that the mesh screen is clean and not blocked with
is fitted with more than one dip hatch, only one should be debris.
opened at a time. . Free vents
lManual gauging should not be carried out when atmospheric Check that the mesh screen is clean and not blocked with
conditions are liable to cause static or other hazard to person- debris.
nel engaged in operations, e.g. an electric storm, hail, flying . Flame arrestors
sand.
Check that the tube bank is clear and ensure that there are
No manual gauging or sampling should take place while tank no blocked passages.
filling operations are proceeding, or for 30 minutes afier
stopprng. . DiP hatches

lf any object is accidentally dropped into a tank it should be re- Check that the hinge and the screwdown closure (when flt-
ported immediately. ted) operate freely.
Check that the seal (when fitted) is not damaged.
Floating roof tanks should be gauged from a gauging well, the
hatch of which is at the top ofthe access stairway, thus avoiding . Emergency vents
the necessity of descending on to the roof. Check that the cover opens easily and that the seal and the
Automatic gauging equipment should be checked against man- seating is not damaged.
ual dips at periodic intervals. . Float type level indicators
16.3.2.4 Internal floating covers Check via the roof inspection cover thatthe float guide wires
Increasing emphasis is being placed on reducing evaporation are intact and that there are no kinks in the gauge operating
losses byinstalling internal floating covers forlight hydrocarbon tape.
products stored in fixed roof tanks. Polyurethane (which is of Check that the gauge tape is operating correctly by actuat-
low conductivity) is often included as the principal material of ing the float "lift and drop" mechanism on the gauge head
construction for some types of covers. lt is essential in these
Check that the gauge reading window is not misted over
cases that all metal attachments fitted to the cover are electri-
cally-bonded to the tank shell by a flexible bond to avoid the Check for corrosion or damage to the tape pipework'
possibility of a discharge from the cover to the earthed tank sheaves and housings.
shell. To prevent the build up of a charge on the polyurethane . Foam boxes
cove( the resistance to earth at any point on the cover should
not exceed 103 ohms. Check for corrosion and ensure that the bursting disc is in-

278 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


16 Aperatton at a-a e : ::- :+'2 .':. -: .

tact. ter any outage for repairs. The compartments should be c_-i

Periodic examination of the pontoons for leakage is recc--


16.4.1 Fixed root tanks with internal floating covers menoeo.

Additionally for these tanks, the internal cover (of the contact
16.5.3 Tilting roof
type) when in the top position, should be visually inspected for
leaks across its surface from a suitable manhole or inspection
lftilting ofthe floating roof is noted, it may indicate one or more
hatch in the fixed roof.
flooded pontoons. Perform a visual check and if flooding is
Also it should be ensured that the anti-static cables and/or found,landing ofthe roofmust be donewith greatcare, and the
shunts on the seal are intact. leakage drained ofi before landing.
In day-to-day operations the lowering ofthe floating cover on to Problems with the rolling ladder could be another cause of the
its supports should be avoided. lfthis does become necessary root tilting.
then the filling rate should be reduced until the cover has
Another cause of a tilting roof, particularly at low levels near the
refloated.
landing position, may be the result of accumulations of waxy
deposits on the tank bottom. These sludges may build into sev-
16.4.2 Tank corrosion eral peaks and could cause damage to the roof if landed. lf ma-
terials are stored, which could give rise to such deposits, regu-
The tank itself should be checked for corrosion especially at the lar checks, should be made to determine the extent and
joint between the shell and floor and the floor outstand beyond disposition of deposits. The roof support leg sleeves are often
the shell. Also the roof-to-shelljoint is another vulnerable area. used as access points to dip for such deposits.
Bracketed connections to the shell and roof and access stair-
case connections also attract corrosion.
16.5.4 Mixers
Thermally insulated tanks should receive special attention and
sections ofthe cladding and insulation should be removed peri- Side entrymixers can cause severe vibrations in a floating roof.
odically to allow inspection of the underlying steel especially at As a general rule, operators should avoid the use of mixers if
discontinuities in the cladding i.e joints between cladding the roof is within 4 m of the roof lever.
sheets, roof-to-shell joints, closures at wind girders, closures
around nozzles and manholes and atthe base ofthe tank. lnsu-
16.5.5 Access to the floating roof
lation should ideally be stopped short of the floor plating by at
least 200 mm to prevent moisture being drawn up into the
insulation material by wick action. Open top tanks normally have a means ofaccessto the floating
roof for a variety of purposes. The rolling ladder, with level ad-
justing treads or simple rungs is the most usual means of ac-
1 6.4.3 Hazardous atmospheres cess. These may be affected by high winds and need to be
checked periodically. Alternatively, noaccess may be provided,
Access to the roofofa tank should be restdcted ifa toxic risk ex- except by a short, fixed ladder for use when the roof is in its
ists (e.9. HrS, benzene), in which strict safety prccautions ap- highest position. Tanks without rolling ladders present a prob-
propriate to the hazard, including the use of breathing appara- lem when the roof is out of service for maintenance. A special
tus, should be adopted and warning notices posted at the through-deck access way can sometimes solve this problem.
access points to the tank.
Rolling ladders with self-levelling treads require the tread
mechanisms to be lubricated occasionally. The wheels should
16.5 The operation of floating roof tanks of course be seen to properly engage in the tracks and any
signs of wear on the flanges or track edges may point to offset
Floating roofs should be examined frequenfly to ensure that
loads or alignment problems, Track and ladder length are
they are functioning effectively. lnadequate drainage of rainwa-
matched to maximum and minimum roof height. Any attemptto
ter, malfunctioning of roof ladders, sludge accumulation, ice
alter levels, say by reducing the roof support legs length, may
formation, snow or perforated pontoons, can all result in can!
cause the ladder to jam if it is too near the vertical.
ing ofthe roof. This can lead to jamming orsinking ofthe roof,
with the possible generation of sparks. Where no rolling ladder isfitted, there may be a full height verti-
cal ladder extending through a well in the floating roof. ln such
Operational and maintenance procedures should cover these
potential hazards. Instructions set out in the following Sections cases a fabric seal is usually the best that can be done to re-
duce vapour losses at this source. Check the condition of the
will assist in the operation of these orocedures.
fabric and renew as required.

16.5.1 Roof type


16.5.6 Venting
The general form of the floating roof will be either the double
Floating roofs have to be protected against accidental damage
deck design, or the pontoon deck type.
when on their supports. Pumping out could pull a vacuum and
Instructions may vary between the two roof designs and any filling from empty may introduce pressure. In both cases, relief
points of difference will be highlighted. is automatically provided by a bleeder vent, whose simple con-
struction shown in Figure 16.'1.
16.5.2 Pontoons Wjth the fitting of more effective sealing systems on the roofs, it
is even more important that these vents function properly. The
Regardless ofthe roof type, the outer annulus will be divided ra- vent has a gasketto prevent vapour loss when the roofis afloat.
dially to form a ring of separate compartments. Each of these Check the gasket and replace if necessary ensuring suitability
pontoon compartments is fitted with an access hatch and cover. for the product.
Ensure the covers are in place when access is not required.
The bleeder deck vent is actuated by a leg, which contacts the
Check each pontoon atfirst "float-off' after construction and af- tank floorjust in advance of the roof landing. Roof support legs

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 279


16 Operction of ambient tempercture tanks

Roof Iloating Roof on supports


Roof on supports
tank being emptied
tank being filled

Figure 16.1 Bleedet vents

usually have a low operating position and a high maintenance shells with anti-corrosion coatings however means that an al-
position and it is imperative that the leg and vent actuator ternative method has to be used. This is more difficult than it
lengths must be checked for a match, for protection to be as- seems for open top tanks due to wind action affecting any ca-
sured. bling system such as is commonplace with internal decks lf
shell contiact at the seal is not possible, cabled systems can be
The capacity of the vent valves is high, often around 10'000 bbl arranged to partly follow the rolling ladder, taking precautions
per hour; but it maybewiseto check specific capacities against
against snagging on the projections offered by roof legs etc.
current pumping rates, especially when any change of use is
planned. Check the condition and contact of rim seal shunts. Bend into
contact if required. The pitching of rim seal shunts is typically 3
A few roofs may not be fitted with emergency deck valves as m; but sometimes less, bY request.
above, but carry P & V vents instead. Here the question of ca-
pacity is even more pertinent and maintenance must be
assureo.
16.5,9 Foam dams

The only other venting requirement likelyto be found on a float- Since fire hazards tend to be concentrated in the rim area'
ing roofconcernsthe rim ventfor mechanicalseals This vent is fire-fighting measures are similarly concentrated here. To re-
to guard against an unusual circumsiance; but one, which can duce the amount offire-fighting foam and consequently speed
happen. lf a large quantity of air or gas enters the tank, say dur- the extinction, it ls customary to limit the spread of foam by use
ing pigging, the valve prevents the metalshoeplates from being of afoam dam, as discussed in Chapter7' Section 7.10 Thisis
pushed against the shell, jamming the roof by pressure. lt has simply a barrier, usually of steel running circumferentially at
happened! Only mechanical seals need such a protective de- around one metre from the tank shell and traditionally 12" high
vice.Thereshould beonevalveonsmalltanks, perhapstwoon (300 mm). lt should be noted that there is a case for extending
larger tanks. ihe h"ight of the foam dam, to allow submergence of the tip of
any secondary sealfitted, by 50 to 75 mm. The foam may be de-
16.5.7 Managing leg suPports livered to the rim zone from overhead, via fixed foam pourers or
foam cannons from an external source
There are many different lengths of roof support on any glven It is also oossible to use an on-deck foam soufce, which will
floating roof. This is becausethe floor may have been coned up generate foam on a signal and deliver it to nozzles located be-
or down at the time of designing. The object however is to ob- tween the primary and secondary seals. This system obviously
tain a level deck (or the desired slope in some cases) at two has a limited capacity; howeverit has the advantages ofspeedy
possible levels operating (low) and maintenance (high). The
- response and lowwastage since it is delivered to the seat of the
iegsare simplypinned in one orotherposition (roughly760 mm
proDlem.
difference)
Foam dams, which are integralwith the rim seal assembly, are
lf support legs are set in the maintenance position when the available and these are generally of a height compatible with a
roof is in service, the consequence may be that the roof lands secondary sealing system.
more frequently than is desirable and vapour conservation is
sacrificed. optimum operation will be achieved with the legs in Whatever the foam dam in use, there will be mouseholes for
the operating position, except during tank maintenance lt is im- drainage at the bottom. These tend to fillwith debris and should
portant therefore to remember to check that the bleeder deck be clejned out as required. lf not keptclear, rainwatercan build
vent is in the corresponding pin position. up behind the foam dam, leading to paint breakdown, corrosion
and damage, particularly to the seal mounting zone.
Remember also that the support legs are not designed to carry
the roof plus a water or product load Pontoons should be
checked before landing to ensure that they are dry
16.5.10 Floating roof seals

16.5.10.1 Vapour saving


16.5.8 Static electricity control
Floating roof seals must of course be kept in good order The
Rim seals normally have a major role in safely conducting static demands of looking after the seals are not severe and the in-
electricity to the shell and to earth. The increasing number of vestment of a few hours say twice yearly will pay dividends

280 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1 6 Aperaton of amtreq rcraE-a:-j:: .:

Specifically look at: . Sagging may indicate the envelope has been penetralec
Mechanical seals have a polymer fabric joining the sheet and liquid has saturated the foam fllling. Complete repiac-
metal shoeplate to the floating roof rim. This material has to be ment may be required.
slack to permit roof movement and therefore it tends to collect . Look after any weathershields. They can damage the seal if
water, corrosion products, wax etc in the loop. lf allowed to ac- allowed to deteriorate.
cumulate, the weight of debris can pull the shoeplate off the
wall, allowing vapour loss. Danger: With all liquid and foam filled seals think very carefully
before doing any hot work on the tank or floating roof. lt is
. With the passage of time, the rubber may deteriorate. Look very easy to forget even after cleaning and gas freeing that
fot cnzing. The joints should be checked for tightness. a large quantity of kerosene or vapour-impregnated foam
Take action as necessary may be prcsent in the tank. To avoid the risk of accidenial
. Examine the top ofthe metal shoeplates. lfcorrosion is evi- fire, these seals should removed before commencing any
dent, the lower shoe may be corroded. Insert a piece of hot work.
wood behind the plate and look down, next to the shell. Warning: Take care when changing the product stored in a
. The mechanical seal will not be tight against the shell at all tank, that the seal materials are compatible with the new
points; but if a location is noted where a large gap occurs, it product. Be especially wary of high aromatic liquids.
may indicate a problem with a pantograph hanger. This
Secondary seals will be mainly of the compression plate type.
would be unusual however.
Really there is very little to go wrong with then. There have of
. Aweathershield is a series ofoverlapped metal plates cov- course been a number of situations where compression plates
ering the primary seal at an angle of about 50 degrees. As have turned down where there is a large increase in rim gap.
the name implies, it sheds off some ofthe rainwaterand cor- e.g. at an outwards bulge in the tank shell. This problem is now
rosion products, protecting the primary seal. This will im- recognised and can be safeguarded.
prove seal life, regardless of the primary seal type.
. Do not be concerned if the secondarysealtip is not making
. A secondary seal does all that a weathershield does and contact with the shell over the entire circumference. Major
more. There are significant savings in vapour and the pri- gaps should not occur; but secondary seals act by interfer-
mary seal well protected. lndeed, in the EU, tanks in motor ing with the wind action and small gaps do not negate the
spirit service are legally obliged to be fitted with both pri- benefits.
mary and secondary seals.
. Look out for any signs of loosening of the rim attachments
Liquid-filled seals have a polymer bag containing a fluid, nor- and correct aS necessary
mally kerosene. These primary seals are usually found in ser-
vice with volatile products, such as gasoline, naphtha etc. The . Seal tip wear is unlikely to be found.
filling fluid may be contained within a separate tube or be held in . EU legislation requires that secondary seals be fitted to
the scuff band itself. These seals should have weathershields
floating roofs with motor spirit contents; but says nothing
or seconoary seats.
about operating the roof at a maximum level which retains
. Checkthe scuffband, which rubs againstthe shell, lookfor the secondary seal within the tank shell top. Routinely tak-
signs of deterioration. crazing etc. ing the secondary seal above the tank top is not recom-
mended. lfthis is the case, it is not performing its function.
. Check that the bag is containing fluid. lt should be pushing
against the shell. lf the bag is limp, it has lost its fluid the . Ensure that electrostatic grounding strips are in good condi-
stored liquid will be visible. In such a case, something has tion and contacting the shell. If not contacting, bend until
punctured the bag or it has deteriorated structurally. Loose contact is renewed.
bolts can be trapped against the shell; but by far the most
Double seals are much the same as the secondary seals just
frequent destroyer of liquid-filled seals is the neglected
described. The lower, primary seal is visible ifa piece ofwood is
weathershield, which was put there to protect the seal. The
inserted behind the secondary seal.
reason is that the weathershields are allowed to deteriorate
to such an extent that they can be broken off when the roof 16.5.10.2 Vapour loss
is at a high level in windy conditions. The broken piece fre-
quently falls into the rim space where it grinds away at the API 2517 gives guidance on vapour losses from the roof leg
rubber band until a puncture occurs and the fluid is lost. sleeves and the slotted guidepole etc. Support leg losses are
Weathershields must be kept in working order. individually small; however there are many of them and the po-
tential losses look significant afterthe major step offitting a sec-
. To recover a punctured seal bag, provided the polymer is ondary seal has been taken. Leg covering socks are available
not breaking down, obviously first remove the cause of the to deal with leg losses and are fitted during routine mainte-
puncture then replace the existing punctured tube, or if no nance.
tube was fitted originally fit a tube in the envelope. This al-
lows the repair to be made without removing the roof guide Slotted guide poles lose unexpectedly high amounts ofvapour
pole (this can be a problem with some liquidjilled seals, and a number of solutions are available. However, because of
which are made as continuous rings). Refill with the filling ihe need to allow free movement of the roof around the guide
pole and not to interfere with any internal liquid level floats, the
fluid. lt may be necessary to repair the scuff band if the hof
ang is extensive.
shrouding of the guide pole presents a number of difficult prob-
lems.
Foam-filled seals may suffer scuffing against the tank shell,
especially where the material may be creased. Creasing is Geodesic dome roofs presentan opportunityto resolve many
however inevitable since seals have to be made to allow for ofthe problems associated with open top floating roofs. The all
varying rim gaps (usually plus or minus 100 mm). aluminium roof can be fitted to existing open tanks with a mini-
mum of site disruption. lsolated from the elements, the floaiing
. Lookforworn, ortorn, envelope material. Dependingon the roof will no longer present painting problems, the seal losses
envelope material, patching may be possible, with a local will reduce by up to 90% and water ingress to the productwilt be
wrap-around to protect the patch. eliminated.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 281


16 Opention of ambient tempercture tanks

16.5.11 Effects of roof type on drainage Faults noted with these drains include decks flooding after a
prolonged spell of dry weather. The pans may dry out and the
The single deck, pontoon roof has a single layer of plating at its essential leg ofwaterseal lost. The same result can occurfor a
centre and this plating will be below the normal liquid level ofthe different reason; corrosion may perforate the water pan, allow-
stored product when the roof is afloat. For any type of articu- ing the product to flood onto the decK.
lated pipe or hose attached to a sump in a roof of this type the lf syphon drains are fitted, be aware oftheir limitations and per-
natural consequence of a leak or rupture in the conduit will be haps consider using stainless steel units. At any rate at least
that product will enter the conduit and flood the deck plating ensure they are primed with water after any extended dry
(particularly if the shell outlet valve is closed). Obviously, this is speIs.
undesirable and as a consequence, the upper end of the drain-
Syphon drains should be drained of water and plugged when
age conduit in pontoon roofsumps must be fitted with a suitable
the product temperature is belowfreezing, see Chapter 6, Sec-
non-return valve. Check this valve occasionally to see that it is
tion 6.5.8.
functioning. The sump top screen should be kept clear of de-
bns. Rapid product movement could sweep out the waterseal and a
cover is often fitted to prevent this.
Double deck roofs have the drainage sump located below the
upper deck, but above the product liquid level, and therefore
they do not require having non-return valves fitted in the sump. 16.5.14 Roof drain plug
When primary roof drains are closed in winter, measures
Pontoon type floating roofs carry a drain plug, nearthe roof cen-
should be taken to prevent the freezing of rainwater.
tre. This should be removed when the roofis outofservice. Any
articulated roof drain which may be present will operate at its
16.5.12 Overflow drains minimum capacity when the roof is at low level. Opening the
drain plug ensures that the roof legs will be protected against
Double deck floating roofs can permit waterto enter the stored damage by excessive water load whilethe roofis standing on its
product ifthe roof primary drainage system is not effective or is suooorts.
not opened to remove rainwater before the water level on the
Rememberto replace the plug before re-filling commences. At-
roof exceeds the small upstand on the roofand spills down into
taching a prominent streamer will trigger this action.
the product. These overflow drains are incorporated on double
decks which have not been designed to carry the full design
condition waterload. 1 6.6 Static electricity
The generation ofstatic electricity is a surface phenomenon as-
16.5.13 Collection sump details sociated with the contact and separation of dissimilar surfaces.
With hydrocarbon products, the degree of charge, generation
Before rainwater is disposed of from the roof, it has to be col and decay is also a function of the type and concentration of
lected at one or more points on the roof. Mainly the locus is the certain trace compounds such as asphaltenes, oxidation prod-
roofcentre. At this point there should be a sump, extending be- ucts, naphthenic and sulphonic acids.
lowthe deck plating leveland with a screening device and cover
The unit of conductivity normally used is picosiemens/metre,
to exclude large solids. Large roofs may have more than one
(ps/m). The siemens was formally known as the mho.
sump.
Hydrocarbon distillates with a low conductivity in the range of
Pontoon type roofs bytheir nature are flexible, and are intended
0.1 to 10 ps/m are strong electrostatic accumulators. Residues
to be so. This has consequential effects on drainage, on paint
and crudeoils have a much higher conductivity in the range 10"
condition and indeed on the life ofthe roof. Care must be taken
to 105 ps/m and any electrostatic charge generated is rapidly
in the construction ofthese roofs to ensure the centre deck is as
dissipated. Distilled water has a conductivity of about 103 pS i
flat and even as possible; however despite balanced welding
m. Unless otherwise stated the hydrocarbon products referred
techniques etc, inevitably such decks will be distorted to some
to in this Section will be of the first group, i.e. those of low con-
degree and ponding will occur. Where distortion is severe,
ponding tends to take place regularlyatthe same lowspots and ductivity which are capable of accumulating electrostatic
paint condition will deteriorate at these locations. Some roofs charge.
are fitted with under-deck stiffening rings in an attempt to con- The relaxation time ofa hydrocarbon product is that taken for its
trol deck distortion; though this is often not successful. Drain- charge to relax to 1ie of its original value and is inversely pro-
age to the central sump of pontoon type roofs is not perfect and portionalto its conductivity. For the above mentioned hydrocar-
some ponding is to be expected. bon distillates the relaxation time would be in the ranqe 180 to
1.8 seconds.
Efforts to overcome ponding have been made. Auxiliary piping
has been connected from low spots to the central sump. This The generation of static electricity in itself does not present a
has to be done carefully however, since it could lead to hard hazard unless an electricfield is produced in a flammable atmo-
spots where roof flexibility is impaired, rendering the roof un- sphere and that field can be discharged resulting in a spark of
able to cope with say tank floor settlement on landing of the sufflcient energy to cause ignition. The amount of energy re-
roof. The interconnecting piping could also present problems. quired depends upon the composition of the flammable
atmosphere.
Double deck roofs do not sufferfrom this problem to any degree
since their structure allows one or more oositive slopes to facili- For further information on this subject, see Reference 16.5,
tate drainage to central collection sumps. which is to be superseded by a new Standard, see Reference
76.6. Another most useful exposition on electrostatics is given
Syphon drains have to be correctly designed and maintained.
in Reference 16.7.
Their operation must be controlled thoughtfully, with a proper
understanding oftheir design and limitations. Changes of prod-
uct, from say gasoline storage to a high density liquid, or one 16.6.1 Precautions to minimise or avoid static
which could be affected adversely by water, e.g. MTBE, could charges
have consequences which must be considered in advance if
syphon drains are present. To minimise the build up of static charges when filling a tank

282 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


16 Operction of ambient temFeai-=
=-.t
with Class I petroleum, or Class ll or lll petroleum static accu- taken to exclude water from the bnk
mulator products, under conditions which may create a flam-
Regular inspections should be carried out to ensure that the
mable atmosphere in the iank ullage space by vaporisation or
vents on heated tanks do not become blocked by polymerisa-
formation of mist, refer to Section 16.3.1.
tion, sublimation or condensed ofthe product or by icing, with
the possible consequent overpressurc or collapse of the tank
16.6.2 Earthing and bonding under vacuum.

Electrical continuity must be provided on a tank to ensure that


any electrostiatic charge, or lightning strike can be dissipated to 16.8 Tank and bund drainage
earth. The following are examples of areas where electrical
bonding is necessary: 16.8.1 Tank drainage
. Between the tank fittings and valves, to the tank.
Water which is introduced into storage tanks containing hydro-
. Between the floating roof and the shell of the bnk. carbon products which have a s.g. less than that of water, will
. Between the rolling ladder, the floating roof and the shell of
accumulate on the tank floor, and if this is not drained off it will
cause corrosion ofthe tank floor plates and to the bottom part of
the tank.
the shell plating. lt is recommended that a water bottom should
. Between the floating roof seal and the shell of the bnk. not be mainiained in a storage tank as general policy; the only
. Between an internalfloating cover and the hnk. exception being in the case where a tank bottom is leaking, or is
suspected of leaking. Water may then be introduced on the ba-
. Between the flanged joinb of the tank service pipework. sis that the seepage of water into the ground is preferable,
. The tank shell must also be adequately earthed to earthing
rather than the stored Droduct.
rods or an earthing mat in or around the bund area. Watermaybe introduced into atankduring a discharge of prod-
uct from a ship, or pipeline which has been cleared by a water
Cautionary note: Where a tank has a cathodic protection sys-
plug, a practice which is not recommended. This water should
tem in place, then the method by which the tank is bonded and
be removed as soon as Dossible after the tank contents have
earthed must take account of the type of such a system.
settled. To ensure thatthe tank drain is closed off as soon as all
the water has been removed, a operator should be on stand-by
16.7 Heated storage at the drain point, unless an automatic waterdraw-off device is
fitted to the drain line. On completion ofthe operation, the water
Tanks storing heavyorviscous products and crudeoil maycon-
draw-ofi valve should be closed and locked and the water
tain heating coils or unit heaters through which steam, hotwater
draw-off connection blanked or otheMise secured.
or oilflows. Heating is applied to keep the viscosity ofthe prod-
uct low enough for pumping and sometimes to prevent the for- Water drawn from tanks should be passed through an intercep-
mation of wax. Suction heaters may be used if the product tor before passing to any external drainage system.
needs to be heated when actually being withdrawn from the
tank. 16.8.2 Bund drainage
Electrical tank heating has a limited application for example, to
small bitumen tanks. Coking ofthe bayonet type elements can The probability of a major leak from a well designed and main-
be minimised by ensuring adequate thermostatic control but tained storage terminal is low' particulady if the tanks are
can still pose problems. The Institute of Petroleum Bitumen equipped with an overspill protection system. However, the
Safety Code (Reference /6.8) should be consulted for further consequences of a spillage of flammable liquid are potentially
advice on this subject. catastrophic. Therefore measures to contiain spillages from
storage tanks are essential.
Heating coils should be of all-welded construction. Due allow-
ance must be made for expansion within the tank and for ade- Bunding is the method used to contain a liquid which has spilled
quate support and location ofthe coils. The coils are usually de- or leaked from a tank, lt is recommended that bunding is pro-
signed in sections which can be isolated individually from vided for all flammable liquids with a flashpoint of 55'C or be-
outside the tank. low and for products which are stored at temperatures above
their flashpoints. Bunding for stored products with a flashpoint
Consideration should be given to providing facilities such as a
of 32'C and below is required by HSE regulations, (see Refer-
low levelalarm to ensurethatthe heating coilorelectric heating
ence 16.9).
elements are always covered by the stored product. This is to
prevent overheating causing possible coking, froth-over or The purpose of bunding is to:
product deterioraljon, or at the worst, spontaneous ignition oc- . Prevent the flammable liquid or vapour from reaching igni-
curing in the vapour space. tion sources.
Storage temperatures should be thermostatically controlled to . Prevent the liquid entering the drainage or water systems
ensure lhat the stored product is held at a temperature which where it may spread to uncontrolled ignition sources.
will not cause a hazard from vapour evolution or spontaneous
ignition. . Allow the controlled recovery or treatment of the spilled
prooucl.
lf there is a possibility of water being present in the tank, the
temperature of the tank contenb should be kept either . Minimise the surface area of the product and so reduce the
size of any fire that may occur,
(a) below the boiling point of water, so that water bottoms
will not flash to steam with a consequent violent eruDtion . Preventthe spread of burning products which could present
within the tank, or a hazard to other plant or personnel both on and off the tank
(b) sufficiently high at alltimes to site.
ensurewater bottoms can-
not accumulate. . Prevent contamination of land and water courses.
lfa tank has to be operated in a temperature range which fluctu- Rainwater, and water drained from the tanks which accumu-
ates around the boiling point of water, measures should be lates in the tank bund area may be drained from the bund by

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 283

-t.
16 Operction of ambient temperature tanks

normal gravity drainage. In this case the area within the bund been removed and cannot be accidentally reintroduced.
should be isolated from any outside drainage system by an ex-
ternally-sited valve, kept closed unless the bund area is being Care should be taken to ensure that contractors and subcon-
drained of water under controlled conditions. tractors are also covered bythe permit or authorisation system.
Alternatively, the bund may be drained by means of a manu-
ally-controlled pump, or by a syphon drain, which passes over 16.9.2 Notice of issue of a permit
the top ofthe bund wall, and is primed by means ofa small man-
ually-controlled pump.
When repairs or alterations necessitate the dismanfling on site
Water from tank bunds should pass through a oil interceptor of important items of equipment, such as valves, pumps or
system before passing to any outside drainage system or wa- pipelines, or entry into tanks or vessels, specific notice should
tercourse. Provision may be made for a valved by-pass round be conveyed to all concerned and due acknowledgement
the interceptor, which would allow controlled flow ofuncontami- recetved.
nated water in exceptional storm conditions orforthe release of
fire-fighting water.
16.9.3 Working in tanks

16.9 Tank maintenance Hot work or other hazardous work should not commence inside
Health and safety law requires that plant and equipment is a tank or vessel which has stored petroleum until it has been
maintained in a safe condition. Storage tanks and all associ- emptied, isolated, cleaned and gas-freed. Also, it should not
ated equipment, including walls and fences, should be properly commence until it is confirmed that there is no oxygen defi-
maintained. Only personnel who are suitably qualified and ciency and the local areas have been cleaned so that there will
authorised, and who fully understand the hazards, should carry be no emission of product vapour on application of heat.
out inspection and maintenance.
lf repair work involving hot work from the inside of the tank is
It is good practice to list the component parts of the installation
necessary on welded seams or plates ofabove ground vertical
on a preventive maintenance schedule, containing details of tanks, holes should be carefully drilled, under cold work condi-
the scope and frequency of planned inspection and mainte-
tions and gas tests should be carried out. This will ensure that
nance work. Attention should also be paid to periodic inspection product or gas is not trapped between the tank plates and tank
of electrical equipment and operation of isolation valves. There
surround or foundation, before the hot work is allowed to
should be regular inspection and cleaning of interceptors, proceed.
bunds, vents, slop tanks, loading and unloading facilities, and
any buildings where flammable vapour may be present.
Fire-fighting equipment should be regularly maintained and, 16.9.4 Work on equipment in operation
where appropriate, tested.
A competent person should carry out examination of tanks, Repairs or alterations to plant and equipment in operation
pipe work and fittings. This could be a specialist inspection en- should not be permitted except for non-hazardous cold work
gineer employed by an insurance company or an employee carried out under carefully controlled conditions, e.g. repairs or
with the appropriate qualifications and experience. A written alterations to floating suctions, pressure and vacuum vents,
scheme of examination should be agreed between the user and float gauges, etc. Repairs or alterations should not be under-
the competent person, to include the scope and frequency of taken when tanks or vessels are being filled or emptied.
thorough examination. Intervals between internal examinations
should bedetermined usinga risk assessment approach based
on tank service, maintenance history and known corrosion 16.10 Personnel and equipment require-
rates. Intermediate external examinations should also be car-
ried out on above ground tanks. Records should be kept of all
ments
examinations, tests, modifications and major maintenance. Persons who are to carry outwork of maintenance or construc-
Schemes ofexamination should be in writing and should be re- tion in installations or depots, which are in operation, or which
viewed regularly. Hoses normally need to be examined and are storing petroleum products, should be fully acquainted with
pressure-tested at least annually, and visually inspected on all relevant safety regulations.
every day they are used.
Work of inspection, maintenance or extensions should
1 6.9.1 Permit-to-work systems be-planned and progressed by experienced and responsible
staff, who should ensure that all persons engaged in the work
observe all relevant precautions.
Many accidents have occurred while storage installations were
being maintained, modified or demolished. The main cause is When maintenance or extensions are being undertaken, con-
the introduction ofa source of ignition, such as a cutting torch or tractors'or casual labour is frequently employed. These per-
an unprotected light, to pieces of equipment where flammable sons may not befamiliarwith the normal precautions adopted in
vapours remarn. premises storing petroleum, and the necessary precautions to
It is essential that any work carried out on equipment, which be taken should be confirmed before commencement of the
may contain a flammable liquid, or vapour is covered by a per- work. When such labour is employed there should be strict su-
mit-work or similar system of authorisation. Permit procedures pervision to ensure that all relevant precautions are observed.
are described fully in Reference 16.10.
When mobile equipment, which is to be used for carrying out
A typical permit will specify: work of maintenance or extensions, is temporarily stationed in a
. the area to which the permit applies. hazardous area, it should be ofsuch construction that it is not li-
able to be a source of ignition and to cause a fire.
. the work to be done and the method to be used.
Contractors' equipment should not be allowed to be brought
. the time limjt on the permit.
into use without written authority of the installation or depot
. the precautions to ensure that allflammable materials have manager or his authorized representative.

284 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


16 Operation ot ambient temperatute tanks

16.11 Maintenance spection by personnel, wearing breathing apparatus, followed


by de-sludging, cleaning or similar operations. There should be
16.11.1 lsolation externalsurveillance to ensure thatrescue can be undertaken if
necessary
It ls essential, before any work is undertaken in a tank, that it is At this stage any activity inside the tank should not be capable
isolated. All lines and connections to the tank should be discon- of providing a source of ignition. Ventilation of the tank and gas
nected or blinded off and a blinds list should be made out. lt testing of the almosphere inside should be continued whilst
should be ensured that the tank is structurallv and mechanicallv de-sludging cleaning, etc. are in prcgress, since evolution of
safe for the proposed work and that it is isolated from ail gas vapours can be expected from the oil-wetted surfaces of
sources of motive power and electrical supply. the tank and from the disturbance of sludge and scale. lf gas
tests give a reading above 25% of the lower flammable limit,
16.11.2 Entry to tanks work should be suspended. lt should not be resumed until ven-
tilation has sufficiently reduced the vapour concentration to
make the tank safe for re-entry Lighting equipment should be
Tanks, which have not previously been gas-freed or tested for
without cables (battery operated or compressed air driven tur-
sufficient oxygen should not normally be entered for even
bine generator type) as approved for Zone I areas or for tank
non-hazardous work or inspection even when breathing appa-
ratus is worn. When entry under such conditions has to be cleaning purposes by the national authority responsible for
such certiflcation.
made for exceptional reasons, special authorization should be
given and the authorizing permit should set down the safe- Ventilation should be continued until the tank is gas free. Atank
guards to be taken, which include the wearing of breathing ap- is considered gas free when, afterthe removalofall sludge and
paratus, safety harness and lifeline and the posting of compe- loose scale, combustible gas indicator readings taken at five
tent persons outside the tank to ensure that rescue can be minute intervals overa 30 minute period from eductor exhaust,
undertaken if necessary tank manholes, roofgauging hatches and from several internal
It must be recognized that in these circumsiances the vapour
locations, particularly areas liable to vapour concentrations
(e.9. sumps, pipeline entries, pontoons, around{ube seals, tu-
concentration within the tank may fall to within the flammable
bular legs, water draw-ofi facilities) are consisten y less than
limits giving a further hazardous situation.
1% of the lower flammable limit.

16.11.3 Gas-ff,eeing
16.12 Tank cleaning
The gas-freeing of a tank, which has contained volatile hvdro- Cleaning oftanks which are not completely gas free should be
carbons, has two main ourposes: carried out only under the direct supervision of a comDetent
1) to eliminate conditions which might lead to a fire or explo- person. Such tanks should be kept as well ventjlated as possi-
ston. ble and all personnel entering should be equipped with suitable
2) to eliminate possible toxic ef{ects and asphyxiation of per- breathing apparatus and protective clothing appropriate to the
sonnel entering the tank. nature of the product and condition of the bnk.
In all cases appropriate tests should be carried out and work These factors will also determine the time for which personnel
progressed under the direct supervision of a competent per- may be permitted to remain inside, but it is recommended that
son. Gas-freeing and cleaning of tanks are interrelated and no in no case should this exceed 1.5 hours with a half-hour break
work of either gas-freeing or cleaning should start without an before re-entry The time in the tank must not exceed the safe
overall plan. limit for the breathing apparatus being used. While work is in
progress there should be a competent person stationed outside
Precautions must be taken to protect personnelfrom asphyxia-
the tank to ensure that rescue can be undertaken ifnecessary
tion and the effects oftoxic materials. After removalofthe prod-
uct, the tank must be isolated and then ventilated. ln the cleaning of floating roof tanks, it is important to ensure
that pockets of flammable material are not trapDed in the tubu-
Naturalventilation is slow and purging oflarge tanks bythe use lar roof support legs owing to blockage ofdrain holes by scale or
of steam is not practicable because of the large condensing
sruoge.
surface afforded by the tank shell and hence the difficulty of
raising the temperature in the tank space sufficienfly forthe ef- For Class lll petroleum tanks, special precautions are not nec-
fective removal of vapour. Furthermore, with steaminq there is essary provided that they are suitably isolated and adequately
also a risk of static accumulation on anv insulated co;ductors ventilated during cleaning operations, and that personnelwear
that may be in the tank. suitable protective clothing. However, ifhotwork is to be under-
taken, appropriate precautions should be observed.
Ventilation by an air or flameproof electric motor-driven fan or
an air or steam-operated eductor sited at a suitable manhole is During subsequentwork, tanks, which have been cleaned and
recommended for reducing the vapour concentration within a declared free of gas, should be checked frequenfly (not less
tank to a low figure relatively quickly (see R eference 16.11). All than twice daily) by an accurately calibrated combustible gas
equipment used for the venting of a tank must be correcfly indicator. Effective ventilation should be maintained throuqhout
bonded and earthed. the tank whilst work is in progress.
During the gas-freeing of a tank which has contained volatile 16.12.1 Tanks which contain, or have contained leaded
products, escaping flammable vapours may cause a hazatd- products
ous atmosphere outside the tank. In still atmosDheric condi- Tanks, which have at any time contained leaded products, re_
tions these vapours may travel beyond the limits of the usual quire special precautions. and the recommendations of the
safety distances. For this reason, rapid dispersal of vapour is manufacturers ofthe lead compound regarding procedure and
desirable. safety regulations should be rigidly ooserved.
With ventilation by an air orflameproof electric motor, combus- The accumulation ofrust, scaleand sludgefrom a cleaning op-
tible gas indicator tests show that its atmosphere contains a eration should be handled only in a wet state both in the tank
minimum of hydrocarbon vapour but, in any case, below25% of and after removal. Disposal should be in accordance with the
the lower flammable limit. The tank may then be entered for in- recommendations of the manufacturers of the lead comoound.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 285


16 ODe@tion of ambient temDerature tanks

IIISPECT('{ FREQUETCY
6ROUP sEivtcE EXIERIIAL EXTERIIAI NTEN A!
@rDmofls ROUNilE o.t lhd vlrull O.ldl.d vl3u.l
VISUAL lmludlnE ulh&nlc Inclrdhg ulraaoruc
lhiclmaar thhtt|..
lmootFl .to! .nd ?ool bolb|n |rd.irI
CULATE OOIE fre bdor'
E c a
Sbpr, cdfldte or agEssslv
cn6fi-rcab, ias !vdr. bfi6 3 I
(not iolernaly p|oldd)

Sl|L ai Gllrp I axcapl


slr.r! oaidt prctdod ar 7
h Aro.rdh C.5.3
Rfigtglld Sto.aga S6e App*dr F

Crud Ol 5 7 8 8 10
Fid oil, gr dl t !o oil,
dlld ol. ..u.8 ra(b. lnrl 3 5 a to 12 1A m
oa rF|l.alE|tr*a chcnhal!,
alrimrn lhuil
Jsl Al fiilly i{.maly l0 't0 15 t5 5 I
!|eded)
Liolt prodocb. t.osim.
gsolkE, c..d(.d rtdllh.., 5 7 t0 12
lrbdod $/atar (nol i srEly
7 'loleded)
Haled and i|3{latad LrJG, 3 3 6
l'loi!: Ext mal UT maaclr+
me.|b or ysrorrd b.do ol
.h.x d et aalscad locdbta
rourd rool d6rlot!6.y.

Climat cod63:
A ' Wann ..d humid, o.g rqical rnd subtlphsl.lel8
g= Temotalo dlmale wftn fquenl taln and |Nlnd
C ' Watrn and &v. e-s. d6n kEalixls

Commenta'
Th insDdbn freauencies indicated above ar for guidan@ only. After eadl detailed
extomal or intemql ingpedioo, tho Tenk Inlegrity Aeeeesor (nA) should detennlrE lhe
date for the nxi hspedion. This datr should ensure hat the rsjeclion limit EtatEd
ekewt|elt in thb publicalion arc nol sxceedd.
lf lhe insDec{ion resultts indk:ale a more pid deteriofation due to corosion or settement,
other sinilar tanks may need to be inspeded earliet. On the other hand, if the inspeclion
rssults arg tavourabl. an extension of the lr6peclion InteNal may be conBldered'

Figure 16.2 Inspection frequencies


Fram EEMUA publication 159

and preferably either by means ofincineration under controlled Reference should be made to the two principal Codes which
conditions or by chemical treatment. deal with this subject and are given in References 16.12 and
16.13
Care should be taken to avoid:
Both Codes give clear advice and recommendations for the in-
. skin contiact with products containing lead alkyls. spection and maintenance of storage tanks and guidance on
the frequency for inspections is also given. Figure 16.2 gives
. inhalation of vapour from products containing lead alkyls.
details of inspection frequencies in EEMUA publication 159.
. ingestion through contactofhands and finger nails with lead
sruoge.
Any tank which contains or has contained leaded products, in-
cluding leaded slops, should have notices permanently fixed
adjacent to all manholes reading:
.THIS
TANK CONTAINS OR HAS CONTAINED LEADED
PRODUCT. IT MUST NOT BE ENTERED WITHOUT
COMPLYING WITH THE PRESCRIBED REGULATIONS'
This notice should only be removed when the appropriate de-
contamination procedures, as required by the lead alkyl manu-
facturers, have been implemented.
Total segregation of leaded slops is also recommended

16.13 Tank inspection


Every tank installation should have an inspection regime in
place to ensure that the integrity of the tanks is maintained
Tanks suffer from internaland externalcorrosion and it is impor-
tant to monitor this to ensure that a maintenance programme
can be put in place to rectify any serious corrosion problems Figure 16.3 Intemalexplosion due lo hot work being performed

286 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


16 uperation of ambient temperature tanks

Figu re l 6.6 Resull of intehal vacuum condition


Figure 16.4 Roof plate conoson
The Storage of Flammable Liquids in lanks, The Health &
Safety Executive, HSE 176.
Tank maintenance, The Health & Safety Executive, HSE 176,
page 18, Section 9.
Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, Ch Z7 HMSO 1974
lsBN 010 543774 3.
Aguide to the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, L'l HSE
Books 1992 ISBN 071 760441 l.
The Health and Safety (Enforcing Authoity) Regulations 1989,
st '1989/1903, HMSO 1989, |SBN 011 097903 6.
The Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1992,
st 1992t2932, HMSO 1992, |SBN 01.1 025849 5.

16.16 References
16.1 Refining Safety Code Paft 3,lnstitute of petroleum.

Figu re 'l 6.5 Effects of over-pressurisation


16.2 European Model Code of Safe practice in the Handlina
of Petroleum Products - Paft : Design. Layout anid
Construction, Institute of Petroleum.

1 6.14 Operational malfunctions 16.3 Flammable and Combustible Liqui?s Code. National
Fire Protection Association. NFpA 30.
Figures 16.3 to 16,6 demonstrate whatcan happen when a tank
is mistreated. 16.4 Sfandard System for the ldentification of Hazards of
Material for Emergency Response, National Fire pro-
Figure 16.3 showsthe result ofan explosion inside a tank due to tection Association, NFPA 704.
hot work being performed on the tankwithoutthe correct safetv
precautions being observed. 16.5 Code of Practice on the Control of Undesirabte Static
Electricity, The British Standards Institution, BS 5958.
Severe corrosion of the roof plates, found after the cladding and
thermal insulation was removed from the roof of a tank. is 16.6 Code of Practice on the Control of tJndesirable Static
shown in Figure 16.4. Electricv The British Standards Institution No. pD
cLC/TR 50404.
Figure 16.5 shows the result of a severe over-Dressurisation.
the roof-to-shell joint has ruptured and a roofstructure bracket
'16.7 The lnternational Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Ter-
has punctured the shell. m/nals, (ISGOTT), www.seamanship.co.uk.

The result ofan internalvacuum condition, is illustrated in Fig- 16.8 Bitumen Safety Code, Institute of petroleum
ure 16.6. This 29 m diameter tank was beinq steam cleaned. 16.9 The Highly Flammabte Liquidsand Liquefied petroleum
The operatives had covered up the roof vendto keep the heat casses Regu/ations 7922, HSE booklet HS(G) 51.
in the tank and when they left the tank for a tea-break, thev '16.10 Guidance on permit-to-work systems in the petroleum
closed the shell manhole again, to keep the heat in the tank,
- rndustry, HSE Books 1997, |SBN 07.1 761281 3.
Of course, during the tea-break, the iank atmosDhere cooled
down, the residualsteam condensed and the resultino vacuum
16.11 Marketing Safety Code, Patt 2, lnstituteof petroleum.
sucked the tank in! 16.12 Users guide to the lnspection, Maintenance and Relair
of Aboueground Veftical Cylindricat Sfee/ Slorage
Ianks, The Engineering Equipment and Nlaterials U!-
16.15 Further guidance ers Association (EEMUA), No. 159: 2003.
The following publications provide useful guidance on iank op- 16.13 Tank lnspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruc-
eralton. flons, API 653 3rd Edition, December 2O0l .

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 287


288 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
17 Low temperature storage tanks

This chapter ranges widely overthe subject ofthe storage of industriargases in riquid fonn. The
gases stored in this way are risted and the significant properties described. pressurised
systems for the storage of these gases which can be liquefied bv the imposition of oressure
alone are described and their advantages, disadvantages and'economics are discusseo.
Semi-refrigerated storage is an intermediate means of itoring certain types of gases failing
between fully pressurised ambient temperature systems and fu[y refrigeriied storige at orius-t
above atmospheric pressure. Lasfly the most popular system of fuliy refrigerated'storag'e is
described.
The history ofthe development of lowtemperature storage systems is interesting. ltcombinesa
tangled web of factors and incidents involving the increasing understanding of the low
temperature behaviour of various metals, increasing demands for improved safdty of storage
facilities, the developments in the design codes and otherregulatory requirements, the reaction
to various accidents and incidents and, particurarry for LNG and to a re;ser extent for LpG and
ethylene, a dramatic increase in the overall capacity of terminals and the corresponding
increase in unit tank capacities. The various factors influencing the capacities oftanks leads to a
brjef review of what is currently common practice.
The development ofthe design codes, especia[y in Europe, has red to the cateqorisation of row
temperature storage lanks into single, double and full containment. The devel6pment of these
categories emanated from increasing awareness of safety considerations both ior the terminal
sites themselves and forthe surrounding areas. These three main categories relate to above
ground vedical cyiindrical storage tanks. The various codes provide quite specific
definitions of
what is.required for each category. The membrane type oftank which was developed in France
0y technrglz and which has its origjns in the marine transport of products such as LNG is
described. This type of tank is applicable to above ground and in_ground storage systems.
spherical designs of tanks for rand-based, fu||y-refrigerated storage of products such as LNG
have been proposed for many years but have not tet been utiriied d;spite the attraction of
tactory-based construction and transport to the job site in one piece. These arso have their
te_chnicalroots again in the marine transport of LNG. A smafl numberof rowtemperature tanks
ofabove ground, vertical cylindricalform have been constructed with both inner and outertanks
constructed from prestressed concrete. These designs were developed by the preload
Company in the USA,(now.kading as Cryocrete lnc.). Th;se use a nu mbei of interesting design
teatures, which are described.
ln-ground ljquefied gas storage systems divide themselves into two groups. The first group is
the vertical,cylindricartanks, usuafly incorporating a membrane typiof riner, a rigid iniuraiion
system and a concrete caisson wall are expensive, when compared with their a-bove ground
equivalents, but in certain circumstances provide attractive advantages in that their incieased
perceived safety arrows croser tank spacing, which in turn makes bet'ier
use of the area of rand
available This is especiarry important for areas where expensive recraimed rand in or crose to
urban areas is involved. This type of tank is usuafly confined to the storage of LNG at marine
terminals.
The second type of in-ground storage ls the cavern type. unlined caverns are constructed in
rock at depths where the static waterpressure from a carefully controlled ground watersystem
slightlyexceedsthe pressure required to maintain the stored p;oduct (usuaiiy LpG) in riquid form
at ambient pressure. A number of novel liquid gas storage systems involving floaiing
or gravity
based structures most usually directed at LNG are alsodescribed.

Contents:
17.1 The low temperature gases
17.2 General
17.3 Historical background
17.4 Tank sizing considerations
17,5 Storage systems and containment categories
17.6 Single containment systems
17.7 Double containment systems
17.8 Full containment systems
17.9 Membrane tanks
17.9. 1 Development history
'17.9.2 Detailed description of land-based
membrane system

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 289


17 Low temperaturc storcge tanks

17.9.2.1 The metallic membrane


17.9.2.2 The insulation system
17.9.2.3 The outer tank
17.9.3 Comparison of above ground membrane tanks and conventional tanks
17 .9.4 fhe lined mined rock cavern initiative for future LNG storage

17.10 Spherical tanks


17.11 Concrete/concrete tanks
17.11.1 History of cryogenic concrete tanks
17.'11.2 Details of concrete/concrete tanks
17.1 1.3 Arguments for and against concrete/concrete tanks
17.12 In-ground tanks
17.12.1 In-ground membrane tanks
17.12.2 Cavern slorage systems
17.12.3 Ftozen ground systems
17.13 Novel solutions
17.14 References

290 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


17 Low temperaturc storage tanks

17.1 The low temperature gases


The gases commonly stored in liquefied form are listed in Fig-
ure '17.1 together with their significant properties.
The commonly used term Liquefied Petroleum cas (LPG) re-
fers to a mixture of normal butane, jso butane and propane in
any proportion. In some ofthe American Codes (i.e. NFpA 58)
LPG is referred to as LP-Gas. This isjust a quirk ofthese Ameri-
can Codes and does not have any other significance.
Similarly the term Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) refers to a mix-
ture of methane with smaller proportions of ethane and smaller Figure 17.2 Typical LNG composiiions
again proportions of LPG gases. Small quantities of other
gases are also found in LNG, in particular nitrogen. The For a while semi-refrigerated systems were considered and
makeup of an LNG is not constant, but varies within relatively many were constructed. These eased the problems by reduc-
close limits from a single geographic source and varies more ing the design pressures but were an unsatisfactory half way
widely between diferent geographic sources. house for a variety of reasons.
An example is given in Figure 17.2 which compares the differ- Eventually, partly driven by cost, safety and increasing storage
ent compositions of LNG from sources in Trinidad, Algeria and unit capacity requirements, the standard solution for the stor-
Oman. age of large quantities of these products was as fully refriger-
ated liquids in vertical cylindrical hnks.
17.2 General Initiallythese tanks followed the oil industry practices, being es-
sentially oiltanks with insulation. This is perhaps a litfle simplis-
The various low temperature products listed above can be
tic. These new tanks had to contend with the low temperature
stored in a number of different ways.
metallurgical requirements together with new problems of
Products such as buiane, butadiene, propane, propylene and avoidingfrost heave in the underlying ground and coping witha
ammonia can be mainiained in liquid form bythe application of higher design pressures (usually from 70 mbar upwards) than
pressure alone. Consequently in the early days of the petro- had been the case for ambient tanks. The first tanks were ofsin-
chemical and chemical industry when these products were re- gle containment type. As time progressed and safety require-
quired in relatively modest quantities, the favoured means of ments increased, there was a move to superior forms of con-
storage was by using pressure vessels. As the quanfities be- tainment and this subject will be discussed in later Chapters.
came larger, the pressure vessels became larger and because
of the pressures required (i.e. for propane storage a design would be untrue to say that pressurised storage ofthese prod-
It

pressure of around 15 bar is required) more expensive. A typi- ucts has ended. In certain quarters spherjcal vessels for the
cal LPG storage facility using spherical vessels is shown in Fig- storage of modest volumes of LPG are still being constructed.
ure 17.3. Spherical pressure vessels commonly used forthese However increased safety standards togetherwith the memory
products began to become problematic at around 5000 m3 ca- of some spectacular and very public accidents make this form
pacity. A spherical vessel for this capacity would be some 22 m of storage unpopular and in many instances a prohibited prac-
in diameter and for propane seryice would have a shell thick- Itce.
ness of around 50 mm. This is an expensive construction and To accommodate the requirement for the storage of modest
clearly other storage systems were required. quantities ofthese products, an alternative arranoement known

I'lame ChemlBl MoI. Bolling Latent Liquid Gas Vol, of


lormula iryeight point heat ot denslty d6nsity gas
l;quid liberated
byl msot
liquld
(exP.to
15"Crt
1 bar)
g/mol kcarkg kdm' kdm'
N-Butane CrHro 58.123 - 0,50 92.100 601.40 2.7@ 239
lso Butane CrHro 58.123 - 11.70 87.600 593.40 2.420 236
Ammonia NHg 17.030 - 33.35 327.1o..c 682.00 0.905 910
Butadiene CrHo 54.091 - 4.50 99.800 650.40 2.550 279
Propane CsHa ,14.096 - 42,05 101.750 502.00 2.423 3ll
Propylene QHa 42.080 . 47.72 104.600 613.90 2.365 388
Ethane qH6 30.069 - 88.6 116-74n 546.r19 2.054 432
Efrylene czHr 28,0t{ - to3.72 115.330 567.92 2.08s 442
Methan6 16.043 - |61.52 121.860 422-62 1.819 630
Oxygen o, 31.SS9 - 1A2.97 ' 50.869 1,141.00 4,475 854
Nitrogen N2 28.013 - 19s.80 47.459 808.61 4.614 691
Argon 39.94a - 185.86 38.409 'I,392.80 5.8s3 835
NOTE 1 Uquld petroleum gass (LPG) is a general tem for commercjal butiane, pFpane and thek
mlxtJre in any proposition.
NOTE 2 Commercial butano is a mixture in N-Bulan6 and isobuiane with smallcontenl of propano and
Denlane.
NOTE 3 Commercial pFpan is propane whh small content of ethane and bltane.

Figurc 17.1 Gases commonly stored in liquefied form


Fron prEN 14620 - 1,Iabl6 A.1

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 291


17 Low tempercture storage tanks

Figure 17.3 Atypical fully-pressu sed LPG storage facility Figure 17.5 An example ofa semi-refrigerated and fully-refrigeraled ethylene
slorage
as "mounded storage" was developed. This consists essen- Courtesy of whessoe
tially of horizontal pressure vessels installed on a bed of sand
and backfllled with sand. An example ofsuch a facility ls shown
in Figure 17.4. This system seems to meet with approval from 1 7.3 Historical background
even the most safety conscious operators.
The first thoughts regarding the liquefaction and transport of
gases go some way back in time. In 1915 Godfrey Cabot pro-
posed the shipment of LNG by means of river barges. In 1937
SirAlfred Egerton proposed thatthe British gas industry which
was at that time based on the carbonisation ofcoal, should ex-
tract a fraction ofthe methane contentfrom the coal gas, liquefy
it and store itforsubsequent evaporation for peak shaving pur-
ooses.

The firstattempt to store liquefied naturalgas in bulkon a com-


mercial scale was not promising.

The facility at Cleveland, ohio, was the first LNG peak shaving
plant ever built. It was constructed to provide an economical
and reliable energy source during the winter months for the lo-
cal industry Much of this local industry was related to World
War ll munitions manufacture. The LNG storage part ofthe fa-
Figurc 17.4 l,lounded storage
cility consisted of one vertical cylindrical tank of 4,100 m3 ca-
Coutlesv of Whessoe
pacity and three 2,000 m3 sphericaltanks and had been in ser-
A further development, most usually applied to the storage of vice for some four years with no apparentoperating problems.
propane, is "cavern storage". In this system a series of unlined
horizontial tunnels or caverns are constructed at a depth which The tanks had been filled to their full capacity in readiness for
depends to some extent on the level of the local water table the iorthcoming winter when, on the afternoon of October 20'i
The principle of the system is that the vapour pressure of the 1944, the cylindricaltank suddenlyfailed releasing all of its con-
propane is slightly over balanced bythe ground water pressure. tents into the nearby streets and sewers of Cleveland. The re-
Hence no propane leaks out ofthe system and modest quanti- sultant gas cloud ignited immediately and a fire ensued which
ties of water leak into the caverns. This water is continuously engulfed the nearby tanks, residences and commercial estab-
pumped out and used to prime a series of header pipes which lishments. After about 20 minutes, with the initial fire having
ensure the continuous and constant ground water pressure. nearly died down, the spherical tank closest to the cylind cal
This system is again the subject of later Chapters. tank toppled over and released its contents. The 2,000m3 of
LNG immediately evaporated and ignited. In all 130 people
Products such as ethane and ethylene cannot be maintained in were killed and 225 injured. The area directly involved was
liquid form bythe application ofpressure alone, but can be suc- about 2 square kilometres of which an area ofaround 120 hect-
cessfully subjected to a combination of pressure and low tem- ares was completely devasbted.
Derature. There are some examples of this form ofstorage but
Although sabotage was first suspected, a thorough investiga-
in generalthese products are stored in fully refrigerated form.
tion showed that the accident was due to the low temperature
An example ofethylene stored in both the fully refrigerated form
embrittlement of the 3.5% nickel steel inner tank shell. 3.5%
and the semi-refrigerated form is shown in Figure 17.5. The
nickel steel is now known to be susceptible to brittle fracture at
semi refrigerated storage is in the spherical vessel which is
LNG temperatures (around -160 "C). In addition the tianks were
double walled, i.e. an aluminium alloy sphere suspended within
an outercarbon steelsphere. This solution posed some serious
situated close to a heavily used railroad and a bomb body
stamping plant. ltwas considered that excessivevibration ema-
design and construction problems.
nating from the railroad engines and the stamping plant proba-
The remaining products (LNG oxygen, nitrogen and argon) are blyaccelerated the crack propagation from some smalloriginal
always stored as liquids in the fully refrigerated form. defect in the innertank shell. The outercarbon steeltankwould
have cracked on contact with the emerging LNG

292 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


17 Low temperature storage tanks

The accident was aggravated by the lack of adequate diking of the technical advances and served as a model for the LNG
around the tanks, the ability of the LNG to enter the local sew- imporuexDort terminals to follow.
age system and the proximity ofthe plant to nearby residential
Two further significant accidents played their part in determin-
areas. The reason for the second release of liquid from the
ing the nature of future low lemperature storage facilities.
spherical vessel was found to be due to the fact that the sup-
porting legs of the sphere were not fitted with fire protection. The first was the explosion in the LNG tank for Texas Eastern at
The prolonged exposure to the fire weakened the legs of the Staten lsland in the IJSA. This tank was of a novel design. The
sphere to the pointwhen they buckled causing it to topple over. new design evolved from original work carried out in 1958 and
1959. A new research and test programme was implemented
This event cast a blight overthe storage of bulk refrigerated liq- between 1960 and 1966. A test tank of 6.1 m in diameter and
uids and of LNG in particular, until '1958 when the bulk storage 8.5 m in height was constructed and successfully tested. Most
of LNG was re-examined as a part of the beginning of the LNG tanks up to that time were of the single containment type
world's LNG trade. Over the intervening years a great deal of with aluminium alloy or 9% nickel steel inner tanks within a
research work was carried out on the low temperature behav- perlite insulated carbon steelouter tank. The Staten lsland tank
iour of various metals and the lessons of this sad event gave had a aluminised mylar layer in contact with the product liquid,
rase to serious considerations ofplant layout, fire protection and
supported by polyurethane foam thermal insulation which was
other safety related sub.iecb. in turn supported by a thick concrete wall mounded with gravel
The next step in the development ofthe LNG storywas the pio- and earth. The details are shown in Figure 17.6.
neering scheme to transport gas in liquid form from Lake The tank, which entered service in March 1970 and which was
Charles, Louisiana, USA, to Canvey lsland in the United King- also for storing LNG from Algeria, was found to be suffering
dom. A liquefaction plant built for an eadier barge transport in- from leakage of LNG through the mylar liner into the supporting
vestigation wasiaken to Lake Charleswherea 2000tonne LNG PUF, concrete wall and the supporting earth beam. Despite
tank was constructed. An ex-liberty ship, The Normafti, was this, the tank remained in service until January 1972. It was
procured, converted into an LNG carrier of 5000m3 capacity then decommissioned and there followed a protracted
and renamed The Methane Pioneer. Al Canvey lsland two gas-purging period. The tank was under repair when the acci-
1000 tonne capacity perlite insulated aluminjum alloy LNG dent happened. lt is thoughtthat residual heavy ends (propane)
tanks were constructed. On 20th February 1959 The Methane had accumulated behind the liner either within the PUF or be-
Ploneerdelivered a cargo of 2020 tonnes of LNG to Canvey ls- hind the concrete wall and that some of this liquid suddenly
land after a voyage from Lake Charles of22 days and 18 hours made its way back into the tank and was ignited by various
duration. non-explosion proof tools being used for the repair work. The
As Dennis Rooke, whowas a crew member on that originalvoy- explosion caused the concrete roof to fall killing the 40 men
age and who rose to become Chairman of British Gas, re- working insidethetank. This event brought to a haltalldevelop-
marked, "thus was the LNG industry born". The Methane pio-
neerwas to make a further seven voyages carrying a technical
team between Lake Charles and Canvey lsland, and a great
deal of data and experience was gained which was pivotal to
the further development of this industry This part of the history
is described in considerable detail in Refe rences 17.1 and 17.2.

Following thls pioneering work, the first commercial LNG


scheme was set up. A liquefactjon plant and loading terminal
were constructed at the port of Azew in Algeria. British Gas or-
dercd, The Methane Princess from Vickers Armstrong (Ship-
building) Ltd at Barrow-in-Furness and The Methane progress
from Hadand and Wolff in Belfast. The carriers were 27,000m3
in capacity designed to deliver 12,000 tonnes of LNG per vov-
age.
So successful was The Methane Pioneer that only modest
changes in deiail were required to be made for the larger new
ships. The Methane Pflncess, built in 1964, remained in service
until 1997, delivering cargoes of LNG (and two of Lpc) from
l Arzew to Canvey lsland. Le Havre (the French equivalent of
ll Canvey lsland), Barcelona, Cartagena, Huelva, Fos sur lvler
f and Staten lsland. The old ship sadly ended its days being cut
] up for scrap on an Indian beach.
The original contract was for 700,000 tonnes of LNG Der vear
for 15 years. At the receiving end of the chain, five new 4000
tonne perlite insulated tanks were built to add to the two 1000
tonne tanks constructed earlier. The intention was that gas in
liquid form would be transported by road to regional distribution
?
centres where it would be regasified and delivered to consum-
ers.
t
3 One such distribution centre was built at Ambergate, in
v Derbyshire. Unfortunately for the new LNG industry in the UK,
the discovery of large amounts of oil and gas in the North Sea
meant that the development was not continued and direct
transmission of the newly discovered gas into the National
Transmission System at Bacton and St Fergus took its place.
Despite this, theAzeW/ Canvey lsland project pioneered many Figure 17.6 The Texas Eastern LNG tank at Staten tstand

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 293


17 Low tempercture storage tanks

ments using this form of liquid containment and this is still the There are a few mounded LPG storage facilities with total ca-
case looay. pacities ranging up to 20,000 m3 (involving a numberofsmaller
Secondly an accident occurred at the Qatar Lpc terminal. On pressure vessels) and some spherical vessels with individual
the 3 April 1977 an explosion and subsequent fire totally de- capacities up to 4,000-5,000 m3, but these are comparatively
stroyed the $43 million plant for the processing and storage of unusual. Fully refrigerated storage tanks for these products
liquefied propane, butane and pentane at Umm Said in Qatar. come into their own (depending upon local circumstances)
Seven people were killed and 13 injured. Apart from an emo- around 5000 m3 and become increasinglythe onlyviable option
tive report entilled "Frozen Fire" (Reference /23), litfle has as the volume to be stored increases. The maximum size of re-
been published about this event, which is strange given the tre- frigerated tank for these products is established by a combina-
mendous effect that it had on the future development of low tion of the following:
temperature storage systems. The protracted legal process The maximum lower shell course thickness Dermitted bv
which followed the accident also did little to help identifl/ the the design Codes
central cause for the failure, only that a sudden and cata-
strophic failure of the shell of the propane tank occurred which Seismic design considerations
in turn led to the failure of the other tanks on the site.
The relative economics of larger storage units
Amongst the main suspects were:
- Operating flexibility consideration (i.e. two smaller tanks
BS 4741:1971(Reference 17.4) The British Standard for may be preferred to a single larger tank for reasons con-
the storage of liquids down to -50'C, which was in place at nected with malfunction or majntenance etc.)
that time. This Standard included a new and complex
method of material selection together wjth a partial rather Safety considerations
than full height hydrostatic test requirement. Local and international regulations
Incorrect operation possibly involving over filling or over Current practice suggests that 80,000 m3 is large for an LPG
pressurising of the iank.
tank with 50,000 m3 being a more usual size. For ammonia
- Poor fabrication and inspection Standards 60,000 m3 is a big tank with 30,000 m3 being a more normal
chotce.
- Sabotage
For the gases which cannot be maintained in liquid form by the
Despite the failure to isolate the prime cause of the failure, a application of pressure alone, the field divides into three
numberof major operating companies led by Shell (References groups:
17.5 and 17.6) began to give further thought to designs which
would reduce the possibility of brittle fracture and reduce the - Oxygen, nitrogen and argon
consequences ofa failure if it did occur. The earth berm remote
from the Qatar propane tank had singularly failed to serve its - Ethane and ethylene
purpose ofcontaining the spilled liquid following the failure. The _ LNG
Gas Research Institute sponsored a programme of research
into materials better able to resist initiation or propagation of Oxygen, nitrogen and argon are not required by industry and
brittle failure. other users in the same quantities as the other liquefied gas
products. An air separation plant will commonly have refriger-
Much of this work was presented at the Brugges Conference ated tanks with capacities of 500-2,000 m3 for liquid oxygen
(Reference 17.7) in 1984 and at the TWI Seminar in Newcastle (LOX) and liquid nitrogen (LlN) storage and smallerfor argon if
(Reference ?7.8) in 1986. BS 4741 was amended shortly afrer it is involved. Atthe consumer end ofthe supplychain, factory-
the Qatar accident to enhance the fracture toughness require- manufactured vertical cylindrical double-walled and vacuum-
ments of the steel materials and to institute a full heioht hvdro- insulated vessels of a few hundred cubic metres are commonlv
static test for the tanks. installed.
The desire of the industry to move away from single contain- For ethane and ethylene a big tank would be 50,000 m3 with
ment systems towards double and full containment was ham- 20,000-30,000 m3 being a more common size.
pered by the lack of a suitable Standard. The existing American
and European Standards were all based of the philosophy of LNG is in a class of its own when tank capacity is concerned.
single containment for both LPG and the colder products such Because of the volumes of LNG traded around the world and
as LNG. Consequentlythe Engineering Equipment and Materi- the size of carriers involved, (several currently being con-
als Users Association (EEMUA) in London was approached to structed of around 145,000m3 capacity), the trend has been to
form a committee to consider rules for the full range of coniain- build biggerand bigger storage tanks. The unitstorage costper
ment options and in 1986 oublished EEMUA Publication 147 m3 of LNG tends to decrease as the tank capacity increases
(Reference tZ9). After a suitable period of time this document and this is illustrated by Figure 17.7, the resultofa studyforsin-
was passed to the British Standards Institution, BSl, who in gle and full containment type tanks. The basis of this compari-
1993 published BS 777711993 (Reference 77.70). This is more son is given in Reference 17.11.
fully discussed in Section 17.5. Currently, the biggest above ground free-standing LNG tank is
in Senboku in Japan. This is of 180,000m3 capacity and is de-
scribed in detail in Reference 17.12. In-ground membrane type
17.4 T ank sizing considerations
tanks have also been constructed at 200,000m3 in Korea and
Forthe gaseswhich can be maintained in liquid form bythe im- Japan and one of these at the Ohgishima LNG Terminal of To-
position of pressure alone, the maximum size of refrigerated kyo Gas in Yokohama is the subject oI Reference 17.13. A
tank is established by a combination of the following: smaller number of large above ground tanks tend to make
The practicalities of pressure vessel design better use of the available site area when compared with a
larger number of smaller tanks. Comparisons using the tank
The relative costs of pressure versus iiquefied storage spacing rules from NFPA 59A willfeature elsewhere in Storage
Tanks & Equipment, to makethis point. Factors influencing the
Safety considerations
maximum size of the free standing, above ground type of LNG
Local and international regulations tanks are:

294 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


17 Low temperature storcge (anks

r.60 down to -50 "C and 8S5387 (Reference tZt5) for products
l zO
down to -196 "C in the UK.
These Codes only consjdered single containment systems.
E There were no Codes or regulatory guides which provided a
framework for the design of other containment systems. The
formation of the EEMUA committee, largely at the instigation of
Shelland chaired byJohn deWitof Shell, was aimed at provid-
9 0.60
ing a document which filled this void.

P o.qo
ln 1986 the EEMUA recommendations were published and at
lastthe industryhad some rulesforthe design and construction
0.20 ofotherforms ofconiainment. As has been mentioned earlier.
the EEMUA recommendations were passed to BSI after a suif
0.00
able period of time during which the opinions ofthe industry re-
50 rm 150 2@ 250
garding the suitability of the document were sought and found
Capacity x 1000 cuM to be generally favourable. BSI converted the EEMUA recom-
mendations into BS 7777, a Code which closely followed the
Fjgure 17.7 Unitstorage cosl per m3 of LNG
spirit of the EEMUA document.

- The maximum inner tank lower shell plate thickness oer- The definitions of the various categories of containment sys-
mitted by the design Codes tems for conventional vertical cylindrical tanks are given below
and are those developed by EENIUAand repeated in BS 7777.
Foundation considerations EN1473 (Reference tZ 76) also made an attemptto define the
Seismic design considerations various storage systems and followed the spirit ofthe EEMUA
definitions but added definitions for systems not considered by
- Economic considerations EEMUA. i.e. membrane and concrete/concrete tanks.

- Operating flexibility constrainb The early designs of double and full containment systems for
both LPG and LNG considered a sudden or unzipping failure of
The reference list of LNG tanks designed and constructed by the inner liquid containing tank. The loadings on the inner sur-
Whessoe, given in Figure 17.8 clearly shows the changes of faces of the outer iank were considerable and were evaluated
tank capacity with the passage of time. lt is also interesting as it as a result of test work caried out by N.J. Cuperus, again of
shows the changes in the materials used and in the storage Shell (Reference 17.1n. fhe apprcximately six-fold increase
containment categories adopted. This subject is further dis- in the static liquid pressures caused by the sudden failure ofthe
cussed in Sections 17.6, 17 .7 and 17 .8. primary container was an onerous design condition and as a re-
sult, the early full containment tanks had outertanks which con-
sisted of reinforced concrete walls whjch were supported by an
17.5 Storage systems and containment external earthen embankment. This arranqement is illustrated
categories in Figure 17.9.
This Section relates to vertical cylindrical tanks of the conven- Whjlst this system provided admirable protection for the tank
tionaltype (i-e. those with a metallic self-supporting innertank). arising from external incidents such as missiles and fire scenar-
As has been described earlier, the Qatar incident gave the in- ios, it was expensive. lt required a Iarge site area to accommo-
dustry cause to reconsider its practices regarding the use of date the slope of the embankment and gave rise to complica-
tions with the base heatjng system which had to be extended to
single containment systems for the storage of lowtemperature
products. The design Codes in force at the time ofthis incident cover the tank walls as well as the bnk base.
we re AP | 620 (Refe rence 1 7 .1 4) (Append ix R for prod ucts with Research and testing programmes coordinated as descrjbed
storage temperatures down to -60 oF and Appendix e for prod- earlier by the Gas Research Institute were undertaken to look at
ucts down to -260 oF) in the USA, and 854741 for products the abilities ofvarious steels in their prevention offracture initia-

OUIER EflELL
col{cRtE UAU|D
lr{B)
OUTLEI
1 2390 ALUMNIJM CARAONSTEE! N N SINGIE

9000 CARBO'.ISTEEL N N SNGTE


CANvEYSLAND ALUMNUM CARBON STEEI N SNGIE
":*
AMBERGATE 1 12000 CARBON'sTEEI N N SINGLE

PARTIIGION 1 50000 N CAREONSTEEL N N StIGLE


PARTNGTON 2 50000 N CARBON SIEEL DOUALE
AVONMOUTH 1 50000 N ALUIIII{IUM CARBONSTEEL N DOUBIE
EIE OF GRAIN 1 & 2 2 50@0 N 9% NEKEL CARBONSTEEL Y N DOUBLE

AVONMOUTH 3 1 50000 N 9% N'CKEL CARBONSTEEL N DOUBI.E


DEPA 2 65000 N 9% NTCKET PRESTRESSED CONCRE'E NPII N

IRI{DAD 2 1020@ N 9% NEKET PRESTRESSEO CONCRETE N

1 105000 9% NPKI PRESTRESSD CONCRETE N

DABHOL 3 160000 9% NICKEL PRESTRESSEO CONCRETE N

Figure 17.8 List of LNG ianks designed and built by Whessoe


Couftesy of Whessoe

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 295


1 7 Low temperaturc storage tanks

covered in much deiail in References 17.20. 17.21, 17.22and


17.23.
An essential element of the reasoning which led up to the intro-
duction ofdouble and full containment systems was the consid-
eration oflire scenarios which could occurfollowinq the failure
of the primary liquid containment.
Presuming that the low remote bund wall served its purpose in
containing the leaked liquid, a single coniainment systems as il-
I Iustrated in Figure 17.10 would give dse to a large diameter
I shallowpoolof litiuid at localgrade levelin the event offailure of
the primary container. The subsequent, almost inevitable, pool
Figure 17.9 Typical early full containment tank fire would be large in area, low in elevation and heat from the
courtesy of Whessoe large area ofground within the remote bund wallwould ensure
rapid evaporation of the liquid product, an altogether undesir-
tion and fracture arrest aspec6. The result was that sudden
able event.
failure ofthe inner liquid containerswas considered a non-cred-
ible event and the difiicult design condition was removed. This ln the case ofa double coniainment system again as illustrated
meant that the outer tank could become a prestressed concrete in Figure '17.10, the outer tank would contain the leaked liquid.
structure without the embankment, with consequent mst and Again the probability is that the pool of liquid would catch fire,
other savings. but in this casethe poolfire is smallin diameter, is elevated well
above local grade and the liquid evaporation rate is slower, a
Acontributoryfactor to this reduction in the design requirement
much less dangerous sltuation is that pertaining to single con-
wasworkcarried out on the damping influence ofthe perlite and
tiainment.
glassfibre blanket matedalswhich made up the shellinsulation
of most LNG storage systems and some other lowtemperature Forfull containment systems as illustrated in Figure 17.10 the
systems. This work is described in References 17.18 and leakage of the primary contiainment resulG in the liquid being
t7.t9. The story of the gradual evolution of the low tempera- contained by the outertank and the vapour being contained and
ture storage systems has been told a number of times and is disposed of to a safe location (i.e. a flare stack). This eventcan

Sne boundary

Single conlalnmenl lank

DolbL co.hint|.rn bnk

Fullconlalnmsnl lank
Full conlanrnenl l.nl

Figure 17.10 Postfailure fire scenarios for single, double and fullcontainment Fgure 17.11 Postfailure vapour dispersion scenarios for single. double and
ianks fullcontainmenl tanks

296 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1 7 Low temperature storage tanks

not result in a poolfife. Atworsta relief valve tailpipefire could partment of Transport (DOT) and the European Committee for
be considered. Fire scenarios of this type have a considerable Standardisation (CEN). These will be discussed in some detail
influence on other equipment on the site (for example neigh- in later Sections of Sforage Tanks & Equipment.
bouri-ng storage tanks, vaporising equipment etc.) and on the
layout ofthe site itselfto ensure that risks from fire exposure to
people and property outside the site boundaries is kept to a 17.6 Single containment systems
minimum. The deflnition taken from BS 7777 is
Aseparate but related subject which plays a part in safety and Single containment tank
plant layoutdiscussions, is vapour dilution. lt is clearly sensible Eithera singletank or a tank comprising an innertiank and
to arrange for the mixture of product vapour and air which an outer container designed and constructed so that only
crosses the site boundary to be at a concentration below the the inneriank is required to meet the low temperature duc-
lower flammable limit of the parlicular mixture. In this way the tility requirements for storage of the product.
vapour cloud can not be ignited as it passes across the site
The outer contiainer (if any) of a single containment stor-
boundary into the uncontrolled area outside. The influences age tank is primarilyfor the retention and protection of in-
thatthe differenttypes of containment have on this matter are il- sulation and to constrain the vapour purge gas pressure,
lustrated in Figure 17.11. but is not designed to contain refrigerated liquid in the
These topics are the subject of various regulatory documents event of leakage from the inner tank.
and Codes from such bodies as The Institute of Petroleum (lP), Asingle containment tank is normally surrounded by a low
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), The US De- bund wall (see below) to conhin any leakage.
Figure 17.12 is a reproduction offigure 1, taken from BS 7777.
The parallel deflnition from EN 1473 (Refe rence 17 -21), whichit
should be remembered is only relevant to the storage ofLNG is:
Single containment tank
Asingle primary container and generally an outer shell de-
signed and constructed so that only the primary container
is required to meet the low temperature ductility require-
ments for storage of the product.
The outer shell (if any) of a single containment storage
tank is primarily for the retention and protection of insula-
tion and to contain the purge gas pressure, but is not de-
signed to contain refrigerated liquid in the eventofleakage
from the primary container.
An above ground single containment tank shall be sur-
rounded by a bund wall to conbin any leakage.

d)

Figure 1 7.1 2 A single containment lank Figure 17.13 A single coniainmeni tank
Frcm 857777, figure 1 From EN 1473,figure Hl

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 297


1 7 Low tempercturc storage tanks

- Blast loadings
Provisions required to protect single containment tanks from
these loadings such as active flre protection, increased tank
spacing, structural modification and enhanced pressure relief
valve system capacity must be taken into accountwhen consid-
ering the overall costs of single containment systems.
The most commonly accepted rules concerning the capacity,
height and distance of bunding systems are given in NFPA 59
(Reference 17.24) for LPG and NFPA 59A (Refere nce 17.25)
for LNG storage systems.
Figure 17.15 shows the bund heighvdistance relationship from
References 17.24 and 7225. This criteria is also usually fol-
lowed for double and full coniainment svstems as described in
Figu 17.14 Typical single coniainment LNG tanks Sections 17.7 and 17.8.
Courtesy of Pift4es Moines, lnc

Figure 17.1 3 is a reproduction of figure H l taken from EN 1473. 17.7 Double containment systems
It is clearthatthe two documents are in close aqreement on this The definition taken from BS 7777 is
matter.
Double containment tank
Figure 17.14 shows typical single conbinment LNG tanks.
Adouble coniainmenttank is designed and constructed so
It isinteresting that EN 1473 makes ita mandatory requirement that both the inner self-supporting primary container and
for all categories of containment that there shall be no penetra- the secondary container are capable of independenfly
tions ofthe primary and secondary (where provided) container containing the refrigerated liquid stored. To minimise the
walls or bottoms. This makes the use of in-tank DumDs a man- poolof escaping liquid, the outertank orwall is located at a
datory requirement for these tanks. distance not exceeding 6m from the inner tank.
The American storage tank design Codes have never tried to The inner tank contains the refrigerated liquid under nor-
define the containment categories in the same way as the Brit- mal operating conditions. The outer tank or wall is in-
ish or European Codes. API 620 in both its low temperature tended to contain the refrigerated liquid product leakage
Appendices R and Q deals with what are essentially single con-
tainment systems. The rules from the API Code are commonly
used to design the metallic components ofstorage tanks which
fall into other containment categories
Similarlythe American Codeswhich coverthe land-based stor-
ageand handling of LPG and LNG do not consider containment
in the same way.
Single containment storage systems are the cheapest from of
storage for refrigerated liquids. In addition to the potentially di-
sastrous consequences of a failure of the primary liquid con-
tainment, they are also vulnerableto damage from a numberof
other loadings including:

- Radiation from adjacent tanks or equipment fires

- Inplant generated missiles

- Explant generated missiles

Nob$
.oirEnslon Xshal oqlal o. qcd h qlmof drnensloo yplrg trg
eqtvalnt tFad In LNG ol lh prcsg|r h dr6 y{or space abovg
tho fouH.
ea@l: Whdl tl' holgfn ot tto.{k or htrDltrtV wrtt b aqrftl to,
or gleeler lha4 tl?e fir&nrm frqdd btol, X nay ltsw arv r&E
. ohpnsion X b hs dshnco ft!.n f|e hnsr wall ot fio contalnr b t|g
do6t froe ol he dko or lnpoundk|g wall
. otrcrFbn l.b t|e &tmco tom tls mdlnnm teld lsvl h he
conhlnsr b th6 lop ot thg dlka oa lrpoundrg vrarl.

Figure 17.15 Bund/distance relationship Figure 17.16 Double containment tank


ftom NFPA 59 and 59A From BS 7777 :1993, figurc 2

298 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


17 Loq tengate gd4E 7E

from the inner iank, but it is not intended to contain any The primary container coniains the reftilecated lilil l'}-
vapour resulting from product leakagefrom the innertank. der normal operating conditions. The seconday cs>
tainer is intended to contain any leakage of the
Figure '17.16 is a reproduction offigure 2 taken from BS 7777.
refrigerated liquid, but it is not intended to contain y
The'parallel definition from EN 1473 (LNG only) is; vapour resulting from this leakage.
Double containment tank Note: Examples of double containmenttanks are given in fig-
ure H3.
Adouble containmenttiank is designed and constructed so
that both the inner self-supporting primary coniainer and Note: Figure H3 does not imply that the secondary containr
the secondary container are capable of independently is necessarily as high as the primary conbiner.
containing the refrigerated liquid stored. To minimise the Figure 17.17 is a reproduction offigure H3 taken from EN 1473-
poolofescaping liquid, the secondarycontainer should be
located at a distance not exceeding 6m from the primary Again it is clear that the two documents are in close accord on
conGtrner. this matter. lt is interesting that the Codes have decided that
the point where single containment becomes double contain-
mentwhen the remote bund wall moves towards the liquid con-
tainer and becomes taller in accordance with the NFPA59 and
59A rules, is reached when the spacing between the bund and
liquid containing tank is 6m. This seems a sensible choice and
the tank shown in Figure 17.18, which is one of a series of
50,000 m3 capacity LNG ianks builtfor British Gasas partofthe
UK peak shaving system, uses 6 m for this spacing. Figure
17.19 shows two LPG tanks with prestressed concrete outer
tanks. The spacing between the steeland concretetanks is less
that 6 m in this case.
The design of the bund wall, which for the single containment
types oftanks was a low structure made from earth, reinforced
earth or reinforced concrete, has now become a more demand-
ing task. As has been mentioned in Reference 77.5, it is now
not usualto require the bundwallto be designed forthe sudden
failureofthe liquid container. Despite this, the gradualiilling of
the bund resulting from a slow leakfrom the innertankwhich is
considered fullto capacity at the time ofthe incident is still a de-
(r8ulatd) manding criteria.
Some bund walls are of metallic construction. The majority of
bund walls are of prestressed concrete. The "Preload" exter-
liq'rd nally wire-wound type of wallwas a popular choice for this mm-
ponent for many years. The circumferential prestressing was
applied to the concrete wall by an externalwinding of a single
strand whilstthe vertical prestressing was applied by macalloy
bars cast into the wall. Figure 17.20 shows the wire winding in
progress for such a wall.
The alternative arrangement for bund walls uses embedded
tendons for the circumferential prestressing. lt is not usual to
apply a vapour linerto the innersurfaces ofthis concretewallso
that in the event ofthe inner tank failure, the permeability of the
Figure 17.17 Double containment tank
concrete wall would allow small volumes of product vapour to
From EN 1473, tlgue H3
escape. This is not viewed as posing a problem. The construc-
tion of thejoint between the base slab (usually reinforced con-

Figuro 17.18 A 50.000 m3 capacity double conbinment type LNG tank for Brit-
isi cas at the lsleof Grain Figure 17.'19 Two 50,000 m'double containment tank for LPG
Courtesy of Advantica Courtesv of Antwen Gas Terminal Nv

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 299


1 7 Low tempemture stomge tanks

Figti.e 17.2'la Double containment type tank


FiguE 17.20 Wire winding of a concrete bund
Courtesy of Preload lnc.

crete) and the bund wall has been the subject of debate and
controve rsy for a numberofyears. The prime contenders being
the siiding, pinned and fixed joints. This is the subject of more
deiailed comment in Chapter 18.
The space between the bund walland the liquid containing tank
(Figure 17.1 7) or the insulation protection outer tiank can either
be lefr open to the atmosphere or be closed off by the applica-
tion ofsome type ofweathersealing roof. The open topped wall
alternative must be fiUed with a suitable means ofremoving the
rainwater or the flre water which could accumulate in this
interspace and which could cause problems of corrosion or
floatiation. This water removal system should not prejudice the
ability of the outerwallto perform its product liquid containment
duties in the event of an inner tank leak or failure.
Consequentlythe tank illustrated in Figure 17.18 had a system
which mllected the interspace rainwater into a substiantial
sump and pumped it out over the 19m high bund wallto a suit-
able external drain. The closed top alternative must be fitted Figure 17.21b Full containment lype tank
with a suitable wealherproof and long lasting roof whilst still
having provision for removal of any water accumulation in the better value for money, i.e- better containment at the same
interspace. This solution has been used most frequenflyfor liq- once.
uid ammonia storage and the problems associated with the
provision of a suitable roof are discussed in Chapter 21.
17.8 Full containment systems
lf double contiainment systems are to be used forthe storage of
producb whosevapour is heavierthan air at ambient tempera- The definition taken from BS 7777 is:
tures (i.e. LPG), careful consideration must be given to the Full containment tank
monitoring of the space between the tank and the outerwallfor
A double tank designed and constructed so that both the
the potentially dangerous accumulatons of product vapoul:
innertank and the outertank are capable of independenfly
Double containment systems are quite unusual these days. containingthe refrigeratedliquidstored. Theoutertankof
This may wellbe due to the relative costs ofdouble vs full con- wall should be 1m to 2m dishnce from the inner iank.
tainment systems. lf the two tanks shown in Figure 17.21 are
The inner tank contains the refrigerated liquid under nor-
comDareo:
mal operating conditions. The outer roof is supported by
- The inner 9% nickel steel tanks are the same the outer tank. The outer tank is intended to be caDable
both of coniaining the reffigerated liquid and of conholled
- The insulation systems are the same venting ofthe vapour resulting from product leakage after
a credible event.
The concrete walls are similar
Examples of fufl containment tanks are given in Figure ,17.22,
- The base slabs/base heating are similar
which is a reproduction of flgure 3frcmBS 7777.
- The outershell in 17.21a is deleted
The parallel definition taken from EN 1473 is:
- The wall and base liner in 17.21b is added
Full containment tank
- The in-tank pumping system/fittings/pipework are similar A tank designed and constructed so that both self-sup-
porting primarycontiainerand the secondarycontainerare
- The roof/suspended decks are similar
capable of independentlycontaining the refrigerated liguid
The overall result is that both solutions willcost aboutthe same stored and forone ofthem its vapour Thesecondarycon-
and iake similartimes to construct. Consequently itwould seem tainer can be lm to 2m distiance from the Drimarv con-
the obvious choice to choose the full containment oDtion as tainer.

3OO STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


LgLt
"= "t ::: ---= :-'
17

The primary container contains the retrigeraie.3 :, : ,--


der normal operating condilions. The outer.3c' s s-:_
ported by the secondary container. The seca-::-.
container shall be capable both of contarning re .e-::j-
ated liquid and ofcontrolled venting ofthe vapou..es_: -.:
from product leakage after a credible event.
Figure 17.23 is a reproduction of figure H4 from EN 1473.
Full containment represents the final step in the transfomato-
ofthe bund wall. Initially a low and distant bund of earth or reii-
forced concrete impounding a shallow pool of product liquicj ci
large d iameter open to the atmosphere (single contarn merr . :
has moved inwards to become a tall bund wall constructec
close (i.e. < 6m) to the primary liquid contajnment, and ir-
pounding a much deeper pool of product liquid of much smaller
diameter, again essentially open to the atmosphere (doubie
containment), and now it has further moved inwards to become
the outer tank itself, spaced between .1 and 2 m from the pri-
mary liquid containment, and impounding a deep pool of prod-
uct liquid of small diameter which is no longer open to the atmo-
sphere (full contiainment). As has been mentioned eadier this
change brings about significant improvements in safety. The
post leakage tank fire is no longer considered a credible event.
Most storage facilities or terminals house a number of storage
tanks and the adjacent tank fire has always been one ofthe ma-
Jor tank spacing criteria. This is explici y recognised by EN
'1473 which in Tables 1 and 5, shown in Figure
17.24, indicates
the maximum radiation exposure figures and failure scenarios
for difierent types of storage tanks. lt should be noted that to
get into the full containment category this Code will require the
tank to have a concrete roof.
It is generally agreed that the elimination of Denetrations
through the inner and outer tank walls and bottoms is a orereo-
uisite of full containment systems. These connections would
Figufe 17.22 Examples offull containment tanks represent points ofweakness in the containment from the point
Fron BS 7777 : 1993, figure 3 of view of mechanical and structural design, as well as provid-
ing the undesirable possibility of bypassing the containment
system via local damage to liquid connections outside the outer
containment envelope and before the first isolation valve in the
connected pipeline. This in turn requires the use of roof pene_
trations for all connections to the tank and the use of in.tank
pumps for liquid removal. These pumps and their associated
equipment are discussed further in Chapter 19.
For LNG storage in particular, where the outercontainer is con-
structed from concrete, two further safety enhancing elements
have become very much de rigueur.
The first is the secondary bottom. This is laid beneath the in-
ner containment bottom, eitherabove orwithin the thickness of
the base insulation. lts function is to prevent possible leakage
from the inner tank bottom from penetrating the base thermil
insulation and causing a cold spot on the reinforced concrete
base slab, be this ofthe on-ground or elevated tvpe. A localised
cold spot in an otherwise ambient temperature base slab of this
type brings the possibility of through-thickness crackinq and
consequent product leakage. This is discussed further in ahap_
ter 18.
The second is the bottom corner protection system. Leak_
age of product from the prlmary container may well result in a
warm outertank base slab and a cold outerwall. This combina-
tion of events, partjcularly for tanks of the fixed bottom corner
design (the majority of tanks currenfly in service or under con_
struction), will result in shear stresses in the lower part of the
concrete outer wall which cannot be adequatelv catered for in
the design without the creation of through thickness cracking.
The application of a Section of thermal insulation to the lower3
to 5m of the inner face of the outer wall, impermeable to the
leaking product liquid, will convert some of ihe shear to local
Figure 17.23 Examples of full containmenl ianks
bending and provide a designable situation. Thjs is also dis_
Fron EN 1743, tigurc H4
cussed in Chapter'18.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 301


1 7 Low temperature storcge tanks

Eqolpmc tDrtdcbourdory UirluoD


tharod
rrdhtlon
tlur (tw/E2)
Concrete outr surface of adiacent 32
storage tar {9: unpnrtectedl) 3) or
behind thermal protectionz)
Metat outr surface of a4iacent storage 15
tanlG: unprptectedu, or bhind thennal
protectironz), (see P3)
The outer sudaces of a4iacent prssue
siorage vessls and process facilities
(see P.3)

C,onhol room, Maintnance workshops,


laboratories, warchouss, etc. (see P.2)
Adninistative buildings (see P.2)
'r For prestressed concrete tanks, maximum radianon nuxes
may be determined by the requirements given in ]{.6.2.
2) Such
facilitjes are protFctFd by means of walcr sprays, fire
proofing, radiation screens or similar sysiems.
3l Prolaction is pmvided
by spacinA alone.

lypc of tlrt All metdllc or PreatrGs3ed


only wlth
metdllc roof (lnclurtlnS
corcrcte roo0
Single contalment l)
Double containnnt
F\ll contaiuneni 3)

Membrane
Clyogenic conqete 2)
Figure'17.25 Examples of membrane tanks
Sphedcal r)
From EN 1473, figure H5
Ingtomd 2) 3)
brane tanks as a separate category and gives the following
Scensaio to be conddercd
definition:
r) ln ctse of collrpse of rh t r* pdnEry contaimr, fue pool
size conspon& to dre lrnpounding area. "Amembranetank should be designed and constructed so
2)In crs of cotlqe of the tank rcot, the 6re pool size that the primary container, constituted by a membrane, is
concsponds to the secondsy c
taintr capable of containing both the liquefied gas and its vapour
3)
No colap6e lB considerd for thee tank b?es. under normal operating conditions and the concrete sec-
ondary container, which supports the primary contiainer,
Figure 17.24 Exposufe figures and failure scenariosfor differcntlypes of should be capable of containing all the liquefied gas stored
in the primary container and of controlled venting of the
From EN 1473. tables 1 and 5 vapour resulting from product leakage ofthe innertank. The
vapour of the primary container is coniained by a steel roof
liner, which forms with the membrane an integral gas tight
17.9 Membrane tanks containment. The action of the liquefied gas acting on the
primary container (the metal membrane) is transferred di-
The membrane solution for low temperature liquid storage is rectly to the pre-stressed concrete secondary container
widelyused in the fields of marine transport, above ground land through the load bearing insulation.'
based systems and in-ground land based systems. lt also has
Examples of membrane tanks from EN 1473, figure H5 are
excellent prospects ofapplications in floating storage and grav-
shown in Figure 17.25.
ity based storage systems, a number of which are being ac-
tively considered at this time. The Japanese RPIS Code considers membrane typetanks but
is only applicable within Japan.
A further potent'al area of application is in below ground lined
mined rock caverns. A pilot scheme is currently underway in The forthcoming Eurocode on low temperature tanks (prEN
South Korea and this is described;n Section 17.9.5. 14620) which will replace BS 7777 has also chosen to recog-
nise membrane tanks and provides detailed rules forthe design
The essential difference between the membrane system and and construction of such tanks.
the conventional systems for liquid storage lie in the separation It is interesting just how similar the developments of the marine
of the structural support function for the product liquid and the transport (i.e. liquid gas carriers) and the land based storage
liquid tightness function. This separation and how it is achieved systems are. In gas carrier design there are two main
is discussed in 17.9.3 below. The relative merits ofthe conven- philosophies:
tional and the membrane systems are discussed in '17.9.5
below The use of rigid tanks supported within the structure ofthe ship.
Spheres of the Moss Rosenburg type or prismatic tanks such
lvlembrane tanks forabove ground use are notwithin the scope as those designed and manufactured by lHl. A tanker of the
of codes such as API 620 ot BS 7777. NFPA 59A includes spherical liquid contiainertype is illustrated in Figure 17.26. The
membrane containers in its definition section but provides little protrusion ofthe spherical tanks through the deck of the ship is
more information on the subject. EN 1473 recognises mem- clear to see. The spherical tanks require support at or close to

302 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


17 Low temperature storage tanks

tural support for the liquid could cleady not be supplied by the
flexible membrane itself, but came from the structure ofthe ship
itself by way of the load bearing insulation system. This insula-
tion was in the form of panels consisting of two layers of ply-
wood sandwiching a layer of a suitable insulation material. The
initial patents for this liquid storage system were filed in 1964.

During the same period of time, a second French company was


busy developing a different membrane concept. The company
was Gaz Transport and its solution to the problem was to use a
membrane made from a 36% nickel-64% iron alloy which was
originally patented by lmphy in 1896 and is more commonly
known as Invar. As well as being physically strong and capable
of being welded, this material has the added merit of possess-
ing an almost zero coefficient of thermal contraction across a
wide range oftemperatures. This makes it idealfor ihis purpose
Figufe 17.26 A carrier ofthe sphedcal iank type in thatalmost no thermal contraction stresseswould be present
and consequently no corrugations would be required. This liner
again needed structural support from the ship's structure via
the load bearing insulation. The original patents for this system
were filed in 1963 and 1965.

The technology for both of these liner concepts was licensed to


a number of shipbuilding companies around the world. Up to
date the LNG tanker fleet consists of 141 shiDS. 68 of the two
membrane types, 71 using the Moss spheres and two using a
different rigid self-supporting tank concept. There are 54 ships
under construction of which 38 are of the membrane type and
16 ofthe Moss sphere type. Options existfor a further 25 ships
of which 20 are ofthe membrane type and 5 ofthe moss sphere
type.

The first move to adopt the membrane system for land based
storage systems was taken by SN Technigaz in the early '1970s
with two above ground liquid ethylene tanks of relatively modest
capacity being completed in France in 1972. Technigaz contin-
Figute 17.27 A carrier oflhe membrane tank type ued to develop its system and completed two 120,000 m3
Courtesy of Universal Shipbuilding Corporation above ground LNG tanks for Gaz de France at Montoir de
Bretagne in 1980 and ten 100,000 m3 above ground LNG tanks
their equator and are relatively inefficient in making use of the
at Pyeong Taek in South Korea from 1986 to 1998.
available space within the ship's hull.
The use of membrane technology supported bythe structure of The move from marine to land-based storage systems for the
the ship. This solution is much more efficient in terms of space Invartype of membrane did not come about and the reasons for
utilisation. The liquid containing tanks can be tailored to the this failure to move into whatwould seem to be attractive alter-
shape of the ship's hull. The distribution of loads from the tanks native markets is something ofa mystery There appears to be
to the (usually double hulled) ship's structure is more efficient no technical reason whythis transition was not made. Perhaps
than is the case for spherical or prismatic rigid tanks. Atanker of it comes down to no one being interested in pursuing the mat-
the membrane type is illustrated in Figurc 17 .27 . ter The French Code for lowtemperature above or semi-buried
These two philosophies are very much reflected in the land tanks (Reference 77.26) clearly suggests that the Invar mem-
based storage systems where the conventional self supported brane system is suitable for this purpose and indeed provides
tanks and the membrane solutions compete for territory Usu- specific rules and requirements for the design and construction
ally both are confined to the vertical cylindrical form for struc- of this type of membrane. The Technigaz membrane system
tural reasons. The ability ofthe membrane system to take other was the subject of a number of improvements around 1990.
shapes will bring possible advantages in the floating and GBS These improvements addressed amongst other things various
areas of future activity. concerns of its customers and costs of the system. These are
described in Section 17.9.3.
17.9.1 Development history
The next move in the historical develooment of the membrane
system was its adoption for use in in-ground storage tanks.
The early work on membrane systems was directed towards
Again the system chosen was the Technigaz membrane. The
marine gas carriers, and in particular to LNG carriers. The first
technologywas licensed to various Japanese and Korean com-
liquid gas carriers had self supporting tanks and it was consid- panies. One of the Japanese licensees (NKK) has completed
ered that this did not represent an ootimal solution in terms oJ
20 in-ground membrane tanks up to the end of2002. Other Jap-
space utilisation.
anese companies (l\y'H1, lH I and KHI) have developed their own
Starting from a Norwegian patent, the French company SN membrane systems for land-based in,ground use.
Technigaz developed a stainless steel membrane system. This
membrane had two sets ofcorrugations running at right angles Currently the biggest LNG tanks in the world are of the
to one another. These corrugations acted like bellows allowing in-ground membrane type at Negishi and Ohgishima terminals
the membrane to accept the thermal contraction stresses, in Japan. In-ground membrane tanks are described in more
which would cause tensile failure in a flat membrane. The struc- detail in Section 17.12.

STOR,AGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 303


1 7 Low temperature storage tanks

17.9.2 Detailed description of the land-based mem- 3ru@fuc^no'|'Mu


brane system

17.9.2.1 The metallic membrane


The material used forthe stainless steelcorrugated membrane
is generally 1.2 mm thick ASTM A 240 type 304. The corruga-
tions are of two different sizes and are created at right angles to
one another. The manufacturing techniques to produce this
complex component are cold forming or stamping. The cold
forming method is considered to have certain advantages in KNOT OEIAIIs
terms of residual stress and plate thinning.
Figure'17.28 shows a typicalabove ground tank wall panel after
manufacture and indicated the sizes ofthe large and small cor-
rugations. A wall panel would be approximately 3280 mm x
1150 mm in size. The seriously clever element ofthe syslem is
the detailed design and configuration ofthe area where the cor-
rugations cross. This is termed "the knof'. The pitch between
the largersized corrugations is 560 mm. These run verticallyon
the tank shell and radially on the tank bottom. For the smaller
size of corrugations the pitch is 650 mm. These run circumfer-
entially on both the tank shell and bottom. The design method-
ology for the membranes of above ground tanks will appear
publically in a code ior the first time in the forthcoming
Euronorm for low temperature tanks.
For in-ground tanks, most of which are either located in Japan,
Korea and Taiwan and have been designed and constructed by
Japanese contractors, the details ofthe system is slighfly modi-
fied. The membrane is 2.0 mm thick at the behest ofthe Japa- Figure 1/.28 Typicl above ground tank wail panel, indicating lhe targe and
nese utility companies and the national regulaiory authorities. smaI corrugatons
The corrugationsare of similarform butare biggerand pitched Coutesy of SN Technigaz
at 1360 mm in eitherdirection and areformed using thestamp-
ing method instead of the cold forming technique.
For marlne service the membrane is again 1.2 mm thick, but
due to the more onerous fatigue environment caused by cyclic
elongation due to the ships hull deforming, the corrugations are
more closely pitched at 340 mm x 340 mm.
Quite recently the Technigaz membrane has undergone some
improvements as mentioned above. The main change relating
specifically to the metallic membrane is that the corrugations
are now pitched at 680 mm in both directions and advantage
has been taken of the stainless steel manufacturers ability to
produce largersheets. Fora large tankthis latterchange willre-
duce the number of sheets in the tank wall by some 23% and
the lengths of welded seam by 8%. The bottom of the tank
where the layout of the corrugations was previously radial and
circumferential, has now been modified such that the standard
square pitch panels can be used for the majority of the base
with transition pieces derived from marine practice used at the
bottom corner. For a large tank this will reduce the length of
welded seam by some 39%.
The method of securing the membrane sheets to the support-
ing thermal insulation js by way of stainless steel inserts which
are anchored jnto the plwood inner facing of the insulation
panels. The membrane is then welded to these inserts through
holes in the membrane itself. This is illustrated in Figure 17.29.
The wall-to-base detail of the membrane system involves the
use of special panel components and the top of the wall is
sealed to the concrete wallor its liner by a suitable detail. Fig- Figure 17.29 N,{ethod ofsecuring the membrane sheets lo supporting thermal
ures 17.30 and 1 7.31 show typical details ofthe bottom and top
corner of an LNG tank. The membrane system has a limited Courtesy of SN Technigaz
ability to cater for local loads such as may be caused by the
welding. The development ofthe automated welding system for
need to support or guide pump columns or stilling wells. This
the installation of membrane sheets is an essential part of the
necessitates special details such as that illustrated in Figure
overall system. lt is based on a TIG method with no added filler
17.32.
metal. The welding system is supported by ra'ls which attach to
Figure 17.33 shows a viewinside a large LNG tankof the mem- the membrane liner surface at the knots using a specially de-
brane type and Figure 17.34 shows details ofthe corrugations signed clamping device. Post weld inspection is carried out af-
and "the knot'. The joining of the membrane sheets is by lap ter installation of the complete membrane by conducting an

304 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


17 Low tempenturc storage tanks

F
--l

Figure 17.30 The wall-to-base detail of lhe membrane system


Coulesy of SN Technigaz

Figure 17.32 Special quirements forsupportng tocal toads


Courtesy of SN Technigaz

Figu.e 17.31 Containment sysiem bottom-to-wa junction


Courtesy of SN Technigaz

ammonia test. This is a technique commonly used in the nu-


clear industry and consists of introducing a mixture of 20% am- Figure 17.33 Aview inside a large LNG membrane type tank
monia vapour and 80% nitrogen into the insulation space. Any Courlesy of JFE Engineeing Corpontion
leakage is detected on the inner surface of the weld seams by
the application of a sensitive paint which changes colour from
yellowto blue in the presence of ammonia vapour. Helium leak
testing is also used as an overall leakage test for the Invar type
LNG carriers and for repair testing on the stainless steel
membrane type of LNG carriers.

Unlike the free sianding types of primary containers, the mem-


brane which serves as the primary tightness barrierfor the liq-
uid but not as its structural support, is not subject to a hydro-
static test. A hydrosbtic test of the prestressed concrete outer
tank is required and this can be to a water equivalent to 1.25
times the weight ofthe innertank levelcontents up to the full liq-
uid height in addition to a pneumatic test of 1.2S tifles the de-
sign pressure. This test is obviously carried out prior to the in- Figure 17.34 Details ofthe corrugations and 'the knot',
stallation of the insulation and of the membrane ibelf. Coulesy of JFE Engineeing Corporation

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 305


17 Low tempenturc storcge tanks

During service the insulation space behind the membrane is The roofinsulation is glassfibre laid on and supported by a sus-
filledwith nitrogen gas. This insulation space is constantly mon- pended deck of either the flat plate type or the corrugated sheet
itored for the lifetime of the tank for traces of the stored product and structural section type.
vaoourwhichwould indicate a leak in the membrane liner. In the
For a 100,000m3 LNG tank, a typical design heat leak for a
event that such an indication were found, the nitrogen flow rate, membrane type tank intended for an import terminal would be
which in normal operation is very low, would be increased to between 0.08% and 0.1% ofthe full tank contents per day. For
sweep the insulation space to attempt to ensure that the gas an exportterminal heat leaks ofbetvveen 0.05% and 0.08% are
concentration is maintained below30% oJthe lowerflammable possible.
limit for the oroduct in question.
As is the case for the membrane itself various other improve-
17.9.2.2 The insulation system
ments have been made to the system:
Forthe tank base and the tank wallthe basic insulation materi-
als are either polyvinyl chloride foam (PVC) or polyurethane . The vaDour barrieron the innersurface ofthe concrete tank
foam (PUF). The densities of the materials used vary depend- was improved in its crack bridging abilities bythe addition of
ing upon the liquid and vapour loading in the different parts of a glass cloth layerand in its applicability by an improvement

the tank. For PVC foam densities of between 65 and 90 kg/mJ in formulation.
are typical whilst for PUF densities of between 65 and . The insulation panelsize hasbeen increased in linewiththe
'120 kg/m3 are used. This insulation is supplied to the site in fac-
increase in the membrane sheet size. The standard wall
tory made panels with the insulating material sandwiched be- panel is now 2020 mm x 1340 mm instead of 1930 mm x
tween layers of plywood. The liquid side face plywood is gener- 540 mm.
ally 12 mm thick and the concrete side may be of the same
thickness or thinner (typically I mm). A typical wall insulation . The ability of the membrane system to resist the effects of
panel would be 1930 mm x 540 mm. The thickness of the insu- liquid leakage better into the insulation space have been
lation componentwould depend on the service and the required made. The possibility of through thickness cracking at the
heat leak, but a typicalvalues using PVC foam for LNG service base ofthe ore-stressed concrete wallwhere built in bottom
would be 210 mm to 350 mm depending on the heat leak re- corners are used has been discussed in Section 17.8. To
ouirements. avoid the harmful effects of the low product temperatures
on the inner surface of the concrete tank, the insulation of
The wall insulation panels are attached to the inner surface of
the base and lower 5 m of the wall is modified. A liquid-tight
the concrete by two means. Firstly 10 mm stainless steel studs
material is provided on the insulation paneljoints and on the
are fitted into the concrete priortothe panelerection. There are
inner plywood face. This liquid{ight barrier is very much
usuallytvvo studs per panel. Secondly a bonding mastic is used.
equivalent in function to the secondary bottom and the
The holes where the studs penetrate the panels are filled with
lowershell protection used for the free standing types offull
plugs of PUF The gaps between the adjacent panels are filled
containment tanks described above.
with PUF or compressed glass wool. To ensure that the con-
crete wall is resistant to the ingress of moisture from the atmo- 17.9.2.3 The outer tank
sphere, the internalsurface is coated with a suitable primerand The outer tank base slab is constructed of reinforced concrete,
moisture barrier prior to the hydrostatic test. Atypical arrange- most usually ground-based, but occasionally elevated on piles
ment ofthe wallinsulation erection sequence is shown in Figure or stub piles. The ground-based alternative would incorporate
17 .34. base heating ofthe electrical or other types. The outertankwall
is ofthe post tensioned type and the joint between the walland
the base slab is of the fixed or encastre type. The vertical
pre-stress is applied by tendons in U-shaped ducts. The hori-
zontal pre-stress is applied by tendons in ducts within the wall
running between a number (usually four) of stressing but-
tresses. Traditionaltyconcretes ofthe 40 - 50 MPa compressive
strength grades are used.
The roof is most usuallyofthe reinforced concrete type. Asteel
sheeting supported by a structural framework is erected at the
fulltank height, or on the tank base slab and airor mechanically
lifted into place. With the assistance ofinternal air pressure, this
supports the newly placed concrete (either in one or two pours)
until it becomes self-supporting.
lmprovements have been made in this area too. These are
mainly in the use of stronger concretes giving in addition to in-
creased strength, advantages in improved permeability and
faster curing times.
One of the membrane tanks at the Pyeong Taek LNG terminal,
is shown in Figure 17.36, with an outer bund, which would now
be considered redundant.

17.9.3 Comparison of above ground membrane


tanks and conventional tanks

As mentioned previously, this discussion has been ongoing for


a considerable period of time. lt would not seem helpful to ex-
press a view on this complex and multifaceted argurnent, but
Figure 17.35 A typical arrangement of the wall inslllallon erection sequence rather to indicate where the differing views can be found ex-
Couftesy of SN Technigaz oressed in full in various references.

306 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


17 Low temperature storcge tanks

Figure 17.36 Membrane tank with redundant bund at the Peyong Taek LNG

Cowlesy of SN Technigaz
Figure '17.37 A view inside the test tank

The argumentsfor parity of containment betweenthe two types Courtesy of SN Technigaz


of tanks can be found in References 17.27 and 17.28.
The French AGT Code (Reference 17.26) appears to express a
view in one of its tigures that above ground membrane tanks
constitute single containment whereas in-ground membrane
tanks are full containment. This document has rather been left
bythewayside jn recentyearsand is notas infl uential as itonce
was.
References 17.10 and 7Z 76 require the primary and second-
ary containment storage components for both double and full
containment ianks to be "capable of independently containing
the product liquid". The membrane system's separation of liq-
uid tightness function from the structural support function is
perceived by the "inequality" camp as not fulfilling this "inde-
pendent' requirement.
One difference which should be aired in this discussion of
equivalence is the fact that the outer concrete tank forthe mem-
brane type is hydrostiatically tested and that for the 9% nickel
steel/preslressed concrete type is not. This test can be ex-
pected to reveal any major construction defects in the outer
Figure 17.38 Shows the overall facilit
Counesy of LNG Joumal
tank.
Notwithstanding this long, and occasionally acrimonious dis-
cussion, it would seem that most users of these two types of
storage tank are coming to accept their equivalence.

17.9.4 The lined mined rock cavern initiative tor fu-


ture LNG storage

The possibility of storing LNG in below ground cavems has


been discussed for many years. The early attempls to use un-
lined vertical cylindrical holes in the ground were not a success,
and all but one have now been decommissioned and filled in.
The main problem lay in the extensive fissuring ofthesunound-
ing ground giving rise to excessive heat leaks and an ever-ex-
tending area of frozen ground around the bnks.
The use of a suitable impervious barrier would solve some of
these problems, but the behaviour of the water, ice and rock
surrounding a mined cavern was alwaysan area of u ncertajnty.
Recently, a group of companies has joined together to design
Figure 17.39 Asimple P & | D of the facility
and construct a pilotfacilityto investigate the possible problem
Couftesy of LNG Journal
areas. G6ostock Co., Saipem.Technigaz of France and S.K.
Engineering & Conshuction Ltd of South Korea, have come to- Provision will be made to drain the surrounding rock and the fa-
gether to pool their considerable skills in in-ground and mem- cility will be heavily supplied with inskumentation. The tank wi
brane storage systems. They are constructing a I IO m3 pilot be cooled with liquid nitrogen at -196 'C.
tank at Deajon in South Korea.
Figure 17.37 shows a view inside the test tank, Figure 17.38
This will be a mined cavern some 20 m belowground. The rock shows the overall facility and Figure 17.39 is a simple piping &
faces will be faced with reinforced concrete and the Technigaz illustration drawing, (P & | D) of the facitity. (See Reference
membrane and insulation syslem will be applied to this lining. 17.17.)

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 307


17 Low temperaturc storage tanks

17.10 Spherical tanks


In addition to the spherical tanks discussed above being used
for the storage ofthose products which can be maintained in liq-
uid form at ambient temperature by the imposition of pressure
alone, or at semi-refrigerated temperatures bya combination of
low temperature and pressure, there have been proposals to
store various lowtemperature liquids in spherical vessels under
fully-refrigerated conditions- These schemes have been almost
exclusively aimed at the storage of LNG
Some 50% of the world's LNG carriers are of the skirt-sup-
ported spherical vessel type, so it is no surprise that these
schemes to use land-based spheres come from the world of
ship building.
one such scheme is the subject of Refere nce 17.29.J|1is papel
proposed spherical vessels of80,000 m3 capacity, which gives
a diameter of around 54 m. The spherical vessel was to be con-
Figure 17.40 A cross-section oflhe proposed scheme for spherical
structed from either 9% nickel steel to ASTIV1 A 553 or of alu- skirt-suDooded tanks
minium alloy to ASTM B 209 type 5083-0. The design codes
were a mixtufe of the ship design IMO Codes and the estab-
lished pressure vessel Code ASIVE section Vlll. Briefly the de-
sign conditions were:
. Design temperature -163 "C
. lnternal design pressure 0.25 bar
. Vacuum design pressure -0.10 bar
. Product density 450 kg/m3
. Boil off 0.054% of the full contents/day
. Hydrotest - partial to 66% liquid fill capacity
The vesselwas to be supported at its equatoras is the case for
conventional ships'tanks and to have a thermal insulation sys-
tem consisting of polystyrene foam of 500 mm thickness. To re-
duce the heat in leakage at the skirt support, a stainless steel Figure 17.41 Examples of self-delivering anangements
plate some 2500 mm in height was to be placed between the
stiffened supporton the vesselitselfand the concrete supports. tanks ofthe same capacity, and thiswas its main attraction. The
Thus the heat leak at this pointwas reduced to 10% ofthe total. final costs would be expected to be similarto or greaterthan its
comparable conventional rivals. Despite the volume of effort
The only connections to the sphere were to be in the top cap put intothisscheme, itdid notgetoffthe ground and none have
where liquid inlet and vapour outlet connections would be lo- been built to date.
cated. Liquid removal was to be by the use of in{ank pumps
which would also penetrate the vesselthrough the top cap. The A variation on this proposal was to use the facilities which had
outerconcrete protection was notto be designed to provide liq- been set up around the world to manufacture the spherical
uid containment in the event of an inner tank failure as this was tanks used in the LNG carriers. These are highly sophisticated
declared impossible due to good understanding of the design semi-automated factories which were a necessary part of the
and behaviour of the spherical vessel, much better by implica- tanker building industry. The obvious advantage was that they
tion than would be the case for a vertical cylindrical bnk. could construct spherical vessels quickly, cheaply and to high
standards. The disadvantage was that the spherical vessels
This argument would attract little support today. The evidence used in the carrierswere ofa smaller unitsize than the 100,000
for the need to design this concrete structure for the effects of m3 plus which would normally be required on land-based stor-
adjacent tank fires was, by modern viewpoints, similarly sus- age facilities.
pect. As presented the scheme represented single contain-
ment by today's standards. A cross-section of the proposed A "normal" ship's tank would be some 35,000 m3 in useable ca-
scheme is shown in Figure 17.40. pacity. Stretching the production facilities to their maximum size
limit and adding an equator parallel course could perhaps in-
Three alternative construction proposalswere suggested in the
crease this to 45,000 m3. In recent years, for LNG facilities in
paper:
particular, construction time is ofren equally, and on occasions,
. Prefabrication ofsections ofthe sphericalvessel in a ship- more imDortantthan finished cost. The extra revenue, which an
yard for normal assembly on the job site into the concrete early plant commissioning can earn during the time saved, may
outer vessel. well outweigh additional costs of such novel storage solutions
. The spheres and their supporting structure to be assem- Self-delivering arrangements such as integrated barges
bled inthe shipyard and skidded onto transport to site (prob- (placed into the final position by a dry docking procedure) and
ably suitable barges) and skidding off to be united with the attention to superior containment systems would seem to pres-
part constructed outer concrete vessel. ent an attractive option for the industry
. The comolete structure is fabricated and assembled at a Summarising the advantages and disadvantages;
ship or offshore yard suitable for deliveryto site as self-floa!
ing units or by heavy lifr ships (Figure 17.41). Advanbges:
The orooosed construction schedule of 30 months or better . Factory production ensures fast delivery. cheapness and
was arguably a little better than for equivalent conventional high quality

308 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1 7 Low temperature storage tanks

. Site civil work and vessel production are parallel activities


. System is pre-designed
. Units could be moved to another site if reouired
. Units could be pre-ordered and stockpiled to further save
further time
Disadvantages:
. Unit size too small
. More sets of pumps and instrumentation required
Despite the apparent attractions, this scheme also failed to
bear fruit. The reasons why are not immediately apparent.

17.1 1 Concrete/concrete tanks


Prestressed concrete has become the most commonly used
materialforthe outercontainers of full containment lowtemper-
ature tanks, both ofthe conventional 9% nickel steel innertank Figure 17.42 Construction of a peak shaving LNG tank
type and the membrane type. lt is no surprise that the question Coutesy of Preload Inc.
was asked "Why not use pre-stressed concrete for the inner
tanks?" What is surprising is just how long ago this question blemished record of service, this type of tank has not enjoyed
was asked and how early the flrst development and test work the success that it deserved.
aimed at determining the lowtemperature properties of this ma- Some years ago MW Kellogg, who in the eyes of many in the
terial were carried oul. LNG field, is a major league arbiter of what is technically ac-
ceptiable, gave the concrete/concrete concept its seal of ap-
17.11.1 History of cryogenic concrete tanks proval. The technology for this concept was owned by preload
Inc. in the USAand is now in the hands ofa newcompany called
For many years, especially in the USA, water storage tanks Cryocrete. Since 1998, Whessoe, (formerly Whessoe Interna-
have been constructed using reinforced concrete. The reinforc- tional Skanska), has had a license agreement with Cryocrete
ing to resistthe dominanthoop loadings was frequently applied and a number of changes to the basic design have been pro-
by the wire winding method. This consists of winding a large posed which will perhaps see a change in the fortunes for this
number of high tensile steel wires around the outside of a con- particular type of tank.
crete cylindrical tank. The wires pass through a die which in-
creases the tensile load in the wire whilst increasing its strength 17.1 1.2 Details of concrete/concrete tanks
due to the cold forming which takes place. The wires are fre-
quently protected from corrosion and othersources ofpotential The Preload type ofvertical cylindricalwall has been described
damage by the application of a sprayed concrete of the in some detail in Section 17.8 where it has been used as liquid
"Shotcrete" type. containing high bunds for double containment systems of the
Any vertical prestressing is applied using internal tendons lo- conventional type. This type of wall is used for both the inner
cated in the centre of the concrete wall. and outer tanks.

ln 1950, the Linde division of the Union Carbide Corporation The base insulation in the central area ofthe tank bottom is usu-
began an investigation into the possible use of pre-stressed ally PVC foam. Under the inner wall the insulation consists of
concrete for the storage of lowtemperature liquids such as liq- prefabricated blocks made from plywood and balsa wood,
uid oxygen. By January 1951 test reports were available which which are subsequently sealed into a fibreglass shell. These
showed thatthe thermaland mechanical properties of wire rein- blocks are designed for the compressive loads arising from
forced concrete improved down to -196 'C. self-weight and seismic conditions.

Based on this data, Preload Inc., a company who specialised in To allowthe innertank to contract radially durlng cooldown and
pre-stressed concrete structures, desi gned and constructed for to accommodate shear loadings from seismic events, shear
Linde, a double-walled tank of 2,650 m3 capacity, for the stor- keys are fitted to the underside of the annular plate and to the
age of liquid oxygen. This tank remained in service until 1985 topside ofthe secondary bottom. This arrangement is shown in
when it was decommissioned and demolished. ln the late Figure 17.43.
'1960s the American Gas Association initiated a test The insulation between the two walls is site-exoanded Derlite. A
programme. This work was conducted jointly by the Institute of conventional steel plate and section roof is provided which
Gas Technology and the Portland CementAssociation and was could form the outer roof in its own right, or provides the sup-
reported in Reference 77.30. porting formwork for a reinforced concrete roof. The inner roof
Esso Research and Engineering produced technical specifica- is a suspended deck of one ofthe usual designs, which willsup-
tionsiortwo40,000 m3 double wallconcrete LNG tanksfor GAz port the glass fibre insulation. The outer wall has a carbon steel
Natural (now Enagas). These tanks were constructed at the vapour barrier which is installed close to the outer face and
LNG import terminal in Barcelona and went into service in compressed vertically by the vertical internal pre-stressing ten-
1968. These tanks have been in continuous successful service dons and circumferentially by the wire winding.
since that date. ln 1981 a similarLNG tank of80.000 m3caoac- This arrangement is protected from the weather and other ex-
itywas constructed on the same site and has given similarly un- temalevents bya shotcrete layer. The slidingjoint between the
troubled service. outerwblland the base.slab precludes the need for the bottom
In 1974 the Philadelphia Gas Works in the USAcommissioned corner thermal protection measures required to control the
two peakshaving LNG ianks each of92,500 m3 capacity. These shear stresses in the case of a built in corner detail described
too have been in uninterrupted trouble-free service. Figure above.
17.42 shows these tanks during construction. Despite the un- The annularand bottom plates are made from g% nickelsteel.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 309


1 7 Low tempetature storage tanks

toms well below the local grade levels, in the former case by
around one half of the shell height and in the latter case by al-
PRESTR:SSED COXCREI most the full shell height. In both cases the reason behind this
unusual and very expensive departure from normal practice
was because of planning restrictions on the elevations of the
tank profiles. Consequently what was constructed were con-
ventional full containment 9% nickel steel/pre-stressed con-
crete above ground tanks located in a purpose-built pit. The ad-
ditional containment and protection provided by the pit was a
bonus and not the maln objective of the exercise. This type of
tank is frequently described as the "in pit" type. Aphoto ofthe "in
pit" tanks at Revithoussa is shown in Figure 17.44.

Figure 17.43 Arangemenl for radial contraclion ofinnertank cooldown, using

17.11,3 Arguments for and against concrete/


concrete tanks

As was the case for the similar discussions relating to conven-


tionaland membrane tanks, a greatdeal has been written about
the subject, some of it objective and some less so emanating
from entrenched or self-interested view points. Ratherthan en-
ter into this ongoing fray, it is proposed to list the subject areas
with hopefully simple and non-partisan comments:
Figure 17.44 The "in pil" LNG tanks at Revilhoussa lsland, Greece
For: Coutesy of Whessoe
o Cost
17.12.1 In-ground membrane tanks
. Enables largertanks to be constructed. Current designs are
available uo to 250,000m3. ln-ground membrane tanks are closely related to the above
ground membrane tanks described in Section 17 9- There are a
. lnner wall is stable under seismic axial compressive load-
number oftanks ofthis design to be found in Japan, Korea and
ings.
Taiwan. The first in-ground LNG tank was built in Japan at the
. Concrete and concrete placing skills may provide advan- Negeshi Terminal in Yokohama using the 1-2 mm thick stain-
tages in certain geographic areas over 9% nickel steel and less steel membrane technology licensed from SN Technigaz.
the metalworking skills required. lt mayforexample serve to Later NKK had to develop a 2.0 mm thick membrane to comply
maximise the "in country" content work content with new Japanese regulations.
. The inner wall is better able to resist the external loadings A number ofother Japanese contractors (MHl, lHl and KHI) de-
from the thermal insulation and may not require a resilient veloped theirown membrane designs, which were similarto the
blanket. original SN Technigaz design. These companies have also de-
Against: signed and constructed in-ground LNG tanks. The world's big-
g;st tank at 200,000 m3 capacity has been constructed in Ja-
. Unfamiliar technology despite track record of satisfactory pan and is the subject of Reference t7 73 These tanks are
service. both expensive and time consuming to construct. In-ground
. Vulnerability of outer tank wire windlng to damage from ex- storage onlybecomes aviable option wheresome combination
ternal missiles, fire and corrosion. of the following circumstances apply

. The space required for the wire winding machine means . Reclaimed or very expensive land requiring optimisation of
that a wide interspace is required if simulianeous construc- effective use of the area available
tion of the tvvo tanks is to be achieved, otherwise the inner . Abnormally high safety standards perhaps due to conges-
tank must be built and pre-stressed before the outertank is tion, adjacent industrial plant or high risk locations such as
constructed. This clearly has programme implications. Dort areas
. Concerns relating to the ability of the shear keys to with- . Highly seismic areas
stand high seismic loadings
Apart from the changes to the membrane thickness and the
. Concerns relating to the time required to decommission the size and spacing ofthe corrugations, the metiallic membrane is
tank for internal insoection, should this be needed. as described in Section 17.9-
The civil engineering works associated with this design are in-
17.12 In-ground tanks teresting and to the mind of the author quite remarkable. These
The three categories of in-ground tanks described in this Sec- tanks are frequently built in areas of reclaimed land where soil
tion are what could be described as "true" in-ground systems. conditions are poor and ground water table levels are at or
There are a few examples of tanks, which at first glance would close to grade.
seem to be candidates for this category, buton closerexamina- To constructthe tank it is necessaryto de-waterthe area. To ac-
tion prove not to be suitable. complish this, a slurry wall is built of a thickness (some 1.2 m)
The LNG storage tanks at both the Zeebrugge and the sufficientto resistthe external pressures from the ground water
Revithoussa import terminals are constructed with their bot- and to a depth where competent rock is to be found (up to 100

310 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


17 Low tempercture storage tanks

Figure 17 45 Asection lhrough a lypical in,ground tank


Cauiesy af SN Technigaz

m). When this slurry wall is completed, the excavation work can
commence and a reinforced concrete wall is built from the top
down on the innerface ofthe slurry wall. This can be up to 2.0 m
in thickness for a large tank. The base slab of reinforced con-
crete must be of sufficient strength and thickness to resjst the Fig!re 17.46 A simplifed sectlon through a cavefn
ground water pressure and can be up to 7.0 m in thickness.
Within this inner wall and base, the conventional insulation Pipework connections into the caverns are via vertical tunnels
panel and metallic membrane is installed.
carrying liquid inlet, liquid outlet using deep-well or submerged
pumps, water removal pumps and the necessary instrumenta-
To avoid the problems associated with soilfreezing, this type of
tank will require heating for both the base slab and the cylindri- tion. Asimplified section through such a cavern is shown in Fig-
calwall. The roof will be of the plate and section type and rnay ure 17.46.
be sub-sequentially covered with reinforced concrete. lt is The advantages of cavern storage over conventional above
usual to employ a suspended ceiling supporting glass flbfe in- ground tanks from a safety point of view are self-evident. Fur-
sulation in these tanks, although recent developments have in- ther advantages come from the area of land used. lt is possible
volved the elimination ofthe suspended ceiling and the attach- to locate caverns beneath othet surface plant and in some cir-
ment of the roof insulation directly to the underside of the roof cumstances, beneath the sea for a large part of the system.
structure itself. A section through a typical tank of this type is
shown in Figure 17.45.
'17.12.3 Frczen grou nd systems
Reference 77.37 provides guidance for the design and con-
struction of such tanks, applicable in Japan. The development ofthe frozen ground tank was an effort to pro-
vide cheap and safe storage for low temperature liquids. Sadly
17.12.2 Cavern storage systems itwas not a great success. There is only one iank ofthis type still
in service. This is locaied in Algeria at the Arzew liquefaction
and export site.
The storage of LPG in unlined mined rock caverns has been
available for a number ofyears. The LPG is stored in liquid form These tanks bear some similarities to ihe in-ground membrane
at a pressure appropriate to the temperature of the rock at the type in that they consist of a vertical cylindrical excavation with
depth of the cavern. The pressure from the local groundwater the roof at local grade level. To enable the excavation to take
exceeds the pressure of the stored LPG such that water leaks place, the ground is frozen to allow the walls of the excavation
into the cavern rather than LPG leaking out. This water collects to be self-supporting. This is done by drilling a series of holes in
in a sump in the bottom ofthe cavern and is pumped out and fed a circle to the full depth of the excavation. lnto these holes dou-
into a water curtain arrangement which maintains the ground ble concentric pipes are inserted into which liquid nitrogen or re-
water pressure at a constant level in the area of the caverns. lt frigerated brine is circulated to freeze a vertical cylinder of
is clearly necessary to have suitable rock for mining of the cav- ground. This circulation must be maintained untilthe tanks are
erns at a suitable depth appropriate to the product pressure. commissioned. There is no lining or thermal insulation pro-
Thus propane would be stored in caverns located at a greater vided. Based on small-scale tests, the assumption was that the
depth than would be necessary for the storage of bubne. frozen ground would give sufficient liquid tightness and supply
the required thermal insulation. At the local grade level a rein-
Cavern storage systems depend upon the appropriate subsoil forced concrete ring wall was provided around the top of the ex-
conditions being available at the chosen location. lt is more cavation.
common to find the necessary conditions at greater depths and
aS a consequence Some facilities store propane in cavernS and At Arzew the 38,000 m3 LNG tank had a carbon steel roof
butane in above ground conventional tanks. framework which was not plated over in the conventjonal man-
ner and supported an aluminium suspended ceiling. This ceil-
The caverns themselves are of a constant cross-seciion, the ing in turn supported the thermal insulation and a series of con-
size of which is dependent upon the local rock characteristics, crete weights whose function was to counterbalance the
and are often ofconsiderable length (some 100s of metres). lt is internal pressure. This tank is described in a paper given at
common to have a series of parallel caverns with total storage LNG 4 in 1974 (Reference 17.32) and is said to have been in
capacities well in excess of 200.000 m3. seryice for some B years at that time and to have taken two

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 311


17 Low tempercturc storcge tanks

years to construct, which makes the date ofthe originalconcept Temperatures down to -50 'C, British Standards lnstitu-
and design around 1964. The four 50,000 m3 LN G tanks of this tion, London, (Now superseded by BS 7777:1993).
type built at Canvey lsland were similar except that the roof 17.5 Cryogenic Storage Facilities for LNG and NGL, N.J.
framework was plated over Cuperus (Shell), 1oth World Petroleum Congress, Bu-
The failure of these tanks to perform in a satisfactory manner charest 1979.
was due to a number of problem areas: 17.6 Developmentsin Cryogenic Storage lanks,6th Interna-
. Thefrozen soilwas notastighta barriertothe liquid andthe tional Conference on LNG, Kyoto, 1980.
vapour as had been anticipated. 17 .7 Transport and Storage of LNG and LPG, Royal Flemish
. The soil fissured and cracked allowing the area of frozen Society of Engineers' International Conference, Brugge
soil to extend much further from the tanks than was antici- May 1984.
pated. This was a particular problem at Canvey lsland 17.8 Fracture Safe Deslgrs for Large Storage lanks, The
where the region of frozen soil threatened to pass beyond Welding Institute International Symposium, Newcas-
the site boundary tle-upon-Tyne, April 1986.
. Frost heave gave rise to significant ground movements 17.9 EEMUA Publication No. 147, Recommendations forthe
making the connection between the frozen soil and the con- Design and Construction of Refrigerated Liquefied Gas
crete ring beam and between the ring beam and the roof Storage Tanks, Engineering Equipment and Materials
structure difficult to seal against vapour escape. Users Association. London. 1986.
. The frozen ground did not provide the thermal insulation 17.10 BS 7777 : 1993 Flat Bottomed Veftical Storage Tanks
that had been hoped for, resulting in a higher than antici- for Low Temperature Servlce, British Standards Institu-
pated heat in leak with the consequent practical and eco- tion, London.
nomic Problems. 17.11 Bigger and Cheaper LNG lanks, Bob Long, LNG 12
The tanks at Canvey lsland were decommissioned. This was Perth, Australia, May 1988.
no easy task. The integrity of the excavation had to be main- 17.12 Development of above ground Storage Tank Designs in
tained. and heat had to be supplied to warm upthe bynowvast Japan, HitoshiHiose - Toyo Kanetsu K.K, LNG Journal
volume of frozen soil. Safety had to be maintained in the face of November/December 1998.
LNG and in particular the warmerfractions leaking from the soil
over a large area. The filling in of these pits with warm purged 17.13 Construction of an underground Storage Tank,
Yanagiya and Ogawa - Kaiima Corporation, LNG Jour-
sand is an interesting tale in its own right.
nal November/December 1999.
17.14 API 620 Tenth edition February 2002, Design and con-
17.13 Novel systems struction of large, welded, low-pressure storage tanks,
There have been a number of novel systems proposed which American Petroleum Institute
have a large element of low temperature liquid storage, usually '17.15 BS 5387 : 1976 Veftical cylindrical welded storage tanks
for use with LNG. for low-temperature Service: double walltanks for tem'
Many of these schemes are aimed at LNG import terminals and peratures down to -196 'C, British Standards lnstitution.
involve floating or gravity-based systems (GBS). The advan- 17.16 BS EN 1473: 1997 lnsta ation of equipmentfor lique'
tage ofthese over conventional land-based terminals is that the fied naturalgas -design of On-shore instal/aflons, Euro-
owner is freed from the need to find a suitably protected and pean Committee for Standardisation and British
deep harbour close to the market for the product being im- Standards Institution.
ported. This is often a major stumbling block for a terminal pro-
ject. 17.17 Developments in cryogenic storage fanks, N J.
Cuperus - SIPM, LNG 6 Session ll, paper 13, Kyoto'
There are also advantagesto be had from moving the construc- Aoril 1980.
tion from the job site, as is the case with conventional terminals,
to a ship or offshore rig yard where productivity rates may be 17.18 Dynamic load attenuation for double wal/ tarks, R A
higher.
Vater - Pittsburgh-Des-Moines Corporation, Gastech
84. Amsterdam. November 1984.
It had been hoped to describe some of these interesting
17.19 Experimental dynamic compaction of perlite insulation,
schemes in some detail, but at this moment in time, the owners
T. Kauos - CBI Industries Inc., Gastech 84, Amsterdam,
and designers of the various schemes are concerned with the
November 1984.
confidentiality of their proposals and have not given their per-
mission to discuss the details and merits. 17.20 tntroduction of the EEMUA recommendations for the
design & construction of liquefied gas storage tanks,
Atrawl through the proceedings of the LNG and Gastech con- John de Wit - SIPM, Chairman EEMUA Tank Commit-
ferences and the LNG Journals will reveal outlines of some of tee, Chairman BSI Tank Committee, API/BSI Confer-
these schemes and hopefully in the near future some facilities ence, San Diego, May 1986.
will be constructed and the technical dehils published
17 .21 LNG storage tanks : Developments & key elements, C.
B. van Liere - SIPM, LNG owners' seminar, Session lV :
17.14 References 1988.

17.1 J.A.Ward and R.S.HildreW LNG 1 Chicago 1968. 17.22 Developments in the standardisation of single, double
and fult containment tanks for the storage of refrigerated
17 .2 LNG tndustry-A retrospecfive, Sir Dennis Rooke, LNG liquef,ed gases, D. Dickie - Motherwell Bridge Projects
9. Nice 1989. Ltd, R. Long - Whessoe Pfojects Ltd, Gas Engineering &
17.3 Frozen Fire - Where willit happen next?, Friends of the l\.4anagement, Vol 24, September 1989.
earth, San Francisco, 1979, ISBN 0-913890-30-8. 17 .23 Cryogenic storage of liquefied gases (Pafts 1' 2 & 3)'
17.4 BS 4741 : 1971 VerticalCylindicalWelded SteelTanks Fritz Papmahl - Noell LGA, Hydrocarbon Asia, April,
for Low Temperature Service: Single Wa Tanks for Mav. June 1996.

312 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT ^


te mqe ntu rc storage tan ks

17 .24 NFPA 59, Utility LP-Gas Plant Code, 2001 Edition, Na- PGenoud (SN Technigaz) and N.Ketchell, R.G.A.Rob-
tional Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachu- inson (AEA Technology), LNG 12, Perth, May 1998.
setts.
17.25 NFPA 59A, Standard for the production, sforage & 17.29 Spherical skitt suppofted tanks for onshore LNG stor-
handling of liquefied natural gas (LNG), 2001 Edition, age, lEinstabland (Selmer), E.H.Hektoen (Kvaerner
Nationalfire ProtectionAssociation, Quincy, l\4assachu- Brug), R.Schrader, (l\.4oss Rosenburg Verft), LNG 7 Ja-
sefis. karta May 1983.

17.26 French LT tank Code above-ground or semi-buried 17.30 Preslressed concrete at cryogenic temperatures,
tanks for low pressure liquefied gases, guidelines for Eighth Congress of the Federation lnternational de la
design and construction, Association technique de Precontrainte, London 1 978.
I'industrie du gaz en France (AGT), Publication date un-
known. 17.31 Recommended practice for LNG in-ground storage,
Japanese Gas Association, First published March
17 .27 Comparative SafetyAssessment of Large LNG Storage
1979.
Ianks, R.Giribone (Bureau Veritas) and J.Claude (SN
Technigaz), LNG 11, Birmingham, July 1995. 17.32 Huit ans d'activite d'un stockage souterrain de GNL,
17.28 Quantifaction and Comparison ofthe Risks ofLNG Stor- A.Benadi Chef du Service Camel Algeria, LNG 4, Al-
age Concepts- Membrane and Full Containment, giers Juin 1974.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 313


314 STORAGE TANKS & EAUIPMEN+
18 The design of low temperature
tanks
A considerable part ofthe design procedure for low temperature tanks is based on the practices
used for storage tanks for the containment offluids at ambient temperatures. These practices
have been described in earlier Chapters. Where the different containment arrangements, lower
temperatures and higher pressures cause these procedures to require modification, these
changes are discussed in this Chapter.
The Chapter is restricted to consideration of the following design Codes:
API 620 Aopendix R
API 620 Aooendix Q
BS 7777
prEN'14620

Contents:
18.1 General
18.2 Tank capacity
18.3 Shell design
18.3.1 The API 620 Appendix R approach
18.3.1.1 Hoop tension
- liquid containing tanks
18.3.1.2 Nonliquid containing tanks
18.3.1.3 Axial comoression
18.3.1.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening
18.3.1.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
18.3.2 The API 620 Appendix Q approach
18.3.2.1 Hoop tension liquid containing tanks
-
18.3.2.2 NonJiquid containing tanks
18.3.2.3 Axial compression
18.3.2.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening
18.3.2.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
'18.3.3 The BS 7777 aooroach
18.3.3.'l Hoop tension liquid containing tanks
1
-
8.3.3.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks
18.3.3.3 Axial compression
18.3.3.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening
18.3.3.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
18.3.3,6 Addendum to BS 7777 on partial height hydrostatic testing
18.3.4 The prEN 14620 approach
18.3.4.1 Hoop tension liquid containing metallic tanks
1
-
8.3.4.2 NonJiquid containing tanks
18.3.4.3 Wind and vacuum stiffening
18.3.4.4 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
18,4 Bottom and annular design
18.4.1 The API 620 Appendix R approach
18.4.'1.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
18.4.'1.2 Nonliquid containing metallictanks
'18.4.2 The API 620 Appendix Q approach
18.4.2.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
'l 8.4.2.2 Nonliquid containing metallic
tanks
'18.4.3 The BS 7777 aDDroach
18.4.3.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
1 8.4.3.2 Nonliquid containing tanks
18.4.4 The prEN '14620 approach

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 315


18 The design of low tempeftture tanks

18.5 Compression areas , .


18.5.1Thd API 620 appRiddi
18.5.2 The BS 7777 approach
18.5.3 The prEN 14620 approach
18.6 Roof sheeting
18.6.1 The API approach (Appendices R and Q)
18.6.2 The BS 7777 approach
18.6.3 The prEN 14620 approach
18.7 Roof franreworks
18.7.1 The API approach (Appendiees R and Q)
18.7.afhe BS 7777 approach
'18.7.3 The prEN '14620 approach

18.8 Tank anchorage


18.8.1 The requirements ofAPl 620 Appendix R
18.8.1. 1 Liquid containing tanki
q8.8.1.2 Non liquid containing lanks
18.8.2 The requirements ofAPl 620 Appendix Q
18.8.2.1 Liquid containing tanks
18.8.2.2 Nonliquid containing tanks
18.8.3 The BS 7777 reouirements
18.8.4 The prEN 14620 approach
18.9 Tank fittings
18.9.1 The requirements ofAPl 620
18.9.1.1 General reouirements of API 620 section 5
18.9.1.2 The particular requirements of API 620 Appendix R
18.9.1.3 The particular requirerhents of API 620 Appendix Q
18.9.1.4 The design of heat breaks
18.9.2 The reouireiTents of BS 7777
18.9.2.1 Outer container mountings
18.9.2.2 Inner tank and outer liqriid containing tank mounlings
18.9.2.3 Connecting pipework between inner and outer tank connections
18.9.3 The prEN 14620 approach
i
18.10 Suspended decks
18.'10.1 The requirements ofAPl 620
18.10.2 The requirements of BS 7777
18.10.3 The prEN 14620 approach
18.11 Secondary bottoms
18.12 Bottom corner protection systems
18.13 Outer tank concrete wall and bottom liners

I 8.14 Connected pipework

18.15 Access arrangeinents

18d6 Spillage collection systems


'18.17 Reinforced and prestrbsseu concrete Component design
'18.17.1 General
18.'17.2 Tank bases
18.'17.3 Tank walls
18.17.3.1 Above ground tanks
18.17.3.2 In{round tanks
18.17.4 Bottoni comor details
'18.17.5 The toD comer details
18.17.6 Tank roofs
18.18 References

316 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


1B The design of low temperature tanks

18.1 General . Allowable subgrade loadings.

The design of low temperature tanks has evolved from the de- . Seigmic design criteria dictating tank proportions and slosh
sign of tanks for ambient temperature service. In many areas height.
the design methods are the same or very similar to the ambient . Site space constraints.
practices. In these cases reference will be made to the earlier
Chapters concerning the origins ofthe design methods and the . The tank contractor's views on the most economical tank
derivations of the formulae used for ambient tanks. Where the aspect ratio.
low temperature practice differs from the ambient design . The performance limitations of the chosen in-tank pump (if
methods, this will be described in ful useo).
There are a number of different codes covering the design of . The elevation ofthe suction outlet connection (if used).
low temperature tanks in force around the world. The following
documents will be considered: . Operational considerations concerning pumping rates and
required response time intervals related to the various level
. API 620 Appendix R (for products down to -60 'F) alarms.
. API 620 Appendix Q (for products down to -260'F) In order to help in sorting out this multifaceted problem, it is of-
. B57777 (fot products down to -196'C) ten helpful to produce a sketch illustrating the various signifi-
cant liquid levels. Such a sketch for the inner tank of a full con-
r prEN 14620 (for products down to -165 "C) tainment LNG tank is illustrated in Figure 18.1.
There are Codes from other European countries (DlN and When the tank diameter is chosen, it is necessary to make al-
AFNOR for example) but for reasons of simplicity and because lowances for the thermal contraction of the liquid containing
these documents will shortly be replaced by the new European tank. For metallic tanks the data provided in Figure 18.2 should
Code, they have not been discussed in dehil here. prove helpful.
There are also Codes which are no longer curreni, but have For double-walled tanks, the diameter and height of the outer
been important in the development process which has given tank will be based on the chosen dimensions of the inner tank
rise to the existing regulatory documents. BS 4741, BS 5387 and consideration of the following:
and EEN/UA 147 allfall into this category and will be mentioned
where appropriate. . The interspace width required. This willin turn be related to:

- The wall insulation thickness required.


18.2 Tank capacity - Access for personnel to work in this area.
Before the real calculations start, it is necessary to determine Access for resilient blanket and wall liner installation
the main dimensions ofthe tank. The initial estimate ofthe tank from suspended cradles.
geometry for a particular storage facility, is arrived at by consid-
ering a large numberofdifferentvariables. Amongst these are:
. The insulation hopper volume where loose fill insulants like
perlite are used.
. The operating volume required.
. Any requirements for the total impoundment volu me arising
. Any planning constrainb on the tank height. from regulatory Standards.
. Any limitations related to the maximum discharge pressure . Physicalspace requirements in the top corner ofthe tankfor
of the pumps of ships discharging into the tank. roof insulation, internal runway beam access, etc.

A - 600 Tm min n"Jn provded by rhe choser rr-ranh purp sLpprel


B=400mm I
)
C =Coresponds lo the lullopeEting volume
(Volume between lowsl levelatfulllow pump down and maximum nomalopeEting level)
D = Conespondsto X minutes flN at maimlm liquid import rate
E = corespondsto Y mnltesflowat maxinum liqlid import te
F = CoffespondsioZ mnutesflowat maxirnum iquid inpoir rale
G = min mum ireeboad (commony500 mm)
D+E+F+G = height requ red to contain product wave due to arlhquake

Flgure 18.1 Miscellaneous innertank levels

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 317


1B The design of low temperaturc tanks

l
,"1

Flgure 18.2 The thermal contraclion of lhe liquid conlaining lank

inner tank, the interspace purge gas pressure).


18.3 Shell design
This Section confines its attention to the design of the metallic With the passage of time, tanks of double or full containment
shells of vertical cylindrical tanks. The material selection crite- categories came to be required bythe industry Despitethe fact
ria are mentioned in passing in this Chapter, but are discussed thatthe API Codes do not considerthese forms of containment
more fully in Chapter 21. The design of concrete tanks of this within theirscope, the rules ofthe lowtemperature appendices
form are dealt with in a later part ofthis Chapter As discussed in are commonly used to design the metallic tanks ofdouble orfull
Chapter 16, these steel tanks may be single-skinned tanks or containment systems.
the inner and outer shells of double-walled tanks. These shells
API 620 Appendix R divides the various tank components into
are the subject of combinations of the following loadings:
three different categories. The Code goes into some detail to
. Hoop tension caused by the maximum head of product liq- ensure that the various components are categorised correctly.
uid together with any associated internal operating pres- The categories are:
su re.
. Primary components. In general primary components in-
. Hoop tension caused by the maximum test water head to- clude those components whose failure would result in leak-
gether with any associated internal test pressure. age of the liquid being stored, those exposed to the
. Axial compressive loadings caused by combinations of refrigerated temperature, and those subject to thermal
self-weight, internal vacuum, external (i.e. interspace) pres- shock. The primary components shall include, but not be
sure, wind loadings, snow loadings and insulation loadings. limited to, the following parts of a single walltank orthe inner
tank of a double wall tank: shell plates, bottom plates,
. Axial tension loads caused by combinations of internal tank knuckle plates, compression rings, shell manholes and
pressure and wind loadings (this is usually of little conse- nozzles including reinforcement, shell anchors, piping, tub-
ouence). ing, forgings and bolting. Roof nozzles in contact with the
. Shell buckling loadings caused by wind loadings. refrigerated liquid shall be considered primary components.
Primary components shall also include those parts of a sin-
. Inner tank buckling loadings caused by external loadings gle wallor an innertank that are not in contact with the refrig-
arising from loose fill insulation systems, occasionally in erated liquid but are subjectto the refrigerated temperature.
combination with internal vacuum and external (i.e. Such components include roof plates, roof manways and
interspace) pressures. nozzles with their reinforcement, roof supporting structural
. members and shell stiffeners when the combined tensile
Various loadings arising from seismic events and their im-
pact on the tank structure. These are dealt with separately and primary bending stresses in those components under
design conditions are greater than 6000 lb/in2.
in Chapter 26.
. Secondary componenls. Secondary components are
18.3.1 The API 620 Appendix R approach those whose failure would not result in leakage of the liquid
being stored. Secondary components also include those
When this Appendix was originally written, refrigerated tanks components which are not in touch with the refrigerated liq-
for the storage of products down to -60'F were only ofthe single uid but are subiect to the refrigerated temperature vapours
containment category These would be either single wall tanks and have a combined tensile and primary bending stress
in contact with the product fluid or double-walled tanks where under the design conditions which does not exceed 6000
the inner tank would contain the low temperature product (and lb/in2. Secondary components which could be designed
in the case of flxed roof inner tanks, the vapour pressure as within this reduced stress are roof plates, including roof
well). The outer tank would contain or supp@rt the insulation manways and nozzles with their reinforcement, roof sup-
and contain the vapour pressure (or in the case of a fixed roof porting structural members and shell stiffeners.

318 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


18 The design of low tempercturc tanks

. Basic components. Basic comoonents are those that con- suggested that the Table 3-2 footnote 2 rules are fol-
tain the vaporised liquefied gas from the stored refrigerated lowed, i.e. the lesser of 30% of the specified minimum
gas but primarily operate at atmospheric temperature be- ultimate tensile strength or 60% of the specified mini-
cause of insulation system design and natural ambient mum yield point using the 0.92 quality factor where ap-
propflate.
heating. These components shall comply with the basic
rules ofthis Standard (API 620). Examples ofsuch compo- 6. The allowabletest stress limits can be taken from Ta-
nents are the outer wall and roof of double wall tanks and ble Q-3 or be based on the lesser of 85% ofthe speci-
roof components above an internally insulated suspended fied minimum yield skength or 55% of the minimum
decl(. specified tensile strength of the material.
l\.4uchof the distinction between the various types of compo- The design point is at the bottom edge ofthe course under con-
nents is concerned with the material selection and the impact sideration and not 0.3m (or one foot) abovethis levelas permit-
iest requirements. This subject is covered in detail in Chapter ted by BS 2654, API 650, BS 7777 and the new EN.
22. The minimum thickness requirements are as usuala function of
18.3.1.1 Hoop tension liquid containing metallic tanks the tank diameter and are reproduced in Figure 18.5.
-
The following applies to liquid containing tanks, i.e. sin- The radiographic inspection requirements given in paragraph
gle-walled tanks, the inner tank of double-walled tanks where R.7.6.1 for '! 00% radiography of all shell plate joints where the
the outer tank is non-liquid containing and the inner and outer actual operating stress across the welded joint is greater than
tanks of double-walled tanks where both the inner and outer 0.1 times the specifled minimum tensile strength of the plate
tanks are designed to contain the product liquid. material (i.e. all vertical seams of liquid containing tanks),
means that a joint factor of unity allowed by Table 5-2 ofAPl 620
The basic formulae used are derived in the same way as has (Figure 18.6) will always be applied.
been described in Chapter 4, Section 4.7 for ambient tanks. lt is
convenient to express them in the same form. Hence in metric Forthe inner shells ofdouble-walled tanks, the addition ofa cor-
units they become: rosion allowance is quite unusual. The combination of the low
temperature and products which are benign from a corrosion
alnararin^
^.ea. Doint of view make the inclusion of additional metal unneces-
D sary. Ammonia tanks where stress corrosion cracking is a
to =
ZUDO
lgSwoHo + Po l+ ca equ 18.1
proven hazard are a possible exception. The addition of mate-
nt - rial to the minimum calculated thickness to allow for future
ct Test case: dressing out of surface cracking may be seen as money well
spent. This is discussed further in Chapter 20.
L
Il
' =20sr 196*,
1,
'
11, * o, 1 equ 18.2
For single-walled tanks or the outer shells of double-walled
tanks the addition of a corrosion allowance to cater for the pos-
where: sibility of external corrosion is not unusual. Un-insulated outer
to to = shell thickness due to operating case (mm) shells are particularly vulnerable atthe shell-to-bottom junction
where rain water rnay pond and in the vicinity of external shell
to tj = shellthickness due to test case (mm)
stiffeners. Good housekeeping in terms of regular external in-
D = tank diameter (m) spection and the maintenance of protective paint systems is
Ho self evidently a sensible precaution.
''l-
= height from the bottom of the course under
consideration to the highesi product liquid level 18.3.1.2 Non-liquid containing tanks
k- (m)
)e
Paragraph R.5.3.2 allows single lap-welded or single-sided
Hr = height from the bottom of the course under butt-welded shells wherethe thicknessdoes notexceed %" and
)e consideration to the highest test water level double-sided buttwelds not having complete penetration orfu-
3r (m) lnote 1] sion, at any thickness for tanks not in contact with the vaporised
S,
wo = maximum anticipated SG of product liquid but liquefied gas. Clearlythe single-sided lap and butt welds should
not less than 0.577 (equivalent to 36 lb/ff) be made from the outside surface for reasons ofcorrosion pre-
)- vention. Such tanks having fixed inner roofs are quite unusual
te wt = SG of test water [note 2] these days. Paragraph R.5.3.1 requires a minimum shellthick-
s.
't-
po = maximum vapour pressure above the product ness of %6" in this case. This is appropriate for very small tanks,
liquid (mbar) lnote 3] but may lead to axial stability problems as the tank size in-
)-
3.
pi = test pressure (mbar) lnote 4]
creases. lt would seem wise to apply the methods described in
Section 18.3.1.3 to ensure that a safe structure is specified.
rd ca = corrosion allowance (mbar)
Where the tank shell is in contact with the vaoorised liouefied
al
e
So = allowable stress for the operating case gas, Paragraph R.5.3.3 requiresthe rules ofthe body (i.e. sec-
(N/mm'z) [note 5] tion 5) ofthe Code to be used. This means that the shell must be
q = allowable stress in the test case (Nmm'?) checked for hoop tension caused by vapour pressure and pos-
sibly any internal pressure due the loose fill insulation. The for-
lnote 6l
e mulae given in Section 18.3.1.1 can be used and the allowable
d Notes: 1. The maximum test water level is required by Para- stresses shown in Figure 18.3. The minimum thickness re-
e
graph R.8.3.3 of the Appendix to be equal to the maxi- quirements are again as Figure 18.5.
mum product liquid level.
t
.S
Bear in mind that for outer tanks the level of radiography is no
2. Usually 1 .000 but in unusual cases could be sea wa- longerdictated by Appendix R and can be such as to require the
is ter with an SG of up to 1.025. use of a joint factor of less than unity. The relationship between
0 3. In the case of open-topped inner tanks this is zero. joint factor and level of inspection is shown Figure 18.6.
d
)f 4. Required by Paragraph R.8.4.1 to be 1.25 x po. 'l 8.3.1.3 Axial compression
)- 5. Allowable operating stress limits illustrated in Figure The behaviour of thin cylinders whilst subject to compressive
18.3 or in Figure 18.4. For non-APl listed materials it is loadings is an interesting subject in its own right. Agreat deal of

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 319


18 The design of low temperatute tanks

Spcciliod Minimum Maximum Allowablc


Tcnsilc Sucss for
Spcci6cation Tcnsilc Strcnqth Yicld Polnl Tcnsion. S,.
(Scc Notc l) Gradc Notcs (lbf/in'21- (lbf/in.z1 (lbf/in.2, scc Notci2 and 3t

Platcs

ASTM A 36 4 s8,m0 36,m0 r6,m0


ASTM A I3I 4,5and6 58.000 34,0m r5.200
ASTM A I3I B 4 58,m0 34.000 r 6,000
ASTM A13I cs 58,m0 34,000 r6,000
ASTM A 283 c 4and5 55,0@ 30,000 | 5,200

ASTM A 283 D 4,5and6 @,(m 33,0m | 5,2@


ASTM A 285 c 55000 30,m0 | 6,500

ASTM A 516 55 55,000 30,000 16,500


ASTM A 516 @ 60,0m 31000 1E,000
ASTM A 516 65 : 65,000 350m t9J00
ASTM A 516 70 ?0.0@ 38,000 2r,000

ASTM A 537 Cla$ I 7 ?0.000 50,0@ '2t,m


ASTM A 537 Class 2 80,000 @,0@ 24,000
ASTM A 573 58 4 58r00 32,000 r6,0@
ASTM A 573 65 4 65m 35,000 1E,000
ASIM A s73 m 4 ?0,0@ 4a000 r9,300
ASTM A 633 CrdD 4snd7 ?0,000 50,0@ 19J00

ASTIYI A 662 B 65.0@ 40,00 r9.500


ASIlr,l A 662 c 70J@ 43.0@ 21,0@
ASTMA 678 A 4ud8 70,0@ 50,0@ l9J@
ASTM A 678 E 4ard? E0,0@ 60,m 22,1@
ASTM A 73? B ?0J@ 50,0m 21.0m
ASTMA E4I Clas! I 70J00 50.m 21o00

CSA G4021-M 2Ow .nd 2@Wr 4 59Jm 37.?00 16,400


CSA C40.21-M 300w lnd 300wT 4 65Jm 43,500 18,m0
csAG4o.2r-M 350W 4 65300 50,800 18,0m
csA G40.2t-M 350WT 4 69J@ 50,t00 19200
rso 630 Ee75 Qurlfuy q D 4 61,9@ 37,000 l7,l@
tso 630 8355 Quality C, D 4 72.0@ 48,J@ 19,600

PtF
ctrnlcS!
API Spoc5LB @,m0 35m l&0@
ASTr,l A138 60000 35,000 .18,000
ASTM A 106 B @,00 35,000 r&0m
ASTM A 106 c 70,m0 40,0m 21,0@
ASTM A 333 l 55J00 30,m 16,5m
ASTI{ A 333 3 65.0m 35,000 19J00
ASTM A 333 6
ASTM A 524 I @,&0 t5,000 t8,m0
ASTM A 521 tl 55,000 30.m r6.500

Elccric-Fusion
Wcklcd
ASTM A I34 A 281 Cr"dc C 4,5and9 55.0@ 30,0m r2.lm
ASTM A I]4 A 285 Gradc C 5and9 55.000 30.000 r1.200
ASTM A I39 9 60.@0 35.000 14.,fi)
ASTM A 67I cA55 9 55.m0 rc.(m t:r.200
ASTM A 67I cc60 9 60.m,J :12.0m | 4.400

ASTM A 6? I cc65 9 65.ffX) t5.000 l5.({x)


ASTM A 67I cc?0 'lo.(m t8.fix) r6.8(X)
ASTM A 67I cD?o 7and9 70.fix1 50.fin l6.ltul
ASTM A 67I cD8() 7and9 80.(xxl $.u.x) t9.!(xl
ASTM A 6? I cE:5 55.(XXl l{).00(l |.i.:(xl
ASTM A (t7 | CE({, ({1.{xxl l:.txxl l-l..llxl

Figure 18.3 Maximum allowable stress values for simple tension - page 1

Frcn API 620, table 5-1

320 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


18 The design of low temperature tanks

3) Spccifrcd Minimum Maximum Allowable


'd
Tcnsilc Strcss for
Spc6ifrcatiort T.nsilc Srens|h Vcld Pojnl Tcnsion. S,.
(Scc Noe l) Orade Notcs (lbflin.2)- (lbf/in.z1 (lbf/in.2, sc Nok;2 and t)
Forgiogs

ASTM A IO5 60,0m 10,m0 I E.000


ASTM A I8I I 60,0m r0,000 t8.000
ASTM A I8I ?0,0@ 36,000 2 r.000
ASTM A 350 LFI 60,m 30,000 r&0m
ASTM A 350 LF2 70,m 36,m0 2 r,0m
ASTM A 350 LF3 70,0@ 40,0m 2!,0m

Crstings lrd bolthg


ASru A 27 60.30 lo 60,000 30,000 14,4{n
ASTM A 36
ASruA
For alcho. bolting ll 58,000 36,000 t5,3m
193 B7 ll 125,0@ r05j00 ,w
ASTM A 30? B for frngcs ll lrd 12 55,m0 8,400
8rd pflsturr parls
ASTM A 307 B for lruc{l.rl ll s5,000 r5.000
porB s|d rnctor
ASTM A 320 bolting
vt ll l25pm r05,0m 24,(m

Suqc-ln"l sh.p6 Rcsisting lnt (rlal Prersur

ASTM A 36 4rrrd 6 58,0m 36,000 t5Jm


ASTM A I3I 4 ,',A6 58,0@ 34,(m l5:m
ASTM A 633 63,m 42.(m l?,400
ASr r A 992 4.nd6 65,m 50,0m 15200
csA c40.21-M 260W rnd 26OWT 4lnd6 59J00 37Jm 15200
cs^ c40.21-M 3mw |rd 300WT 4{rd6 65300 43,5@ r52m
csA G40.2I-M 350W lnd 300wT 4and6 69,600 50,800 r5200

Notcs:
l. All pcnircnt rnodifcrtioos rtd limiradoru of rpocifioti,os tlquild by 42. tlFugh 4,6 shdl bc complicd with.
2. Erc.p( for drcac 'rscs wlrt! ldditiond fdors or litlittrias rc |pplid 16 indicdld by trfcrcnclr io Notcs 4, 6, l0 |nd 12, rhc .llowsblc
t!tl3ilc![!3s \|.lu(r gitttr in lhi! trblc for matlrid3 o{trr tllln boltiog rtcl l[c tlE lcasrr of (.) 30% of rhc rpccificd ninhum ulrimlc acnrilc
stslngth f6 thc msr.{ial or O) 60& of $c spccifi.d minimultr yicld
loiol
3._Ercspt whctr . joiot cfficic{tcy &crot is alrcady lrdc$d in 0|c.pccifcd allowlbh sallr vsluc. r' idicatcd by thE lrfctlnccs ro Nolc lO, or
{llcrr d|c vrlur ofrvdcEdfncd in racord'r|c with 5.5.33. i! lcss rhln rlrc .pplicsblc joinr cffciqrcy giv.n in'ibblc 5.2 (ud 0rcnforc cficcb
r grtx.r.duclion in rllowrblc rfrts th.n seuld lhc F&& rfficicrrctfldq, ifrpplicd), rhc ipccifica *ts rnluas for wtds in rslslon
shrll bc multipllt by dlc rpplicrbk joinr cfficicrry lrctor, E, gircn in Trblc 5.21
'in
4. Swss valucs for strucrurtl qudity stc.ls inch& ! quality frdor ofo.92.
5. Platcs.M pip. shrll not bc rsrd in $iqkncss grcarcr thln l/. in.
6. St.q(r valucs arc limir.d ro rhosc for srccl thal hrs.n lltin|at. rcnrilc snrngth of only 55.000 lbf/in.l.
7. lrss than or cqual ro 2ll2 in. thickncss.
8, Lrss than o. cqllll to I l/2 in. $ickncss,
9. Stcsr valucs for fusbn-s'cldld pipc includc a wcldcd-joifl cf,icicncy fsdor of O.m (rcc 5,23.3). Only strrighr"srrm pipc shall hc oscdi thc
usc of spiral.scam pifrc is prohibicd.
10. Strc$ vllucr for cr"slings irrlude a qualiry f|cror of0.80.
ll. Sc( 5.6.6
f2.Affowahlcsttd$shascdonSectionvllloftltcASMEBoifu..1PtI.tturryrrrclCrrdcInullinhcdhythc.atioof0rdc\rfnstrc\\tiKr(rrsn!
rlandld rnd Secraon Vl | | ot rhc ASME (i'dc. niJrnlctv 0 lt!{).ti
this

: !ure 18.3 lvaximum allowable stress values for simpte tension - page 2
-..m APl620, table 5-1

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 321


1 I The design of low temperaturc tanks

Spccid Minimun Allov$L Stcsr

ASTM sFcifa.|bns TcoiiksrEngltt Yi.:ldstittlth DrsiSo

PlatcandSEua all Mat art


A 353 lm.mo t5,m
A 553.Typc I t00,0m 85,m
95S0 65.m 3t,?@ 423d
A 645

A 240, TyF 304 ?5,m o$o 22,s NM


A24o,qpc 304L 700m 25,000 18,750 n-w
5000 3,750 4J(D
I Alby m34
209, r4,0q,
E aD,Alloy 5052{ t5S 95m 7,t00 8550

B 209,Altoy 5m'0 4),m3 r8.$0r t3J00r r6rtr


35,m0 t4,06 10J00 12,6m
B.Ulg,Allot 506&0

30,m ,0m 8r50 9,9@


E 209, Alby 5154.0
19,0s r4pmr l?.rG
B 209,ltby 5456-0 '12@3
l4,m rJm 3,?f,1 4Jm
I 22l,Alby 3(xl3{
9,m
I22l,Alby 5052 o 25,000 r0@ ?r00

39,000 16.m0 12@ l4/@


B 22l,Alby 563-0
B 221, Alhy 5086'l) 35.0m 140s t0,s) r1600

E 22l.llby 515{4 30,0@ rtrs 83Cl 9,9d)

E 221, Nhy 5456{ 4Lm l9@ 13.fl0 r?.1@


24.m 8Jm l0,m
B 221, Nloyr 6(}61-T,l.dT6

UN 8@ ro@
d)6l-T4 rodlt
PlFinS |nd lbbht
A33f,Gndc t l00nm 75,m
A 33l,Grdc 8 t00,m ?5,0$

75,(m 30.0m 22Jm 27S0


A 213. ond. TP, Bpc 304 22Jm
TP,lYF 70000 25.000 t&7$
A 2 t3, Cndc 3O4L

DT. l04c
A 312" C,t!d. TP, 75s 1!@ nfi 2?.m
?0,m 25p00 r&7x) zlj00
A 3la GndcaP,BF 304Lc

A 35& G(!d. 3O4. c1|cr I 75.0(I) 1r@ tffi 2?IID


5.m 3.750 4.500
B 210. Alloy 3303.0 r4.0(D

5rq) 3.?50 4.500


B 2 10, Alby ml-H I 12 14.(m
25.(tro togn ?_aD etm
B 210. Alloy 5052{
14p0or o-lh r]Irn
MO. Alloy :i086{) 35,000
8,250 9p00
I 2 | 0. Alloy 5154{} !or(I) 11,000

25,m 10,000 7500 9,000


0 Xl.Alloy 5052-0 140oo
39.0m 1q00o u,000
tl :.1l. Alk'y 5{|[|1'0

Figure '18.4 Msximum allowable stss values - page ?

From API 620, table @3

322 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1B The design of low temperature tanks

Strcss vatuc (tbflin.r)


SF.ial Minimum Allowablc Stress
ASTM Spccificatioos Tccrilc Strenglh Yicld Srcngh Dcsig|l

B 24l,AUoy $86{ 35,000 r4.000 r0,500 12,600

B 24l,Alloy 5454{) 31,000 1e000 9.000 t0,800


B 241, AUoy 5456-0 41.0@ t9.m0 r3,650 17.r00

B ,1,14 (UNS-1.I06625), GrJdc I 120,000 60,000 40,mof 54,0@r


B ,144 CJNSnm6625), Grdc 2 100,000 40000 30,mof 36,m01
I 619 (UNS-N10276), Ct si lc rm,mo 4to@ 30J5d 36,90d
B 622 (t NS-NlOtr6) 100,000 41,000 30J5d 36,900f

Forging:
A5n lmpm 75,000
A 182, C,rad! F,'IYpc 3& ?5,000 30,000 22,fi 2?O00
A 182, &r& F, lYF 304L 65,000 25,0@ 18,750 22fi
B ZT,Aloy 3003-Hl12 1,1,000 5,000 3,750 4J00
B 247, Aloy 5083-Hl 12 Modd 3qm 16,000 12,0m t4,400

Bolting.
B 2l l, Alloy 606l-T6 42,m 35!O lojm
A 320 (sfi..io+arddtcd cn& 88, BgC, B8M
.od B81)
s3h'.f,r r25,m lm,od) 30,m0
>%-1in. lt5.m 80,(m 26tro
>l-l[4i& 105,@0 65,000 2r,m0
> lt/4 - lrzir. r00,@0 50,(m 16.000

A 320 (rolutiotr{r.lFd rrd !frin+{d.d gradcs


r,}ao c&ldcd)
Grrdcs 88, BtM, rd BAFdI riz6 75,(m 30,000 r5,m0

Nob8:
rThc alloq[blc rEErsls for thcsc tDfirdrb rtr bssad oo thc lowcr yiald
rnd Ensilc lErhgth of thc wEld firral or baJc mct l, s3 drl.F
ldncd by Q.6.1, .rd *l. d!6ign rulcs in Q.3J2. Thr Einimum mc.surcd tcoiilc s@o8lh rhalt be 95,m0 lbf n.2 and mhimum mcr-
lu|ld yickt ilrryth shdt bc 52,500 lbflir2. The maximrm p.rnidcd vrluca !o bc uscd fo. dcr.rminin8 rhc illow.btc ar.ss arc
100,0m bffurz. for r.nsilc slr.ngor rnd 5&OOO lbflin.z for yicld itrrnglh,
DBascd oo tha yicb and Gtt$iL atEnglh of lhc wrld nEtrl, rs dctlnnind by Q.6.1. Thc oinimum rncssu.cd r.arsile rtcng$ shall be
95.0@ Fi nrd dr odnirun mc-aru.ld yi.ld rltngrh shall bc 52J00 lbf/rn.l.
qior u/clding pipint or tubing. a joi .ffici.rra of 0.80 shall bc spplicd lo tlrc .llorJablc suts.s for longiMind Fir{s in accordancc
with 5.23.3.
(rnE
dcaignalion Mod rcquitts thar lhc maiimum tmsilc and yicld srcngrh ard lhc rnioirnum clong.rion of lhc marcrial conform |o rhc
li.ntu of B 209, Alloy 50814.

gThcs. allowablc $rc$ vrluer arc for ma(crials ihickness up ro end irKkrding | -5 ir. hr rhicknBr ovcr L5 in.. atlow$lc srrcrs vrh|!\ arc
lo k eit blistEd pcr Q..1..r.1 usiog ASTM dara of lcnsilc (ul(matc) and yic'd srftngrh Jor rhcsc Crad!:t.
tNor ro bc rrscd fo. op.ning rqinforccmcnr whcn uI!{ with A:151. A jsl. nnd A 64i.

Figure 18.4 Maximum allowable stress values - page 2


Frcn APl620, table Q-3

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 323


18 The design of low tempercture tanks

ca corrosion allowance (in)


Noninal Plate Thickness
(fr) (in.) R= radius if tank wall (in)
<25 3116 This converts almost exactly to the following in metric unib:
>25-60 ta S"" = 12.5(t ca)/R equ184
o0- 100 5ro
where:
,00 r,r
S* = allowable compressive stress (N/mm2)
Figure 18.5 Tank radius versus nominal plaie thickness t = sheltthickness (mm)
Frcm API62A,bble 5-6
ca = corrosion allowance (mm)
theoreticaland experimental work has been done in this area R = radius of tank wall (m)
The ability of a thin cylinder to resist axial loadings has been
When the local axial stress is primarily due to a moment in the
shown to be related to numerous variables, amongstwhich are:
shell, then the allowable compressive stress may be increased
. The cylinder diameter by 20%. Where the bending ofan empty orfulltank is caused by
. wind loads or the bending of an empty tank is due to seismic
The cylinder length
loadings, then in addition to this 20% increase, the allowable
. The cylinder wall thickness compressive stress may be increased by an additional one
. third.
The material of construction
. The degree of imperfection in the cylindrical shape
For butt-welded shells, the joint factor used in compressive
stress calculations shall be taken as unity irrespective of the ex-
. Any co-existent internal or external pressures to which the tent of inspection of that joint. In the now unusual case of
cylinder is subjected lap-welded shells, the joint factors to be used in compressive
The relationship between these variables is complex. One at- stress calculations shall be tiaken from Table 5-2 of API 620
tempt to summarise this situation is shown in Figure 18.7. An anecdote from the author's experience may be of interest at
A design Code has to reduce this substantial body of work to a this point. A 50,000 m3 capacity LNG tank was being con-
relatively simple set of easy to use rules and this is what API structed in the south ofthe United Kingdom some 25 years ago'
620 has done. A somewhat unusual erection technique was being used The
outer tank was being erected by the conventional jack building
Axial compression loadings on cylinders take a number of method. However, the open-topped inner tank was suspended
forms. One is a uniformly distributed loading around the periph- from the outer tank roof and constructed from the top down-
ery of the cylinder due to such loadings as self-weight, roof wards. Bythis means a single set ofjacks could be used forthe
loadings and insulation loadings. Asecond is non uniform load- building of both tanks.
ing, usually distributed as a bending load due to wind or seismF
cally induced loadings (note again that the seismic loading is During the finaljacking operation the entire weight of the inner
not discussed here in detail but is dealt with in Chapter 24) A tank was being supported by the outer tank shell. lt was noticed
third loading is a point load applied at a specific point located on at this ooint that the two minimum thickness upper outer shell
the periphery ofthe cylinder. The tank design Codes are not ex- courses had developed the pre-buckling lozenge pattern'
actly forthcoming regarding this last loading and the way in Needless to say this was recognised as being towards the
whi;h a point load is fed intothe structure is leftvery much to the "hairy end" of the scale and the load was rapidly jacked down
designer. Fortunately such loadings, caused perhaps by local onto supports. Later unpicking of the loads and stresses in-
attaChments for stair\/vays or pipe supports, are usually small volved for these tvvo courses revealed that the applied com-
when compared with the other loadings applied to these tanks pressive stress was close to the limiting value ofequation 18 3'
and this fact should be reassuring for the designer' Agreat deal ofthe research work in the area of buckling of cylin-
In general the various loadings are considered to be applied to ders has been preformed on small scale specimens, but here
emptytanks asthis is the worstcase For those tanks which can was a full-size specimen complete with real construction de-
be subject to liquid loadings, the internal pressure is found to fects such as locked-in stresses and deviations from the true
stabilise the tank shell and increase its resistance to compres- theoretical shape. An increasingly dim memory suggests that
sive buckling. The exception to this is the seismic design case the outer tank shape was not good. Nevertheless, this experi-
for full tanks where the axial loading is a function of the liquid ence serves to reinforce the beliefthat the limiting stress given
level within the tank and this is dealt with in Chapter 26 by equation 18.3 should be taken seriously
Although not entirely in accordance with the letter of Paragraph 18.3.1.4 wind and vacuum stiffening
3.5.4 ofAPl 620, it has been common practice to use the allow- Forthe wind and vacuum stiffening of single-walled tanks or the
able compressive stress from Paragraph 3.5.4.2 which as- outer wall of a double-walled tank, reference ls made to Para-
sumes that there is no co-existent hoop tensile or compressive graph 5.10.6 ofAPl 620. This provides rules for the number and
stress. This is sensible because for outertanks the tensile hoop aize ofthe wind stiffening required for a vertical cylindrical shell'
stress due to internal pressure is modestand known to stabilise These rules are essentially the same as those for ambient
the tank. For inner open-topped tanks' there is no co-existent tanks described in ChaPter 4.
hoop tension and compressive stresses due to the loose fill in-
sul;tion system are also low. As it is very unusual for a tank The maximum unstiffened height of the tank sidewall is given
shell to have a ft ca) / R of more than 0.00667, then the allow- by;
able axial comdressive stress is given by:
loor)3 equ 18.5
equ 18.3 Hr = 6(100t)
s"" = 1,800,oooKt ca) /R] -l
where: where
s"" allowable compressive stress (lb/in'?) n1 maximum unstiffened height of the
shell thickness (in) tank shell (ft)
t

324 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


8.4

Maxim0m
Joiflt
Basic Efficiency
Joid Radiographcd (%: sce
Typc of Joinl Limirations Emcicncy (%) (Sce Notc I ) Notc 2)

me nunPin$. auainca
other mcans appov.d by lhe porchascr,lhar roofs abovc liquid lcvcl. Full (sce 100
;ed willobtain th. quality ofd.positcd trcld melal Nore 3)
by on thc insid and oubid. wcld surfaccs lftar
nic agrces with $c rcquircmcnls of PaDgraph
Roofs abovc liquid lev.l,
0te
UW-15 in Scction VIII of thc ASME C.rd.: 7o spo,
't0
x/clds using mctal backing sldps Uat rcmain 85
Full (!cc
)ne in plec! arc crcltrdcd. 100
Nor! 3)
Singl.-wddcd boujoint with backing srrip or Longitudinal or nEridional cilclrmlcrcmr or lati ?5 Spot 75
ive couiwlcnt o{hcr than thosc includd !bo\,L tudinali)i s bctwcar plater not rnorr than I r/4 FUU (r.c 85
in.lhick nozzlc attachmcnr *EtdiDg without Notc 3)
3X- thiclnass limitatioo.
of
ive Roofs abow liquid lcvcl. ?0 "_-.
JPwr 70
L Full(sc! ;i
Nor4 3)
Singlc-c,cldcd bun joint witfi out Nozzla 4tachfircnt wcLfing. 10 70
)n- backing rt ip,
lo. Dolble full-fillct lapjoint (scc LnShudinal or tn ridionrljoinls &d.quivak 70 70
No& 4). (sc. Notc 5) cirflrnfcdlial or ladEdind iobts
he
*twcco ptatcs nor rnorc ard 3,/8 h hickj;inrs of
ng this tyFshall not 6c uscd for longibdintl or
ed mcridionaljoints Ihat {rc p(ovisioru of5.12.2
icqui.c to bc butt-r,6ldcd
he
OtlEr citcurnfcfiotial oa latildinal ioints
bct*Ecn platcs not morr thro 5/8 in-thiclc 6s 65
ler Singlc full-fllct lapjoint (scc Nolc 4). lr$giMinal or m.ridionelilints ltld ci.cumfcr- 35 35
cflial or lariurdi&ljoiots bctwan phtas rbl
ed
norc drao ,8 in lhickFinB of this tyF sh.ll nor
ell bc nscd for lodgiudinal or Dcridiood joinrs tlui
'n. thc Fovisions of 5.12, rcquir wh.r! rhc rhirutc{
ne plalcjoincd cxc.Eds r/4 irl"
Sioglc flu-filkt lrp joints for hcrd-ro-noz.lc For 8n*hlnanl ofhadJ convx to pcssurc nol 35
JOmts morc lhsD 5/8 in rcquid lhickncss, o{ y wirh use
n- of lh. fillc{ wcld on rh! i$idc of tlF 0o2dc.
Nozztc-anachndt fi llct w.lds AlrchrEnt wclding for nozzlcs and thch rcin- (lscludcd in
L forccmcnts, thc sftngh
factors io
n- 3.16.8.3)
re Plt g rrcldr (scc 5.245) Attachmcnt wclding for nozzlc rdnfo.t mcnB 80 - 80
(scc Notc 6).
e-
te
| . Scc 5.26 ard ?. | 5 for d.mimdofl rcodrcnrcnts.
2. Rc8rtdla$ of any vducs givcn in ftis colunul. thc cfiicicncy for htrwcldcdjoinls bcrwcco plar.s wilh surhc.s of dorbtc cunarur. thar have a com-
1- pfli$vc iE-css acro6.r llrc jolnl lrom a ncgativc taluc of P. or otlEr cxtcmal l@dinr nrav bc rakc$ as unitvl such comorcssirc vrass shalt nol rcccd
tn 700 lbfto r, Fot 3ll othrt ltpwcldcd joint!. tllc joid cmcicrrcy facror musr bc appliid o rrr atlr,rattc coriprcssira sriss. \,.
Thc cflicrcncy for furl.
pcn tmllon D|rn'wclddt romtr. khich arc in comprccsion adDrs !h. cntirc thickEss of rhc conE rcd plar.s. may bc t in as unit v
I All ruin butl.wcldcd joints t scc 5.26.1.2) dbll bc complcrcly radiogr.phcd as sFcifi.d in ?. 1 5.1 fid .ozzlc and ninforccmcnr hchmcnt wckl.
$arr bc c,(amrncd by rh magftdc.paniclc mcrhod rr srfciftd in ?.15.2.
'nE
4. Thictocss hmrrarions dr not appty ro llat borlomr supfDncd unifomty ona fo
dation.
te J Fo. thc poro$s affh lable.3 circumfcrcn[al or laritudii.l ioins shallb. considercd suhiccr ro rhe samc rcouir.nEnrs and limiullionl !s arc k,n.
a-
gitudtnolor m$idionalroint\ shcn $rch a circumt rcorial or lainudinaljoinr is locarcd(ar sttuncal. lori slhcricalor Lllips{ndrl .hrltL n I'r o
ofc. slrlic. of doublc curvlrur. lbr ar fc iuncrion hctwcrn l Looicat o; dishcd rmf &v thrron';a irnd c.rlindricai sidcw l s. t|s ;tnsidcnd in j. .1 [ ( r
ld Itt it r rimilariuncruru at citbLr cnd of I i;nsiion sccrioo or rducc. ls sh(sn in Figuft 5.9
6''.|'.d0icDnc!l]tctGis|towt|ir|i||c|wd|ds!ndph'!lwt|dsi'.n(i|lC)t|p
it.
nt

In

: jJre 18.6 lL4aximum allowable efiiciencies fof arc-wetded joints


:'.n APl620, table 5-2

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 325


18 The desian of low lemperaturc tanks

flgt re :l
i

0.6 .f...:.::::
',ii- i-l
l
ili'i 'ny'R\
.E\TI
_; *::
0.5
- -'r' 'ir:i. ,?0-: : .

j::-:
l-* ;
't0
04 :,-i .rl '::
.'|': f.:
l:i :
ii
K
':
.:,;ll; i, tt l,i
l:+Ili-: ': ttt
0'3
: , l.T:i-- t-i i ;. ':i I i+ ii- ,.
l.<-
r;t. rli I.jil:r:
:i l i.-r !r i. I
i !i_

i:li$|++ ilt; i :t L:l ti :l


'l_l : i:i.1- j-r,I.i l.i:
';:li
l-:: I ;iiij ri:i
i:1 |
-l illl ill til
I

i t-l- i,- '.


0.1
i.l.;i i* i:li.i.;-1 i,-
rlr:.-.* ir ]+:;-:-l:l il tOl,-:il
i:l1i;lil rir..l.l
:i'1 :iriiill;l
'i:.t. i i: I .l.i il
0
r: iU,
'i:1.
ili:irlf, r;i;t;
::l Ti
l.ll r i-',
riil'-'.-
.:l
6i,: i:l
:-:l:, i:i,ili;i
tt:i ,i.i iii

Figurc 2

A=M.an lln.
I, B= Ltdltt for E0 Pol cnl
Efecttoe\ t.rdtt of
C, C=ll|nltr lor .ll t.tultr

0.10
04.01.01-NorE.
EXTERNAL PRESSURE
ie. E\: ) <o.
B'rcklinS mey occur uDder- ex_
t ma,l Dresaure aloDe at rower
oressurei tban indicated bY tlis
bata Sheet io tle long wavelength
mode covred bY Data sbeet
04.09.01. Tberefole in external
oressufe ca!c6 the strD8tb -ol tle
ivlinder rhould elao b cneckeo
o0l \riitrr Date Sheet 0l 09 ol'
Daceitbet 1963
t00 R
t
axial pressure - page 1
Llnstiffened circular cylinders under combined
Figure 18.7 Buckling stress coefflclents for tirn-walled
Sheet no 04 01 41
From Royal Aeronautical Society Structunl Data

326 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


18 The design of low temperature tanks

t = thickness ofthe top course ofthe tank wall (in)


[note 1]
D = tank diameter (ft)
Notes: 1. The Code states that the thickness used shall be the
"as ordered" thickness unless otherwise stated. This
04.0t.01 means that for tanks where a corrosion allowance has
been soecified. it is the uncorroded thickness that shall
BUCKLING STRESS COEFFICIENTS FOR THIN.WALLED
UNSTIFFENED CIRCULAR CYLINDERS UNDER COMBINED
be used. Clearly if the designer, owner or other inter-
AXIAL COMPRESSION AND INTERNAL PRESSURB ested parties feel that the added security of having a
stiffening system based on the corroded shellwould be
-, (s.cona ke6 ld! t*)
beneficial, then there is provision to allow this, but the
l-le.gth of cylild.l (i!.) onus is on these parties to demand this change.
R = radius of c/iider (in.)
,= tlid.ncss of cylind.r warl (iaJ 2. This formula is based on the following:
o=llaximun inw&d initial iffsula.ity (in.)
-E= Youos.'s nbdurus 0b./in.) The design wind velocity (V) is 10q mph which imposes
,- iitcmd ple3urc 0b,/i!.') a dynamic pressure of 25.6 lblf(. The velocity is in-
t'=critiel codpr$sivb sttB (lb./inj)
{-buck$ng strss co.frcinr dd!.d
creased by 10% for either height above the ground or
by i=rr (r/R)
gust factor. The pressure^is thus increased to 31.0
lb/fr". An additional 5.0 lb/f is added to this for internal
The cuns on Fislr. r 6ay be Bed to dcrcdine rle brcklinE sr.6
co.f6ciet5 for thin-eau.d un.tj-ffnd ci@lar cytinder3 uader @obin;d djal vacuum (5.0 lb/f is equivalent to a vacuum of approxi-
comprBioa and irt.rnal pcsurc. The buaklins 3rlB @effidst K i3 mately 1.0" water gauge). lf the design is to cater for
plotted.sainst 6/r ror var;ous value or thc palme@r (lrlE) (Rl)r.
The dclrh 3 of initial nr.glladriB i! one of rhe D.inciDal faclorc a{erinE rbe anotherwind speed specified by the customer, then tl'!e
buckling str6s of circular cyliddeE. Dispcitiod ofiuch i.rcsalerideJ ba! value of H1 can be adjusted by multiplying by (100iv)' .
ben panly tAkcn into a@unr by thep.rticular d.6nidod 6dopted tor 6, i,., tne
maxidun inward irregula.iry of the surfa@ of rhe cylinde. from arv slraicbt Theformula can be similarly adjusted to cope with wind
edg. placed in an axial phnc. Appreciabte vanatioi in buckri'q si;ess dirsr
stiu bc expered for cyij^deB haling tnc aame 3/r rclio but wi{h di8snlly velocities which are expressed in terms of wind pres-
shaped ed difcrcndy l@ted inidal i.r.Autari!$. sure rather than velocity and for other levels ofvacuum.
h h.lways dificuh to irreprer actulnsur@ots of i(egularities, Some The background to this is based on the work of
gu;ddce or the vatues of 6 fdr uee who etjnaLine tte bickti@ strese of
qylioders f rch Fignrc r ;s given in Flgurc :. Tle dr;es or Figw ; bave len Mccralh ( Refere nce 1 8. 1 \
deriv.d Iron experimental r6ulrs, etr@rive vatues of 5/r b.ios obrained b!
wo.ki.g back lrcm Ficur. r. The rers on which tle cu.i6 ar.-bar.d @vcrcf To take account of the differing thicknesses of the tank shell
a wide raoge of date.iah abd cylinder 3izcs and. saner b.nd is show!;
cuNc A i3 the de linc dnwn rbrough rle elperimenral poinls, [ns B, B, courses, the shellmust be transposed to an equivalent shell, all
liow thc lidirs for eigbry per cenrol rhe rults and lines C, C, show the limirs of the minimum or upper shell course thickness using the fol-
for all the tuult!. lt i5 beliq.d rl.( by u6ios t!$e cun6 a rc*onabtr
6rimaie of rhc ndufactu.ing inaeuraci* wjlr 6e obrained for use iD d.ttr- lowing relationship:
hidng rle buckling srr6s of cyund.E under .xial @hprgsion aud irrer!.1
pre$ure rrom ! !gur. r,
on Fislre , thc cude ror (t/E)(Ri Ir
r--''- l-
is {or $e es of toadids u.der
a:ial @mpe3ion alone. Tb efect of incrnal'f =o pre$urc iE !o redua rhl inir'61 wt. = w.i rlrlrq I equ 18.6
iiregularitie in rhe crlinde. and hence to lncrease (h huckline srre$ I
coefhciert. walurs of.(?/E) la/4r giv rheefr*t or cxte..d tr6sure. I L 'acruar
"Nts*iv!
lhe orde. o! th.se elfecrs is:ndi@red by ihe dotred cuwes.
Tn curu6 are appli@ble obly to cyl,ndec whcre tllR): )' :{ lrr F), bur rhd
may be used to deremin. rh buckling srras of dng{risened cyiinaqs if i js where:
rakeD 4 $e distance btrw.en two rinss and dre above ondjrron k fu$ued.
For slDrter c/Undss .ne bucklirg srr-s will be hgher Lhan tlat given by tunrom = thickness ofthe top sidewall course (in), as or-
dered, unless otherwise specifled lsee Note 1
abovel
Cox and P{r!RAx. Th Eimenrs of th. Bucklins of Cufred plat6.
loudal olrhe Rotdt A.o@stn:at Sociar, Sptdber rta. t"d,"r = thickness of the sidewall course (in)forwhich
Cox. Unplblisbed rork,
Lo, CurE and ScEwdrz. Bucjkline of Thin-Watled Cvtinder undir Aaial the transposed width is being calculated, as or-
Compd3io6 ud lrrerDal Pcsulc. N.A.C,A. Rclorr !ozi, tqst. dered, unless otherwise specified
FunG and S3a!R. Buc&tina or Tii!-walr.d Ci@td CvnndcF uoder
Compcsion .nd Iarernat Prusurc. Jddd of r,,. A.@tu;tknr Sci.@es,
A,xiar
W = actual course width (ft)
H^nRB m
^1.
Thc stabiliry of Thin-waLd UNdfiocd Cir.utar Cvtind*
ubde. Axiel Compesio! I.cludirg rhe Efct3 of tDt mal prssurc. jor@t Wr = transposed course widh (fr)
ol t^6 Aero@uficat Augu3t 1957,
'.toq.r, The sum of the transposed widths gives the total height of the
To find tbe buc&ling 6rs of a cylinder under @mbided axial oopcsion transposed shell. lf this height is greater than the value of Hj
calculated from equation 18.5, then one or more intermediate
R=18 itr., t-0.036 in,, l-t8 jr., E-rox!o. tb./in.,
snd ,=ro.o lb./in,' wind girders must be added to stabilise the shell.
(l/x),=r.o a.!d ,5 {t/R)=o.os; lhcrcfore (t/.R}'> .s (r/R). >
R/t=5@ ed, f6h cwe A of Flgure ,, 3/r-o.15.
If H1 I W, then no intermediate wind stiffeners are re-
(r/E) (R/r)r=o.,s dd, kom Fisurc t, x-o.ao. qurred
Thcforc lb=8,@ lb./in.r
A cylinder of muc! l* rld averaao *snda'd of manufacrure in l.fts of lfH1 < >W, <2Hr then one intermediate wind stiffener is
lhe magritud. of its cylirdriel inpcrt@liols, misht bav. ar cfi@tive t/t of reourred
o.95 (upp.. C li* on Fig!rc ,). Suc! a cyrindt would have . huch t;wer
buckliqg srcs rh6 rhat titut d abovc j ia woutd bc <,4oo lb. /io.' Ukewis lf 2H1 < I Wr <3H1 then two intermediate wind stiffeners
a crlinder of much geare. cyli.dril p.rfetiod misht;;hie. an .f,etive 6/r
or orly o.oo9 0d.i C ltn on FiEw ,) .!d beyc a buckliE !rG! & are reoutreo
_rr.,@.1b./io.r The po$ibiury ol3!ch variariols i. bucklilg dtr;s must b.
Etc....
generallyagreed that the spacing between the wind stiffen-
It is
ers should be equally pitched on the transformed shell as faras
is oossible.
This is efficientdesign. lt provides the maximum shellstability in
that all of the unstiffened parts of the shell are equally stable.
The stiffeners may be attached to either the inner or outer sur-
:;-.e 18.7 Buckling stress coefficienis for thin-walled unstiffend circular cyl-
-::rs !ndercombined axialpressure - page 2
faces of the shell and must not be located within 6 inches of a
horizontal welded seam.
-'.- Royal Aeronautical SocieE Sttuctural Data Sheet no. 04.01.01 The required minimum section modulus of the intermediate

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 327


18 The desian of low tempercture tanks

quired for the stairway, then the opening shall have the same
Tank shell minimum section modulus as the stiffener itself This is de-
scribed further in ChaPter 4.
The stiffening ring itself can be a structural section or be fabri-
cated from plate. ln this case the joint between web and flange
may be an intermittent weld on alternate sides'
One rathole of minimum radius0.75" shallbe provided ateach
ioint between stiffener sections and at each point where the
itiffener crosses vertical shelljoints This detailis shown in Fig-
ure 18.9.
All fillet welds shall consist of a minimum of two passes The
ends of the fillet welds shall be 2" fromtheedgeof therathole
as illustrated, and these welds shall be deposited by starting 2"
from the rat hole and welding away from the rat hole An accept-
able alternative to stopping the fillet welds 2" short of the rat
hole is to weld continuously through the rat hole from one side
of the stiffener to the opposite side All craters in the flllet weld-
ing shall be filled bY back welding.
Anv ioints between sections of stiffener shall be made such that
area or the shellto be included in the wind siirr- tne minimum required moment of inertia of the combined
5i9ru"13"tJ[:,33""F"tins shell/stiffener shall be maintained
wind stiffener is given by the following equatron: Welded joints between adjacent sections of stifiener shall be
equ 18.7 made with full thickness complete penetration butt welds The I
Z = O.O0O1D'H,
use of backing strips is permitted.
18.3.1.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
i
where: I
For double-walled tanks where the thermal insulation system I
Z = minimum section modutus of the stitfener (in3) consists of a loose fill material (usually perlite) in association
and the Participating shell I
with a resilient blanket (usually glass fibre)' the insulation sys- I
The participating shellwhich may be included in the calculation tem imposes an external pressure on the outerface ofthe inner
of the sectlon modulus on the stiffener' both above and below tank. fhis mechanism is described further in Chapter'19 The
the point of attiachment is given by: external pressure is at its maximum value when the tank is
pe-
equ 18.8 emDtv and warmed up to ambient temperature following a
to = 1 .a7[Dt1', r.iod in lo* t".p"tutuie service The evaluation of the
magni-
tude of the insulation component of the loading is also dis-
where: iuiied in Chapter 19. ln the case of inner tanks with fixed roofs'
lp = length of the participating shell (in) (see Figure the insulation loading can be increased by the mostpessimistic
18.8) combinations of interspace pressure and inner ianl( vacuum'
The Code does not give any guidance for the design of a suit-
Where tanks arefitted with spiralstairways and thewind stiffen-
able shell stiffening system.
ing is to be fitted to the outside of the tank shell, stiffeners ex-
tending up to 6" from the outer surface of the shell plate with Adesiqn methodology which has wide acceptance in the indus-
(Refer-
stairwiys of at least 24" nominal width are permitted wlthout try is b:ased on the work of L.P Zick of Chicago Bridge
eice 78.2). This work has been republished with minor modifi-
modification. For stiffeners which are widerthan 6", a minimum
lf the cations in a publication by the American lron and Steel lnstitute
unobstructedwidth of stain/ayof 18" mustbe maintained
the stiffener is re- most recentiy revisedin 1gg2 (Reference 18 3) and it upon this
stiffener is of such a width that an opening in

Con nu@sfr|e|EE (s*a 3 s)

1 i" I r l r" rr-i,.. r,rt.


"

Fgure 18.9 APl620 - Shell slrffenet Jornt deta'ls

328 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


18 The design of low temperature tanks

.ne :.: :re following is based. This document gives design meth- half of the distance from the centre of the stiff-
te- - : -:'or three d;fferent types ofvessels and loadings. lt is Type C ener to the centre of the next stiffener on the
- :'r is most appropriate for storage tanks ("Storage Tanks of other side (or to the top or bottom of the shell)
(in). This is the part of the shell supported by
9n- -:'ie Diameter Subject to Radial Loads Only, ot Small Vacu-
, -: Wherc the Axial Load is Negligible"). the stiffener and this is illustrated in Figure
rge
18. 10
--. external load applied bythe insulation system on a vertical
rch
:. -dricaltankhas been shown by experimental and theoreti- D = tank diameter (in)
:: :iudies to be nearly uniform overthe tank height. This has t
lne
.::. assumed in this design procedure. = thickness ofthe thinnest (i.e. top) shell course
(in)
-: :3count for the fact that real tank shells are constructed from
-he : ::ries of courses, usually of different thicknesses, and the E = Young's modulus ofthe tank shell material
(lb/in2) usually taken as 29.0E06 for steel
oe -ry in Reference 78.3 is based on a shell of constant thick-
-::s. materials and 10.6E06 for aluminium alloys
it is first necessary to construct a shell of constant thick-
|2" -:-is equivalent to the real shell. This is for convenience based = factor of safety with respect to predicted failure
)pt- : - :re minimum shell thickness used in the real shell and is suggested minimum value = 2.0
-
: - -structed as in Section 18.3.1.4 by repeating the calculation
rae :':quivalent course width on a course-by-course basis using
p = external pressure (lb/in2)
)ro- :: -ation 18.6. p = Poisson's ratio - for steels 0.30
This formula is valid for values of L" greater than O.916i.
iat
equ 18.9 For tanks of conventional proportions, it is most unusual for
)ed
_:fe: shell stiffeners to be this close together.

be -1. = total height of equivalent tank shell (in) The number of stiffeners required to stabilise the shell is given
-he by:
.termediate shell stiffeners
-^: David Taylor lvlodel Basin Formula is used to decide upon N.,n =t 1 equ 18.11
.-
= citching of the stiffeners on the tank shell.
This is taken from
em : ,vork of Windenburg and Trilling (Refe rence 18.4), some of (rounded up to the nearest whole number)
ron , - ch is based on test work carried out on behalf of the US Navy
ys- :: 'ar back as 1929. Note: usualto arrange for shellstiffeners to be a minimum
lt is
ner
--? fofmula is: distance above or below the circumferential shell
-he
seams (measured on the real shell). This can be the
minimum spacing permitted by the tank design Codes
2.42 E (t Df f
ce- !, <D 0.45 + _4 | equ 18.10
or a greater distance to suitthe method oftank erection.
lni- Fp(l-u')''' l It is next necessary to calculate the number ofwaves into which
the stiffening ring will buckle, which is taken as the same num-
)fs, ber of waves into which the complete unstiffened shell will
,
_ere:
stic buckle:
Tt, L, half of the distance from the centre of the stiff-
uit- ener to the centre of the next stiffener on one Nz - -:: > 100 equ 18.12
side (or to the top or bottom of the shell) plus H lt^..
Di] D
US-
where:
iift-
ute N = number of waves rounded up to the nearest
nts whole number - Note that the maximum per-
mitted value is 10
H = total height ofthe real shell (in)
t", = average shell thickness (in)
Next is the calculation for the required moment of inertia of the
stiffener and the participating area of the shell:

' FPL'DI
equ 18.13
' sE(N'z-1)

where:
l" = moment of inertia of the shell stiffener and the
participating area of the tank shell (in4)
L" = actual or real height ofthe tank shell associ-
ated with the particular stiffener (in)
The participating area ofthe shell is the lesser ofl .1t"vbi (equal
to the participating shell width on either side of the stiffener of
t-i
078-/r aiven in eouation 18.15).
\2 -
: :Lr 18.10 The podion of the lank shell supported by a stiffener (1") This is computed by reversing the move from the real shell to

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 329


1 8 The design of low tempenture tanks

Diametor 72m
Height 35m
Fillheight 34m
Product LNG
sG 0,48

Course Width (m) Thickness (mm) Equivatent ht (m) Realheight (m) .quivalnt height (m)
course) (cumulativ)
(per (clmulative)
1-bottom 3.5 35.4 0.134 35.000 13-913
2 3.5 31.7 0.177 31.500 ',t3779
3 3.5 2a-1 0.235 28.000 13.602
4 3.5 24.5 0.336 24.500 13.364
5 3"5 20.8 0.507 2',1.o00 't3.o27
6 3.5 17.2 0.815 17.500 12,521
7 3.5 ',13.6 1.465 14.000 11JO6
8 3.5 9.9 3.241 10.500 10.241
I 3.5 9.6 3.500 7.000 7.000
'lGtop 3.5 9.6 3.500 3.500 3 500

Figure I 8.1 1 Example of transition from the equlvalent to the real shell

the equivalent shell in equation 18.9 above. An example ofthis


calculation is given in Figure 18.11.
To preventyielding ofthe stifener, the following minimum area
requirement shall also be met:
. PL.D equ 18.14

wnere: Stitrener s2e6

A" = composite area ofthe stiffener and the partici- Top 9lo x 305 x 76 x8 mm
pating shell (in'?). The participating shell width '| 152x9
' to be included on either side of the stiffener it-
159xe
mm

self shall be:


10 165x8

0.78 equ 18.15 !1 171x8


12 184x8
Note: This is more generousthan permitted byAPl620 Para- 13 197x8
graph 5.10.6.8 for wind stlfiening (see equation 18.8) 't4 203x8

which in the same units works out to be060{; .


15 &x 9.6

To ensure that the stifiener is a sensible minimum size, the area


ofthe stifieneralone shall be not less than one halfofthe value
of A" calculated.
F" = Allowable compressive shess (lb/irP)and shall
be taken as '15,0001b/in'? for steel.
This procedure results in a stiffener anangement with the shell
stiffeners congregating towards the top of the tank shell and in-
creasing in size from the top of the tank to the boftom. A typical
arrangement is illustrated in Figure 18.12.
The conservative assumption, built onto equations 18.13 and
18.14 is that allofthe load on the tank shell is taken by the inter-
mediate stiffeners.
The proportions ofthe plate stiffeners shallconform to the AISC
rules for compression members (Reference 78.q, or the de-
signer can use the simpler 16t rule.
End (i.e, top and bottom) stiffeners
Forthe design ofthese stifieners, it is assumed that one halfof
the total radial load on the tank shell is transferred to the end
stiffeners. In this case where the external load is uniform, the
end stiffeners are equallyloaded, each receiving one quarter of
the total load on the tank shell.
The required moment ofinertiaforan end stiffener is given by:

c{T
FpHD3
equ 18.16

wnere:
H = total actualtank height (in) Figlre 18.12 A tpical shell stiffenlng arrangement

330 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


18 The design of low tempercturc tanks

outer tanks.
API Appendix Q divides the component parts of the tank into
two categories:
Primary components. lt is worth quoting paragraph e. i.4.1 in
full as there is frequently some confusion in this area:
"ln general, primary components include those components
that may be stressed to a significant level, those whose failure
would permit leakage ofthe liquid being stored, those exposed
Eileclive area wilhoul annular stilfener to a refrigerated temperature between -60'F and -27O.F, and
those that are subject to thermal shock. The primary compo-
nents shall include, but will not be limited to, the following parts
of a single wall tank or of the inner tank in a double wall tank:
shell plates, bottom plates, roof plates, knuckle plates, com-
pression rings, shell stiffeners, manwaysand nozzles including
reinforcement, shell anchors, pipe, tubing, forgings and bolt-
ing".
Note: When roof plates, knuckle plates, compression rings,
lzr"lL"l manways and nozzles including reinforcement are pri-
marily subjected to atmospheric temperature they are
Effective area with annut& sliffening
reclassifi ed as secondary componenb.

: l-:e Secondary components. ln general, secondary components


18.13 Boitom comer arrangement where additional area is required
include those components that will not be stressed to a siqnifi-
cant level by the refrigerated liquid, those whose failure wiit not
::r open topped tanks N should be taken as 2 for the top stiff- result in leakage of the refrigerated liquid being stored, those
exposed to product vapours, and those that have a design
:lr a tank with a fixed roof with a radial rafter framework, N metal temperature higher than -60"F
=:uals the number of radial rafters subject to the maximum Much ofthis categorisation is concerned with material selection
,: ue of '10. and impacttesting. This is discussed more fully in Chapter 21 .
::. a flat bottom or a self-supporting roof (i.e. no framework) N 18.3.2.1 Hoop tension liquid containing tanks
:^all be calculated using equatlon 18.12. -
The two formulae from Section 18.3.1.1, (equations 18.1 and
-"e required cross-sectional area ofthe end stiffeners is calcu- 18.2) are used again here with the following exceptions:
=:ed from: - . Ht is no longer required to be the same as Ho. The exact
nHn wording of the Code on this subject is:
"4F equ 18.17
Q.8.1.1 states; "Except as limited by foundation or stress
't is available, (i.e. a top stiffener located below the top of the conditions, the test shall consist offilling the tank with water
shell), a participating width ofshell on each side ofthe stiff- to the design liquid level and applying an overload air pres-
=rk
:1ef, as given in equation 18.15, shall be included in the area. sure of 1 .25 times the pressure for which the vapour sDace
is designed. Where foundations or stress conditions do not
:lr the bottom end stiffener, the participating section without permit a testwith waterto the design liquid level, the height
--^e
addition of extra material is the annular plate outstand. the of the water shall be limited as stated in e.8.1.2 and
:rrtion of the annular plate beneath the shell and the effective Q.8.1.3.',
,1 dth of annular plate (given above) together with the participat-
-9 shell area from equation '18.15. This is usually sufficient to Q.8.1 .2 states: "The load on the supporting foundation shatl
preferably not exceed the established allowable bearina
'- fll the moment of inertia requirements ofequation 18.16, but
value for the tank site. Where a thorouqh evaluation of lh;
-.3metimes falls short of the minimum area required by equa-
: cn 18.1 7. An economical means of providing the extfa area is foundation justifies a temporary increaie, the established
:: use a small annular plate stiffener to mobilise additional an- allowable bearing may be increased for the test condition.
-Jlar plate. This is illustrated in Figure 19.13. but the increase shall not be more than 25%.',

-te maximum value for L" is usually taken lrcm Reference Q.8.1.3 states: "The maximum fill shall not produce a stress
in any part of the tank greater than 85% (may be gO% for
stainless steel oraluminium materials) of the specified min j-
mum yield strength of the material or 55% of the speciflec
18.3.2 The API 620 Appendix e approach minimum tensile strength of the material.
What this boils down to is:
is has been described in Section 19.3.1, when this Standard
r.as written it only considered single containment tanks for the - The minimum test water fill level is given by:
::orage of products at temperatures down to -270.F. This is
Hr = 1.25Howo equ 18. i 6
-ade clear in the scope in Paragraph e.1.1 of the Code. The
considered are a single-walled insulated tank (most un- - The shell th ickness will normally be governed by the
=nks ope-
-sual these days) ora double-walled tank consistinq of an inner ating condition but a check must be made to ensure tia:
:nk for storing the refrigerated liquid and an outer tank enclos- the stress limits given in Q.8.1.3 are not exceeded.
-g an insulation space around the innertank. This outer tank is
-ot designed to contain the product liquid. There are occasions when the test water level is reouirec
to be higher than that given by equation 18.18. These c:-
,','ith the passage of time and the increasingly frequent appear- cumstances could be associated with local requlations o.
:''rce of double and full containment tanks, the rules of this AD- customer preference. So a test water height up to H co.t o
::ndrx have also been used to design liquid containing metaliic be required, and in this case the shell thickness wiil proba-

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 331


1 8 The design of low temperature tanl$

srdric shell b2sidr to AFt 620 Ap ,rloteridl selcted :

9% Nlckd: AST A553 ?

Tank diohela
Height of fork shell
Fill height -op'.olir'g
Fill heighi -last 2O.& |n
- P.oduct S
Test wster 56
Operuting pre3sure - fixed rrof tonk only ntdrg
Tesi pr6s|tFe - fixed roof tonks only mborg
lrlinimun thickie9s li i: 9,600 hn
corrosion ollowonce 6,a=[ffilrnn
Weld nefol properties - Ullimole Tensile Sif engih uts.--ZEiE-ru/rnrn'
Yild Sirng{h yS
= 399.91 t{,hm,
Density of steel p= 8O0O.0O k9lm3

Fron APr 620 : Q.3.3.2 (desqn) d Q.8.1.3 (tesi)

Allowoble strqte"s - opc.stirE; 1/3 x UTs 229,8 N/hn'?


or 2/3 xYS 266.6 1.1166?
trst : 0.55 x UTs 379.2 N/mnf
or 0.85 x YS 339.9 Mmm'z

Dasign slress 229.8 N/mtn'g


Test stress 339,9 N/nrn'?
-

The colculofion of the shell fhiclap$ cohat fron API 620 | 3.10.3.2.

t= Tt +"o where T, = lditrjdindl unil fofce (cirdrhferehtiol unii forcas)


sB. marii
SoE rm ollowobl stf55 for simple iension
E= efficiency of joint

- Coufse wdih Ha ,+ td seleclea lr Wei9hi


(tn) (m) (rn) (nn) (run) (|n|n) (wn) (lt'n) (Te)
I 34 20.,{() 25,O8 25.O8 25.@ 154.91
30.50 16.90 22.tu 22.m 17.56 22.4 142.50
3 2730 13.,tO 19.91 19.91 19.91 ?0,o 126.67
23.fi 17.33 t7.33 17.33 10.29 17,4 110.20
3 '3 20.00 6.40 14.75 14.75 9.60 14.4
16.W 290 12.17 11 17 12l7 9.60 l?..2 77.27
7 13.00 4.60 9.59 9.59 9.60 9.60 9.6 60.EO
8 9.50 -4.10 7.O1 701 9.60 9.60 9.6 60-90
6.00 -7.60 4.43 4.43 9.60 9.60 9.6 60.80
lo -11.10 1.84 1.84 9.60 9.60 9.6 60.80
".50
Totofl,eioht: 952.55 Ie

where;
Hd = Height of liquid hld under oPer{tlng codifions oi level being conslde.ed (n)
Hr = Heighl of liquid head under ta# conditio[' dt level being contidered (|n)
td = DesiEn thickrs of 3hell (nm)
fd + cq : Dedgn thicknesg + corrosion ollowonce (mm)
ir: Tert thlckness of shell (nu'n)
l" = selccted shell thickness (nm)

Figure 18.14 Example calculatlon showing how the test water heighl influenced the shsll thickness - page t

332 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1 8 The design of low temperaturc tanks

Smt Stntl Oesron to fpt fZO fo ,rldteriol selected :

sxnl"k"'-llllr1ssl E
Tonl dion
Height of
Fillheight -
ter
tdr* lheil
opcmthg
r'ffi*
Fill height
Produci SG
Tesr wdter Sg
- tcst
w
w
34.00 rh

Op.i.afi4t pr$$? - fixed foof lqaks mly


Tesl prErure - ftx.d noof iohk only
ffi"uo"g
lW|rnbqrg
l'linihqn lhiclaEas i,r = 9.600 rnn
Coirrosion qllowonce 61=W$nrnr
Weld metol properiiat - Uhitndte TeBile St|.engf h UTS = 689.50 Wm|nz
Yield Strength YS = 39.91 N/mr:
D.nsityof st el p= e000.00 kglnri

F.on APr 620 r q3.3.2 (desqn) & Q.8.1.3 (tusr)

Allowqble stre3ses - opa.atlrB = V3 x UTs 229.8 wtrtnz


or 2/3 xYS 266.6 N/hn,
tst: 0.55 x UTS 379.2 f.t/61614
or 0.85 { YS 339.9 Nh|n,
Desi$r stress e29.8 N/mn,
Te6tStr93 339,9 Nlnrmr

n llle co,qulqii$ of the rhell thick'|ess cones fron Apf 620 I 3,f0,3.2.
T"
t= +aa where Tr: ldtitlrdinql unit force (clrrunferdiol unit fofcs)
S*E g, = mxinw$ ollowoble strEis for simple terlsiolt
E 3 efficiency of joinf

Cou|le Wtdllt H6 ll' id ld+co id selected Weighi


(|n) (rn) (n) (run) (|n|l|) (hii) (nn) (mm) (re)
1 34 34.00 25.08 25.08 25.08 3534 36.4 224.20
3050 22.50 31.69 31.7 m.77
27.@ 27ffi 19.91 r9.91 19.91 28.05 28.1 177.97
4 e350 ,7.33 17.33 17.33 24.42 21.5 155.17
eo.00 20.00 t4:75 14J5 14.75 4.78 20.8 131J4
16.50 16.50 1Zt7 rzv 1?.r7 17.L4 t7.z 108.94
13.00 13.00 9.59 9.59 9.@ 13.6 E6l3
9.ffi 7.at 9.60 9.87 9.9
o 6.@
' 6.!0 4.43 4.43 9.60 9.60 9.6
62JO
60.80
e50 2.& !34 '| a4 9.60 930 9-6 60.80

rornl weiol* -TiSd7l-.re


=

Hd = Heigl* of llqrdd hsad under olerlting corditig.s af level bing congidersd (ttl)
Hr = Height of liquld hend qldef lert conditjons at levcl bsing considerd (n)
td = Design thickness of shell (nrn)
td + ca. Detign thicknS + corrociqn dbwree (nUn)
tr : Terf thicknssr of shell ftnn)
tr : s.lecrd shell thickne6s (mn)

l|r1 Ernple calculation showing how the test water height Influencd the shell lhlckness- page 2

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 333


1B The design of low tempenture tanks

Nominal Cylindcr Diamctcr(f() Nominal Plate Thickncsr (in.l non-liquid containing tanks, the rules from section 5.4 of the
Slainlcss s{.cl ed nickel stael
Code are used as described in Section 18.3.'1 .3. For aluminium
<60 r/rr, alloysthe allowable compressive stress shallbe reduced bythe
l4O ttl ratio of the modulus of compressive elasticity to 29,000 (note
dO-
> 140-220 5tt6
US customary units of lb/inz) for values of [- c) less than
>22O r/s

Aluminum 0.0175 and by the ratio of the minimum yield strJgth of the alu-
<20 ft -c)
3h6
miniumalloyto30,000forvaluesof ' _' equaltoorgreater
2O-Im ttt
> 120-2m 5h6 than 0.0175.
>M l/s
18.3.2.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening

Figure 18.15 Nominal thickness of inner iank cylindrical sidewall plaies


For single-walled tanks (most unusual to Appendix Q), and
outer liquid and non-liquid containing tanks, the rules outlined in
Fran API 624, hble Q-5
Section 18.3.1 .4 are used. The only difference is that Appendix
bly be dictated by the test condition. Q allows the use of stainless steels and aluminium alloys. For
these materials the requirement for a minimum of two pass fillet
- An example of this is shown in Figure '18.'14. In this case welds is not mandatory
thedesign ofthefoundation and the supporting base insu-
18.3.2.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
lation material must be checked to ensure that they are
suitable for the higher test case loadings. The Code gives no guidance here and the methods described
in Section 18.3.1.5 above are commonly used. The only differ-
. Minimum values for the design specific gravity of the vari-
ences are in the values of Poission's ratio and the allowable
ous products (Wo) are given. These are:
compressive stress to be adopted when aluminium alloys are to
- Methane 29.30 lb/ft3 (i.e. an SG = 0.470) De useo.

- Ethane 34.21 lblft3 (i.e. an SG = 0.546) In eouation 18.10 a value of u of 0.33 should be substituted and
in equations 18.14 and 18.17 the allowable compressive stress
- Ethylene 35.50 lb/ft3 (i.e. an SG = 0.569)
of 5483 lb/in'? (based on 15,000 lb/in'z times the ratio of the
. Values for the allowable stress for the design condition (So) Young's modulii of aluminium alloy to steel) should be used.
and the allowable stress for the test condition (Sr) for com-
monly used ASTM materials are given in Table Q-3 (Figure 18.3.3 The BS 7777 approach
18.4). The values ofSo given in this Table for plate materi-
als are based on the lesser of: As has been discussed in earlier Chapters, BS 7777 is based
(a) one third of the specified minimum ultimate tensile on the work of the EEMUAcommittee and its recommendations
strength of the material or contained in the EEMUA 147 publication. EEMUAand its pre-
decessor, OCMA, worked for several years to pfoduce a set of
(b) hi,/o thirds oJ the specified minimum yield strength [75%
recommendations which included double and full containment
in the cases of stainless steel, aluminium alloys and nickel
tanks which were increasingly being required by clients inter-
alloys - which does not include 9% and 5% nickel steelsl. ested in increased safety for storage facilities for the various
The values of S, are derived as stated above. low temperature gasses.
For materials where the strength of the weld metal under- BS 7777 does not use the primary secondary and basic cate-
matches the strength of the plate material such as 9% gories forthe component parts ofthe storage tanks, rather pre-
nickel steel, footnote a of the Table allows a range of weld ferring to place the various parts of the structures in the cold
metal propertieson whichthe allowable stresses foroperat- (i.e. design temperature based on the temperature ofthe stored
ing and test conditions can be based. Paragraph Q.6.1 pro- liquid)and warm (i.e. design temperatures based on minimum
vides means of determining the weld metal strengths. ambient temperatures) categories.
. The minimum shell plate thicknesses are given in Figure In Part 3 of this Standard, rules are provided for the design of
interesting to note that the values given for stain-
18.1 5. lt is concrete parts of low temperature tianks.
less steels and nickel steels are different from those given
18.3.3.1 Hoop tension liquid containing metallictanks
for aluminium alloys. They are also different from the val- -
ues given forAPl 620 Appendix R tanks (see Figure 18.5). The basic design formulae are:
It is interesting to note that the properties ofthe parent plate or Operating case:
weld metal, upon which the allowable stresses are to be based,
t^- D l98w^rH^-0.3t-o^I equ 18.19
are determined at room temperature. The actual properties at " ,)nQ ( ' ") 'ca
the design temperature will be higher, and in some cases con-
siderably higher, than the room temperature properties. Thus in Test case;
operation an additional factor of safety exisb.
D -i,
18.3.2.2 Nonliquid containing tanks ' =20s, {gew,
t.
'
o.gt*0, } equ 18.20

Appendix Q of API is interestingly non-committal regarding the


design of the non-liquid containing tanks. A minimum shell The variables are as defined in Section 18.3.1.1withthefollow-
ing exceptions:
thickness of %6" is specified which is appropriate for smalltanks
but should be checked for largertanks as suggested in Section . No minimum product density is given.
18.3.1 .2 . In general it is usual practice to turn to the body ofthe . As originally published, the test water fill height was to be
Code (i.e. section 5) for suitable rules for the design of outer the same as the maximum productfill height. Alateramend-
non-liquid containing tanks. mentwas published changing this requirement which is dis-
18.3.2.3 Axial compression cussed in Section 18.3.3.6.
For both inner and outer liquid containing tanks and for outer . For outer liquid containing tanks, the design product fill

334 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1B The design of low temperature tanks

)f the lhn} dismeter , Mlnlmum shell thlctness Carbon manganese lU'IS,2.35 or YS/L5
n ium steels
,ythe D <30 8 Improved toughness ltns/2.35 or YS/1.5
caxbon marganese
(note 30<D<50 l0
l,ow nickel steels UTS/2.35 or
than 50 s, I
% Ps/1.5
10.2
NOm. This thickness may inciude any corrosion allowanc I % nickel steel I tlTS/2.35 oi
) alu- provided that the shell is shown by calculation to b safe in % Ps/1.5
th corroded condition and in accordanc wjth the 10.2
requirement of 7.2.i1.3. Austenitic stainless IUTS/2.5 or I % PS/1.5
-'ater
: gure 18.16 IVinimum shell plate thickness
Figurc 18.18 Determination ofthe maximum allowable stress desgn
"on BS 7777 : Paft 2, table 12 Fron BS 7777 : Part2,table 11

ano Material type l,hximum shell thickness'/ Nornnrl cont lrs dLmeter Noblnal shU thrchr)
ed in D
lype I 30 mm
)ndtx
. For t?es II and III 25 rnm ,<10 5
fillet t?es lV and V 30 mm2) l0=D<30 6

1}?e vl 25 nm 30<r<60 8
gs 'r When material thicknesses are required in excess of thes
60<r<75 l0
values, additional requirements to maintain the same level of 12.5
-ibed
safety are lo b ageed between purchaser and manufacturer
', The rquirenenl to. minimm nomiMl thicknss is neded
ilfer- see footnore to tabte 2. for onshuction pu.pces, and nay include any colruDn
'z)
/aote auowe.e, prdidd that the shell b shom by cdculariotr ro
: lJre be sfe in the cormded condition and to b in accordance
re to 18.17 l\,4aximum shell plate lhickness with ?.1.4.2 and ?.1.43.
: .n BS 7777 : Paft2, table 4
Figure 18.19 Conlainer nominal shell plate thickness
tano height shall be the level achieved when the full inner tank
Fron BS 7777 : Pad 2. tabl-e I
:IESS contents are released into the outer tank.
i the parent plate, the weld metal properties used in the determina-
-1ese formulae applyto tanks ofthe single, double and full con-
-.d. .rment categories. tion of the allowable stresses shall be demonstrated to have
= been achieved by the use of a strain-gauged, cross joint tensile
--e design point taken as being 0.3m above the bottom edge
is test which is defined in the Standard.
:':re course under consideration.
18.3.3.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks
tseo r.y additional height to accommodate seismic sloshing need Only steel tanks are considered.
:ions -:: be included in the product design level (Ho).
The shell plates shall be checked for internal pressures using
--e minimum thickness requirements are given in Figure the following formula:
et of ' a 16. These minimum thicknesses are not the same as those
nent -i:Jired for non-liquid containing tanks. The footnote makes it ,PD
rter-
ious
: =ar that the minimum thickness can include the corrosion al- " =--+ca
t^
20s
equ 18.21
:,,, ance providing the shell is thick enough for the internal pres-
Where the variables are as defined in Section 18.3.'1 .1 withthe
i --e according to equations 18. 19 and 18.20. Corrosion allow-
exception of:
: -:es are not commonly applied to low temperature tanks as
-=-i already been mentioned. p = internal pressure as a combination of internal
cotd --. gas pressure and insulation pressure (mbar)
r'naximum shell plate thicknesses for the various materials
)red
num
:'= jiven in Figure 18.17. lt is interesting to see that this Table S = design stress being the lesser of 260 or two
=
,:s a let out in Footnote 1) for circumstances where the sheil thirds of the material minimum vield strenoth
:::e thicknesses exceed the values given in the Table. This (N/mm2)
nof I
" : - normally be in the form of additional or more onerous BS 7777 does not permit the use of lap-welded outertanks.
- -:-cy V-notch impact testing which would be agreed between
(s :-= : Jrchaser and the manufacturer. Footnote 2) states that for It is most unlikely that equation 18.21 will dictate the shell
service and double or full containment categodes, "ordi- thickness.
-'.3
-= r' 9% nickel steel (type lV) should be replaced by "im-
The minjmum shell plate thickness shall be taken from Fig-
: -: ..d- 9% nickel steel (type V) or by austenitic stainless steel ure 18.19. Again the footnote allows the inclusion oJthe cor-
-.:e Vl)when the shellthickness is between 30mm and 40mm. rosion allowance.
1.19
-- = 3 jlowable stresses for the operating case are given in Fig- The maximum shell plate thickness shall not exceed 35 mm.
--- - 3.18 subject to a maximum value of 260 N/mm2. 18.3.3.3 Axial compression
-- -. s the
same maximum as is imposed by BS 2654 for ambi- The thickness of the shells of non-liquid containing tanks are
J.20 :- - :: rks. lt is there for similar reasons of avoiding problems of
usually less than is the case for liquid containing tanks. For this
:;--::Jfal instability and excessive anchor rotations of con- reason it is necessary to check the stability of the shell under
-?::=: pipework (despite the fact that the Code seeks to dis-
the influence of axial compressive loadings. The basic equation
: : - -=3e the use of shell pipework connections).
to determine the allowable compressive stress is given by:
--: : owable stresses for the test case are 85% of the mini- / t,^\
---_, eld or proofstrength ofthe parent plate orthe weld metal S^ = 12.s ]j--ilc equ18.22
rbe "- :-ever is the lower) subject to a maximum value of 340
rnd-
where:
drs- --: - :.nate tensile stress (UTS), proof stress (PS) and the
: : ::-,ess (YS) are all to be determined at ambient tempera- S" = allowable compressive stress (N/mm2)
R --= ,i nere the weld metal under matches the strenoth of the t = shell plate thickness at the point under consid-

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 335


18 The design of low temperature tanks

eration (mm) 72.00


35.00
corrosion allowance (mm) 34.00
34,00
radius of the tank shell (m) 20,40
0,48
A factor for different loading combinations: 1,00

= 1.00 for deadweight above the point under


consideration plus insulation load plus 50% of Cturce l/lldfi Thidoess Tr'ickis! thii<n
{m) (.'yn) {ffin} ttrm)
pipe load plus superimposed load 1 3.500 25.1 35.0 Z2.O
2 3W 22.5 3t.!t 19.7
= 1.25 for deadweight above the point under 3 15@ 2(}.O 27.A 17 4
consideraLion plus insulation load plus pipe 4 3.:,00 17.4 24-1 15-2
5 3.5@ UA A.5 129
load plus wind load plus 50% of superimposed 6 3_500 122 16.9 120
toao 7 3.5{rO 9-6 132 120
a 3.500 9.6 120 120
= 1.33 for deadweight above the point under 9 3.5@ 9.6 12.O 12.0

consideration plus insulatjon load plus seismic


load plus 50% of the superimposed load
9526 1297.7 9323
BS 7777 makes this design requirement specific to the outer
container (i.e. by definition non-liquid containing) shells. For CaseA Design to APt620 - partiat hydrcte.t

single-walled tanks it would seem sensible to carry out the


Case B Design ro Bs 772 - Fu[ hydrotest
Case C Design to BS 2777 - Partiat hydroresl
same checkforthe uppercourses of tanks, particularly in cases
where unusually high roof loadings must be accommodated rigu e 18.20 Companson o' unk shetts desiqred lo APt 620 Aooerd r
(for example a Canadian West Coast snow loading which can e. BS
7777 {fLll t'e ghr lesr) and BS /277 tparlial neigt^t lesl)
be uo to 5.0 KN/m'?).
18.3.3.6 Addendum to BS 7777 on partial height hydro-
Equation 18.22 is exactly the same as equation 18.4. Clearly static testing
this has been "borrowed" from API 620. The onty difference is
The decision to require all low temperature tanks to be hydro-
that the load combinations and associated factors are different.
statically tested to the full design liquid level was made by
18.3.3.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening EEIVIUA 147 as a reaction to the events surrounding the Qatar
LPG tank facility failure which have been described in Chapter
The section on the design of the wind and vacuum stiffening for '17, Section 17.3. This was carried over to BS 7777.
exposed shells giveninBS7777 Patl2is exactlythe same as
that for secondary stiffening given in BS 2654 and described in For large LNG tanks where the difierence between the product
earlier Chapters. design specific Aravity (usually around 0.48) and the test water
specific gravity (1.00) is large, designing for a full hydrostatic
18.3.3.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings test fill height gives a test overstress to all the shell courses of
BS 7777 gives some limited guidance on the design of shell around 2.08. This is considered excessive. For LPG tanks with
stiffening for external loadings. This is confined to a brief com- a design specific gravity of around 0.6, the overstress is of the
mentary on the factors contributing to the loose fill insulation order of 1.67 and for ammonia with a design specific gravity of
component of the design load, the application of a factor of 0.68, the overstress is 1.47. These are considered more rea-
safety of 2 on both stiffener pitching and sizing, the use of the sonable.
wind and vacuum loading methodology for determining the Figure 18.20 shows a large LNG tank where the shell is de-
number and positioning of the stiffeners and the statement that signed to API 620 Appendjx Q (partial hydrostatic test height),
each stiffener shall be designed for the loading on the panel of BS 7777 (full height hydrostatic test) and BS 7777 modified to
shell associated with it, including an unspecified portion of the the API permitted test water fill height. lt as clear that the full
tank shell plate adjacent to the stiffener. height test requirement results in an uneconomic design oftank
Whilst this is helpful, it falls some way short of the detailed de- and this meantthatthe industryavoided specifying BS 7777 as
sign procedure outlined in Section 18.3.1.5. The designer is left the design Code for this type oftank
with the option ofusing this method and borrowing rulesfor stiff- With this in mind, Technical Committee PVE/15, the committee
ener area, moment of inertia and contributing shell area from responsible for BS 7777, decided that something needed to be
anothersource (BS 5500, Reference 18.15, wouldseemtobe done and in 2000 published PD 7777 .20OO (Reference 18.6\.
a suitable candidate) or adopting the method described in Sec- PD stands for published document. The reasons for publishing
tion 18.3.1.5. these new requirements as a PD ratherthan as an amendment
Tegr.nerdt ol !l^r.rq ldt t.mD.rttu. tor l2O J' Te.t .r..8y ot reld n.trl
"c
C.Mn fTMCP) 27Jat 50 'c -A1d -20 50 J at 50'C
Low Ni (TMCP or Q & T) 2?J at -80 rc -^ts -50 50 J ar -80'C
9% Ni slels 100 J at - 196 'Ce Not rcquired 75J at - 196'C
' Ener$/ izile is th minihon avmg of three spcime.i with elue
only oh sin8le ls rhd rne ulue spin.d &d viur no sinde
Elur lN lhs ?5 96 of $e value speified-
b
For steltnj.lor* ls ria 1l m, lOmh x 6hh sul$ize spennes shoutd be u*d, ed shdld demoGF.! ?O9i ot rhe tdu6
spe.l6d in lhis Lble. For I Ni stel5, ihe vzlue lor l0 M x 6 m $b-sia speineB should be m 96 ol the \arue sDcjnd in rhis

c Irnpact ia$ing shqld be cdi.d on o erh llaie 10 demoBtnre rhe lequirEd inlac{ }lue. th addition, rsir8 ar a nequenc}, of
one r6t ol uE spimN per40 toM6 ba!.I shoutd be cMied @t 10 dnoNFate t20J.i rhe rmDer*urc spei6ed. tte de6niiion
of plab aid tEtch re giren in DN 10026.
d Relerere should be nEde to md A ol BS ??7-2.
'For horimt veld5 in 9 96 Ni srels, lne wel<l mLl rEquifthent ned or y be 60 J at 196rc.

Figure 18.21 Longiludinal Charpy V-notch impaci test requiremenls


Frcm PD 7777 : 2000, table 2

336 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


18 The design cf 1a,, ie-aa-aa,-. aa-. :

NU-ductility tldsition
aemler.tu.lor tFo
'c 'c 'c
Butare -10 -45
hopane,{Propylene -50 90
Ethane,/Ethylene -105 - 145 -140
Met]'ane (ING) -165 N/Ab 196 c
'This temp@t@ od the eiated NDTT 6 b @d for mtenal *lection Drovided tlar rhe spe.i6ed dsiSF rempmt@ js not
more rhd 5'C colder thd tlis assMed
b 'Elft.
T6tirg below -196 rc is coNidered unpEcricd
. Two nonrak 6drs at eertain a NDTT ol ar lea* z0l
qc
d4 Filh CAT = ND1T + 400 rc 16l, 16l, giv6 a minimM
-196.C
CAT of -16l'C. W'rih the boilin8 point of ING belng o!1y0.6'C lower (-161.6'C), ed the coBMtim olOe CAT NDTT + 40"c
=
relntio4 lllie !5 cNiderEd a $6c!ent requiremoi io sp4iry @ck resl

: . --: 18.22 Required n |ductility lfansition lemperatures and r.inimum tesi temperaiures for no brcak resutts

' - ?D 7777 :2000, table 3


': 3S 7777 was associated with the CEN rules which state that be issued as a full Euronorm Standard. What follows in th s
: ,' 'rg the period when a new European Standard is being pre- Section and similar Sections of this Chapter is taken from the
:: -:C, all national standards must be subject io standstill. This draft or provisional version of the document. lt is not thought
-:: rs that the national standards cannot be amended (unless that there will be major changes resulting from the comment
. -: lnlficant error is discovered), and the use of a PD was in ef- consolidation process, but itwould be wiseforthose using Stor-
::: a device to modify the Standard within the EU rules. age Tanks & Equipmentlo refer to the final version when this
--= criginal British Standard based the material selection on becomes available.
- : :: on resistance to brittle fracture and included the
full test The normal evolutionary process which occurs when new Stan-
-; ---i to provide added safety in this respect. The new pD dards are written is that they are based on what is perceived as
::-::s rts material selection on initiation resistance and on the the best of earlier Standards added to by any new practices
",::: capability of fracture arrest for fractures which may ex- within the particular subject area.
'oro-
:-: acfoss a horizontal weld seam or be associated with a lo- This is very much the case with this document, but one signifi-
latar
r: :- itle region of a vertical weld seam. This is explained in cant difference from earlier Standards is the introduction ofthe
, : -: detail in the introduction to this PD.
lpter design of steel components by limit state methods. lt was ini-
-: :-sure that the fracture arrest criteria are met, the PD re- tially proposed that in compliance with the demands of oiher
r - '::
enhanced plate and weld metal Charpy V-notch impact Eurocodes, the limit state methods would replace the allowable
duct ::- - 3 as
,aler Figure 18.21 and nil-ductility transition temperature stress methods. However, in recognition of the long hjstory of
tatic
': - -8.4.
) determinafion in accordancewith ASTN/I E 208 (Refer- steel component design for storage tanks by allowable stress
)s of ' ::
:
The NDTT requirements are as Figure 18.22. The methods, the familiarity ofthe industry and those active within it
-: .essomeadditionaldetail relatingtospecimenselection, with these methods and the possibility of old dogs proving un-
wttn
: -::.d welding methods etc. able to learn new tricks, the allowable stress methods were re-
f the
ty of
: ': : 'rg that the material has been selected and tested in ac- tained and sit in the prEN alongside the limit state methods.
aea- : ::-:ewiththe requirementsof the PD, then thefollowing is This is in many ways a parallel with what happened in the UK in
, : - --ary ofthe hydrostatic testing requirements: the area of the design of structural steelwork. The new Stan-
. : - single containment tanks manufactured from steels dard, BS 5950 (Reference 78.9) introduced limit state design
.'-.. methods and it was intended that the old Standard, BS 449
lhan 9a nickel steel or austenitic stainless steel, for
(Reference 78. /0) with its allowable stress methods would co-
)d to , r: at temperatures warmer than -105'C, full height hydro-
:=:: exist for a brief period and then be replaced. What actually hap-
) full testing is required.
pened was thatthe old Standard refused to fade away and both
iank . :: - s ngle containment tanks manufactured from 9% nickel now exist in parallel. The intention ofthis new Standard was that
!::: or austenltic stainless steel, it is not necessaryto carry the various factors would be adjusted so that both design meth-
: ,: : full hejght hydrostatic test. ods would provide the same end result and consequenflv the
rilee . :r-:re n ner tanks of double or fu ll containment tanks, a full same levels of safety.
ooe -: :-i hydrostatic test is not necessary The scope of this Standard is to provide rules for the design,
h lng . :,-::eouter(metallic)tanksof doubleandfull containment fabrication, erection, testing and commissioning for of single,
double and full containment, plus for the first time, membrane
nent =
-. : hydrostatic testing is unnecessary
. -= -e steels as specified and tested to the pD are
used for
-: :.yef courses only of outer tanks, there Should be no
-:=::o carryouta hydrosiatic test. Additional surface crack
-::::: on ls requtred. ,< 10 5
- : - : ^ .,d rostatic test referred to above is one where the test
.: ":- .,: is sufficient to impose a stress in the bottom cou rse l0<D< 30 6

-: : -:s the design stress arising from the product loading. 30<D< 60 8

60<o
I:j The prEN 14620 approach
10

NOTE The cqui.menl for nininum rhickness s


. ':: ::=r
mentioned earlier, this Code (Reference 1g.g\has
needed fo. @nsltuction purposes, and may irctude
any cotrosDn arrowance provided lhar he sheu s
-: :oJ'se of being wriflen for some years now lts cur- shoM by ldlallon to be safe in the @rcded
: :-, _: s that the docu ment has been completed, issued for
: :-"'rent and the comments are at Dresent (December Figure 18.23 fulinlmum shell plate thickness
:: -: consolidated into the final version which will then Fran p.EN 14620-2:2003, table 6

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 337


1 8 The design of low temperature tanks

Type of steel Allowable stress in sewice Allowable stress during


hydrostatic test
Tlpes l, ll, lll the lesser of: the lesser of:
O 43 f, or 0.67 fy or 260 N/mm'? 0.60 f" or 0.85 fy or 260 N/mm'z
Tlp lV the lesser of: the lesser oi:
0.43 f"at 0.67 fv 0.60 f, or 0.85 lv

Tlpe V lhe lesser of:


A .40 f, ot A .67 f"

NOTES
1) f" ls minimum ull mate tensile slrenglh in N/mm'?and t s minimurn yield strength Ln N/mm:
2) For iow nckeland 9 o/o Nistees fyisequalto0.2%otprcolslress

Figure 18.24 Determination ofthe maximum allowable desrgn slrcss


From prEN 14624-2:2443, bble 4

Operating conditions Test conditions

1.36 d > 1.57 c! < 1.57 1.06 o.> 1.42 s < 1.42
1.10 1.7210 1.11 1.57|d.

NOTE o is the tensile to yield strength ratio fJfy

'fr is the partialfactor for actrons; lM is the factor for material shongth;
f" is ultimate tensile strength of steel; fyis lhe yleld strength of the steol

Figure 18.25 Partial load and mater al factors for types l, ll, lll and lv steel
Fron ptEN 460-2 : 2403, table 5
1

storage tanks for products stored at between -5 'C and -165'C the same as are given for liquid containing tanks in Figure
It was envisaged that the Standard would have its scope ex- '18.16. The maximum thicknesses are as stated above.
tended to cover products down to -196'C by the addition ofan 18.3.4.3 wind and vacuum stiffening
Appendix or extra part similar to BS 7777 : Part 4. Sadly, this
The method of calculating the number and size of shell stiffen-
looks unlikely to happen, due largely to a lack of interest from
that part of the industry dealing with the storage of liquid
ing is exactly the same as is given in BS 7777 (see Section
18.3.3.4) which is in turn taken originally from BS 2654.
oxygen, nitrogen and argon.
18.3.4.4 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
18.3.4.'l Hoop tension - liquid containing metallic tanks
The only guidance is a reference to a calculation method given
The formulae used for calculating the thickness ofthe tank shell
in a Japanese Gas Association document (Reference 18.11)
underoperating and test conditions are exactlythe same as are
This leaves the choice of method to the designer and the above
given in BS 7777 (equations 18.19 and 18.20). The minimum
reference or the method described in Section 18.3.1.5 would
thickness requirements which apply to primary and secondary
seem sensible candidates.
liquid containers are slightly different to those in BS 7777 and
are given in Figure 18.23. The maximum shell plate thick-
nesses are as follows: 18.4 Bottom and annular design
Types l, ll and lll steels 40 mm The Code rules for bottom plates of metallictanks are quite sim-
Type lV steel 50 mm ple and straightfoMard. The plate thickness and the means of
joining are specified. The Codes do not give guidance regard-
Type V steel no limit given
ing the plate layoutsto be adopted. This is lefttothe contractors
A let out clause, similar to that included in BS 7777 is added al- who have their own particular favourite plating arrangements
lowing these thickness limits to be exceeded when additional based on experience and suitability to fit in with the erection
materialtesting is carried outto demonstratethat the same lev- methods and, at the end ofthe day, to provide a flat bottom. The
els of resistance to brittle fracture have been achieved finished profile oftank bottoms can be flat, coned up to the tank
centre or coned down to the tank centre. This latter arrange-
For the allowable stress design, the allowable stresses are sim-
ment is often associated with a tank centre bottom outlet con-
ilar to those given in BS 7777 and are shown in Figure 18 24.
nection.
Note: There has been considerable debate about this and it
, would be wise to consult the "real" EN Code when it is Annular plates and theirjunction with the lowestshell plate is an
published. area in a liquid containing metallictank where a complex stress
situation is found. Yielding and shakedown are known to hap-
The partial load and material factors for the limit state design pen during the hydrostatic test. A great deal of research has
method are given in Figure 18.25. been carried out in determining and predicting stresses in this
All vertical and horizontal welds must be butt welds with full component. This work has been reduced to a slmple set of rules
penetration and fusion. The distance between verticaljoints in which experience has shown provide a satisfactory service his-
adjacent courses must not be less than 300 mm. lt would seem tory if followed by bnk designers.
preferable to use a larger spacing of say one third of a plate
length here to avoid possible distortion problems 18.4.1 The API 620 Appendix R approach
18.3.4.2 Nonliquid containing tanks
'18.4.1.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
The axial stability criteria are exactly the same as are used in
BS 7777 (equation 18.22). The minimum shell thicknesses are Bottom plates for liquid containing tanks shall be a minimum

338 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


18 The design of low tempetature tanks

Dcsign Sresb in Fnsr ShcllCou6c


(Psi)
ofFirsr Shcll
cou6c (an.) s 20.0m 24,0m
<0.75
> 0.75 - t.00
> 1.00 - L25
> 1.25 - 1.50

'Thc thicrncsscs sd widdr_ (sc. R.3.4. I ) u


bas.d on rE folndarion providinS a uniforn suppon undr rhc fufl
wro(n or rhc enular ptac. Untess ftc found.lion is propcrty cr,npacrcd,
Fnicutarty at thc iciac of a concrca
nnSwar. scnkmenr wrl ptroducr addidonat sElsscs i, rhc annul& otalc.
b'Ilcsucss shall bc calcllard ushg ftc fomuta (2.6Dxffdyr. phcrc D nominal dianc&.
=
nr rrng hergN ot fte tlnk for dcsign, in Iq C: dcsign lp.cifc graviryi snd
I/
of thc r.nl, in ft;
=jnai$tum , = dsign rhickrcss of rhe
n6r snc coursqcxctudrng conosion aloeoc!. in.

: ture 18.26 Table R-6 from Apt 620

:rickness of %,, (6.35mm).


-f less otherwise specified, the bottom plates shall be
:c-welded together with a minimum lap of i,, (25mm).Three
: ate lap joints shallnot be closerthan 12,,(305mm)from each
::"er and from the butt welds ln the annular plate. There are
::"npanies who specify butFwelded bottoms for reasons asso-
: eted with a perception thatthis reduces the oossibilitvof leak_
::e. lt is usual to allow the use of backing strips for buti-welded
: f,itoms and provision must be made to accommodate these
::.king strips in the top surface of the base insulation.
- rgure
:
iquid containing metallic tanks must have butt-welded annu_
=- plates. The wjdth of the annular plate shall provide a mini_
- - m distance of 24,' (61omm) between the jnside of the tank
: -: I and any lap-weldedjoint in the remainder ofthe bottom to_
tiffen- with a minjmum projection beyond the shell of 2',
gction =1er
: - rm). Agreaterwidth of annular plate may be required when
-=:Jired by the following
formula:
1gs
given
-_"=es
JHG
equ 18.23
8.11). F g ure 1 8.28 Welded joint req utremenls
rbove -::e: Fron APl620, figure 5-3
r'r'ou to
= radial width of the annular plate (in) true circle at the outer periphery and a scalloped effect atthe in_
:. ner profile. This arrangement is economical in terms of use of
= nominal thickness of the annular plate (in)
material and fabrication work.
"j = maximum tiquid design height (ft)
The radialjoints between annular plates shall be butfwelded
-. stm- 3 = design specific gravity ofthe liquid to be stored with complete penetration and fusion. The Code does not 0re-
tns of --: :hickness of the annular plate shall not be less than the clude the use oI backing strips for these welds and for annulaf
- :.1esses given in Table R-6 (Figure 18.26). plates this is often considered convenient in avoidinq the com_
rctors plications ol lifting the annular to gain access to weld from ir-e
-- - - ng of annular plates shall have a circular
nen$ outside circum_ underside.
)ctton
:-=-:e but may have a polygonal inner profile, with the number
: : res being equalto the number of an nular plates adopted. Butt welds in annular plates shall not be closer than 12,,
(305 mm) from any vertical weld in the tank shell.
) tank : : lnvenient to make the number of annu lar plates the same
lnge- : . :-: number of shell plates, or if this proves to be wasteful of The Code requires 25% ofthe the outerend of radialjoints to be
con- - then twicethe n umber of shell plates. radiographed.
*:=::la1, - 'cr the innerand outeredges ofannularplates
lt is not uncom-
to be cut to Note; For welded joints where a backing strip is to remain in
-: ,.:me radius. This radius is that of the outer edge giving a place, the welded seam must be examined bv mao-
netic particte (Mpt)or by tiquid penetrant
lLpt; inspei_
tion methods after the first two weld beads have been
Maximum Thickncss
I nas Minimum Sizc of deDosited.
of Shcll Plalr (in.) Fillct Weld (in.)
r this For the welded joint between the lower course of the tank shell
0.1875 3h6 and the annular plate, the Code allows two options. The firsi is
-' his- > 0.1875 - 0.75 the use of a fillet wetd laid on each side ofthe shell pla1e. These
welds shall conform to the following:
> 0.75 t.25
> 1.25 - 1.50
. The size of the fillet weld shall not be greater than %,,
(12.7 mm), not be less than the thinner of the two Dlaies
joined. and not less than the values given in Figure 1g.22.
27 Sidewall,lo-bottom fitlel wetd forflat botlom cylind cattanks . When the specified minimum yield strength of the shetl
a2A. hble 5-4 plate rs greater than 30.000 lbiin, (207 N/mm2), each filtet

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 339


1 8 The design of low temperature tanks

parts of theweld peripherybyensuring a blockage in the an-


nular passage and ananging the air supply feed to be
located at one side of this obstruction, and the pressure
gauge at the other side.
The second option is to utilise a full penetration joint, which
does not require the pressure testing described above.
For a large tank subject to significant seismic loadings, the an-
nular width and thickness requirements given above are often
exceeded, sometimes by signilicant margins as the tank de-
signer attempts to arrive at a stable design. This is done by in-
creasing the holding down ofthe annularplate bythe contained
liquid to the limib permitted by the Code. Annular plates of
30mm thickness and 2.5m width are not unusual in these cir-
Egur6 18.29 Fitting and welding of lapjolnts
cumstances. Wide and thick annular plates bring theirown con-
From API 620, tlgute ,2 struction problems.
weld shall be made with a minimum of two passes 18.4.1.2 Nonliquld containing metallic tanka
. For annular plates thicker than %" (12.7 mm), the joint shall The minimum nominalthickness ofthe bottom plating shall be
comply with the requiremenb of Figure 18.28. not less than %6" (4.8 mm).
. The welded joint shall be examined as follows. The initial The Code does not insist on the use ofa ring of butt-welded an-
weld passes on either side of the shell shall have all slag nular plates. So, lap-welded bottom plates to the outer periph-
and non-mebllic debris removed and be examinedl/isually. ery are permitted. Lap joinb immediately beneath the shell
Aftercompletion of thelillet or partial penetration welds, the shall be fitted and weldedto provide a smooth surface as shown
space between the welds shall be pressurjsed to 15 lb/in2 in Figure 18.29. Where the bottom plates are thicker than /s"
(1 mbar) and examined for leakage using soap solution.
(9.6 mm), the joinb beneath the shell shall be butt-welded.
Steps shallbe taken to ensurethatthis pressure reaches all

D.sigr S!!$r in Firsr StEll Cou'*. (lbt/in.))

I t9,000

s 0t5 tA rA eaz thl t+,2

tA ea| tVtt 1/rc t142


> o.?5 - t.00

> 1.00 - 1.25 tA llal 1/r5 t74lz 2l^.2

> 125- 150 9/t2 tkz

Not r:
rr! |hicb.!..3 trd vldda (r. Q3.4.1) ln dd! ribL |1! h.sdoo tE foudrlin FlvidiiS rttnlfodn r4porltrd.r dE fu wt&hof dE tlmu-
Ir pL!c. Udc!. rb. fotndd.o b F!0.d, comF.r.4 pdq{rdy ! lIt ind& of r.onc$rc dIttw.ll, r.dlaEn stll p.ldlce.ttdiddd
,ftr!.r h dlc.na!||' ptrte. fhc &lcbr.s ofdE.!outr. bo.roo phr.r |l.cat t.t
..d tlE tiichEt d6c tur thcll oo|!|c Thc ftinimum
thbhs!.: fo. uuhl hotbll9t|l!. es! (bivldb$.d dt |ftdguc otclo lifc of lomcJd.s fordunimo Lrt .
rThc r!!$ rhdt tccrtsrLr.d llliig tE fo(n'rh t(r6D) x (rfC)yr, vrtrc! D c mminrl di.rn r.r ofd'c trlh In f},t= m|Iitnutn filittg lEi8ltt
ot &. r.d fo(d!rlg[, h & C = dc!i8! rpc.ift Snviry; rd r
= dclEr 6icbr.ss of0r f.|r rlEll c6oric,.rdodint co'ltltion dhvmcc, h ir

FigLrre 18.30 Minimum thickness for the annularbottom plate: steeltanks


Fron API 620, table Q4A

D6itD St$r ln F6( SlEll Co{tlc (lb0i! 2)


ofFinlSh.ll
r5.06

<0.50 lA ea, thr ti6


^6
>050-0,75 t\t ,t r3A2 l5a1 h
tln ter1' rv|6 ,rb
>0.75 - lr0 ts,l.z

> l!0 - 125 ti rh6 lA rha N/a

> t25 - t50 1A aaz 3ho tw rh


> lsn - r.75 lt46 lsA2 lta rt6
> t.75-20 I rk llat 1116 trrar t.a

Not 3:

Th. rhicte$i ..d {i.trh3 (i.! Q-1.4. | ) in ihis rltlc s b$.do. In. fond.rio. Fovidin! ! milom ,ut,Pon !.d.r !h. flll {idtn of d!
unltd pl!|!. Untc$ rr|. fd,idrk t i3 p.qc.ty @p.cr.d. ptnidldry n |h. i i& of | cNErc dnlwdl. t { 6n will Fdle .ddi_
riond .uc.s i. tn. |![st . ot r.. ft. 6i.tFi, of rtrc |Nl! borron pl.r6 ftcd .or .rc..!t rlE tlricttB of dE 6r$ ih.ll cdre TrE
ni.iMo lhicrEi* td hnuhr borrom da6 *c &.iwd b$cd on . Otiguc .yct. lif. of 1000 .y.l* for tllminuo ldts.
Ith. $6r rhrll t oldl!&d urang fi. adltt l(2 64t) , (rO)l ,' whsc D; mhintl diamrd of ltE tet in ft tr = mriBuh lill'tr8
, h.igh ol $. |.nt rq dc.i8n. in fr a; = d.iign ipc.itic Irrvry: .nd r= d*itn rhktn.$ ol IIE liBr .hrll .@Ge. .rclldin! co(osid tlk'w
!rec. h in

Figure 18.3'l Minimum thicknoss for the annular bottom plate : aluminium tanks
Ftun API 620, table +48

340 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1g,The design of low temperature tanks

te an- Backing strips %" (3.2 mm) thick shall be used, or the welds
io De
shall be made from both sides. These butt welds shall have
SSUTE
complete fusion through the thickness of the plate and extend
inwards at least 24" (6'10 mm) from the tank sidewall.
which
For larger tanks of this type, it is often considered convenientto
it a butt-welded annular plaie.

often
18.4.2 The API 620 Appendix Q approach
K Ce-
Dy In- '18.4.2.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
3ined
es of 3ottom plates for liquid containing tanks constructed from 5%
rickel, 9% nickelor stainless steels shall have a minimum thick- ,''.z:z
rcon- .ess of %6" (4.8 mm). Curiously this part of the Code does not
Section Z-Z
specify a minimum thickness for aluminium alloys.
Figure 18.33 Typ cal sketch of plale joint under shett ptates for tanks of con
Jnless otherwise specified, the bottom plates shall be tainer withoui ann!lar plates
rll be ap-welded together. The lap welds shall consist of a minimum Frcm BS 7777 : Part2, figurc 3
rf two passes (for materials excepting aluminium alloy).
-hree plate laps shall not be closer than 12,,(305 mm) from Bottom plates shall be lap or butt-welded together

rnph- :ach other or from butt welds of the annular plates. Lap welds shall consist of at least two passes. Lap joints shall
shell 3utt-welded annular plates are mandatory and shall fulfil the have a minimum lap of 5 times the bottom plate thickness.
24" (610 mm) inside of shell to any lap-welded joint and the 2,' The use of butlwelded annular plates is mandatory
'' /a 50mm) outstand requirements gjven in Section 18.4.1.1, un- The minimum width (i.e. the total width from the outer edge to
oe0. :ss a greater width is required by the following: the inner edge beneath the bottom plating) shall be 650mm.
:cr steels:
The minimum thjckness ofthe annular plates is given in Figure
390tr 18.32.
t_. - as given in equation 18.23.
GG Butt welds in bottom of annular plates may be welded from both
:tr1.
aluminium alloys: sides or from one side using backing strips.
The joint betur'een the lowest shell plate and the annular plate
equ 18.24 rnay be double fillet- or full penetration welded. For double fillet
welding, each weld shall be of at least two passes and be of a
--e minimum thicknesses of annular plates shaJl be as Figure leg length equal to the annular plate thickness. The inter weld
-
a.30 for steels and Figure 18.31 for atuminium alloys. pressure test is recommended but not made mandatory For
l-:t welds in annular plates shall not be closer than 12" the full peneiration option, a warning about possible annular
plate distortion is included.
mm) to any vertical shell weld.
: -:5
--e joint between the annular plate and the lowest shell course 18.4.3.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks
. :ermitted to be double fillelwelded or of the full penetration The minimum thickness of bottom plates shall be 6 mm.
-.:e as described in Section 18.3.1.1. For the double fil
The bottom plates shall be lap-welded with a minimum lap of b
::-,velded option the same interweld pressu re test is required.
times the thickness of the plate. The minimum length of a
' 3.4.2.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks straight sketch (i.e. a cut to fit part plate) shall be 500 mm. This
-- e outertank bottom shall have a minimum nominal thickness avoids the use of very small plates.
-':._. (4 8 mm). The minimum distance bet\,veen three Dlate laDS shall be
-. :bove, the Code does not insist on a ring of butGwelded an- 300 mm.
- plates and fillefwelded plating to the periphery is permi! Tanks, where the bottom shell course is greater than .lO mm,
.::- ?. Again for large tanks, the use of butt-welded annular plates shall have a rjng of butt-welded annular plates with a minimum
': ,en iound to be convenient. (total) width of 500 mm and a thickness of 8 mm. For the
' :-e outer tank bottom is exposed to the vaporised gas as is butt-welded radialjoint a backing strip of minimum thickness 5
- : -it usually the case, the fillet welds must have a minimum of mm shall be used. The minimum bottom olate laD onto the an-
nular plates shall be 60 mm.
Tanks, wherethe bottom shellcourse is notgreaterthan 10 mm
'3.4.3 The BS 7777 approach may have a ring of annular plates or be constructed with
lap-welded bottom plates to the perimeter. Where this option is
': .1.3.1 Liquid containing metaltic tanks chosen, the deiails shall be as Figure 18.33.
--: .J'rinimum nominal thickness of bottom plates shall be The attachment between the bottom edge of the lower shell
plate and the bottom plate or annular plate shall be fillet-welded
continuouslyfrom both sides ofthe shell plate. The leg ,ength of
the fillet weld shall be equal to the thickness of the shell plate,
the bottom plate or the annular plate, whichever is the least.
The lesser of 8 mm or tl
IO 18.4.4 The prEN 14620 approach
12.5
This draft Code only allows steel bottoms with annular plates.
. imlm tt^tchnF"s o. anlLtar
32 1,/ir ptare The rules are the same for the primary liquid containe( the sec-
' :- :: i7 /7 : Pan 2, hble 10 ondary liquid container and tanks for vapour containment onlv

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 341


18 The design of low tempenture tanks

t
t6r (rnar)-/

PENM|SSIBLE

{OT PERI'ISSELE

I Wl|.! $in3 0. .lr.m.t dxrt Fnb. (rh. @f Dtrc udd dE..qFsrio. b& $ rho*n n Cr.||it !t l. rlE
Frrcn ..r .hdld .dridlr or o* of cruki.f ro .{rq4 rlE dn,dF .f ,rrnfr ,. llE &.r .t rtE fi|Lt ktd
I D'mnnoi A i. hr.ik h .id rlrrtd .ot .rc..d diftBd ,{
I '
Sc T.bk 5.2 td linir.ttoc cm.min8 kE.rb wlEc vres rypc, .t ql<td pr.k nr! b. u,..t.

Figure 18.34 Figure 56 from APl620

The minimum thickness of boftom plates, excluding conosion


allowance shall be 5 mm. The remaining requirements for bot-
tom plates are the same as stated above for BS 7777.
18.5 Compression areas
The annular plate shall have a minimum thickngss, excluding The basic logic and derivation of the formulae used to dssign
conosion allowance of e given by: compression areas is described in Chapter 3 on ambient iank
design. The various Codes use whal are essentially the same
e" =(3.0 rej/3), but nottessthan I mm equ 18.25 rules, the only differences being in the debil_
where:
18.5.1 The API 620 approach (Appendices R and Q)
el = thickness ofthe bottom shellcourse (mm)
The minimum width of the annular plate, W" is given by: API 620 allows two different designs for ihe cylindricalshett-to-
20,1, roof ju nction.
-
14, =
.ipH
, urt not lessthan 600 mm equ 18.26
These are the knuckle and the plate types.

wnere: The knuckle type is quite unusual these days. The fabrication
costs ofthe hot-pressed knuckle plates, the needforveryaccu-
H = maximum design liquid level (m) rate fit up in thefield, the difiiculties otjoining the radial ioof sup-
port members to the shell and the lack ofany significanfmate-
p = design product specific gravity
rialsaving tended to push the industrytowards the plate type of
The remaining requiremenb are as stated above forBS 7777. desion.

342 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


18 The design of low temperaturc tanks

The basic rules forthe design of a knuckle type of compression


area given are limited to geometry limitations and direction to-
wards the design requirements as discussed in API 650, see
Rool ol lank
ChaDter 5. Section 5.10.
It is stated that the radius of curvature of the knuckle in the me-
ridional plane shall be not less than 6% and preferably not less
than 12% of the diameter of the tank sidewalls. A radius of 6%
will frequently require an excessively thick knuckle plate.
In the eventthata knuckle is not provided, the participating por-
tions of the roof and upper shell course plating shall resist the w. = 0.6 /FJ[--tit
compressive forces generated by the internal pressure. lt is
usually the case that the plating in this area is not sufficient for
the task and local plate thickening or additional area is required.
L_
Permissible and non-permissible arrangements in this area are
illustrated in Figure 18.34.
The relevant formulae are: Cyindturl sldewall ol tank

wh =o.61Fdq- equ 18.27 Table 18.35 Compression ring region


Fron API 620, table 5-5
w" -0.6ff" cJ equ 18.28
Thickness of lhe Thickcr ot lhc Minimum Siz. of
Q = Trwn + Tr"w" - tR"sin cr equ 18.29 Two Patu Joincd(in.) Fillcr Wcld (in.)

A" = Q/15,000 or Q/S"E equ 18.30 < tt4 ltrc


> tll -314
,vhere:
>\4 - ltt4 5h6
= The width of the roof plate considered to par- > ltt| lE
ticipate in resisting the circumferential force
acting on the compression ring region (in), Figufe 18.36 l\,4inimum size ofilllet weld
see Figure 18.35 Fron API 620. table 5-8

= corresponding width of the participating side- lf Q is in iact positive, then the allowable tensile stress is based
wall (in) on the allowable tensile stress from Table 5-'1 and thejointfac-
tor from Table 5-2.
= thickness of the roof plate at and near to the
roof to sidewall junction including any corrc The requirement that the composite centroid of the compres-
sion allowance (in) sion area provided shall not lie above or below the horizontal
line through thejoint between the participating shell and roof ar-
L = corresponding thjckness of the sidewall at and
eas by more that 1.5 times the average thickness of the two
near to the same junction (in)
members joining at the corner is made. This is for reasons of
R2 = roof spherical radius or Rc /cos cr (in) limiting the secondary stresses as described in Chapter 4.
a = sidewall radius (in) There are a number ofother requirements forthe compression
area details which are outlined briefly:
Tr = meridional (radial) unit force in the roof plating
= 0.5PsR, (lb/in) . The horizontal projection of the compression area shall
have a width in the radial direction of not less than 0.015
T2 = correspondinglatitudinal(circumferential)unit
times the horizontal radius of the tank shell. This onlv aD-
force in the roof plating = PqRs (lb/in)
plies if Q is negative indicating compression. which is the
Tz. = circumferential force in the sidewall (lb/in) majority of cases.
ct = angle between the slope of the roof and a ver- . Where the minimum sidewall and roof plate thicknesses do
tical line (see Figure 18.35) not provide the area required by equation 18.28, then the
additional area shall be provided by (a) locally thickening
gn = total circumferential force acting on the com-
the sidewall plate, the roof plate or both to comply with the
nk pression area (lb)
ne requirements or (b) adding an angle, a rectangular bar or a
= net area exclusive of corrosion allowances re horizontally disposed ring girder at the juncture of the side-
quired for the compression area (in2) wall to roof plates or (c) using a combination of these.
r) = maximum allowable stress for simple tensjon . The horizontal projection of the added angle, bar or ring
as given by Figure 18.3 (lbiinr) girder shall not be less than 0.015 times the horizontal ra-
dius ofthe tank shell. However, when the added area is less
= efficiency of meridional joints in the compres-
than one half of the required total, this width requirement
sion area in the event that Q should have a
positive value (see Figure '18.6) may be disregarded ifthe horizontal projection ofthe partici-
pating roof area is equal to or greater than 0.015 times the
on = design vapour pressure (lb/in2) shell radius; or when the angle, bar or ring girder js located
on the outside ofthe tank, the sum of the horizontal projec-
)u- - s almost always negative and in this case the design com- tion of and the horizontal width of the added material is
rp- :'=ssive stress of 15,000 lb/in2 is used for steeltanks. ln the un-
te- . : . case that an aluminium alloy tank requires a compression equal to or greater than 0.015 times the horizontal radius of
of : -:: a compressive stress of 15,000lb/in, factored bythe rela- the tank.
: ,: values of the materials would be appropriate. . The projecting part of the roof compression area, an added
=

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 343


1 8 The design of low tempemturc tanks

in Figure '18.36.

t-f
Where a thickened shell compression area plate is to be
welded to the thinner minimum thickness shell plate, then
the joint shall be as indicated in Figure 18.37.

f*f-
\ |
The Code is notexplicitin its requiremenb for the maximum
thickness of compression area.parts. A thickness of 2Z "
would not seem unreasonabb as long as the material se-
lection requiremenb are met.

18.5.2 The BS 7777 approach

t-t
l-\ /
The requirements of BS 7777 for compression areas are based
on those of BS 2654which are described in Chapter3, Section
3.7. Theformula for the minimum area required and the deriva-

*n tion of this is also mvered in thisChapter. The formula only con-


sidersthe radialforce in the roofsheeting and ignoresthe other
two terms which are of opposite sign and cover the circumfer-
ential loadings in the participating roof and shell areas which
are included in equation 18.29.
The allowable compressive stress of 120 N/mm2 (17,400lb/in'z)
is higher than the 15,000 lb/in'? permifted by APl.
Figure 18.37 Alternative details forjoint between thickened shell compression The general layout and minimum angle sizes are given in Fig-
ara and uDoer course of lank shell
ure 18-38.
angle or ring girderwithout an outer vertical stiffening flange Two other differences between the 857777 and the BS 2654
shall not exceed 16 times its thickness. OtheMise the hori- practices are that BS 7777 adds the API requirements for the
zontial or nearhorizontal parts of the compression area shall horizontal projection ofthe effective compresslon area to be not
be braced at intervals around the periphery ofthe iank. lt is less than 0.0'l5timesthe horizontal radius ofthe tank shell, and
usual to choose the compression area proportions such as the rule limiting the vertical position of the composite centroid.
to avoid the necessity for lhese bracings, but if they are re-
quired, then rules are provided to allowthe number and size
of such bracings to be calculated.
18.5.3 The prEN 14620 approach

. The minimum size of fillet welds between the various com- Forthe plate type ofcompression area, the rules are exactly as
pression area componenb shall not be less than indicated given for BS 7777 and described above.

Correldor d top ccb tngle recdon ard lhdr


dr[etr ahcll lnd tjoof
trr- - radlu! of curljgqrr of rDof (in n)
D (for contcrl mo& - X/sin d);

,<lo 60x 60x 6 - ladtos of sttel (tn m);


t- thida|ss of itrell (in rutr);
LO<D<m eox 60x 8
8<Ds36 80x 80x l0 t - tNcfgresr of sngle rtifleder (ln nun);

86<D348 l00xlmxu 6- thtclate$ of mol date al aoltrl,rldsiorr


drg (in nur)i
8<D 160x160xl0 f. - nu$mum wldth of drcn pbttotg
NqIE. Whq r!d!.ltt , tn inov 6lt{t|M drt ol ioD cub cotddered to mr.L up the cornl
.rd. dbuld b. !d!H. ale8;
l/" - luJdtnum wldth of rDof Pbting
corddercd to mrke uP the corn
trea.

Figure 18.38 Shell-roof compression aas


From BS 7777 : Pan 2, frgurc 6

344 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1B The design of low temperature tanks

Knuckle type compression areas are permitted but no rules for


their design are given. Reference is made to the Japan Gas As- Single filleiweld JF = 0 35
be
sociation Standards.
nen

rum 18.6 Roofsheeting


Double fillet weld JF - 0 65
:it " The roof sheeting design is very similar to the ambient tank /-
se- practices from which it has evolved. One significant difference ._______\___.
\,--'.-----------------_
is that the design internal pressures are higherfor low tempera-
ture tanks than is usually the case for tanks operating at ambi-
Backing stnp bultweld JF = 0 75
ent temperatures. BS 2654 has categories for design pres-
sures of 7.5, 20 and 56 mbar, whereas BS 7777 allows up to
sed 140 mbar, and with the agreement of all parties, higher figures
:ion are permitted.
Eutt weld JF = 0 5.0 65 or 1.0
va-
on-
her
For tanks where the metallic roof sheeting (usually steel) is ex-
posed to the atmosphere, there are a number of different possi- \rc= {depending on teler ar inspBcrion)

c lities.
fer-
rch The roof sheeting may be supported by, but not joined to the Backing stnp butt weld uslng rafter JF = 0 75
( _-lr---;
-->r
in,)
supporting framework. ln this case the possibilities for joining
:he sheets are topside lap welding, double-sided lap welding
and butt welding with or without backing straps. For this unat-
*1f--
r --1

:ached sheeting case, the roof sheeting alone must resist the
-rg- rternal tank pressures.
-he roofsheeting may bejoined to and act compositelywith the Slrapped flletweld JF = 0 65
i54 :upporting framework. ln this case it is usual to use the roof
Ine :upport structure as backing straps for the welding of the roof
not sheets. Whilst in practice the roof framework may contribute to
rnd :1e tanks ability to resist internal pressures, its influence in this
i. -espect is usually ignored in the calculations.
:cr tanks with reinforced concrete roofs, the roofsheeting and
:s supporting framework act as erection shuttering. During ser- Figufe 18.39 Various poss bililies for joining roof plates
. ce the roof sheeting is exposed to the full tank design pres-
sJre (which with current designs may be as high as 300 mbar) Tr = tSr.E equ 18.32
:Jt the structural resistance to this loading is the task of the re-
^'orced concrete. The design basis for the roofsheeting is now Then:
:ased on the internal and external loadinos which will occur PR
:Jring the construction process. equ 18.33
2S'F
:1er the roof has been erected in its final position, and this may
- olve air raising, jacking or piece small erection at the fulltank
,i where:
-:ight, it will be subjected to loads during the placing ofthe rein-
':.cing and the subsequent placing of the concrete. lt is the
t = calculated roof plate thickness excluding any
corrosion allowance (in)
: acing ofthe wet concrete which usually gives rise to the worst
:ading case. For a large LNG tank the concrete roof will be R" = R] = 6615p1r"rical radius (in)
-.:me 450 mm thick. lf this thickness of wet concrete were The remaining variables are as defined above.
: 3ced on the roof. lt would represent a loading of around 11.0
'\1m2. The minimum thickness ofthe roof plating (exclusive ofany cor-
rosion allowance) is 216" (4.8 mm).
-- s is significantly more than the usual roof loading of around
' 2 KN/m2,and it would require a substantial roof framework As for the tank shell, the allowable stresses are shown in Figure
'18.3 and the joint factors shown in Figure 18.6.
=-C thickened roof sheeting to support this loading unaided.
::f this reason, it is usual to seal the tank envelope and apply The various possibilities for joining the tank roof plates are
:- nternalair pressure to balance the wet concrete loadingsfor shown in Figure 18.39.
:-: period of concrete placement and curing.
::. the full450 mm ofconcrete were placed in a single pour, a
if
18.6.2 The BS 7777 approach
:: ancing pressure ofaround 110 mbarwould be required and
. :ie roof were poured BS 7777 allows both cone and dome shaped roofs.
in two equal thickness pours, then this
: : a ncing pressure would be arou nd 55 mbar. These pressures It imposes the following shape requiremenb:
:-:1 become the design pressures for the tank roof plating.
Cone roofs shall have a slope of 1:5.
18.6.1 The API 620 approach (Appendices R and Q) Dome roofs shall have a spherical radius of between 0.8 and
1.5 times the tank diameter.
:-:'n the body of the Standard, equation (7) from Paragraph The design requirements are very similar to those given in BS
: ' 1.2.5 gives the following for dome roofs: 2654 for ambient tanks.
I For internal pressures for conical roofs:
equ 18.31
. oR.
equ 18.34
tu-n

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 345


18 The design of low temperature tanks

For internal pressures for domed roofs: . Local loadings from fittings and other similar roof-mounted
. PR, equipment
' 2os4
equ'18.35
. Differential pressure loadings on the suspended deck (iffit-
For external pressures for both cone and dome roofs where no ted)
supporting structure is present: . Wind loadings
| 1nP t"-
:rs . Seismic loadings
= 40R.1
L'tFl I equ 18.36
. Blast loadings

where: . lmpact loadings

t, = calculated thickness of the roof sheeting exclu-


. Erection loadings
sive of any corrosion allowance (mm) Forcases where the roofsheeting and supporting structure are
to be used to form shuttering to enable the concrete roof to be
Rr = for dome roofs the spherical radius (m)
erected, the roofframework design loadings are based on com-
for cone roofs = Rr/sino
binations of the following:
0 = slope of the roof at the roof-to-shell junction
. The self-weight of the framework
(degrees)
S . The self-weight ofthe roofsheeting priorto concrete place-
= design stress taken as two thirds ofthe mate-
ment and thereafter if not tied to the concrete roofwhen this
rial minimum yield strength subject to a maxi-
becomes self supporting
mum of 260 (N/mmr)
. The self-weight of the suspended deck and any supported
I = joint factor (single-sided lap welds 0.35,
insulation
double-sided lap welds 0.65 and
butt wetds 1.00) . Loading from reinforcing placement including any point
loads from accumulations of material
P" = external loading (KN/mr)
E . Any loadings during concrete placementwhich are not bal-
= Young's modulus of the roof plate material
anced by ajr pressure
(N/mmr)
The minamum thickness of roof plates shall be 5.0 mm.
. Differential pressure loadings on the suspended deck

Roofs without supporting structures shall be butt-welded or


. Seismic loadings
double lap-welded. . lmpact loadings which may be transmitted to the framework
Lapped roof plates shall be continuously fillet-welded on the . Erection loadings
outside with a minimum lap of 25 mm.
In this last case the roof framework is largely redundant, apart
For roof plates which are lapped, it is recommended that the from forming a convenient means ofsupporting the suspended
loweredge ofthe uppermost plate should be beneath the upper deck, from the point in the erection processwhen the reinforced
edge of the lower plate to minimise the possibility of condensa- concrete roof becomes self-supporting. Sadly it is impractica-
tion entering the joint. ble to remove and reuse it.
Seams in the roof plating that are included as part of the com- One wayofgaining some advantage from the redundantframe-
pression area shall be butt-welded. work and the sheeting which has been reduced to pressure
With the exception of the small diameter tanks, often for the sealing steel wallpaper, is to place the roof framework above
storage of oxygen, nitrogen and argon, conical roofs are quite the roofsheeting and arrange good connection to the concrete
unusual for low temperature bnks. by the use of shear connectors. By this means the roofframe-
work and sheeting can replace some or all of the lower part of
the reinforcing required for the concrete.
18.6.3 The prEN 14620 approach
The design of supporting frameworks for tank roofs is an area
The minimum thickness of 5 mm and theformulae forcalculat- where the design codes are less prescriptive than is the case
ing the roofsheet thickness are the same as are given above for for other areas oftank design such as tank shells and bottoms.
BS 7777. Consequently different companies have developed their own
desig ns. For the larger dome roof tanks which form the majority
A joint factor of 0.70 is given for backing strip butt welds, other- of low temperature tanks being built, the following roof frame-
wise the rules and guidance are as BS 7777. work types are commonly used:
. The simple internal polar rib arrangement where the polar
18.7 Roof frameworks ribs all run from the roof periphery to the centre ring, fitted
Fot the cases where the roof sheeting is exposed to the atmo- with circumferential bracing as required, having either unat-
sphere, the roofframework design loadings are based on com- tached or attached roof sheeting.
binations of the following: . The internal polar rib arrangement where intermediate cir-
. The self-weight of the fmework cumferential rings are used such that the numberof ribs re-
duces as the tank centre is approached. Again having
. The self-weight of the roof sheeting circumferential bracing as required and either unattached
The self-weight of any supported insulation or attached roof sheeting.

The self-weight of a suspended deck (if fitted) The externallyframed versions ofthe two arrangements de-
scribed above with the roof sheeting being attached to the
External roof loadings (i.e. snow live etc) underside of the framework.
lnternal tank negative pressure loadings (i.e. the design A geodesic arrangement similarto that used for some ofthe
vacuum) proprietary roof designs for retrofitting to ambient tanks as

346 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


18 The design of low temperature tanks

unleo valu for Mcmbcrs NotSubj.c( (o Valuc for M.mb.ff Subjccr


Pt surclmposcd t ads ro P..$uc-!mpo-scd Loads
( lbflin..)
(iffit-
Pins dd $mcd bolc in rcmcd or drillcd holes ll,500 r2,000
10.000 8.0m
wcbs of b.ans !d
platc sirdcs whcE At is nor 12.000 ?^ Gnsion val!. rrom Tablc 5- I
moF lha. 60, o. wh@ wcb is adcqlably srif-
d
.n d, gross stid
ot *b
Wc!6 of bcds dd platc 6n&ls wh.E scb is rcr r8.0001t + t rt?0041 (tcmiq uluc fton Tablc 5- I )
.d.quat ly sriffcmd sd /I/l is mor! tto 60, on n + Q?n?Nt Jl

Fillcl wcl.li wh.rc load h pcrFndiculd to tr 12,6m ?0% l.nsion valuc ftDm Tablc 5- I
lcnglh of ecu on tlE s.ction 0lough thc thrcar
(se 5. | 6J3. il.m b)
e are filbl eddt wl|cr! lold i! F.rllcl to 0E l.rg$ of 9,0m 50% tctrrion ulrc ftom Tabt 5' I
(o oe w!14 oo dE s.dion 0uooeh ttlc tlm6t (s
5,15,&3. icm b)
lom-
Pbg wclds or clor vclds, on ctr@rivc fayirS-suF | 1,700 65% t nsion !a!u. froh Tablc 5- |
fr.t lrci of *cld (s.. 5.24.5 md Tlblc 5-2)
Burt sdA! on Lrst ('oss-r.ctional arca, in or at 14,400 80% tcnsion valuc frcm T.blc 5" I
dsc of wcld (s. 5.16.8.3, illh a)
Bc.ring
ace-
r this Pins od !|nt.d bohs in rlocd or drillcd hoLs u,ffi 1.33 xt nsion vatuc fron TabL 5- I
t .d qplicd !o hoh .r oou one sidc of lllc mcm,

)lIed lrad disEibltsl uodoEnly,.pproximarcly, lcross 30,000 1,67 x Ensibn wloc frcm T6b'c 5- l
thi.kEss of ih. m.mbcr corctcd

)oint t !d +plicd io bolt at only orc sid. of ihc mcm- 16,0m 0,{B xt Bion vallc fred TlbL J-|

t rd dittibut d uaifo.nly, alproxioatcly, acru! 20,0m LI x &.sion wlu. iion Tablc 5' I
thickn*of th. m.mbd connct d
oaF
l. Thc v$irblcs io lhc comFEssirc $r.rs .qu|tioN e
d.6n d $ follows:
, = onb..c.d l4gth of thc 6luma in in.i . con spoding hat r.dius ot
= &ddrion ol rhc colurn in ioi r = OickrEsr of rhc rlbule column,
in ic: /= unity (lO) for v.lo6 of /R c$sl to of gElt r hr! O0l5ty
=(2,.j)Ilm,ltr)l l2<2/])llm)/r)ll ftr tih.s of rA lcss rlun 0.15.
:
2. Thc vdiab,er in lhc bcnding strcs .qulrions src dcfincd 5s folld.s: , uruuppo.Ed t..8rh of !h. m.Dbcr; fd . cerjlcvd b.m nor iu lty
shy.d at ns outcr cnd agaiist Fe.lador o. rctadon, / stEil bc rrkln ss rwic. ri. tcn$h of ll)c @opE$ion ndg., in in.; d = dcprh ot ihc
n nb.r, in i.,r , = widnh oa irs @nprc$ion flegq in b.i I = thickBs of ils conpcssion fleg., in io.
/ork e
l. Thc vuiablcs in thc shc&ing stE* cquarions .kfincd as follNs: I = cl@ dii.irc. b.rw.
wb Adgc! in in.: I = urkrncrj of dE w.b.

: :-'e 18.40 Maximum aliowable slress values for structu members


part
' ':'1 API 620, kble 5-3
oed
ced
any part of any internal frarfework shall not be less than 0.17"
allowed by API 650 Appendix G for aluminium roofs. This (4.3 mm).
would normally be with athched roof sheets.
Tte- ::aching the roof sheeting to the iramework brings significant
ure -:'eases in the vertical, and particularlythe horizontal stiffness 18.7.2 The BS 7777 approach
3Ve :' :re composite structure. This is of particular benefit in cases
ete ,-ere high seismic criteria have to be accommodated in the
B57777 : Pan 2 ptovides the following guidance, similar to and
ne- :
=: gn. lt also allows the radial ribs to be used as backing straps based on the requirements of BS 2654:
tof '- ch is convenient when higherjoint factors for the roofsheet-
- are required to allow for hagh design pressures. lf the roof
I The steel for construction of roof members shall have a mini-
fea r-:ets are laid in a radial petal plate arrangement, then onlythe
mum nominal thickness of not less than 5 mm.
tse : -:Jmferential seams will require separate backing straps.
ns. --: different roof framework arrangements come with various The roof-supporting structure shall be designed in accordance
wn . : . antages and disadvantages. The simple polar rib to the tank with BS 449 : Part 2 :1969 (Reference 78.9) or with BS 5950
rity ::^:re type is easy to erect requiring only a central king post to (Reference 18.10\.
1e- :-:lo the centre ring, but is wasteful of material. The more
:: -plex types are more efficient in terms of material usage, but The spacing of roof purlins for cone roofs shall be such that the
-:-e complex to erect. lt is difficult to be specific as to which span between them does not exceed 1.7 m. Where one edge is
- :: ls best as the merits of the different types tend to change supported by the top curb ofthe shell, the maximum span shall
:::ending on the tank size, the local circumstances and the de- permitted shall be 2.0 m.
.'- and erection method experiences of the contractors
-.: ved. Where the roof plate is not welded to the supporting framework,
)ir- for all roofs exceeding '15 m in diameter, cross-bracing in the
'e- plane ofthe roof surface shall be provided in at least two pairs of
'3.7.1 The API 620 approach (Appendices R and Q)
'rg adjacent bays. These braced bays shall be equally spaced
--= rrajority of roof frameworks are subjected to ambient or around the tank circumference. This stiffenino is known as wind
-:.' ambient temperatures. Consequently the body of the bracrng.
e- -::: -,can
(section 5) provides some basic design rules based on
For coned roofs with roof plate thicknesses greater than the
- -: siructural steel standards for these frameworks. The
minimum thickness, and for domed roofs, the purlin spacing
--, are shown in Figure 18.40 and make reference to Figure
= permitted may be increased by agreement between the pur-
'e chaser and the manufacturer. A sensible peripheral pitch for a
--: ^ominal thickness, including any corrosion allowance, of large radial rib dome roof would be around 2.5 m.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 347


18 The design of low tempenture tdnks

trualn tast stsrtt$!(Im $5I sYlr&r afrn tut Do$t

I
T

il
It

ll
tl

Figure 1 8.41 A tank anchorage system penelrcting both the secondary bottom plate and the outer concrete tank liner

348 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1 8 The design of law temperature tanks

sgcloit E-E
. EfiEC]EOI CASI
136x di Cnfln ffnNCE

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 349


1B The design of low temperature tanks

18.7.3 The prEN 14620 approach the penetration of the secondary bottom as mentioned above,
the design process was made more complex by the fact that
This provides little in the way of design rules or guidance. Ref- this tank was built by the spiraljacking system. This means that
erence is made to ENV '1993-1-1, the applicable Eurocode for the shell seams between adjacent courses are not horizontal,
the design ofsteel stucturcs (Reference 18.12). butfollowa spiralpath. This in turn meansthatthe length ofthe
holding-down straps vary to avoid the strap shell attachments
falling on this seam.
18.8 Tank anchorage
It is interesting to note the use ofthe tube set into the concrete
The designs ofthe anchorage systems for single-walled metal- base slab to artificially lower the lower fixed point and the re-
lic tanks and for the inner and outer walls of double-walled me- quirement for accurate erection presetting in the radial direc-
tallictanks are based on the methods described earlierforam- tion. The former allowed strains due to differential thermal
bient temperature tanks in Slorage Tanks & Equipment. movements in the vertical direction to be accommodated, and
The task is made more difficult by the following: the lattertook account ofthe thermal horizontal displacement of
point B where the strap passed through and is attached to the
. The tank design pressures, and consequently the uplift secondary bottom.
forces are greater
The various codes give allowable tensile stresses for tank an-
. The liquid-coniaining tank shells are subject to thermal chors under the differing loading regimes. The actual load in
movements which must be accommodated in the design anchors where a thermal movement is involved is a combina-
. The anchors for the inner tanks of double-walled tanks will tion of tension (due to the uplift actions) and bending (due to
have to penetrate the outer tank envelope thermal movements). As has been mentioned already, the use
of an anchor where the proportions are deliberately chosen to
The total design loading on the tank anchorage is made up of
have a low stiffness in the radial direction minimises the bend-
combinations of the following loadings: ing component of the stress, leaving more available effective
. Self-weight of the metallic tank parts (in the corroded, i.e. strength for the pure tension component. This generally pro-
the lightest condition) vides a more efficient solution for the design of the strap itself
and limits the bending loads transferred to the tank shell. There
. Self-weightof the participating insulation when appropriate
is however a limit to this freedom to adjust the stiffener strap
. The internal pressure proportions based on a sensible strap width and minimum
. thickness. Strap widths up to say,200 mm, would seem a
Wind induced uplift
sensible maximum unless special circumstances dictate
. Seismically induced uplift (it is usual not to have to consider otherwise.
wind and seismic evenb occurring simultaneously)
Sorting out the various loading components and load cases for
The form ofanchorage chosen is again based on ambienttank tank anchors is a tedious business and is an area of design
practices. The boltand chairis less frequently used for low tem- well-suited tothe use ofbespoke computer programs or spread
perature tanks and the welded-strap type is generally pre- sheets.
ferred. This is for two reasons. The flexibility of a thin strap
means that loads caused by thermal movements of the tank 18.8.1 The requirements of API 620 Appendix R
can be more readily accommodated. Alsothe attachmenttothe
tank shell ofthe conventional bolt chair gives rise to higher mo- 18.8.1.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
ments in the tank shell than does the strap attachment. This is
important in an area ofthe tank shell already being subjected to For single-wall tanks, or for the inner shell of a double-walled
high hoop and vertical bending loads. tank, the following requiremenb apply:

It is usual to consider the liquid-containing tanksto be emptyat . The anchorage shall accommodate movement ofthe tank
the time that the uplifting loads are applied, with the exception wall and bottom caused by thermal changes.
of the seismic load case described below . Stainless steel should be considered for tank anchors, or
Open-topped inner tanks are only subject to uplift loadings aris- provision should be made for corrosion wherecarbon steels
ing from seismic loadings. ln this case it is usualto resist the up- are used. lvlaterials for tank anchorage shall meet the re-
lift by mobilising a part of the contained product liquid to assist quirements given for primary materials (see Chapter 22).
the tank self-weight to hold the tank down. This is described in . When the too shell course is the minimum thickness as
more detail in Chapter 26. given in Figure 18.5 and the top corner arrangement is as
There are however situations where the mobilising of the con-
tained liquid cannot be used, or where it is impractical. These
could be wherethe seismic upliftcomponent is simplytoo big to So rca of AllowlbL Tdrsion
be resisted _by self-weight and liquid hold-down. This could in Uplift Prcrsurc SEarC (psi)

turn be in situations where the site geometry does not allowthe Tanl dcsign Fcssurc Allowablc dcsign ircss. S,,
necessary adjustments to the tank proportions to enable ade- {scc Tablc J- I )
quate liquid hold-down to be made. ln these cases hold-
Tank &sign prcsrurc plus Smalle' of 1.33 t,or 80% or
ing-down anchors must be provided which attach to the inner wrnd or $hquakc lhc spcificd minimum yicld
liquid-containing shell and must penetrate the outer metallic
shell, or the liner of the concrete outer shell, and on occasions Tank tcst prcssurc
the secondary bottom as well. These penetrations must not al- Smallcr of l.:11t,or 80% of
rh sp.cilid tninimurn yicld
low leakage of the product vapour during service. Bearing in
mind the various thermal movements to which these compo-
nents are subjected, and the high anchorage loadings in the
I'Thc rlksab[ Ini nMnocrsc.
strap, this is a complex design pfoblem. tcnsion srrc\{ d]".t! irnrn{d xl ttE
t(rn or trnsr|t strc\s cr dt rhc rn.hor
An example of such an arrangement is shown in Figure 18.41 .
This particular case is about as difficult as innertank anchorage Figure 18.42 Allowable tension stresses for uplift pressure conditions
systems get. In addition to the design problems associated with From API 620, table ,7

350 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


18 The design of low temperatute tanks

above, Figure 18.34 details a-e, h and l, the minimum anchorage tom. This is most unusual for these tvoes of tanks and will not
rct that shall be designed for normal loads ("normal loads" means be considered further.
ns that the upward loadings less the downward loadings with no
The tank anchorage shall be designed based on the following:
zontat, additional factors applied). In this case the allowable
r ofthe stresses for carbon steels, shown in Figure 18.42. For alu- . The design stresses shall be in accordance with Figures
rments minium alloys and stainless steels the following shallapply: 18.3 and 18.42.
- The maximum allowable tensile stresses for design . When corrosion is specified fortheanchors, thickness shall
ncrete loadings combined with wind or earthquake loadings be added to the anchors and the attachments. lf bolts are
tne re- shall not exceed 90% of the minimum soecified vield used for anchors, the nominal diameter shall be not less
0rrec- strength for the material. than 1 in plus a corrosion allowance of %" on the bolt diame-
'rermal
For the test condition where the tank is filled with water ter
o, ano
nentof to the maximum product design level and an over pres- Attachments of anchors to the shell shall be designed using
to the sure of 1.25 times the design pressure is applied (where good engineering practices. This means giving appropriate af
applicable), the tensile stress shall not exceed 90% of tention to the minimising ofany moments and stress concentra-
the minimum specified yield strength of the material or tions aDDlied to the tank shell.
nk an- 55% of the minimum specified tensile strength of the
oad in As above, the counterbalancing structure shall be designed to
material.
nbrna- resist the uplift based on 1.25 times the internal design pres-
0ue to Allowable tensile stresses shall be taken from Fioure sure plus any wind load on the shell and roof. lf seismic loads
're use 18.4. are specified, uplifr shall be calculated using the internal design
pressure plus the seismic loads. Wind and seismic loads need
sen to r When the top shell course is thickened as in Figure 18.34
bend- not be combined.
details f and g, or where a knuckle is used, the anchorage
'ective shall be designed for three times the internal design pres-
y pro- sure. The allowable stress for this loading is 90% ofthe min- 18.8.2 The requirements of API 620 Appendix Q
) itself lmum specifled yield strength ofthe anchorage material. As
There an alternative, the purchaser may specify a combination of 18.8.2.1 Liquid containing tanks
strap normalanchorage and emergency venting (it is usualto fol-
rimum The requirements are very similar to those spelt out in Section
ow this latter course of action, the addition of emergency
)em a 18.8.'1.1. A couple of extra cond;tions are imposed:
venting systems being generally considered a cheaper op-
ictate tion than the consequences of increased anchorage loads . Allowabletensile stresses shallbe taken from Figure '18.5.
and the foundation provisions that will occur).
. 9a/"or Sok nickel steels, stainless steel oraluminium alloy
es for -'./ ng decided on the anchor loads to be appljed, it is clearly may be used for anchorage and carbon steel may be used
lesign -::essary to provide means of resisting these loads. The Code when a corrosion allowance is provided and the tempera-
pread
., es thefollowing guidancefortankfoundations to resist uplift: ture regime is suitable for this material. Aluminium alloy an-
. For tanks with an internal design pressure less than 1 lb/in2, chorage shall not be embedded in reinforced concrete
rhe uplift shall be taken as the smaller of the maximum uplift unless it is suitably protected against corrosion.
t
calculated in the following conditions: 18.8.2.2 Nonliquid containing tanks
The internal design pressure times 1.5, plus the design The requirements of Section 18.8.1.2 apply.
wind load on the shell and roof.
valled
The internal design pressure plus 0.25 lb/in2 plus the 18.8.3 The BS 7777 requirements
design wind load on the shell and roof.
) tanK
. BS 7777 does not differentiate between the requirements for
For tanks with an internal design pressure of 1 lb/in2 and
the design of anchors for inner and outer tanks. Although laid
trver, ihe uplift shall be calculated considering 1.25 times
rs, or out in a different wayfrom APl620, the actual requirements are
ileets
ine internal design pressure plus the design wind load on
essentially very similar.
:ne shell and the roof.
re re-
. The design loadings are set out as follows:
22). ,Vhere the anchorage is designed for the three times the
:esign pressure as described above, the foundation shall . Inner tank service loads The uplift produced by roof de-
is as
:e designed to resist the uplift that results from three times sign vapour pressure with seismic loads, counteracted by
:'re design pressure with the tank full to the design liquid the effective weight of the shell, roof, roofstructure, roofin-
:veJ. sulation and any permanently atbched insulation.
:: - 3 r\i of the above it is permissible to utilise friction between . Inner tank test loads The uplift produced by roof test
-: soil and the vertical face of the ringwall (if used) and all of vapour pressure counteracted by the effective weightofthe
-: :ffective liquid weight. shell and roof structure.
-- .
= Code
does not make it clearjust what constjtutes the effec- Outertankservice loads The upliftproduced bythe annu-
:quid weight. The author's view is that this should be calcu- lar space design pressure with either the wind uplift and
:-=: n the same way as WL in the seismic design case, (see overturning, or, the seismic loads (but not acting simulta-
, - =r:ef 26). neously), counteracted by the effective weight of the shelt,
' : 3.1.2 NonJiquid containing metallic tanks roof, roofstructure, any associated structure attached to the
:: ' :'rese non-liquid containing tanks the requirements of sec- roof or shell and any permanently athched insulation.
: - a of the Code apply. . Outer tank test loads The uplift produced by the annular
-- ,i 3 rlows tanks with cou nterbalance j.e. where a counterbal-
(
space test pressure, plus 60% of the wind uplift and over-
:-: -g structure such as a ring wallor a slab type foundation as- turning, counteracted by the effective weight of the shell,
: ,.:-. :ne tank self-weight in resisting the uplift) and tanks with- roof, roofstructure and anyassociated structure attached to
:cunterbalancing weights. In this latter case, no anchors the roof or shell.
: -:
:': :'ovided and the uplift loads are resisted by a stiffened bot- The allowable stresses are given by:

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 351


1B The design of low temperctute tanks

. Service case: not to exceed 50% of the (minimum sDeci- be limited, to avoid failures of the anchoraqe due to ice for-
fied) yield shength of the material of construction. mation or water condensation.
. Test case: not to exceed 85% of the yield strength of the . A corrosion allowance of 1 mm should be aoolied to all sur-
material of construction. faces of anchorage parts.
Various other items of advice are offered in a fairly haphazard . Any initialtension in the anchorage members resulting from
fashion and these are listed as follows: bolting loads or loads due to transient or long term thermal
. The internal and external tanks or containers (the BS 7777 movements, should be considered in the anchor loadings.
terminology for non-liquid containing tanks) shall be re- . No initial tension should be applied to the anchorage. lt
garded as independent structures where neither contrib- should only become effective when an uplift force develops
utes to the other in resisting uplif in the shell of the tank or container.
. Asuspended deck shall be considered as an integral part of . Steps should be taken before the tank goes into service to
the outer tank. ensure that anchorage bolts cannot work loose or become
. Where insulation of the loose fill type is used, it shall not ineffective over a long period.
contribute to the resistance to uplift of either tank. . Any anchor bar, bolt or strap shall have a minimum cross
. Wind uplift and overturning loadings shall be based on BS sectional area of 500 mm2.
CP 3 : Chapter V : Paft2: 1972 (Reference 18.13). . Anchorage points should be spaced at a minimum of 1 m
. Anchorages shall not be attached directly to shells or bot- and at a maximum of 3 m and should, as far as possible, be
tom plates, but shall be attached to pads or brackets (lt is spaced evenly around the circumference of the tank.
unclear if this means that anchors can be attached to bot- When reading through these requirements, it should be borne
tom plates, which is considered undesirable). in mind that the language is used in a specific way as required
. The design temperature for anchorage and anchorage at- by BS 0 (The British Standard for Producing British Standards).
tachments shall be either the design metal temperature of Hence "shall" indicates a mandatory requirement whereas
the tank of container, or a temperature agreed between the
"should" and "may" indicate a recommendation of good
purchaser and the designer. praclce.

. Where the top shell course is thickened to provide addi- 18.8.4 The prEN 14620 approach
tional compression area, the anchorage should be de-
signed for 3 times the design vapour pressure. The The guidance given for tank anchorage is essentiallythe same
allowable stress for this loading may be increased to 90% of
as is included in BS 7777.
the minimum specified yield strength ofthe anchorage ma-
terial. The Code then goes on to explain the thinking behind Stress limits for tension are given as:
this requirement, which is helpful. The reason for this is that, Normal operation 0.50 f"
with a thickened top shell course, the anchorage is under-
designed relative to the shell-to-roof connection. Designing Test 0.85 fy
the anchorage for 3 times the design pressure load, en- oBE 0.67 fv
sures that the anchorage (strength) is in I'ne with the roof-
to-shell connection (strength) in the event of an extreme ssE 1 .00 fv
over-pressure. This ensures that the weakest point in an The point is made that shell attachments shall be designed for a
over-pressure situation is not the bottom{o-shell junction. load corresponding to the full yield capacity of the un-corroded
. anchor bolts or straps.
Where the top course of the shell is thickened, but normal
anchorage is retained, the use ofemergency pressure relief
valves should be considered. 18.9 Tank fittings
. lnsulation firmly attached to the inner or outer tank may be This Section deals with fittings which penetrate both the liquid
regarded as resisting uplift on either tank. Insulation is not containing and the non-liquid containing tanks. Other items of
normally applied until after tank testing. equipment which are some times included under thls heading
. Anchorage design should allow for adjustment due to set- such as in tank pumps, stilling wells, fill columns, etc. are dis-
tlement during commissioning. lt is common to attach uur-ru rIv,,dP(v, zv.
welded-strap type anchors to the tank shell pads during the As is the case for ambient tanks, there are a variety of types of
hydrotest of liquid containing tanks to avoid the need for ad- fittings for low temperature tanks. Roof fittings are the most
justment, which is inconvenient to incorporate into the de- common, being used for liquid, vapour, instruments and ser-
sign. vices. Shellfittings, mainlyfor liquid outlet connections, are less
. All anchorages should be embedded into the tank founda- common. Fittings penetrating the tank bottoms are uncommon
tion. these days and are confined to liquid outlet connections.

. For fittings in double-walled tanks where the inner tank is de-


On no account should inner tank anchorages be embedded
signed for the product temperature and the outer tank or con-
in the base insulation for the purpose of resisting uplift.
tainer is designed for temperatures based on ambient tempera-
. Tank (and anchorage) design should accommodate move- tures, there is a need to protect the outer tank materials from
ments due to temperature change to minimise induced the temperature ofthe cold product in the emerging line. This is
bending stress in the shell. Any additional stress induced in achieved by the use of heat breaks. The thermal insulation of
the shell by the anchorage attachment should be checked these heat breaks is discussed in Chapter 19.
to ensure that the allowable stress level of the shell is not
Current oractice is to preclude the use of shell and bottom con-
exceeded forthe conditions ofanchorage load considered.
nections. These are seen as weak points in the storage system.
. Heat breaks may be required at the anchorage of inner The stress concentrations and discontinuities associated with
tanks to prevent chilling of the outer tank and foundations. fittings are potential sources of leakage from the primary con-
Heat transfer to the colder parts of the tank structure should tainment and damage to the externally connected pipe work

352 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


o ice for- :truld lead the tank to dump its conients. Consequen all con_
v
- 3ctions
to the tank are required to be through the tink root,
o a SUr- ="rd this involves the use of in-tank pumps. These pumps and
:-e associated equipment are described in some detail in
lrapter 20.
:rngfrom -iere are two areas where this practice is not adopied. The
thermal
::3rage of liquid ammonia traditjonally has not used in_tank
)adtngs.
: -mps as thesewere not availablefor usewiththis product until
)rage. tt :-'re rec-ently. This subject is discussed at some length in
evelops -'aDter 2l
-e storage of liquid oxygen, nitrogen and
argon has tradition_
)rvice to : ., been in double-walled single containment tanks with liouid
)ecome : -: et connections in the lower shell or tank bottom. lt is aroued
: . the part of the industry that deals with these productJthat
:-:y pose a lesser risk to personnel and the environment
that
n cross ::-er products, being non-flammable and being stored in rela_ Penerfions throuih suspended deck
, aly small quantities. The
use of internal shut_off valves is
of 1m :: 1]mon practice and goes some way to answer the contents
ible, be : - -'rping question. The liquid ouflet connections for such
tanks
k. :-: usually small, rarely greater than 6" in diameter. For con_
-.:tions of this size, effective internal
) borne shut_off valves are
'-:Jily available. For other prcducts,
)quired the sizes ifthe liquid ouflet
-:-necllons are much larger, making the use of internal
dards). .--i-offvalves a less viable option.
hereas
'good :::TAPI 620 and BS 7777 permit and give rules for designing

Thertulins!alon Vapourfl4

Suspended deck vapoLrr veni

Fgure 18.44 Typ catsuspended deck penetrations

tank shell connections. Apl 620 does this without comment as


to the desirability of such connections, which js no surprise as
its origins go back to tjmes which predated the use oi in tank
pumps for land-based storage and concepts other
than sinole
containment type tanks. BS 7777 expresses a rather nril;ty
lfora worded disapprovalofthe use ofsuch connections as follows:
'ooed
"All pipe connections should preferably be made
via the roof of
the.tank.-This is based on the phllosophy that the risk of ser
ous
reaKage lrom the innertank is thereby reduced to a minimum.
ln
this way. the possibility ofsurroundings flooded by teaking pfod_
!rq!lo uct, with the risk of fire and explosion, is minimised.',
Trs of Some of the roof fittings are quite large. For large LNG tanks.
rdrng in-tank pump columns of 42,, in diameter are not uncommon.
) drs- with liquid inlets and vapour ou ets of 32', in diameter. Bearing
in mind that these fittings will need to be fitted with heat
breaks:
then thediameterc of the actual penetrations through the
es of outer
r"lost tank roof will be even bigger. For such large fitting;, their very
size gives rise to structural problems. ThJ compjnenis whjch
ser-
go to make up the roof loadings are:
iess
mon . The self-weight of the fitting, the heat break and ihe at_
tached. internal and external pipework together with t-e
Inermat tnsulatron
:on- Any roof mounted isolation valves
era-
\a typical24" balt la E
lor tow temperature service can wejgh around 2700 kE,
ron
is is Any internal attachments (i.e. in-tank pump columns).
noi Loadings from externally connected pipework wntcr :s
-s __
ally considered to be anchored at the roof conneci o.
pn- Seismic loadings acting on the roof, the fitting and the cotr-
3m. nected pipework.
t iih
Tanks where the structural part of the roof is made of reinforced
' :- : concrete are generally better suited to catering for these load_
ork -
8 4 3 Typical roof iitting arrangements
ings than those made from steel.

STOR,AGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 353


1 8 The design of low tempercture tanks

For shell connections which Denstrate both tho inner and the
outer walls, a similar probtem exlsb. This is usually overcome
by the use of bellows or pipe work running in the interspace.
Some typical arrangerrents are shown in Figure 18.46.
Tenk bottom connections are unusual but not unknown. Some
pass straight down through the base insulation andlhe support-
ing base slab, and som6 turn through a aight angle and run out
through the base insulalion, which may be thick enough to ac-
commodate tho liquid ouflet line, or may require to be locally
thickened to avoid localchilling of the outertank bottom where
this is not provided in a lowtemperature steel. Some altemative

Inrn.l b{m .fugsdt

Inr.nEl plp*ork lpe

Flgure 1 8.46 Some typical double-walled tank shll connction amangements

Plpe$qrk belwn roof3 io provld nxiblliv

Figuro 1.45 Typlcal roof frttng arangements for tanks with fixed inner and

Otherlarge rooffittings are the roof manways wh ich, forperson-


nelaccess can be 36" in dianieter, andthose usedfor materials
access during the tank construction period are ofren up to 60" in
diameter A number of difierent tank roof fitting anangements
are illustrated in Figure 18.43.

For tanks with suspended roofs, connected internal pipe work


must pass thrcugh lhe deck. There are also fiftings in the deck
itself for personnel access and for product vapourflow across
the deck. Typical suspended roof fiftings are illustrated in Fig-
ure 18.44.

Nowadays, for the relatively rare case, where the tank is pro-
vided with fixed innerand outer roofs, the need to cater for the
differential thermal movemenb between the tianks is an added
difficulty. Some arrangemenb which have been used in the
past are illustrated in Figure 18.45- Figure 18.47 Typicaltank bofiom @nnction arangements

354 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPiIENT


1B The design of low tempercture tanks

and the
aqckng srrp, il used, may be ren eed anf wtding
ercome
rspace.

Some
r.
upport-
run out
h to ac-
locally
rwhere
rnative

l! d t? ncl ls than 0.71_ d%ncn

Ptml g Plmr n
: _: 1 8.48 Acceptable
;- types of nozzles and olher conneclions - page I
: -- lPl 620, figure 5-o

:-=-gements are shown in Figure 18.47. 18.9.1.1 General requirements of API 620 section 5
These requirements cover the maximum sizes of nozzles
'3.9.1 The requirements of Apl 620 which do not require any additional reinforcing, reinforcing of
nozzles which do require additional reinforcinq material to be
supplied. the details of suitable nozzle and reiriforcing plate at-
--: : ready mentioned, tank fittings can penetrate the roofs, tachments to the tank shell, stress relieving requirements and a
:-: s orfloors ofboth innerand outertanks. Forthe innertank number ofother points. These rules are applicable to nozzles in
:;- -ection the fitting is desjgned to either Appendix R or
e de- non-liquid containing tanks and form the basis ofthe desion of
:i -: rg on the temperature of the product liquid. For metallic nozzles for liquid containing tanks.
:- : containing outer tanks the fittings are similarly designed
.: ::cendix R or Q. For metallic non-liquid containing tanks the Single openings in tanks whjch do not requjre reinforcement
--:-ls are designed to the API basic section of the Code (i.e. other than that inherently available within the provided nozzle
neck and the tank wall thicknesses are:
-:-- cn 5).
-- . 3" pipe size welded into bnk walls of %,, thickness or less
> situation is made more complex by the two Appendices
:,: -cwing" parts of section 5 and then imposing modifications . 2" pipe size welded into tank walls of thickness qreaterthan
: '-:se rules. What follows is an attempt to simplify and sum- %.
-:- se these rules. For those involved in the detailed desion of
=
-. "tt,ngs. it is probably necessary to read the full text oi the . Threaded connections where the opening in the tank wall is
not greater than 2" pipe size
"-:JS sections to ensure a full and accurate understandino of
-: : erhora of deiailed requirements and advice providedl The minimum area or reinforcement required is based on the

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 355


18 The design of low tempercture tanks

Paisl P Plnel q

F gure 18.48 Acceptable lypes of nozzles and othef connections page 2


Fron API 620, figure 5-B

100% replacement of area rule. The basic formula is: It must lie within a distance measured circumferentially or
vertically along the tank shell from the axis ofthe opening of
,\ = (d + 2c)(t c)E' equ 18 37
the greater of:
where: Adistance equalto the diameter opening after corrosion
ot
= area of reinforcement to be provided (in'?)
A distance equal to the radius of the opening plus the
d = the clear inside dimension across the opening
thickness of the nozzle wall plus the thickness of the
l
(usually considered as perpendicular to the di-
tank wall, all in the corroded condition
:
rection of principal applied stress) (in)
It must lie within a radial distance measured along the fitting :
c = corrosion allowance for the part in question (in) itself from the inner or outer surface of the tank wall of the
E' = joint factor for the part of the tank wall inques- lesser of:
tion
- Adistance equal to 2.5 times the thickness of the tan k
The reinforcement shall be provided in the tank wall, an added wall less corrosion allowance or
reinforcing plate or in the nozzle body within the limits outlined
below. The tankwallmay be arbitrarily thickened to make avail-
- Adistance equalto 2.5 times the thickness ofthe nozzle
wall less its corrosion allowance plus the thickness of
able more reinforcing area. any additional reinforcement inside the tank wall if avail-
The limitations on the effective reinforcing area are: able less its corrosion allowance(s)

356 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


leThedesign otlov@te*

Enh. d8ttr.d ol .tta.lwd k larid.dory

F!o.l F P.n lF2.

3 9le6 slz, nrr


\-l
ll-l
t*trEl5
.\pPf,.-A-3.rssrr

Singb-mH bp sEtd lor haads c.@r b plgsr.

NOTES:

,- : nornmal thickners of the irnl wall, in in., length of projcctior of d|! nozzle watl byond
including cormsion allowEnce, rhc imide face of dle iant wall.)

r. = loninal ninimum thickness of rhe nozzle neck, ,4 = a r"luc not lcss than ojrnnF
in in.in., includina @rrosion allowance,
t5 = a value nor less than o.7rnnn,
r, = nominal rhickress of rhe rcinlorcing pa4 ir in.,
includirg co.rosion allowanc if thc pad is t, = norninal h.rd tlliclmcls, h in.
er(posed io coFosion,

. = conosion allowanc.. in rn.. l.TtE wcld dimcc'oN indicatcd i! Ihir 6gua e


pcdiqcd on 0lc
asuhprion thal no .drosio. tu .nticiprt d or th. oubirlc of fir
tmin = fte smaller of 3/4 in.
or $e thickn.ss lcss fie l,nk. lt oul\idc cotuion is.rpdl!d. dc oukirL w.ld dihcnsio$
co.rosion allowanceof eirherof rbc pans ioined shall b. ircra\ed a@ordingly,

bya filler weld or Foove weld. 2. Erpos.d cdgs sh(M as rudcd hay b. 6nish.d by lighl Eind-
ing b ar tast r 14 in- 6dius or chdf.Ed ar 45 degRs ro ar lcan a

I or/: = a value not less than the smallrotl/4 in. or


IFd!n
o.7rn,Di the sum t+ irshallnor be tesr han FF r'a &.1 smallcr. s cxempoons h 5.16.9. L
l.?5rmi,,.

rr = rhermrllcr ol l/arn,ar0./(r,,-.' {lnsrd.(or-


nerselds nlav h Iunher limired h! ! le$er

Fgure 18.48 Acceptabte types of nozztes and other connections - page 3


F@rn API 820,ligute 5-8

ly or liletal in the tankwall in excess of the thickness required forthe ness at any welded joint, in inches, is greater lhan
rg of $uctural requirements for 100% joint effciency may be mn- (D+50y120.
sltered as available reinforcing material if the fitting is located
s|on ertirely within the plate material (i.e. does not pass through a where:
rlded seam). This is useful for roof penetrations.
f b not usualto fitting nominal diameter (in)
the cany out site stress relief of storage tanks fol-
bvting erection for reasons to dowith the size, weightand need
the For fittings less that 20" diameter, D shall be taken as 20f.
b.localsupport during the operation. There are however local
sfress relieving requirements to minimise local residual stress This requirementfor stress relief is not applicable to tank com-
ttng concentrations. The necessity to carry out such operations, pression areas where the thicknesses of plates used fequenty
the Gually in the fabricator's works, afrer the fiftings have been exceed these thicknesses. This is fonunate as the sib s-tress
relded into the tank shellplate, are based on the shelland noz- relief of a completed compression area wouh be impradical
ank Ae body thicknesses. Hence stress relief is required when: and the restriction imposed on the designerof timiting the plate
. Tank sections which have a wall thickness greater than thicknesses to 1.25" or 1.5" would in effecd limit the maximum
1.25" (this can be increasedto 1.5,,forcertain matedals pro- design pressures for large bnks.
2)e
iof viding a minimum preheat temperature of 200.F has been
maintained during the welding process). Figure 5-8 from section 5 ofAPl620 provides guidance regard-
ail- ing acceptable details for welded nozzles and other @nnec-
. Welded attachmenb and nozzle bodies where the thick- tions. These are shown in Figure 18.48.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 357


18 The design of low temperature tanks

18.9.1.2 The particular requirements ofAPl620 Appendix R tailed design of these items, but this is limited and it is not un-
Appendix R contains a number of detailed additional require- usualfor additional guidance to be soughtfrom pressure vessel
codes such as ASI\.4EVlll (Reference 18.74) or a similar Code.
ments relating to the types of connections which are permitted
in primaryand secondary components, the stress reliefrequire-
This area of design is tedious and repetitive. Well-designed
ments and aspects concerning spacing and inspection. computer programs or spreadsheeb are a boon forthis type of
worK.
At fear of repetition, the number of detiailed requirements in this
area makes it necessary that the designer studies the rules 18.9.2 The requirements ol 85 7777
carefully and is hopefully experienced in this type ofwork. The
main Doints raised are:
BS 7777 seeks to separate the area of tank fitting design into
. All openings in primary components shall have complete the following categories:
penetration and fusion. Acceptable details are shown in Fig- . The design ofoutercontainer (i.e. non-liquid containing me-
ure 18.43 details a,b,c,g,h,m and o.
tallic ianks) mountings
. In primarycomponents, shop stress-relief of the welded as- . The design of inner tank and liquid containing outer metallic
sembly is requires unless: tank mountings
- The stress in the plate is less than 10% ofthe minimum . The design of connections between the openings in inner
tensile stress ofthe plate materialand the opening rein- and outer ianks
forced for this low stress
The detailed reouirements and recommendations are summa-
The impact requirements for the plate and the welding rised in the following Sections.
fulfil the requirements for primary componenb and the
1 8.9.2.1 Outer container mountings
thickness ofthe shell plate is less than %" for any diame-
The rules follow almost exactly the ambient tank practices laid
ter of connection or less than 1 .25" for connections that
out in BS 2654 described in Chapter 3.
have a diameter of less than 12". The thickness of the
nozzle neck without stress relief shall be limited to ln brief. the main Doints are:
(D+50)/120 as above. . No reinforcing required for nozzles oflessthan 80mm diam-
. The opening is reinforced with a forging as shown in Figure eter
18.48 details o-1 to o-4 . Reinforcing to be 75% of the removed area
. The butt weld around the periphery of a thickened insert . Reinforcing to be provided either
plate or the fillet weld around a reinforcing plate shall be at
By a thickened shell insert plate
least the greater of 10 times the shell thickness or 12" from
any butt-welded seams, except where the completed pe- By a thickened nozzle body
ripheryweld has been stress-relieved. In this case the spac-
By an added reinforcing plate
ing shall be at least 6" from any vertical seam and 3" from
any circumferential seam subject in both cases to a mini- . As an alternative the thickened nozzle barrel protruding on
mum of 3 times the shell thickness. These rules shall also both sides ofthe tank wall such that the j factor does not ex-
apply to the shell-to-bottom joint. lt is allowable to extend ceed 2.0 in accordance with the calculation method given
the thickened insert plate or the rejnforcing plate to the There are some minor modiflcations to the oermitted weld ioint
shell-to-bottom joint and not require stress reliefof the weld details.
to the bottom or annular Dlate.
18.9.2.2 Inner tank and outer liquid containing tank mount-
. All welds in opening connections that have not been com- Ings
pletely radiographed shall be inspected by magnetic parti-
The rules again follow the BS 2654 practices for shell connec-
cle (MPl) or liquid penetrant (LPl) inspection methods. This
tions. Table 13 (Figure 18.49) makes slightly different require-
shall include nozzle and manhole neck welds and neck to
ments for the minimum nozzle body thicknesses.
flange welds. The root pass and each additional %" of de-
posited weld mebl shall be similarly inspected. The Code makes a number of comments and recommenda-
tions (i.e. non-mandatory requirements), some of which are
. Butt welds around the periphery of thickened insert plates worth repeating in full:
shall be completely radiographed
. All pipe connections should preferably be made via the roof
It is interesting to see that this section of the Code (and the of the tank. This is based on the philosophy that the risk of
equivalent section of Appendix Q) allows the use of slip on serious leakage from the inner tank is thereby reduced to a
flanges with the agreement of the purchaser. minimum. In this way, the possibility of surroundings being
18.9.1.3 The particular requirements of API 620 flooded by leaking product, with the risk of fire and explo-
Appendix Q sions, is minimised.
The detailed requirements of Appendix Q are essentially the
Minimtrm manhole dd
same as for ADoendix R. Stress relief of stainless steel or alu- nozzlc body thicknes
minium alloys is not required. For 5% and 9% nickel steels,
stress relief is a function ofsurface strain and as such can usu-
ally be avoided.
d"< 50 5.0
50 <d^< 70 5.0
18.9.1.4 The design of heat breaks 70<dn<100 6.0
A has been mentioned, many tank fittings have heat breaks as- 100<dn<200 8.0
sociated with them. These heat breaks are frequently sub- 200<4=300 10.0
jected to high axial and bending loads from the attached 300 < d- t2.5
pipework and associated fittings, particularly in the largersizes
of connections and where seismic loadings are involved. The Figure 18.49 Manhole and nozzle body thickness
Code does give some guidance which can be used for the de- From BS 7777 : Paft 2, table 13

358 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1B The design of low tempercture tanks

i not un- . Where side or bottom entry is specified, the design should
e vessel take account of nozzle leakage, and its consequences, Pqtked ,,ih insulonon
rr Code. from the following causes:
esrgned
; type of - Differentialmovement
- Thermal stress

- Stressintensification
Pipe loads
ign lnto
- Difiiculty of inspection/maintenance

ing me- - Foundationheatingdiscontinuities


Vulnerability of pipework to damage
netallic Where possible, shell-mounted nozzles should be shop-
' Figure 18.50 Possible connection option
fabricated into shell plates
From BS 7777 : Paft2, figure 25
n inner . Where used, shell-mounted inlet and ouflet connections
should be provided with internal shut-of valves
Jmma- -^ s section ofthe Code also gives rules and advice regardjng
:- design of bottom connections. The one rule (mandatory) is
:t connections to inner tank bottoms shall be Drovided with
es laid
f .jt off valves for internal emergency shut off conditions. The
1:.r mandatory comments and recommendations are also
-:eresting and useful:
. Connections to the inner tank bottom should be avoided.
dram-
. Bottom connections for emptying the tank totally prior to
warm up and inspection are normallyof smalldiameter lt is
not advisable to operate the tank through the bottom con-
nections, unless the design allows some liquid to remain in
the tank (this is presumably to avoid accidental tank warm
up during service).
. Where openings (i.e. bottom openings) are unavoidable, Figure 18.51 Further shell conneciion option
the following design procedure should be adopted: From BS 7777 : Patt 2, figure 26

ng on - Entry to the tank is as close to the shell as possible, but


f,t ex- not less than 650mm (to keep the opening close to the - Anti-vortex provisions are considered.
shell but not in the annular plate - this could be a prob-
)jven
lem where the annular plate is made wider for reasons
- Additional localised base heating is considered.
ljoint Much of these mandatoryand advisory requirements werewrit-
of seismic design. The fitting should always be inboard
of the inner edge of the annular plate). ten following the events surrounding the bottom ou et connec-
runt- tions installed on the original Das lsland LNG tanks. poor con-
The nozzle is positioned in an annular or sketch plate, struction details, leakage and poor thermal insulation led to
enlarged if necessary for this purpose. these tanks having to be decommissioned and taken out ofser-
nec-
vice and eventually being demolished and replaced.
uire- - The nozzle opening is reinforced on a replacement of
area basis by a doubler plate, or thickened annular or 18.9.2.3 Connecting pipework between inner and outer
sketch Dlate. tank connections
nda-
are - The design should impose negligible bending moment The Code provides two sketches of possible shell connection
on the inner tank bottom under all conditions of oDera- arrangements. The first uses bellows to provide the reouired
tion, particularly with reference to the difierential con- flexibility (Figure 18.50), whilst the second uses a pipe loop
roof within the interspace for the same purpose, (Figure.lg.5.l).
traction ofthe innertank relative to the outertank. (One
ikof
way to do this is to support the horizontal portion of the The Code provides a number of mandatory reouirements and
toa pipe from the underside ofthe innertank shell-to-bottom
-jing advisory guidance, all of which is useful.
junction bya strap welded to the underside ofthe annu-
plo- The mandatory requirements are:
lar plate and the top of the pipe).

- The pipe should always be full of product in service. . Connections shall have a detailed design. (Meaning that
each connection shall be fully designed in its own ight and
- A high standard of construction and inspection is sDeci- not be a tepeat or copy of an eadier similar connection.)
fied. (lt is advised that the nozzle assembly is prefabri-
cated into the thickened bottom plate and subiect to . A heat break shall be fitted to connections between inner
inspection and testing prior to laying on the base insula- and outer tanks. (ln this case the detailed design ofthe heat
tion). break could follow the requirements of BS 5500. (Refer-
ence 18.15).
- The unsupported area underthe nozzle is keptto a mini-
.
mum and the surrounding insulation is designed for the Connections between openings in the inner and outer tank
higher load imposed on it. (lt should also be capable of shells shall be designed to accommodate the differential
withstanding damage at the edges of the hole). movement between the shells. (lt is importiant to consider
not only the longitudinal thermal differential movemenG,
- The space surrounding the nozzle and pipe is filled with but also the translation caused by thermal contraction and
a suitable insulating material. the rotations caused by product loadings.)

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 359


18 The design of low tempercture tanks

. Flanged joints shall not be located within the intersoace be-


tween the inner and outer shells.
. Where welded pipe js used, the welded seams shall be
radiographed for the full length of the weld.
. Connections between openings in the inner and outer tank
roofs shall be designed to accommodate the differential
movements between the roofs.
. For the suspended deck, connections shall be desioned as
an extension to the nozzle in the outer tank roof.
The guidance is:
. Particular attention should be paid to the design ofthe inter-
I
connecting mountings. This is to ensure that no mainte- 't
nance or inspection is necessary during the operational life
of the tank, since access to the interspace between the in-
ner and outer tank is normallv imDossible.
Figure f8.52 Aflat plate type suspended deck
Thermal and hydrostatic forces cause relative movement
between the inner and outer tank, thus jncreasing or de- The use of a suspended deck means that the roof insulation is
creasing the interspace gap. Strain absorbing connections now within the tank envelope and is protected from the wind
are necessary to ensure that the relative movement does and any chemically aggressive atmospheres. As a conse-
not cause unacceptable local stressing of the inner and/or quence, cheap materials such as glass fibre of a very basjc
outer tank. (Guidance on local loads on cylindrical vessels grade (i.e. household loft insulation type), mineralwoolor loose
can be obtained from Reference 18.15.) or bagged perlite can be used ratherthan more expensive insu-
lation systems such as PUF protected by vapour tight metallic ,
Heat breaks should be designed to prevent over-cooling of cladding. lt is not only the cost ofthe roof insutation that is sionif-
the outer shell. icant. placing it in a protected environment gives longevity-ad-
Connections should be made from seamless oioe. vantages as well. Further advantages relating to the need to no
longer require a low temperature grade of steel for the roof
lvlovements between the inner and outer tank roofs arises structure and sheeting also exist.
from either differential thermal expansion or contraction, or
It is usualto arrange a generallyflat profile ofdeck flush with the
differing internal or external loads.
top of the inner tank for double-walled tanks, and located at a
. For suspended decks the connection should be able to suitable elevation to avoid thermal stress problems for sin-
move freely through the suspended deck, thus eliminating gle-walled tanks.
additional loads on either the outer roof or the suspended
The design Codes have little to say about the design of sus-
deck. (l\ileans of preventing roof insulation from falling pended decks, so the designer is lefr very much to his or her
through any gaps and entering the stored product should
own devices. A number of different arranqements are in com-
also be made.)
mon use:
l\y' uch ofthis is self-evident and repetitive, but is nevertheless all

sensible advice.
. A flat plate system stiffened by circumferential mem.
bers The flat deck is usually of lapped and fillet-welded con-
struction. The inner part of the deck is stiffened by
18.9.3 The prEN 14620 approach circumferential flats attached to the upDer surface of the
deck and serving as the attachment points for the hangers.
For membrane tanks all liquid inlet and outlet connections are The outer edge of the deck has a more substantial periph-
to be routed via the tank roof. For othertanks connections to the eral stiffener fitted.
primary container and other parts of the secondary container
The hangers are usually of steel cable or rod material se-
are discouraged but reluctantly allowed. In cases where bottom
lected to be suitable for the loading and temperature. lt is
(and possibly lower shell, the wording is unclear in its intention)
not unusual for the hangers to be made from two different
inlets and outlets are used, either a remote operated internal
shutoff valve must be installed or the bottom (and shell?) con-
nection shall be designed as part of the primary container with
the first valve being a remote operated type which must be
welded to the bottom (or shell?) connection.
The guidance provided is similar to that in BS 7777 and refer-
ence is made to the appropriate sections ofthe prEN on ambi-
ent tanks in Chapter 3.

18.10 Suspended decks


Suspended decks or ceilings are simple covers over the top of
the liquid containing tanks. They can be fitted into single-walled
tanks or above the inner liquid containing tank of double-walled
tanks. They are suspended from the tank roof framework and
their function is to support the roof insulation. They do not re-
quire to be product vapour tight, in fact very much the reverse
as the product vapour should be free to flow across the sus-
pended deck with little resistance and consequenfly causing lif
tle differential pressure. Figur 18.53 A struclural frame and profiled sheeting type suspended deck

360 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


18 The design of low temperature tanks

Figure 18.55 A suspeidd deck vent

=g rte 18.54 A plywood paneltype of suspended deck


ation is 18.10.1 The requirements of API 620
wtnd materials. The lowerpart being suitableforthe lowtempera-
conse- ture whilst the upper part is of a cheaper material suitable Essentially none.
y basic for the local ambient temperature. An example of such a
|tloose deck is shown in Figure 18.52.
18.10.2 The requirements ot BS 7777
e insu-
netallic The design ofsuch decks ofren involves the use offlat plate
rsignif- type bridge deck formulae from The Steel Design Manual BS 7777 has more to say about suspended decks. The manda-
,ty ad- produced by the United States Steel Corporation (Refer- tory and advisory requiremenb are summarised as follows:
dtono ence 18.16\. This type of deck is usually made of carbon The suspended deck support structure shall be designed
re roof steel with suitable low temperature properties or of alu-
forthe lowest temperature encountered by any part in prac-
minium alloy. The plate thickness chosen for the deck flce
plates isfrequently5 mm. This type is quite robust and suit-
fith the
,data able for foot traffic and for use as a working platform forany The design shall ensure that the outer roofshall always be
)r sin- erection tasks in this area of the tank. The deck is heavier at ambient temperature where the hangers are attached to
than the structure and profiled sheeting type and is gener-
ally more expensive on an area-for-area basis. lts use is
rfsus- usually confined to smaller diameter tanks. The structure shall be designed foranyone hanger becom-
or her ing ineffective
com-
Aframework of structural sections supported from the Materials for the suspended deck shall be agreed between
main roof members by cables or rods This framework in the purchaser and the manufacturer and may include:
mem- turn supporb a deck of profiled sheeting. lt is usualfor the
I con- structural members and the sheeting to be made from alu- - Carbon manganese steel
dbv minium alloy. lt is usualforthe design Code minimum thick-
- Aluminium alloy
f the ness requirements of %6" or 5 mm to be ignored for this
ers. sheeting which can be obtained in thicknesses down to 0.9 9% nickel steel
)nph- mm. To simpliry the supporting arangements, it is usualfor
the structural framework to follow the layout of the roof - Stainless steel
framework which is a normally radial rafter type. - Timber
.ltis The suspended deck shall be insulated such that the outer
erent This type of deck is light and economical and is often used
roof does not cool below its design metal temperature, that
for the bigger LNG tanks. The profiled sheeting, especially
in the thinner thicknesses, is susceptible to damage by foot
boiloffofthe product is limited and thatexcessive roofload-
ing due to ice build up is avoided
traffic and erection activities. lt is frequently necessary to
; use walking boards or similar devices to protect it at this The design shall preventthe passage ofinsulation material

tI
stage. Atypicaldeck ofthis type is shown in Figure 18.53. into the Droduct
The design shallallow product vapourto breath through the
Individual deck panels supporled at their corners by
deck to limit anydifferential pressures to less than 2.4 mbar.
suspended plates Atypicalanangement using plywood in
Suitable vents shall be provided which allow this breathing
shown in Figure 18.54. This is an economical and easily

t
and prevent cold vapour impingement on and chilling ofthe
erected system. One unforeseen disadvantage with the use
roof structure. Such a vent in shown in Figure 18.55.
of plywood is its water contdnt. lt is normally delivered wilh
some 10% moisture by weight. This has been the cause of Fittings which pass through the roof space above the deck
difiiculties in obtaining a suiiably low dew point during the and which could cause cooling of the vapour above the
tank purging phase. deck shall be suitiably insulated

I The first two types described are well-suited to a tank roofwhich


The deck shall be at a level not less than 0.5 m above the
product design level
6to be airlifted. The suspended deckcan be erected at ground
.$/el, attached to the main roof framework and air-lifted into its In areas of high seismicity the deck should be at a level to
tul position. The latter type is ideal for erection at the full iank avoid sloshing liquid impingement and be designed for any
rht. lateral loadinos

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 361


18 The design of low tempamture tanks

18.10.3 The prEN 14620 approach . The inspection regime must be similar to that of the inner q
tank bottom with of course the exception of the hvdrostatic d
This Code has little to sayon the subject ofsuspended deck de- test. al
sign apart from requiring the roofand its supporting structure
-
to be designed for the minimum design temperature, to be de- I-
signed forthe failure of any one hanger and to have ventilation 18.12 Bottom corner protection systems
openings such thatthe pressure difierence across the deckwill Again, like the secondary bottom, this is a comparatively new -rd
not exceed the weight of the supported roof insulation. phenomenon in the design of low temperature tanks. API 620 e
and BS 7777 have nothing to say about this part ofthe storage
tank system.
T
18.11 Secondary bottoms !I
The function of this component is to avoid the unsustainable ff
Secondary bottoms are a comparatively recent addition to the stresses which can occur in the bottom corner of concrete outer
list of component parts of low temperature storage tanks. For tanks ofthe fixed or encastr6 design. The fixed bottom corner, -'I
full containment LNG tanks with concrete outer tanks, second-
ary bottoms are now more or less much a standard part. For
as opposed to the pinned and sliding designs, which are dis- F
cussed in Section 18.16.4, is currently the most commonly
other types oftanks for other products, they are an occasional used detail for this part of the concrete outer tank.
'I
requrrement. f
The function ofthe secondarybottom isto protectthetank base
In theinnertank leak or failure case where the product liquid is [r
contained by the concrete outer tank, a situation is created
slab, either of the on-ground or elevated types, from damage where the bottom slab is warm (protected by the base insula- -
caused by an inner tank bottom leak. A leak in the inner tank tion) and the outer wall is cold. This gives dse to shear stresses
bottom will make its way through the sandwich of liquid perme- at the wall-to-base junction which cannot be easily designed
able materials which together make up the tank base insulation for. Without some modification in this region, there exists a sig-
and locallycoolthe base slab, which is usually madefrom rein- nificant possibility of through-cracking ofthe concrete walland
forced concrete. This local cooling can cause through{hick- leakage ofthe product liquidto the environment. This is particu-
ness cracking and consequent liquid leakage either to the larly the case for LNG tanks. Their large size and low design
ground or to atmosphere depending on the type of base slab temperature exacerbate the oroblems.
adopted. There is also a possibility that damage to the base
heating system and anotherpossible route ofliquid leakage via For LPG tanks, the less onerous design temperatures often
the heating element conduits may occur. makes this problem manageable without resort to bottom cor-
ner insulation. To make this bottom corner designable, thermal
The secondary bottom concept came about in orderto prevent insulation is applied to the lower portion of the outer wall for a
the possibility of liquid leakage to the local environment. The
metallic form of this member consists of another tank bottom
located either within or above the base insulation sandwich.
The construction details ofthis secondary bottom are similar to
the inner tank bottom, i.e. a lap-welded membl-ane of minimum q
thickness. There is a possibility that the thickness could be less
than the Code minimum requirements of %6" or 5 mm, but the
most commonly used material (9% nickel steel) is not currently
commercially available at thicknesses less than 5 mm.
There are possibilities of secondary bottom systems using
non-metallic materials and one manufacturer, has developed a
proprietary design using polyurethane foam in conjunctionwith
a glass reinforced plastic covering which has been used in a
number of low temperature tanks. The most common system is
however the metallic secondary bottom.
The secondary bottom is usually used in conjunction with a bot-
tom corner protection system which is the subject of the next
\1
secnon. Figure 18.56 A 36% nickel / 64% iron alloy bottom corner protection arrange-
API 620 and BS 7777 have nothing to say regarding secondary
bottoms.
The design and practical requirements include:
. The thermal contraction must be considered, particularly
where the bottom is attiached to.a bottom corner system
which may provide a peripheral constraint. The bottom
which is embedded within the base insulation willclearly not
contract as much as a bottom which is located on too ofthe
base insulation.
. Differential thermal movement between the various materi-
als must be free to occur without restraint.
. Local cooling of the embedded type of secondary bottom
from some intermediate temoerature in normal service to
the product liquid temperature in the leakage situation must
be accommodated.
. Constructing thin bottoms to tight local flatness tolerances
is difficult. Provision for practical undulations must be de-
Figure 18.57 The installalion ofa 36% nlckel/ 64% iron alloy bottom corner
signed into the system. arangement

362 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1B The design of low temperaturc tanks

the inner -erght which is usually between 3 and 5 m, although there are outer tank wall for a limited distance, or to the full tank height.
drosktic :esigns wherethis insulation is applied for the full height of the
The metallic solution has divided itself into two different ap-
:,-ier tank wall. This insulation prevents the lower portion of the
proaches. The essential design problem for this component is
:,-:er wall from cooling to the product temperature in this acci-
the conflicting need for the liner material to thermally contract
-iElrt situation. ltchangesthe stress regime inthe bottom corner
ems and at the same time to be able to sustain the head of leaked
tea from one of almost total shear stress to one which is a product liquid. Without the structural support of the insulation
r'ely new - xture of shear and bending, and is more readily accommo-
material, the liner on the inside of the wallwill have to resist the
APt 620 in the design process.
=:ed full product head. For a large LNG tank this could result in a 9%
storage -: ensure that this insulation performs its purpose, it is impor- nickel steel liner of some 25 mm in thickness. This is both ex-
E:: that it is protected from the leaked product liquid in the pensive and causes design difficulties at the point where this
tainable r:erspace. This liquid may be at the full equilibdum level and liner is attached to the tank wall due to the large local forces to
)teouter l-E static head will tend to force liquid into the insulation and be accommodated.
r corner, -:- Jer it ineffective unless suiiable steps are taken to avoid this One solution to this problem is to use a protective liner made
are dts- :,:ssibility.
from the 36% nickel / 64% iron alloy which is marketed under
mmonly -=ditionallythere have been two approaches to the solution of trade names such as Invar or Pernifer. This alloy has a coeffi-
: s problem. The non-metallic solution involves
the type of ap- cient of thermal contraction over a wide range oftemperatures
liquid is :r:ach to the secondary bottom described in Section 18.11, which is close to zero. Consequently the thermal contraction
created r'h is continued around the corner and uo the inside of the problems largelydisappear. This is illustrated in Figure 18.56.
r insula-
The gap at the point where the alloy bottom protection liner
tresses meets the outer edge of the secondary bottom is deliberately
)signed
created to allow the secondary bottom to contract and pull the
s a srg-
liner into contact with the outer edge ofthe base insulation ring
valland
walland obtain the necessary structural support. This detailhas
particu-
been supplied for the LNG tanks installed in Greece and Trini-
design
dad. The alloy is expensive at some 4 to 5 times the rate/tonne
as 9% nickel steel. lt is available at thicknesses which are con-
s often siderably less (down to 0.7 mm) than the minimum available
)m cor- thickness of 9% nickel steel (around 5 mm), so this offsets the
nermal basic difference in the material costs. The alloy is easily fabri-
rll for a cated and welded providing the correct equipment and proce-
dures are adopted. A photograph of such a liner during installa-
tion as shown in Figure 18.57. The liner thickness in this case
was 1 .2 mm.
:l= The second approach is to use a 9% nickel steel in the configu-
18.58 A 9% nickel sleel boltom comer protection arrangemenl
raiion shown in Figure 18.58. This does not incorporate the ver-
tical leg at the outside of the base insulation of the previous so-
lution. The liner is constructed from steel of 5 mm to 12 mm
thickness and usually incorporates a swept corner. The accom-
modation of the conflicting needs of thermal contraction and
structural support is achieved by the flexibility of the liner. The
validation ofthis design requires some sophisticated finite ele-
ment analysis togetherwith the use ofsignificantly higher allow-
able stresses than are used in the other metallic component
Darts of the tank.
Guidance is usually taken from the various pressure vessel
codes regarding the allowable stresses. A photograph of a liner
of this type during installation is shown in Figure 18.59. The ap-
parent step atthe top ofthe sweptcorner is because the insula-
tion has not yet been applied to that part of the wall prior to
erecting the wall portion of the mebllic liner itself.
The thermal insulation used on the inside ofthe concrete wall is
usually constructed from cellular glass. This is most usually at-
tached to the wall carbon steel liner with a suitable adhesive
and of a thickness around 100 mm. The welding of the liner, be
it of either material, is carried out from one side by necessity
and cellular glass is tolerant of the high local heat inputs in-
volved.

18.13 Outer tank concrete wall and bottom


liners
The concrete outer tanks offull containment systems are gen-
erally agreed to require to be made vapour tight. The preven-
tion of productvapours from passing outwards through the con-
crete structure and the avoidance of atmospheric water vaDour
from passing into the insulation (particularly of the loose fill
type) are seen to be desirable, if not essential attributes of the
'"i-: ': ag The installalion of a 9% nickel steet bottom corner ananoement system. There are those who suggest that modern concretes

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 363


18 The design of low tenperaturc tanks

correctly placed have a sufficienfly low permeability and do not


require any additional vapour proofing and that the volumes of
product or water vapour passing through the wall is insignifi_
cant. This view is however not in the ascendant in the industrv
at this time.
API 620 does not venture into this area, not beinq interested in
full containment systems. BS 7777 does not s;ecificallv de-
mand the use of a liner but points quite strongly in that dire;tion.
The intention of words like "Liners or membranes are aDolied
primarily as a vapour barrier. Full containment concrete tanks
will normally be required to inhibit both the passage of both
product vapour and water vapour. Unless specified by the pur-
chaser it is not normally required to provjde ljners or mem-
branes to double containment walls, base slabs or
cast tnto inn.r face
interspaces." and "Liners and coatings are commonly included ot concrete wall
in the design of concrete components for refrigerated storage
systems for the following reasons: a) to make the component
gas andior liquid tight b) to prevent the ingress of water vapour
into the tank." are difficult to misinterpret. Customers or their Figure 1 8.60 A typical wall liner system
engineers often have strong views on the necessity for, and
types of liner systems to be used on, their facilities. Note: lncidentally, note the use of "should" throuohout part3
ot BS 7777 . This is because this section ;f the Cooe
Two different approaches exist: provides a set of recommendations (non-mandatorvl
The non-metallic route involves the direct aoDlication of such as opposed to Part 2 which provides a set of specifici-
materials as sprayed GRP to the faces of the concrete floor tions (mandatory).
and walls. These are usually proprietary systems, the exact To select a materialfor the colder products which will be suit-
details of which are fiercely protected by their owners. One able for the low temperature, it will be necessary to use g%
possible disadvantage of these types of liners is that their
nickel steel or stainless steel. However, anchoring the un-insu-
application is generally incompatible with other construction lated linerto the concrete wallwillcause stresses in the liner in
activities taking place within the tank at the same time. This the accident case (where at least for the flrst period of the inci-
gives a programme problem. The extension of overall dent, the liner is cold and the wall is warm)which can almost
timescale and the inconvenience of having to stand down guarantee to give rise to linerleakage orfailure. So, it is simply
the mechanical erection team are significant diffjculties. not possible to design for liner survival for an un-insulated svs-
Building two or more tanks on the same site, suitably out of tem: and if insulation is used, then why use an expensive lbw
phase, may help with the latter difficulty. Developmentwork temperature liner material?
is currently afoot to flnd ways of addressing these difficul-
TIES. The possibility of liner corrosion on the concrete side is some-
-)
times a concern. The view most commonly adopted is that the
The metallic route is the more commonly adopted solution. alkalinityofthe local environment in this region is such as to in-
The material selected is usually a carbon steel without low hibit corrosion.
temperature properties. This means that the liner is not ex-
pected to survive a major inner tank leak incident. lt is ar-
gued that such an event will result in tank decommissioning 1 8.14 Connected pipework
and possible demolition and problems of a failed vapour
barrier are well down the list of concerns. For the tank bo! The design and construction of pipework systems is a subject
tom the liner is fillet-welded and can be laid like a conven- that in general belongs elsewhere. lt is howeverworth highligh!
tional bottom, or can be attached to casfin inserts for better ing a few points where the pipes connecting to, and often sup-
ported by the tank, impact upon the tank structure.
control of local flatness. The liner thicknesses often used
are less than the minimum values specified by the Codes. . Pipe connections are often anchors in the piping system
3 mm is a practical thickness for handling and welding. and as such can be subject to high loadjngs and moments
For the tank walls, it is usual to arrange for inserts of carbon which a steel tank shell, bottom or roof is ill-equipped to
steel to be cast into the inner surfaces of the concrete outer cater for. Care in the piping layout and positioning of sup-
wall. These inserts may be vertically or horizontally disposed. ports can minimise such loads and momenb.
The wall liner sheets are then fillet-welded to these inserts. The . lvlany companies are set up so that the piping engineer de-
design of the wall liner must take account of a number of inputs
signs the pipe work and passes the loadings to the struc-
such as changes in the concrete wall dimensions due to cir- tural engineerwho designs the structure to support or guide
cumferentialand vertical pre-stressing, creep and shrinkage of
the concrete, thermal movements, insulation loadings, vacuum
the pipe workand in turn passes the loadings to the tank en-
gineer who then has to design the tank to cope with these
t
loadings and welding shrinkage of the liner plates. loadings. This compartmentalisation results in each indivjd-
Atypicalwall liner system is shown in Figure 18.60. lt is impor- ualsolving his orherown private puzzle without considering t
tant that the liner conforms reasonably closely to the concrete the effects on their downstream colleagues. lt is important a
wall and that water is not allowed to accumulate behind the liner that these people talk to one anotherto minimise any prob-
during the construction period. lems, or indeed as often used to be the case, when a single
.
.:
person designed the complete system and had no interest
The practice of supplying a liner that is not expected or de- l
in making his own life any more difficultthan it needed to be!
signed to survive an inner tank leak or failure is somewhat at
variancewith the expressedwishes ofBS 7777: part 3 which in The other problem with the separate discipline approach, is
Paragraph 6.7.2 states "Where contact with a product occurs that factors of safety get compounded to produce an ineffi-
as a result of spillage or leakage, the materialof liners or mem- cient and expensive final Droduct
branes should be selected to withsiand the product temDera- . Insulation for low temperature pipes is expensive and time-
ture". consuming to fit. The use of prefabricated sections of piping

364 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1B The design of low tempercture tanks

Figure 18.62 A typical.roof platfom fof a large LNG iank

. Accessfrom localgrade to the tank roof. This can be via spi-


I Part 3 ral staiMaysattiached to the outer tank shell, by access tow-
3Code ers (which may also support the pipework and cabling
datory) running to the tank roof) or in the case ofsecondary escape
ecifica- facilities, by vertical caged ladders with suitable side-step-
ping platforms. In recent times it has become common prac-
tice to fit large tanks with hoists giving access to the roof.
)e suit-
se 9% . Roof walkways and platforms giving access to roof-
f-insu- mounted equlpment. For items such as in-tank pumps, the
liner in roof platforms can become substantial. ExamDles of these
le Incl- are given in Chapter 20 which deals with ancillary equip-
elmost ment.
srmply . Walkways from tank-to{ank, tank{o-bund or to other items
d sys-
of plant.
r'e low
. Runway beams. These can be located within the tank for
=q--e 18.61 An unusual access/pipe insulation arrangement erection and shell inspection purposes or around the outer
rome-
:.:'-.tesy of MB Engineeing Services Ltd periphery local to the top corner for inspection and site
at the painting purposes.
ito ln- systemswhich can befabricated and pre-insulated in a suit-
able factory environment is ofren well worth considering. . Peripheral hand railing providing protection to those who
may have to work on the tank roof away from the existing
. For LOX and LIN tanks in paftcular, as much of the pipe platform and walkways.
workas possible is run within the tank interspace so thatthe
tank insulation provides the pipe work insulation as faras is Such equipment is designed and constructed in accordance
rbject possible. with local codes relevant to the items concerned. Some further
rlight- guidance on this subject is to be found in the tank design and
sup- . The combined access tubular spiral stairway/cold box ar- other related codes. Many of the large process plant contrac-
rangement shown in Figure 18.61 would seem to offer sav_ tors and plant owners have their own standards reoardino the
ings in certain circumstances. The tubular soiral stairwav extent of access equipment to be provided for vario-us diff6rent
stem
was factory-fabricated in sections. The main pipe work run- types of tanks.
rents
ning to the tank rcof passes within this structure which pro-
)d to During the design ofsuch equipment the requirements for pro-
vides the thermal insulation to the vertical legs ofthe pipes
sup- tection from the radiation caused by local and adjacent tank
by virtue of being filled with site-expanded perlite.
fires and the need to avoid damage by direct liquia impinge-
. Bespoke low temperature insulated pipe supports are very ment from roof liquid spillage shall be considered.
rde-
expensive and their use should be minimised. Atypicalroof platform for a large LNG tank with in tank pumps is
lruc-
uide shown in Figure 18.62.
ien- 18.15 Access arrangements
se 18,16 Spillage collection systems
ivid-
:.cess arrangements are a necessary part of all tanks. The
nng required for low temperature tanks is similar to that The spillage of lowtemperature liquids anywhere on a storage
":Jipment earlier in Chapter 7 for
tant -scribed ambient temperature tanks. facility is a source of potential risk. problems associated with
'ob- -:w temperature tanks are more complex and have more tank flammability, personnel contact with cold Iiquids, toxicity and
Ete -ounted equipment and instrumentiation. For this reason the asphyxia make the quick and efficient collection and orooer
rest
'rcfs and operating platforms are more frequenfly visited by storage or disposal of any spilled liquid a desirable event.
be! xrating personnel.
For low temperature tanks fltted with roof-mounted liquid inlet
l, is 3enerally the requiremenb are: and outlet conneclions, the main concern is one of collectino
..fi- any leakage at the tank roof level and conveying this to loca]
. Means of access to the inside of tanks and intersDaces. grade and thence to a safe impounding basin.
This is usually by shell manways. or where the type of con-
ne- tainment precludes these, then by way of openings in the The first step is to decide how much liquid is to be collected.
Ing tank roof and internal ladders. For LNG the design spill is given jn Tabte 2.2.3.5 of NFpA59A.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 365


18 The design of low temperaturc tanks

For full containment tanks, which currenfly constitute the major_ entlyfall from the damaged or defective pipe work and fittings
ity of LNG tanks, the requirement of ,,the largest flow from iny into the troughs for collection and disposal. A photograph of
single line that could be pumped into the impounding area witir such a system is shown in Figure 18.63.
the containerwithdrawalpump(s) considered to be d;livering at
the full rated capacity" has been the subject of much coniro- At the other end of this scale there is the view that the leakino
versy and different jnterpretations over recent years. liquid will be projected as far as the leak scenario and the liouid
pressure will allow in the most unfavourable foreseen circum_
Does for example, the liquid inlet from an unloading tanker, stances. In this case a large part ofthe tank roof, or indeed the
where rates of up to 12,000 m3/hr are common, form the basis whole tank roofwillform the collection system. Such a system is
ofthe 10 minute spill? lf this is to be collected and controlled. illustrated in Figure '18.64.
then this is an onerous design problem. The confusion may
stem from the fact that the US codes generally do not conslder
full containment and the rules consequenfly do not fit this type
ofstorage tank. This is something which it is understood wilibe
addressed by the appropriate committee in the near future.
It is generally considered that the source of leaks at tank roof
level is the pipe work and fittings such as valves. Flanged joints
are obviously suspect in this regard and allwelded systems are
to be preferred.
The consequences of a liquid spill are obviously related to the
tank roof material. A roofconstructed of a non-low temDerature
steel is clearly more susceptible to damage than one made
from reinforced concrete. Steps can and have been taken to aD_
ply local thermal insulation to protect the materials which would
otherwise be damaged by conhct with the cold liquid.
Perceptions as to what constitutes a sensible spillage collec-
tion system vary widely. At the minimalist end of the scale the
simple stainless steel troughs following the route of the roof-
mounted liquid containing pipe work is a cheap option which re_
lies for its success on the view that the leaking liquid will obedi- Figure 18.63 Atypical minimalist lrough type roofspi age co ection system

Thh]ghtolthep|inihswllhi.lh6
sp a9 6rca are sovefted by rhe

Figure 18.64 Atotal roofspittage co ectjon system

366 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


18 The design of low tempe@ture tanks

rnd fittings 18.'17 Reinforced and prestressed con.


tograph of
crete component design
he leaking
I the liquid
18.17.1 ceneral
)n circum-
ndeed the --e design of the concrete parts of liquid storage systems is
system is
."ry much an area for the specialist exponents ofthls region of
on gbund 3tab- slppon.d eithd on @mpete soiuock
: . I engineering. Some of the loading scenados give cause for or pil.d/imptuved r@d ba.ing soil

:-e use of siate-of-the-art sophisticated analysis tools, which is


:r:bably better left to those familiarwith and experienced in this
-,:e of work.
--e design Codes provide some general guidelines in this area
r.l these will be discussed in this Section. lt is probably fair to
-_. that in the design ofthe concrete components, the designer
,< 1 many ways less constralned than is the case for the de-
:,;rer of the metallic components of a liquid storage system.
:.:.crete parts of lowtempeture liquid storage systems occur
:--rughout the various types of bnks:
lltl
. For all above ground tanks the base slab (which may be di- Elevaled 3tab - Suproited bv stub @1umn; onro a
rectlyon the ground or elevated)orthe foundation ringwall. gEund &sed stab or on exlonded oites

. For single containment above ground tanks, the low bund


Figure 18.65 Base slab affangemenls
walls remote from the tank (these may also be constructed
of other materials). during the hydrostatic test phase and service life, togetherwith
. For double containment above ground tanks, the bund walls
any imposed loadings from events such as snow wind and
earthquake. Whefe above ground full containment is the cho-
close to the tank.
sen type of storage, it is usual for a common base slab to sup-
. For full containment, conventional (i.e. the free standing port both the inner and outer (steel or concrete) tanks. In the
metallic inner tank type) above ground tanks, the outer tank case of above ground double containment systems, the base
Jyalls, and in some cases the tank roofs. slab is usually required to support the inner tank and the outer
. concrete or steel bund wall, although there are a few cases
The outer tank walls, and in some cases the roofs of mem-
where the outer wall is supported on a separate ring wall foun-
Srane tanks.
dation. The base slab must be strong enough to span between
. The inner and outer walls, and in some cases the roofs of points of local support such as piles or stub columns. lt must
mncrete/concrete tanks. also accommodate the base heating system where this is fitted.
. The caisson walls, base slabs and in some cases the roofs There are two distinct types of base slab.
of in-ground tanks.
On ground type. This is directly supported by the ground
. Various parts offloating and gravity based systems. which may require to have its load bearing abilities en-
: ;:eat deal has been written about concrete tanks. Two excel hanced by the use of piles, stone columns, replacement
p,-: books on the subject are by Harry Turner (Reference material or other means as discussed in Chapter 24. In
', 14 and Professor Bruggeling (Reference 18.78). Both are nearly all cases, the use ofthis type of tank support will re-
qujre the installation of a base heating system. Detailed de-
l:.trd starting off points in the study of this area of design. Other
,-ful information is contained in Refere nces 16.27 and 16.31. scriptions ofthe various forms of base heating are included
,', -at follows is a very brief tour through a subject which in Chapter 20.
could
:;sily merit its own book. Elevated type. ln this case the base slab is elevated above
--e design Codes are variable in the extent of their specific re- the local grade by the use of pile extensions or by stub col-
: - 'ements and advice offered in this area. API 620 has noth ino umns or similar supports from an on ground slab or direcfly
': say. NFPA 59A, which it shoutd be remembered is specific t6 from the ground where the local conditions permit (i.e. a
-'.G tanks, provides some general advice. The design of con- tank constructed on competent rock). Forthis type of base,
::.:e containers is to complywith ACI 318 (Reference 1A.19\. the heat input to prevent the formation of ice lenses comes
- 3ddition it provides guidance on the allowable stresses in re- directly from the air circulating beneath the base slab and
-'rrcing bars and prestressing strands. BS 7777:pan 3 pto' no additional heating is required.
.,:es quite a lot of detailed and general guidance. BS 9110
It is usual to arrange for the height ofthe elevated base slab
18.20)isreferenced as the main civildesign Code.
to be such that access for personnel is possible beneath the
"ference slab for inspection purposes. Aspace of 2.0 m makes the in-
18-17.2 Tank bases spection tasks comparatively pleasant, 1.5 m is a recipe for
an inspector's bad back and 1.0 m is a thoroughly unpleas-
rr:st above ground low temperature tanks have base slabs. A ant place to spend protracted periods of time! Clearly, a
:A are constructed with the ringwalland compacted filltype of higherspace belowthe base slab costs more and may give
--ndation where the ground conditions allow. lt is difficult to rise to other problems associated with the elevatinq of the
-f,arate any discussion on base slabs from considerations of centre of gravity of the tiank and its contents during ieismic
:-e complete tank foundations which are the subiect of Chaoter events and the raising ofthe finished tank profile where this
base slab arrangements are illust;ated in Figure is a contentious planning issue.
:; $in"t""t
The means of supporting the upper slab where a ground
--e function of the base slab is to support the loadings which base slab is used can be either by the use ofshort stub col-
=-se from the dead weight ofthe tank structure and its contents umns at suitable centres, or bythe use of a system offadial

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 367


18 The design of low tempercture tanks

walls. The arrangement shown in Figure 'l8.66 allows for a


circumferential layout of supports around the tank perime-
ter to cater for the high line loads from self-weight and seis-
mic loadings, and an orthogonal arrangement in the central
area more suited to the uniform loading from the tank prod-
uct.
Tank base slabs are usually constructed from reinforced con-
crete. There are some designs where some circumferential
prestressing of the concrete base has been adopted, but these
are comparatively rare.
Where in-ground tanks are concerned, the base slab is subject
to different loading conditions. The ground water pressure be-
neath the base is pushing upwards with considerable force and
the base may be tied into the wall. Usually some form of ground
water collection and removal is adopted to control these pres-
sures. A typical tank base for such a tank is shown in Figure
'18.67, where it is some 7 m thick and contributes to the
anti-buoyancy system by virtue of its dead weight. The base
slab for the 200,000 m3 LNG tank built at the Ohgishima LNG
F gure 1 8.66 A lypica I support ayolt for an elevaied base sla b Terminal in Japan and described in Reference 18.21 is even
bigger. At around 77 m in diameter and 9.8 m thick, this required
il
a staggering 11,000 tonnes of concrete. il
aI1
An unusual tank base was that on the island of Revithoussa,
Greece, designed and constructed for LNG tanks. The base 1'
wasofthe elevated slab type (in this casefitted with seismic iso- ::-
lators), constructed within a pit. The rock forming the bottom of
the excavation was found to have some unexpected disconti- ilEE

nuities which gave rise to the need for a 2.5 m thick heavily rein-
forced pit bottom. This is shown in Figures 18.68 and 18.69
::i
18.'17.3 Tank walls
*l
18"17.3.1 Above ground tanks
Concrete walls of above ground low temperature tanks fall into
a number of categories, each of which is described briefly
The design of these walls is complex, having numerous me-
chanical and thermal load cases. Reference to Harry Turner
and Professor Bruggeling's books (References 18.17 and
78.78)would be a good place to start for those intent upon mas-
tering this area of expertise. Both books are now rather dated
so it will be necessary to study some more recent publications
as well.
Figure 18.67 The pit base arrangementfor an in-ground LNG tank
One basic input to the design process is to decide what the in-
Caulesy af LNG Journal
ternal liquid loading will be for the various types of concrete

Figure 18.68 A section through the Revithoussa lsland LNG tank base
Couiesy of Whessoe

368 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


18 The design of law tempercture tanks

)fa work was carried out with an empty interspace between the two
ne-
walls. The amplification factor of six is an onerous design condi-
tion and thought was given to ihe possible ameliorating effects
tral
ofthe perlite and glass fibre insulation which is normallv present
td- in the interspace. especially for targe LNG and tiquid eihylene
tanks. (This work is reported in References 18.23 and 18.24.\
The conclusion ofthese theoretical and test studies was that an
lral amplification factor of six is valid for an empty interspace, but
)se the presence ofthe insulation will reduce this factor to between
two and three.
ect The development of metallic materials less susceptible to sud-
le- den brittle failure and better understanding of the mechanisms
rnd involved in such failures together with means of predicting leak
rnd before failure scenarios, meant that sudden failure became no
es- longer a design requirement. This was firsi voiced in EEN/IUA
Jfe : ;!re 149 where the sudden failure of the metallic inner tank was not
18 69 The Revllhoussa LNG tank base stab during construction
:he a design requirement for the outer tank, unless specificallv re-
tse :.tnesy of Whessoe quested by the client.
\G :3nks. The innertanks ofthe double concrete type will require to Particularly for LNG tanks, where double or full containment
'en :e designed for the product liquid loading. lt is unusualforthese
'ed systems together with large unit tank sizes were the norm, this
=nks be subjected to a hydrosta c test as is always the case
to resulted is significant cost savings. lt is currenfly normal prac-
'lr steel tanks. For the outer walls of double or full containment tice to design the outer concrete tank for a non-dvnamic liouid
:anks, the liquid loading to be considered depends on the type loading. This presumes a gradual filling of the out;r rank Lo the
rse 'inner tank failure that is envisaged. In the early days of full equilibrium liquid level, frequently specified in terms of a time to
to- rcntainment tanks where the spectre ofthe eatar accident and fill or as the physical dimensions of the design leak.
rof :Jdden unzipping tank failure was paramount, the overridinq
jes gn condition was the toading resulting from such a lailure. An extreme case of outer tank wall design Jor exceptional load-
lit- ings are the 144,000 m3 LNG tanks built for Distrioas at Staten
-'re first work to determine what this loadinq should
'in- ..
be came lsland. New York. Because of their tocation, lhe t;ks were re-
) J'r'r experimental work carned out by Cup;rus for the Shell
quired to be capable ofabsorbing the horizontal loadings from a
lompany. These are reported in Reference 18.22.
fully-laden Boeing 747 lJavelling at 2OO knots without damaqe
lJperus built scale models of double-walled tanks where the to the liqlrid conta;ni19 i11er tank. This was ach,eved by a wi I
- ner tank wall could be unzipped vertically
for its full height. He constructed from a combination of prestressed and mass con-
:^en measured the resulting pressure profile on the inner sur_ crete to a total thickness of around 3 m as shown in Fiqure
'?ce of the outer tank wall. In simple terms, the peak pressures 1B.70.
-easured were around six times the hydrostatic pressure. This
Prestressed concrete wall internal tendon type
te-
-
This type of construction is the rnost commonly adopted for the
rer outef concrete walls of full containment stofaqe svstems_ The
nd teloons fo. tl-e 1or zonrar prest.ess ng io. peiha[s rrore co.-
is- 'ectly post-tensioning ) o' the talk wal, a.e LSudl y of t1e .nLlt
ed strand type running in ducts close to the mjddle ofthe walland
IS anchored at stressing buttresses equally spaced around ihe
outside of ihe wall. Figure 18.71 shows a typicat buttress.
n- There are usually four such buttresses. These accommodate
;1-a the anchorages which anchor the individual strands and pro-
vide suitable details for the attachment ofthe prestressing jacks
ll!01! !!q!q!g- 1 which impart the required tension to the strands. Followino the
stressing ofthe tendons. they can be grouted (i.e. of the bo;ded
type) or remain non-bonded. These days the popular choice is
the bonded type. This has the advantage that the failure of a
j6 strand or anchorage does not have the same detrimental ef_
fects as jn the non-bonded type where the total orestressino
load of that strand is lost. the grout feeding the load from th;
failed strand into the adjacent strands. lt is important that the
grouting system adopted is proved to be satisfactory, i.e. that
the grout reaches all parts of the tendon within the duct and
bonds to it in a satisfactory fashion.
It is a commonly adopted practice to carrv out a full_scale orout
test on site to demonstrate thar the maierials and instaltition
procedures are suitable. This will jnvolve the sectioninq of the
test ducvtendon sample to demonstrate Lhat the desiqners
aims have been achieved under site conditions. For a larae
LNG tank d is common to use medium-sized tendons from rhe
commercially manufactured range available. These would tvDj_
cally use 19 strands of 0.6 drameter wire jn each duct. iire
ducts in this case would be 100 mm in diameter and most usu_
ally made from a corrugated piastic or steel of suitable robust_
. t-re ness to survive the site conditions and handling. Larger ten_
18.70 Details of the LNG tanks at Staten tstand. New york
dons are commercially available, but their use is restricted by

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 369


18 The design of low temperature tanks'

t
-th
r
r
Figwe 1A.72 A typical multi-strand prestressing tendon and anchofage u
nificant commercial and programme advantages to the con-
-
tractorwho can produce a design avoiding the need for vertical
prestress.
Where access permits, the vertical tendons can be prestressed
from the bottom end, i.e. where an elevated base slab design
has been adopted. An example ofa tendon being stressed from
the bottom end is shown in Figure 18.73. When an on ground
base is adopted, this is not possible and either single tendons
fitted with a blind anchor at the bottom end as shown in Figure
18.74 are used, or the 'U'shaped tendon is used. In both cases
the prestressing must be carried out from the top corner of the
tank.
It is usualfor the thickness of walls ofthis type to be ofthe order
of 600 mm. There is a practical minimum thickness required to
accommodate the circumferential and vertical tendons and to
provide cover for the reinforcing steel needed for local crack
control. lncreasing concrete thickness means more reinforcing
steel, but may provide increasing blast and missile protection.
Clearly there is a construction cost versus the quality of acci-
dent condition protection argumenvquestion which is common
in this area of design and construction.

t
''I
Figure 18.71 Prestressing buttresses for a full containmeni type LNG lank

practical spacing considerations. The steels that the tendon a


strands are made from have a very high tensile strength (typi t
cally in accordance with prEN 10138-1 1991 with a minimum !
guaranteed UTS of 1860 N/mm2). An example ofsuch a tendon !
and its prestressing anchorage is shown in Figure 18.72. .|
a
The vertical prestressing can be of the single bar (MacAlloy)
type, which is usually reserved for smaller tanks, or ofthe same
multi-strand tendon type as is used for the circumferential I
stressing. There are a number of current wall designs where I
vertical prestressing is deemed not to be required. These de-
signs are at this time the sub.iect of an active, and occasionally :
acrimonious debate bet\,veen the interested parties which will a

doubtless be resolved in the near future. Clearly there are sig- Figure 18.73 Vertical prestressing from beneath the elevated base slab I

370 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


18 The design of low tempercturc tanks

:- g!re 18.74 A blind prestressing tendon anchorage

The vertical prestressing is usually applied first to give the wall


the capacity to accommodate the vertical bending induced by
the circumferential prestressing.
Figure 18.75 A view of the outer surface of a banded wire wound concrete
BS 7777 gives some guidance in this area which is summarised
as follows:
con-
rtical . Transfer and residual stresses should be taken into ac- Earlier designs had the wire distributed evenly over the whole
outer surface ofthe wall. More recent designs have the strands
count. The amount ofprestress should be calculated takjnq
collected into bands which may each contain some hundreds of
into account all losses.
ssed individual strands, and distrjbuted vertically as required for the
rsrgn . The total loss of prestress is the sum ofthe individual losses design loadings up the wall. This can clearlv be seen in Fioure
from arising from transfer, creep, shrinkage, friction, curvature 18.7 5.
)u nd and relaxation. Losses should be calculafed in accordance
The application of the strands is accomplished bv the use of a
tons with BS 81'10 : Part 1 : 1985 :Annex C.
specially designed carriage which runs around ihe outside of
gure
. lt js necessary to use concrete of a high quallty level, with a the wall, usually supported by rubber tyres running on the top of
ESES
strength of 40 N/mm3 or more. the wall. This carriage is driven circumferentiallvvia a Revnolds
f the
chain placed around the concrete wall. lt also his the caoabilitv
. The totaltensile load capacjty of the tendons, jncluding any ro raise and lower providing coverage of tne complete outei
rrder non-stressed reinforcement, should be greater than the surface of the wall. The stressing strand, which is initially some
)d to tensile load capacity ofthe concrete tank wall. This is to en- '10 mm in diameter, is passed through
a die mounted on the car_
ro Io sure that in the event of overloading, sudden failure or riage, as it revolves around the tank wall. This has the com-
racK bursting of the tank in a "brittle" manner js not a credible bined eftect of work hardening the wire strand and applying the
cing event. required tension to it. As the wire is placed, a suitably strong
tron. . The layout ofthe tendons, especially adjacent to the stress- grout is applied the wall to provide both bonding and weather
ing buttresses, should be such practicable spacings are protection for the strands.
mon achieved and the placing and vibration ofthe concrete is not The positioning of the circumferential prestressing wires close
impaired. to the outer surface of the wall has on occasions oiven rise to
. Under maximum design loading conditions, including the concerns of possible loss of prestress caused by-external fire
liquid and the temperature loading due to inner tank leak_ events and of possible damage to the wires caused by missile
age, the minimum residual average compressive stress of impact.
1.0 N/mm2should be provided inthe principal direction(s) of There have been a small number of cases where this orout has
prestress. This is normallytaken as the hoop direction only. not properly performed its weatherprooflng duties. This was
Prestressed concrete wall wire wound type traced to bad application procedures and material selectjon,
- and should now not be a problem. lt did however pose an inter-
1is type ofwalldesign has been menfioned briefly in Chapter esting technicalproblem for the owners ofthe affected facilities.
' 7. lt is often known
as the "preload" type of wall, as the design Clearly some corrosion of the stressing wires had taken place.
aas patented by the American company preload Inc. It was self-evidently between 100% and 0%, varying over the
: 1as been used widely in the USAfor water storaqe tanks and height and circumference of the wall. To add some iraction of
-
:s some history of use in the UK as the chosen d;sign for the the original stressing to the wall (i.e. on top of the existing)
: -ter concrete walls of double coniainment tanks. The Datent is WOUIO;
-:,v owned by another American company called Cryocrete
of . Crush the concrete if most ofthe original prestressing were
n-om Whessoe is currenfly a licensee. present
-^e double concrete design (i.e. a prestressed concrete inner
. Leave the wall understressed if most of the orioinal
=-l concrete outer tank of the full containment
type) uses this prestressing were damaged
-::nnology. The vertical prestressing is supplied by internal
:?'s or tendons which run in the centre of the wall. The cir- An interesting quandary!
:-'r'rferential prestressing is applied in the form of a continuous Considerable effort was put into trying to devise methods of
4 'e strand wound around the outside surface of the concrete non-destructive testing
4:L
to determine the extent of the
prestressing loss. This was eventually unsuccessful and the

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 371


1
3 t!9 !9:'s! o!l9rL9.p9,atu!93!lk!

only solution was to physically remove the existing prestressing


system entirely and replace it. The author witnessed one such
repair. The thought was that the defective grout/shotcrete
would fail if a band of highly stressed wires were cut through.
Thus a complete band of the circumferential stressing material
could be removed in a single operation.
l\,4uch worryingwas done concerning the energy locked into the
prestressing bands and the potential problems if this energy
were to be suddenly released. Would the band let go ofthe con-
crete wall in an explosive manner? Finally a suitably protected
operative (in a substantial metal cage) was allowed to tenta-
tively apply a disc grinder to the selected band of wire winding.
He eventually cut through all of the wires in the band and noth-
ing happened. The ability of the grout to hold the wires in place
greatly exceeded the influence of the tension in the wires to
separate the band of wires from the concrete tank shell. Having
cut through the complete band of prestressing wires, itwas then Fioure 18.76 LNG ianks wth reinforced concrete earlh erabankmenl walls
necessary to remove the whole band manually, which proved to
be a very difficult and time consuming task.
Forthe innertankofa double concretetankit is usualto provide
a metallic barrier. This is usually made from carbon steel with-
out low temperature properties and is applied to the outside of
the concrete wall before the vertical prestressing and the cir-
cumferential wire winding is undertaken. The argument used to
justify the lack of low tempefature properties for a component
which will clearly see the full liquid design temperature in ser-
vice, is that it will be in both vertical and circumferential com-
pression due to the prestressing of the concrete throughout its
life.
Some of the wire wound concrete tank walls were constructed
from prefabficated sections, something which may be worth re-
visiting in times where the finished cost of a project is often of
less significance that the overall construction programme time.
Reinforced concrete wall with earth embankment
Following the Qatar incident, which has been described in
Chapter 17,the first full containment tanks designed had outer
walls of this type. For various reasons this design has fallen out
of fashion. An example of such tanks is shown in Figure 18.76. Figure 18.77 Example ofa reinforced concrete wallwlth earth embankr.ent
The majority ofthese tanks werefitted with steelouter roofs, al- Fron BS 7777 : Pan2, figure 4
though there is no reason why concrete roofs should not be fit-
ted. 18.1 7.3.2 In-ground tanks
One interesting diffefence between this type of tank and the The in-ground membrane type of tank as shown in Chapter 17,
prestressed types is in the need to provide heating for not only Figure 17.42 will require a concfete wall for a number of rea-
the tank base, but also for the tank wall. The design ofthis heat- sons. During the construction sequence it allows the excava-
ing system to allowfor maintenance and replacement of heater tion of the pit and during service holds back the surrounding soil
elements and to cater for base/shell movements during con- and prevents the ingress of ground water.
struction and service was no easy task. The 200,000 mr LNG tank at the Ohgishima LNG Terminal of
The uncertainty which surrounded the inward loading from the Tokyo Gas in Yokohama, Japan, is described in Reference
earth or rock embankment (the eouivalent of the circumfer- 18.21 . lt ts built entirely underground, that is to say, even the
ential prestressing) meant that this loading had to be viewed at tank roof is beneath the finished ground level as indicated in
its minimum to provide the inward load to resist the liquid load- Figure18.78. lt has a caisson wall of 77.1 mdiameterx68.5m
ing from the inner tank failure condition, and at its maximum to deep with a wallthickness of 1 .5 m. This was constructed by the
des;gn the reinforced concrete wall to resist crushing during slurry wall technique. This enabled the excavation to be com-
service. The accommodation of these two opposites could give pleted and inner structural wall consisting ofa 0.15 m thick se-
rise to an expensive wall design. The early versions ofthis type ries of Drecast Danels and a cast in situ 2.2 m thick concrete ele-
oftank were designed for ihe full sudden unzipping failure of the ment. The total thickness of the wall (i.e. the slurry wall, the
innertank. This gave rise to a robust and expensive walldesign. structural concrete and the precast panels) was 3.85 m.
A section through such a tank, taken from BS 7777 is shown in The design for the external pressures from soil and ground wa-
Figure 18.77. ter is usually quite straight forward, requiring only vertical pre-
StTESS,
The reasons fof the current unpopularity of this type of tank are
based on cost, construction programme time and the site areas
required to accommodate the embankments. The slope of the
't 8.17.4 Bottom corner details
embankment is usually around 1.0:1.5 (vertical to horizontal).
So. for a 100.000 m3 tank with an inner diameter of 70 m and The issue ofthe type of bottom corner detailto adopt is mainly a
height of 28.5 m, a circular footprint of some 156 m in diameter concern of the above ground tank fraternity. Much has been
will be required. The embankment does provide excellent resis- written on the relative merits of the different types of bottom cor-
tance against external missile and blast loadings. ner details by those in the industry who have frequently devel-

372 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


18 The design of low temperaturc tanks

Woll rerf, torasehl sh.vn


ind@tive (nornalty ur.d

Ctrrunlrntjol prest.est

Rodiul stmp! to nuinloin

do.ts qi.horad ot buttreses

V..indl dnd.i..!0feretidt
p.*tres3 rorpl.ted b.fde

\
\rall .ointorsent i5 pfovided -

b In oddition foverti.ul pr6h.ss

0tuuf,terentiol pr$hett

vertkol pRrh.*

Figure 18.78 200,000 m3 in-ground LNG tank in yokohama. JaDan


Coutesy of LNG Jounal

oped strong partisan opinions on the subject.


The three designs are: Figure 18.79 Typicatjoints for prestress wa ,to_base iunciion
. joint. In this case the wall is supported
The sliding by the From BS 7777 : Paft 2, figure 3
base slab and is free to move horizontallv under
17, prestressing and service loadings. To ensure thai the wall
forthese high loadings appearto run into practicalspace limita_
cannot move laterally due to wjnd or seismic loadings, ra_
!ons.
dial guides should be provided to ensure lhat all move_ The tendency within the industry to specify ever-increasing
oil ments are concentic with the base slab. A flexlble seal. tank design pressures gives rise to another problem. Undei
frequently in the form of a stainless steel strip is provided to normal circumstances, the self-weight of the outer concrete
prevent leakage of liquid or gas at the joint. tank walland roofwould be more than sufficient to balance the
of
uplifi due to internal operating and test pressures. With internal
ce . The pinned joint. In this case the wall is supported by the pressures rising to 300 mbar, this cannot be relied on and occa_
he base slab and during prestressing is free to move horizon-
in sions arise where it becomes necessaryto anchor the tank wall
tally. After the prestressing operatjon is complete, the wallis
m to the iank base slab, and indeed possibly to require the an_
pinned in position. The joint between wall and base slab is
chorage of the base slab. The anchorage of the wall to the
detailed such that it can transmit shear loads from wall to
IF base, whilst allowing for radialmovement, gives rjse to some in_
base slab, but not bending moments. Again a flexible seal
teresting design problems fortanks with the sliding and pinned
e. will be required to prevent local leakage. joint details.
e-
re
. The fixed joint. This is where the walland base slab are of
The current favourite within the industry seems to be the fixed
monolithicconstruction. prestressing, servjceand accident joint.
loadings must be transferred from wallto base slab without
through-cracking. The provision of local thermal insulation
to allow the accident condition loadings to be accommo_ 18.17.5 The top corner details
dated is described in Section 18.i.1.
For full containment type tanks, a suitable joint is required be_
The three types ofjoint are illustrated in Figure 19.79. The cir_
tween the wall and the roof of the tank for concrete walls with
cumferential prestressing system can be either by internalten_
both concrete and steel roofs. BS 7777 : part 3 gives some
dons or bywire winding in each case. The figure does not make guidance in the design of this detail. The loadings ihould mn-
this clear. The relative merits are briefly summadsed as shown
sider the following:
n in.F_igure 18,80. There is scepticism regarding the ability ofthe
r- sliding jointtype to accommodatethe high lateral loadings usu_ . Gas tightness
F ally associated with seismic events. The radial guides required . Radialand vertical loadings applied to the wall, both uDward

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 373


1B The design of low temperaturc tanks

Slresrs rre D..dicr.d rvith goorl Dependent on adequaa_ ofjoint seal

Sone un.crtrinry ove. de$ee of sli.ling


Second.ry slreses are relrtiaclr

Pfrst.css is tr{rii(l.ri \vith good Subsequenr selond.ry srr6ses a.. lcss

Ilaxinrun nlrm$l ..(u6 rn wall l,alle shers and hiru la.ge mon.nls
arv,y from lh{:.ioinl-s. rt level when
'cnd effects from ver'li.rl t.n.l,Ds
,rc hrklv srnollcd oul
it(n,usl f.r N of lonshucti.n PFdi.lnn otslrc$cs is un.dlxnr
LlEe rrnnents rn(l slrea':
!.{r1r.sse(l {rll! ne.essitrt,. lhe lsc ol
(dnu)us presllBse{l basr 1d s!*itrl
rhennal Uote.rnnr ar tlF l(,inl nrtry be
inlri'(\rccd to rc(lu( rLl(litioral srrlsses
duc to llrcmd niranrg

]h\im!m nromenr o.rnF rt the ion{

Figute 18.80 Summary of the advantages and disadvanlages of lojnls in ihe wal-to-base lunct on
Fron BS 7777 : Pan 3. bble 4

and downward vertical loadings 18.3 Steel plate Engineering Data - Volume ll- Paft lll- Ex-
ternal pressures on cylinders. Published by The Ameri-
. Radial thermal loadings can lron and Steel Institute in cooperation with the Steel
. Abnormal loadings such as blast, fire or seismic Plate Fabricators Association Inc., Washington DC
1992.
To this list should be added:
18.4 Collapse by lnstability of Thin Cylindrical Shells under
. Intefnal pressure loadings External Pressure, Dwight F. Windenberg and Charles
. Trilling, ASME proceedings Vol 56 No 11, November
Constructionloadings
1934.
The top corner is usually of the fixed type where a reinforced
concrete roof is used. This is clearly a congested area with
18.5 Table 8.5.1 ofthe American lnstitute of Steel Construc-
tion - Manualof Steel Construction (Allowable slress de-
plenty of both vertical and circumferential stressing members
slgn), Ninth Edition, 1989, ISBN 1 56424 000 2.
and reinforcing to be accommodated. Where a steel roof is to
be connected to a concrete wall, BS 7777 suggests the use of a 18.6 PD 7777 : 2000, Alternative steel selection and its effect
sho( vertical steel shell section. The thinking being that this el- on design and testing of tanks to BS ZZZZ, The British
ement will allow flexibility to accommodate ihe various differen- Standards Institution, London
tial movements between roof and wall. There are a number of 18.7 ASTM E208: Standard method for conducting drop-
cases where this cylindrical steel element has not been in- weight test to determine nil-ductility tnnsition tempera-
cluded. ture of ferritic steel : 1995.
18-8 prEN 14620 : March 2003- Design and manufacture of
18.17.6 Tank roofs site built, veftical, cylindrical, flat bottomed steel tanks
forthe storage of refrigerated, liquefied gases with oper-
It is usualfor concrete roofs io be constructed from reinforced ating temperatures between -5 'C and -165 "C: Pafts 1
concrete. A finished thickness of 300 mm to 500 mm is usual to 5 : CEN.
with reinforcing mats close to the upper and lower surfaces. A
steel roof framework supporting the roof sheeting is usually uti-
18.9 85 449 : Paft 2 : 1969, The use of structural steel in
building ,fhe British Standards Institution, London.
lised to act as forrnwork for the construction of the concrete
roof. As mentioned in Section '18.6, it is possible to utilise the 18.10 BS 5950 i Pad 1 : 1990, Structural use of steelwork in
structurally redundant roofframe and sheeting to replace some building Part 1:Code of practice for design in simple and
of the reinforcing steel. continuous construction: hot rolled sectiors, The British
Standards Institution, London.
The main design criteria for the tank roof are the internal pres-
sure, the self-weig ht of the roof platforms and any missile load- 18.11 Recommended practice for LNG above ground stor-
ings. For the LNG tank at Revithoussa lsland in Greece, two age:1981, fhe Japanese Gas Association
missile loadings were specified. The first was a soft missile,
which was a helicopter from the local army-training base, and
18.12 ENV 1993-1-1 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures -
Paft 1-1 General rules and rules for buildings.
thesecondwasa hardmissilefiredatthetankwithmaliciousin-
tent. Both were defined in terms of their rnass, velocity, angle of 18.13 BS CP 3 i Chapter V: Paft 2 : 1972 Code of basic data
approach and area of application. forthe design of buildings- Chapter v Loading- Paft 2
Wind loads, The British Standards Institution, London.
18.14 ASME Section Vlll Divisions 1 and 2, rules for construc-
18.18 References tion of pressure vesseis, ASME, New York 2002.
18.1 Stability of API Standard Tank She/is, R.V.McGrath, 18.15 PD 550A :2000 specification for unfired fusion welded
Proceedings of the American Petroleum Institute, Sec- pressure vesse/s, BSI London, ISBN 0580 33080 X.
tion lll, Refining APl, New York, 1963, Volume 43 pp
458-469. 18.16 Steei Deslgn Manual, Unlted States Steel Corporation,
Section 8.2.2.
1a.2 The design of lanks fo Reslsl External Prcssures,
L.PZick, Document no. 7'1l33508 dated ay 1971, Pte-
N,4 18.17 Concrete and Cryogenics,F.H.f utner, AViewpoint pub-
sented to the British Standards lnstitution Technical lication, The Cement and Concrete Association, ISBN
Committee PE/12. o 7210 1124 1.

374 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


18 The design of low temperaturc tanks

18.18 Prestressed co ncrete for the storage of liquefied gases, 18.22 Developments in cryogenic storage tanks, N.J.
Professor Dr lr. A.S.eBruggeling, AViewpoiht publica- Cuperus, Shell Intemationale Petroleum, Maabshappij
tion, The Cement and Concrete Association, ISBN 0 8.V., The Hague, LNG 6 Conference.
7210 1187 X.
1Al9 ACI 318, Ameican Concrete lnstitate Building Code 18.22 Damping effect of pedite/fibreglass insulation on outer
Requiremenb for Reinforced Conctete 1999. tank dynamic loads in double-walled cryogenic tanks,
A.S.Adorjan, bo(on Production Research, Houston;
18.20 BS 8110: Patt 1 : 1985, Structuraluse of concrete Code
D.B. CraMord, M.WKellogg, Houston; S.E.Handman,
of practice for design and consttuction,fhe British S'tan- M.W.Kellogg, Houston; LNG 7 Conference.
dards Institution, London.
18-21 Construction of an underground storage tank, Kenji 18.24 Dynamic load attenuation for double wall tanks, R.A.
Yanagiya and Tomoyuki Ogawa, Kajima Corporation, Vater, Pitbburgh des Moines Corporation, Pittsburgh
Japan LNG Journal, Nov/Dec 1999. Gastech 1984 Conference.

- Ex-
nefl-
itel
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mes
nber

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ilish

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ish

s-
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n-
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ra

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 375


376 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
19 Insulation systems for low
temperature tanks
Insulation systems for low temperature tanks form an essential part of the liquid mntainment
system. The rlaterials used and installation techniques adopted are many and varied. This
Chapter is of necessity a brief review of the thermal insulation for the different parts ofthe tiank,
the guidance given by the various Codes and the calculation methods to be adopted to design
an efiective thermal insulation system.

Contents:
19.1 General
19.1. 1 Basic requiremenb of the insulation system
1 9.1.2 Insulation categories
1 9.1.3 Installation considerations
19.1.4 Basic design and material requirements
19.1.5 Design Code requirements
19.2 Base insulation
'19.2.1 General
19.2.2 The central area
19.2.3 The peripheral area
19.2.4 Design methods
19-2.4.1 lnner arca
19-2.4.2 Periohe'al arca
'19.2.5 Detailed design Code requirements
19.2.5.1 EEMUA reouirements
19-2.5.2 BS 7777 rcouirements
19.2.5.3 Draft of new Euronorm DrEN '14620
'19.2.6 Base insulation materials central area
19.2.6.1 Cellular glass
-
19.2.6.2 PVC foam
1 9.2.6.3 Polyurethane foam
1 9.2.6.4 Lightweight concrete
19-2.6.5 Composite systems
19.2.6.6 Blast furnace slag
19.2.7 Base insulation materials peripheral area
-
19.3 Wall insulation
19.3.1 General
'19.3.2 General reouirements
19.3.2.1 Insulation for the walls of single-walled metallic tanks
19.3.2.2 Rigid insulation for the walls of double-walled tanks
'19.3.2.3 Loose till insulation systems
19.3.3 Design Code requirements
19.3.4 Wall insulation materials
19.3.4. 1 Polyurethane foam
'19.3.4.2 PVC foam
19.3.4.3 Other Dlastic foam materials
19.3.4.4 Cellular glass
19.3.4.5 Mineralwool
19.3.4.6 Perlite loose fill insulation systems
19.4 Roof insulation
19.4.1 General
'19.4.2 Externai roof insulation
'19.4.3 Internal suspended deck insulation

19.5 Insulation of heat breaks for fittings

STORAGE TANK$ & EOUIPIIENT 377


19 lnsulation systems for low tempemture tanks

19.5.1 General
'19.5.2 Heat breaks for roof connections
19.5.3 Heat breaks for tank sidewall connections
19.5.4 Heat breaks for tank bottom connections
19.6 Internal pipework insulation
19.7 External pipework insulation
19.8 Heat leak calculations
19.8.1 Basic calculation methods
1 9.8.2 Thermal conductivity values

19.8.3 The influence of different interstitial gases


19.8.4 Calculation of the hot face temperature
19.8.5 Overall heat leak
19.9 Heat leak testing
19.10 The use of the infra red camera

19.11 lnsulation problems from the past and their lessons


'19.1'1.1 Base insulation failure
19.11.2 External vaPour sealing
19.1 '1.3 Bottom corners
19.1 1.4 Perlite settlement

19.12 References

378 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


19 Insulation systems far law tempercIurc tan|s

19.1 General Protection from moisture. l\rany insulation materials will


readily absorb water. This usually has a detrimental efiect
Systems for the thermal insulation oftanks storing lowtempera- on their thermal conductivity. Consequently care must be
ture liquids are areas ofinterestwhich could easilyform the ba- taken to ensure that materials are maintained in a dry state
sis of a book in their own right. What follows is something of a during their transport to the construction site, during any
r'r'histle stop tour and is of necessity limited in the amount of in-
storage on the site, during jnstallation and up to the point
fofmation and detail provided. The subject has to be included, when the tank is placed in its intended service. There are
even in an abridged form as it forms an essential part ofstorage numerous examples ol this happening, which have proved
systems which must, in many respects, be considered as com- to be both expensive and time consuming mistakes, as wet
tosite systems rather than a series of independent compo- insulation materials are often impossible to subsequently
rents. dry out in situ.
The following is based on the assumption that the tanks in
question are vertical and cylindrical in form. lvluch ofthis chap- Storage tanks are often large in both diameter and height
:er is relevant to other types of storage tanks, but to include all and are frequently constructed on coastal sites. The combi-
rfthe possible variatjons and exceptions would tend to obscure nation of size and severe weathercan cause installation dif-
:he various ooints made. ficulties for external insulation systems. High winds can
remove all but the most robust weather protection and a
rhe insulation systems associated with the membrane type of modest amount of rain, blown to one side ofthe tank can re-
:anks, both above and in-ground, are quite particular and are sult in a virtual waterfall on the down wind side of the tank.
:iscussed in the Sections 17.9 and 17.12 in Chapter 17. Strong and well thought out protection systems are a neces-
sity.
19.1.1 Basic requirements of the insulation system
Some insulation materials are susceptible to mechanical
-he essential functions of the thermal insulation system are: damage (i.e. cellularglass). Appropriate care must be taken
during transport, storage and installation to ensure that
. To limit the product boil off due to heat in leakage from the breakages are kept to a minimum.
atmosDhere to below the specified limib.
. To protect the non low temperature parts of the tank system 19.1.4 Basic design and material requirements
from the temperatures of the stored product.
. To provide structural support where required (i.e. to the tank The following considerations must be taken into account when
oase). designing a thermal insulation system:
. To limitthe cooldown ofthe tankfoundations to ensure that Thermal conductivity of the materials used at the design
cooling of the sub soil and possible damage as a result of tempefature. Any anticipated changes of thermal conduc-
"frost heave" is avoided. tivity with time should be taken into account.
. To prevent or at least minimise condensation and icing of
Any long term structural loadtngs to be sustained by the in-
the outer surfaces of the tank.
su ation. Any aniicipated changes in strength with time and
any creep effects should be taken into account.
1 9.1.2 Insulation categories
The chemical orooerties of the materials used should be
:or simplicity and to give this section some structure, the insu- such that if they are in contact with the product vapour dur-
:ted parts of the tank will be discussed separately under the ing service, theywillbe unaffected by long term contact with
': lowing headings: it. Intheeventthattheinsulationmaterialwillcomeintocon-
tactwith the product liquid during an accident scenario, then
. Base insulation the structural propertles in particular shall not be adversely
. Wall insulation affected.

. Roof insulation The materials shall be suitable for the anticipated operating
and accident condition temperatures.
1 9.1.3 Installation considerations
The insulation system must not give rise to corrosion ofthe
steel or other tank components. Some insulation materials
-^ere are various installation related considerations which are
can give rise to acidic conditions when subjected to water
::ecific to particular insulation systems and materials. In addi- penetration.
: :n there are some points which are relevant to the installation
:'insulation in general and these should be considered in all The insulation system, where exposed to the atmosphere,
must resist the ingress of moisture. For cold insulation sys-
. Installation within a closed space requires careful attention tems, the most harmful "aggressor" is the continuous ten-
to the following: dency forwatervapourto invade the insulation and make its
way to the cold face. For many insulation materials, small
Ventilation. l\y'anyof the materials used are problematic changes on moisture content can bring about major
when used in confined spaces. For example many ad- changes in their thermal properties.
hesives, sealants and mastics give off harmful toxjc
and/or inflammable vapours. Problems arlsing from any envisaged fire scenario.

- Certain works such as the sanding offoamed insulation Problems arising from installation difficulties.
materials can produce fine particles which are suscepti-
ble to flash fires. Considerations caused by commissioning and decommis-
sioning requirements.
The provision of adequate access for personnel and
materials. l\y'echanical damage by humans and birds.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 379


19 lnsulation systems for low temperaturc :6ln(s

Cellular slass

loos ttu msulants;


eleanded perlite or
vetmiculite
U*d h ohbinstion $trt to@ fi insutdt3 nomeuy for tls mecharncal pbp.ni6.

Flgure 19.1 insutation maiertals for refdgerated storage


From BS 7777 : Patl 3. tabte 2

19.1.5 Design Code requirements as the loadings from the tank and its contents are trans_
ferred to the foundation.
Traditionally, the tank design Codes had litfle to say on the sub_
ject of thermal insulation. The American Codes siill adoDt
this
. Thermal insulation ofthe base of the storage tank. The sys_
approach, whilstthe British and European Codes have devoted tem chosen should limit the heat leak into the tank. Drevent
more space to this subject with each new document issued. the formation of ice on the underside of elevated base slabs
BS 7777 has a section on thermal insulation in part 3. Table 2, and prevent ice lens formation for on ground type founda_
Figure 19.1, provides a useful list of commonly used insulation tlonS.
materials and identifies for which component of the tank these
materials are normally utilised. The forthcoming Eurocode, Despite these modest aims, it is interesting just how few materi_
(prEN 14620), on low temperature storage will have a full sec- als are available with the appropriate combination of lonq term
tion devoted to tank insulation and will dealwith the subject in compressive strength. suitably low thermal conductiviW, the
considerably more detail. lt makes the important point th;t that ability to sustain the low temperatures and at an appropriate
thermal insulation system for low temperature tanks differs cost. This limitation of choice has not been helped bv the es_
from ambient temperature tanks where it is considered a pe_ sentially conservative nature of the liquid storage industry and
ripheral component. For low temperature tanks the thermal in_ the unwillingness of its participants to be ,,guinea pigs" foi new
sulation is an essential part of the overall storage arrangement, systems and materials.
such that without a correcfly designed, installed and maintained
The base insulation for storage tanks divides into two areas.
insulation system the storage tank will not operate correc v
These are the central area and the peripheralarea. These are
There are also numerous Codes which deal with the production
described in Sections 19.2.2 and '19.2.3.
and testing of individual insulation materials. This is a specialist
area into which the authors of Slorage Ia nks & Equipmenthave
chosen not to venture. 19.2.2 The central area
The specific requirements ofthe tank Codes to the desiqn ofthe
various pa rts of the tank insulation systems are discuss6d in the For a single-walled tank it is quite clearwhatthe centralarea of
sections which follow the base insulation comprises. For cedain double-walled tanks.
especially those with the base insulation placed beneath the
outer tank bottom, there is also an area of the base insulation
19.2 Base insulation beneath the interspace between the two tank shells as illus_
trated in Figure 19.2. This part of the base insulation is sub_ :'
19.2.1 ceneral jected to loadings which are similar to those applied to the cen_ ;
tral area, particularly in the post leakage scenario. To avoid
Although generally self-evident, it is worth repeating that the over complication, only the central area of a single_walled tank
base insulation systems for low temperature tanks perform two is considered. This is subject to the following loadings:
basic duties:
. . A uniformly distributed load arising from the product liquid
Structural support for the low temperature tank. The materi_
head and in certain circumstances, the product vaDour
als should have suitable long term load-bearing prope(ies pressure.
to ensure that the tank is supported throughout its intended
service life and is not subject to unacceptable setflements . A uniformly distributed load arising from the watertest head
resulting from uneven compression of the base insulation and in certain circumstances, the air test pressure.

380 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


. Wind overturning loadings
. Seismic ovefturning loadings for botr OB= a^: SS
=
:, =
-
=
19.2.4 Design methods

19.2.4.1 Inner area


For the inner area of the base insulation systern i'e.:-:-,<
loadings described in Section 19-2.2, are surnmaT se: - :-:
most pessimistic combinations which may occu'. as
j: :.,.:
. Normal operation
. Hydrostatic testing
. OBE seismic event
. SSE seismic event
These loading combinations are then assessed for acceo:e:
itytaking into account the compressive strength (and in the ca:
: gure 19.2 D agram of bottora corner ofdouble-walled tank
cases with seismic components, the shear strength) of the var -
ous materials making up the base insulation system togethe.
. A uniformly distributed loading arising from the self-weight with the factors of safety described in Section 19.2.5.
of the tank bottom plates and the insulation system itself 19.2.4.2 Peripheral area
(usually insignificant). As in Section 19.2.4.1, the various loadings are summarisec
. A non-uniform loading arising from the seismic loadings to under the same headings. lt is common to assume that the llne
which the tank is subjected (usually SSE and OBE). The load spreads out intothe base insulation at45degrees as llus-
seismic loadings are made up from combinations of: trated in Figure 19.3. Based on this assumption it is usual to
work downwards through the insulation system to assess the
Vertical loadings arising from the combined overturning acceptability of each layer taking account of the materal
moments from the action ofthe horizontal design event strengths and factors of safety again taken from Section 1 L2.5.
on the impulsive, convective and self-weight compo- A worked example of this procedure in given in Figure '19.4.
nents of the tank and jts contents. This loading, in a sim- This includes the mechanical loadings on both the central and
;ys- ple analysis may be considered as triangular in the peripheralareas otthe base insulation. lfthe simple triangu-
/ent distribution, but in a more complex analysis may well be lar load distribution is considered inadequate, then a more e e-
of a different form. gant analysis may be undertaken, but the weight of past experi-
roa- ence suggests that the simple method has served the industry
Vertical loadings arising from the action of the vertical
event on the self-weight on the bnk contents. well and there may be a relucbnce to depart from it.

;er - The various combinations ofthe two horizontal components As is the case for the inner area of the base insulation, consid-
trm and the one vertical component of the loadings to be con- eration must be given to the shear strength of the materials or
lhe sidered are described in Chapter 26 . A not uncommonly composite system where seismic loadings are involved.
aIe used rule for this combination is:
es-
100%Fx +/- 30%Fy +l- 31o/a Fz ol
and
tew 3Q'/oFx +l- 1004/oFy +l- 3ookFz ol
30%FX +l 30%f!/ +l- 100okFz
;as. On occasions the 30% comoonent is increased to 40%.
. Shear loadings resulting from horizontal loadings from wind
or earthquake.
. Point loads arising from internal fittings which rest directly
on the tank bottom, such as stilling wells, inlank pump
wells, fill columns etc.
rof
ks. 19.2.3 The peripheral area
ihe
ion -ihe
peripheral area for a single-walled tank is clearly that part
!rs-
rf the base insulation which is beneath the tank shell. For dou-
!le-walled tanks there may be two areas of the base insulation
3n-
,'/hich are loaded in a similar fashion, i.e. the part beneath the
od rner shell and the part beneath the outer shell.
lnk
-hese areas are subjected to line loadings from the various
shells which are made up of combinations of the following:
JO
li.rr
. Self-weightof the tank shelland attached parts including in- Loading on section A - A

sulation as appropriate (i.e. during operation but not per-


haps during hydrotest) \Worst case for rinqwall

. Roof loadings including snow load, live load, internal vac-


u um. Flgure 19.3 Lineload in the base insulaton ng wall

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT :.:'


19 lnsulation systems for low tempenture tanks
I

l*4l6ldnl Jrrdr .f bdr hlElttd 1

i
I 2M
&rf!n.h.ll.drs tl *n r,t
I
rirr
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I
V.rtlcd A!.d'.tbn (oE|, q,
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20.
I
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I
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qaqBnlc @irar" czo roi
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Fdif en6.r!t00olg,/# a5
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?!,lit.c.isd. rck/ii 3A

FoiBrd HJt6o0 rl
P..i'9lu}fgia{P lt
f..indqrt|.llzoo t2
(t cda&fid. .snr. ! L'bad ?Fd. Foi9brH3t000 rO
0l) c.r$rorjtdrt|qrfi h.iiurdong.idt|* Pl'liL 4r.rri. sftldi3 q,
Pqlli.!olEvt700rq/n3
ftidi*F .'d C.hF-tw Snqdb ll|{F. c.E!t! 60ltlgir3
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Fd.lit @i.Er.000tq/il
Ntlt|!.!Er|! 6a0k/ri3

t{ot: I r .idlls anptdtt/t rtrr.. l6.ors.d. h.. b.ar iEdtfird h o..odo*, $?h BS!ll0.

olE 55E
L!r. l,rtt Srnr srn'
i) fi@dffn long dqrdiw tcB. b
OBEI a0?.4o tnyi c4Esr. Rdc40 ll?,5 /ktt 607
'diml 559 | 64.40 tfvn C.tt. 6!.d C2O 322.! t.6a 2,?9
Pa.rlt dstt. Sq{r' 3 Q2.t tJZ l.Bt
- D varid d@t rarld or d! at =*!!4.J3-
txD =
OBE |
95E r
3,t6 ri^Vh
5.27 $Vft
lalit &'tcti.6o0l9/o3 !o2a.t o.'o

i) $do.rofic hrld (ot+ri'r) 0166 l{,hif


rt ?r.q.. GF{tlrg) OD29 tVni
irD r,i/'icdcfic t..d (ir) 9,?3n |\yn#
0036 |yir#

D Tdorg'rdt dri|{&rqt h.d (O8O


l) v..fl.d ..c.l.r!tid ot pnder (q8q
ili) Trh'AddV drrdhtvn b{d (65q
b) Y.rrk l cc..Lrrnon of pru4Er (Sse)

Figure 19.4 Examplo ofa calculation ofthe loadings in an insuladon ringwall- pag6 t
Courtesy of Whessoe

382 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1 9 lnsulation systems lv tow tawane axs

Th" lin" Ioods frcm the 3h.llonto fh" innsr tank ringben ar colorlard bdowr

i) Concri. scrcd C4o


lidxinlm conprcssivc sin9th : 2O62 N/mm?
,qctudl conpfssive str55 (OBE) = 4.30 N/mm' FOS: 4.80
lcnjql compr$ivc slross (SSE) : 6,07 Vmm? + FoS: 3..1O
il) Concr|. scred C20 -
lltoxinun conprc!3iv slrngith : 1O.31 N/rnm?
lctual conprlsiv. stre$ (OBE) : 1.66 Mnrnz + FOs: 6.2t
Actudl coirprelrivc stre$ (sSE) : 2.29 N/mn? :+ Fos: 4.at
iii) P"rlitc concrcle 800k9/n3
f{dxinlm cohprcssive !t cnglh = 5.OO N/nrra?
iciuql compresive rrresr (OBq : 1.32 N/nrm? :::::> FOS: 3.77
icnialco|nprlstivc sfr.ss (SSE) : 1.81 Nhrn2 + Fos: 2.7f
iv) P"rlir. con$et. 600k9/it3
conpr*live sircngth : 2.2O N/nrnrt
^lldxirnun
Actualc.nprcasivc airess (OgE) = 0,69 N/nvn? + =
FOS 3.18
Aciual .ornprar.6ive slr.$ (55E) : 0.90 N/mnr? FOS: 2.'06

-
ft loqds on rhe inncr bdle insuhiion dre cdbukdcd below;

Inhcr bo3c injuhtion usd in design : Fomglas H.3 800

}{v.rog c.rnpr.ssiva strngth =

Fcclor of sdfcty fo. opraling cond;lioE :


Fqcror of sdfely fof hydroi.st condilions :
Focror of sdf.ty for OBE scisnic :
"vnt
Faclor of Jdfery f6r SSE sebmic cvcni :
Notcr POS vdlus idken from forthconing EN 265

i) Op.roting loods
o_t65
Op.ratirq pr.6slrc : o.o29
lnsu htion, scrc.d, Plqte eic : o.oo5
TOTAL 0.200 N/nm'z =
4.00
t
iD -os
O236 N/nrrf
0.036 N/nrrn?
Insuhtion, Scn .d, Platc ctc : O0O6 N/nnz
rornl@uz^nr os: 2.87

iii) szismic load (oB)


Op"r6liB bo4t : 0.200 N/mmz
Verlicol o...l2ruiion of prodqcf : 0.O08 N/mm'?
Triorgulort disrribuf cd load 0.043 N/mha
roreL--T75E-p7amz ===+os. 3.18

iv) Ssilnic lo{d (SSE)


Operdtirts loods : 0.20O N/nrna
Vrrlicol dccEl.rdiion of prcduct : 0.013 N/mma
T"idrg'rhrv dirtribut.d locd 0.05,r N/mn,
roleL--EE-p7- , :s r 3.01 ok

F-rgure 19.4 Example of a calculation ofthe loadings in an insulation fingwalt- page 2


Coulesy of Whessoe

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 383


19 lnsulation systems for low temperature tanks

19.2.5 Detailed design Code requirements An appendix is provided which gives the basis of the Iimit state
design methodsforthe twocategories of materials. This is very
19.2.5.1 EEMUA 147 requirements complex and may have to be simplified before it is let loose on
the industry.
The EEMUA recommendations, first published in 1986. were
the first to include specific requirements for safety factors to be
used for the mechanical design of insulation systems. These 19.2.6 Base insulation materials * central area
were, not surprisingly, confined to the base insulation and
aimed largely at cellular glass materials, at that time and almost 19.2.6.1 Cellular glass
certainly stillto this day, the most popular choice for this compo- Cellular glass is formed when powdered glass is heated to-
nent. The requirements state: gether with other carefully selected chemicals which ernit
"lnsulants placed beneath a tank bottom shall be able to gases at the appropriate point in the manufacturing process to
withstand the loads imposed upon them. For service and create a glass foam. The foam material is cooled down carefully
test conditions, the safety factor for cellular glass should be resulting in a series of near spherical small glass cells contain-
at least 3.0 based on the average compressive strength ing an insulating gas. The material is 100% closed cell. verv
properties of the grade selected, or 2.5 based on the mini- stable at ambient and low temperatures and with zero perme-
mum compressive strength guaranteed. Other materials ability. lt can be made in various grades to have a range of dif-
should be viewed in the same manner, and it is preferable to fering thermal conductivities, densities and compressive
use mrntmum guaranteed properties rather than average strengths.
values."
As discussed, cellular glass is the most commonly used mate-
19-2.5.2 BS 7777 requirements rial for the bases of low temperature tanks. The manufacturing
BS 7777 was first published in1993 and was based upon the process is complex and must be subjected to a high level of
earlier EEMUA 147 recommendations. ln the case of the quality control if the end product is to have consistent proper-
quoted factors of safety for base insulation it has adopted ties. Pittsburgh Corning Corporation (PC) was the first to de-
slightly different values. The Code states: vote the necessary resources in terms of research and devel-
opment into the understanding of the material properties and
"lnsulation material located beneaih a tank bottom should
influence on these properties of the manufacturing process.
be able to withstand the load imposed upon it. The allow-
Thus for many years this company was, quite righfly, the almost
able compressive stress for service and test conditions for
exclusive source of cellular glass blocks for tank bases and its
cellular glass should be either 0.33 times the guaranteed
products were a specific requirement of many tank specifica-
average compressive strength or 0.5 times the guaranteed
min jmum strength ofthe grade selected, whichever is less."
tions and invitations to tender

It also suggests that other materials can be used in the same


The materials manufactured by PC are marketed under the
proprietary trade name of Foamglas@. lt is an indication of this
manner (meaning presumably using the same factors ofsafety)
company's dominance in this market over the years that
and suggests that guaranteed minimum strengths should be
Foamglas@ is often taken incorectly as the generic name for all
used rather than average values.
forms of cellu lar glass irrespective of the manufacturer. pC has.
19.2.5.3 Drafl of new Euronorm prEN 14620 over the years, also devoted considerable efforts to the desion
This Standard is at the stage of final editing having been issued and installation methods for systems utilising their materials fo.
for public comment. Although not in its final form, part 4 of this which they should be given credit.
document probably represents the latest thinking on the sub- For tank base insulation the appropriate grades of Foamglas@
ject. are the High Load Bearing (HLB)grades made and marketed in
The structural design of the base insulation system may be
based on the allowable stress method or by using the limit state
rneory DENSITY AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

The insulation materials are divided into two categories:


Gr.deof Den os@ .(*r4 @o
. Brittle materials, i.e. those not subject to creep under sus-
Aver.Ce y b asrM

tained compressive loadings. This category would include k9/mr


cellular glass and light weight concrete.
300
. Materials subject to creep. This category would include
HLB r35

plastic foams such as polyurethane foam (PUF) and potyvi- HLB 1000 140 0.6s

HLB 1200
nyl chloride (PVC) foams. 145 1.20 0.32

HLB 14OO
Forthe brittle materials methods are given to allowthe nominal
compressive strength to be determined by test. For allowable HLB 16(x) 165

stress based designs, minimum factors of safety are applied to


this nominal compressive strength as follows: THERMAL CONDUCTIVIry

. Normal operation 3.00


. Hydrosiatic test 2.25
. Earthquake (OBE) 3.00
HLA 1@O 0.053
. Earthquake (SSE) 1.50 HLBl2OO

For the materials subject to creep, a complex method of deter-


mining the nominal compressive strength is given based on 0,056
compressive creep testing, some tests being required to have a
10,000 hour duration. Safety factors are then given, to be ap-
plied to the nominal compressive strength to arrive at design Figure 19.5 Basic propedies ofthe HLB grades of Foamglas@
values forthe various loadings forthe allowable stress designs Couftesy of Pittsburgh Caming Corporation

384 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


19 lnsulation systems for low tempenture tanks

fie
ry Thermal conduouvlty (lf l|nlq
)n

7.
t>
/
z
lrit
b
ly ./.,
r} '/a
ry .,'/
n ./

F.
19
6
r-
*
d EeFqECSSq'P
s- Ttnperdrre (.Celsius,
sa
ts Erre 1 9.6 Thermal conductivity vs temprature p'ot for the HLB gmdes of FoamglasrD
a-

Property Ult e-CuF"to:ll Ultra-CUF 929


E gsnralEervlca cryognlcservlcs
b CompesgivE at]englh, avetrge 6t brsaldng polnt 1m (689) 87 (6m)
* pti (kPal (ASTM C 165, c 24o, C 552)
I Den6lty, average, |l]sr''ts lkgltrql (A9TM C 93) I (128) 7.5 O2O)
Flerural strength, block average, psi (kPa) (A'snt C tu3, C z4o) 80 (552) 64 (441)
n Llnear coefficlent ot thermal expanslon, 4.8x10s(8,6x1f) 5,0 t 10{ (9.0 x 10{)
T p.t'F lpet'K) 6sru E 22a)
Specific hoat, Btu/brF (Jftg."K) 0.18 (830) 0.18 (83O)
I Thermal conductivity, Blu-in/hr-ft2-"F (W/mrK)
(ASTMCt77,C51e)
0.30
0.31
@ 50"F
@ 75"F
0.28 @ 50"F
o.29 @ 75"F
h (0.043 @ 10 "c) (0.038 @ 0 .c)
(0.04s @ 24 "c) (0.040 @ 10 "c)
Thermal diffusivity, tt2lhr (m 2/sec) 0.019 (4.9 x 10-i) 0-019 (4.9 x 10-1

Superior compressive strength for tank bases


Propony
$-gr:l|t ujla-culg urrra.cuF rT4 uj:j::13
Compressive slrength, ASTM mlnimum 79.8 (5.61) 100.1 (7.04) 118.9 (8.36) 139.2 (9.79)
psi lkglcm2l (Lowet speciticaton linit
with AQL = lo/" Det ISO 3951)
Comprcssive stngth, ASTM avohge 116 (8.16) 14s (10.19) 174 112.23) 203 (14.27J
psi {kg/cm2)
Nominal average densily. lb/fl3 (kg/m3) 9.2 (135.04) e.5 (140) LS (144.97) 10.2 {14S.e3)
Thermal conductivity, maximum aveaage 0.340 (0-048) 0.345 (0.050) 0.370 (0.052) 0.380 (0.054)
Btu-irthr-lta"F @ 75"F {W/m-"K @ ro"C)

Thermal co.duclivity. highest single value 0.368 (0.0s1) 0.382 (0.053) 0.396 (0.0ss) 0.410 (0.057)
Btu-idhr-fl."F @ 75'F (W/m.oK @ rooc)

Fgrrs 19.7 Basic properties of various gEdes of Cell-U-Foam


htttesy of Ce -U-Foan Cwonlion
lve grades of increasing density and compressiv strength book has been published by PC covering the manufacture of
tsn HLB 800 to HLB 1000. Asixth stronger grade (HLB 2000) Foamglas@, its properties and uses, together with a fund of
b curently underdeveloprnent. There is the usual tmde-ofi be- other useful informalion (Reference 19.1).
xeen increasing density/strength and decrgasing thermal effi- Overthe years a number of mmpanies from different countries
cbncy. The basic physical properties are shown in Figure 19.5 have aftempted to gain i foothold as manufacturers of cellular
and the all important thermal conductivity-mean tempeftlture glass products ofsuitable quality for the insulation of low tem-
crrves are shown in Figure 19.6. The significant reduction in perature trank bases. Until recently none succeeded in produc-
lErmal conductivity with temperature is clear. An excellent ing a product suitable for this purpose. Some five years ago a

STORAGE TANKS & ESUIPMENT 385


19 Insulation systems for low temperature tanks

10i
-//

r
I
I
I

v
.d
7
'{ l
-tThemalconduciivity
I
I vercus remporature
929 (Brirish units)
---r-------r--- r T
STFIAIN %

: ff '"n"":'#::; l::,"..,.,".
4 Aare, ho cappins

NOTE: lhErepresenlttypicalb.haviorand should nol b. used rd

EigLre '9 9 Tte 11Le,rce of rrlerleaving materalon i1e compresrve slrength


Figure 19.8 Thermal conductivity vs temperature plot for various grades of
Cell-U-Foam

Coutlesy of Cell-U-Faam Caeoration glass tank bases, but suffers from a number of disadvan-
tages. To ensure that the cells on the lowerside ofthe upper
company which was a part of ACS Industries in the USAand blocks are correctly filled with the bitumen, to make certain
trading underthe name ofCell-U-Foam made serious and suc- of the correct load transmission, is difficult to achieve and
cessful efforts to break into this area. They have now become impossible to check in a non-destructive manner A great
established as suitable suppliers of these materials by most, if deal ofthe success ofthis method deoends on the skills of
not all ofthe world's tank specification writers and builders and the installation operatives and their supervision. Another
produce a range offour enhanced compressive strength mate- disadvantage ofthis method is that hot melt bitumen is car-
rials marketed as Ultra-CUF in grades from 116 to 203. The ba- cinogenic and its use, particularly in confined spaces which
sic physical data and low temperature thermal conductivity may occur in partially constructed double-walled tanks, is
curves are shown in Figures 19.7 and'19.8. increasingly unacceptable.
It should be mentioned here that cellular glass is an unusual
material. Without venturing too deeply into this subject which . Damp-proof course material. These are proprietary ma-
again could be the subject of a book in its own right, a few words terials, made for the building industry to be used as damp-
of explanation should be given. proof courses between bricks or other building blocks. The
types most suitable for this purpose are usually about 3 mm
The intrinsic compressive strength of cellular glass materials is thick consisting of a bitumen-impregnated hessian type of
quite high. The problem is in developing this strength (i.e. in
felt. Providing that they are used correctly and consider-
getting the load ffom the tank bottom intothe insulation material
ation is given to points such as: carefully butting the edges
and out again into the foundation). The manufacturing process
of adjacent rolls with no overlapping, the temperature
for cellular glass ensures that the finished surface is irregular dependancies of the hardness/soft ness of the material and
when examined in close up, consisting ofcutthrough part cells. the capping of the roll ends to prevent edge damage on
When two blocks are placed together, the actual area ofcontact transit and handling, then this method provides a satisfac-
is a minute proportion of the total area ofthe blocks, consisting tory solution without some of the disadvantages associated
in the main of glass cell walls crossing each other on the two with the hot melt bitumen method.
faces at various angles. When any load is applied to this system
local breakdown occurs atthese highlystressed contact points. . A base insulation free of organic materials, which it is
This is clearly not a satisfactory situation. To enable a higher occasionally necessary to construct, (for example, for use
proportion of the intrinsic strength of the material to be devel- beneath liquid oxygen tanks). The materials discussed
oped, it is necessary to interpose other materials between the above are clearly not acceptable in this case and substi-
blocks. tutes must be found. One commonly adopted solution in
these circumstances is to use an inorganic powdersuch as
This effect is clearly indicated in Figure 19.9 which compares
Kieselguhr powder. This is applied dry and it is clearly eas-
the compressive strength of cellular glass (in this instance
Foamglas@ from Pittsburgh Corning Corporation)with no inter-
iertofillthe uopercellsofthe lowerblocksthan it is to fillthe
underside of the upper blocks. Despite this practical diffi-
leaving and with different interleaving materials. These materi-
culty, the method has been used successfully for many
als must be capable of better distributing the load into the cut
years. lt is perhaps fortunate that despite the relatively high
cells of the surfaces of the adjacent blocks. lvlaterials com-
specific gravity of liquid oxygen, the product is normally
monly used for this purpose are:
stored in smaller tanks than the other lowtemDerature liouid
. Hot melt bitumen. This material is applied in liquid form, gases and consequentlythe loadings on the base insulation
being dispensed onto the surface of the lower blocks whilst are lower Hence a lower load transfer is not so important in
the upper blocks are placed into the liquid bitumen. This is this case. Another solution to this particular problem is to
probablythe mostcommonly used method oflaying cellular use a glass fibre interleaving material.

386 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


19 lnsulation systems for low temperaturc tanks

- ensure that the compressive strength data provided by the ment. The lightaggregate concretesare usuallybespoke mate-
-3terial manufacturers are on the same basis and that inter- rials and are consequently expensive to produce. Their use is
:aving effects are equalised, the test methods are specified in more normal in the more highly-loaded peripheral areas of the
::nsiderable detail in various ASTM. Euronorm and ISO stan- base insulation. Air entrained concrete materials are produced
:3rds. on a much larger scale for the building industry and are mar-
>'!rilarly the measurement oi the thermal conductivity of the keted under such trade names as Thermalite@, UltraLiterM and
-aterial, particularly when measured at low temperatures, is SiporexrM. These do not have the same thermal efficiency as
: .|cult and should only be undertaken by laboratories and test the materials described above, but are cheaper Clearlyan eco-
- lL.rses with the specialised knowledge, experience and equip- nomic assessment is reouired here.
-ent. 19.2.6.5 Composite systems
:.:turning to Reference 79.7, there is an interesting chapter on A system using a combination of perlite concrete tubes and free
:^e cellular glass base insulation of the Ambergate LNG tank. perlite has been used on a number of occasions. The perlite
- ris tank was designed and constructed in 1969 for the East concrete tubes are laid on end in contact with the adjacent
! dlands Gas Board at Ambergate, Derbyshire in the United tubes and the spaces filled with free site-expanded perlite parti-
r. igdom, as a strategic inland storage facility and extension of cles. The perlite concrete tubes provide the compressive
:-e Canvey lsland LNG importterminal. The subsequent devel- strength whilst the thermal efficiency comes from the perlite.
: lment ofthe North Sea gas flelds made this facility redundant Some suitable capping for this system is required before the in-
:rd it was decommissioned and dismantled by British Gas in ner tank bottom is laid. This system is illustrated in Figure
'986. 19.10.
-re British Gas Engineering Research Station at Killingworth 19.2.6-6 Blast furnace slag
.1as given a budget to use this tank as a research tool and car-
- ed out a number
Afew tanks have been built on bases consisting of blast furnace
of tests, eventually leading to the collapse of slag. When suitably graded, dried and compacted this material
:-e inner tank under internal vacuum loading. These tests were has a suitable compressive strength and thermal properties in
':ported at LNG I (Reference 19.2).lt is interesting to specu-
the same region as the lightweight concretes. The advantage is
:ie if this opportunity to use a full-scale test piece would be the almost free raw material.
::(en and funded today. As a part ofthis investigation, samples
:'the cellular glass base insulation material were taken and
:ent to the laboratories at Liege University in Belgium. The ma- 19.2.7 Base insulation materials - peripheral area
::rial was Foamglas@ S3S grade (which has subsequently
:een replaced by one of the HLB range of grades). The impor- The higher loadings experienced by the peripheral areas of the
:ant properties of thermal conductivity and compressive base insulation means that frequently the materiais described
in the preceding Section are unsuitable by virtue of their limited
-r:rength were measured and found to be unchanged by the 17
, ?ars in low temperature service. compressive strength and need to be replacedwith otherstron-
ger materials, or be used in different combinations.
19.2.6.2 PVC foam
:VC foam is now Using the 45 degree load-spreading rules described in Section
agenerally acceptable material for base insu- 19.2.4.2, the compressive loading decreases as the point in
allon. lt has a history of being used successfully for membrane question moves downwards from the point of contact of the
:., pe tanks in the prefabricated insulation panels and beneath
shell line load. 1t is important to maintain the best possible ther-
:everal concrete/concrete type LNG tanks. lt is now being pro- mal efliciency whilst catering for the compressive loadings with
-oted for use with the more usual types of low temperature
:3nks. lt claims certain advantages over cellular glass:
. The material is supplied in larger sized sheets, up to 2.4m x
'1.2m. This will reduce handling and installation costs and
also installation times.
. No interleaving materials are required again reducing in-
stallation costs and time scales.
. The materialis considered to have bettertolerance of expo-
sure to moisture during installation.
. The material is more elastic (conversely less britfle) than
cellular glass and thus perhaps better able to resist damage
resulting from seismic loadings and locally imposed vibra-
tions. There is some history of cellular glass bases being
damaged by nearby pile-driving activity and proximity to ro-
tating machinery
{t the end of the day the choice of material will probably be
3ased on economic considerations.
19.2.6.3 Polyurethane foam
rhis material has a considerable history of use in membrane
:)/pe tanks. Most of what is mentioned in Section 19.2.6.2 is
again relevant here.
1 9.2.6.4 Lightweight concrete
there are a number of lightweight concrete materials available.
These obtain their light weight and consequent low thermal
:onductivity either by the use of lightweightaggregates such as
,erlite, Lytag or blast furnace slag, or by the addition of a foam-
Figure 19.10 View ofcomposite perttte concreie tube/toose periite base insula
ng agent to the concrete mix which provides ajr or gas entrain-

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 387


1 I lnsulation systems for low tempenturc tanks

accepiable factors of safety required bythe design Codes. This quently concentrated at the tank wall to water fall like pro-
is necessaryto minimise the overall heat leakfor reasons ofop- portions
erating costs, and to reduce the problems associated with base
heating systems where large differences in the heat flux be-
. The insulation and its vaDour barrier/weathercover must be
suitably attached to the tank shellorbe freesianding in their
tween the central area and the periphery can prove complex or
own right.
expensive to design for. Commonly used solutions to this prob-
lem are: . The system must cater for the worst stresses caused by
. thermal and mechanical changes in the tank shape.
The use ofa composite system using layers ofcellularglass
of different grades, frequently capped with reinforced con- . The system must caterforany loadings caused by external
crete with suitable low temperature properties to allow for ice build up.
the high loading occurring immediately beneath the tank
shell.
. Depending on local circumstances and fire protection sys-
tems, the insulation system must have the necessary resis-
. Similarv the use of layers of different grades of foamed tance to anticiDated heat flux levels.
PVC or polyurethane foam, again frequently capped with
reinforced concrete.
. Suitable resistance to loadings caused by fire water im-
pingement.
. The use of purpose-designed and factory-manufactured 19.3.2.2 Rigid insulation for the walls of double-walled
blocks incorporating layers of reinforced concrete and dif- tanks
fering densities of perlite concrete. The design and manu-
facture of such blocks should be entrusted to comoanies Applied to the outer surface of the outer wall
with the necessary experience and expertise in this area. The requirements ofSection 19.3.2.1 apply in this case.
. The use of purpose-designed and factory-manufactured Applied to the inner surface of the outer wall
blocks using wood. Balsa and pine have been used in this
The attraction of this method of providing the wall insulation is
way. The compressive strength and thermal conductivity of
that the outerwallitself provides the vapour barrier and weather
wood materials are very dependenton the orientation ofthe
cover In normal operation the outerwall is at ambient tempera-
grain with respect to the direction of loading. Again the de-
ture. A number of new considerations need to be taken into ac-
sign and manufacture of such blocks should be lefr to suif
count:
ably expert and experienced suppliers.
. The vapourtightness ofthe insulation system during normal
operation when the insulation is exposed to the product
19.3 Wall insulation vapour(i.e. an open-topped suspended decktype oftank).

19.3.1 General
. The liquid tightness of the insulation system in the event of
inner tank leakage or failure.

Wall insulation systems for low temperature tanks falls into . The chemical resistance ofthe various components ofthe
three calegories: insulation system to contact with the product vapour or liq-
uto.
. Insulation for the walls of single-walled metallic tanks fixed
to the outer surface of the tank shell. . The abilityto gas free and decommission the tankwithin the
prescribed period.
. Rigid insulation systems for the walls of double-walled
tanks. For metallic outertanks this can be fixed to the outer Applied to the outer surface of the inner wall
or the inner surfaces of the outer wall. There are a few ex- This is quite an unusual arrangement. In this instance the fol-
amoleswherethe insulation is attached to the outersurface lowing considerations must be hken into account:
of the innerwall. Fortankswith Dre-stressed concrete outer
tanks this insulation is most usually attiached to the inside of
. The inner tank leak case will result in the comolete loss of
the insulation system. This will result in a very high heat
the outertank. Again there are a few exampleswhere the in-
leak, theevolution of largevolumes of productvapourwhich
sulation is attached to the ouler surface of the inner wall.
must be handled safely by the relief valve system to avoid
e Loose fill insulation systems for installation between the the possibility of outer tank damage due to over pressuris-
steel or pre-stressed concrete outer tank and the steel and ation, and the possibility of substantial ice build-up on the
less commonly pre-stressed concrete inner tank, outer tank shell, possibly giving rise to structural stability
proDrems.
1 9.3.2 General requirements . Careful detail design at the junction between the wall and
roof insulation.
19.3.2.1 Insulation for the walls of single-walled metallic
tanks . lfthe insulation materialchosen is permeable, provisions to
orevent convection within the insulation itself.
In addition to having suitable long term thermal properties, the
systems used in this category must give due consideration to 19.3.2.3 Loose fill insulation systems
the following: This usually means a system using pedite and someform ofre-
. The provision of a suitable vapour barrier with the ability
silient blanket.
over the design life of the system to prevent the ingress of Conceming the perlite loose fill insulation material, allowance
atmospheric moisture into the insulation material driven by must be made for the following poinb:
the thermal gradient.
. Settlement of the perlite during service. This is usually pro-
. The vapour barrier must also act as a weather barrierto pre- vided for bythe provision of a suitable hopper volume in the
vent the ingress of rain water and to sustain wind loadings. top corner ofthe tank above the product liquid level and by
Storage tanks are tall structures, frequently constructed in the use of vibration equipment during the initial installation
exposed coastal areas where weather conditions are ex- ofthe material. The sizing ofthe hoppervolume is a function
tremely onerous. Rain falling on a large tank roof is fre- ofthe geometry and service ofthe tank in addition to the ex-

388 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


19 lnsulation systems for low temperature tanks

DTO. perience of the tank designer and the insulation contrac-


tor/designer
N,'luch of this information is of a proprietary nature, some-
trmes based on test work and is not discussed further other
than in general principles. The techniques and equipment
necessary for the vibration of perlite during installation are
ih, again of a proprietary nature, closely guarded by their own-
ers and not for general discussion. Suffice it to say ihat a
:ma runway beam above the insulation interspace to supportthe
vibration equipment is necessary that means for position-
ing the vibrating elements accurately are provided and
means of determining the extent of vibration compaction by
]S S- local level measurement are provided.
. Provision for topping up the perlite during the service life of
the tank in the event that this is found to be necessary This F gufe 19.11 Weaiher protection system for the insulation of an LPG tank
is usually accommodated by the provision of topping up
Courtesv of AntwerD Gas Terninal NV
lled nozzles located around the periphery of the tank above the
insulation interspace. A sensible size for these connections the trouble and expense of providing an inflated dome roof
is 6 inches in diameter attached to the top periphery of the outer concrete bund
wall, air conditioning equipmeni and a suitable air lock for
19.3.3 Design Code requirements the entry of personnel and materials, as shown in Figure
19.11 to ensure control ofthese variables and to produce a
--e design Codes give little gujdance on the detailed design of suitable finished product applied to the outer surface of the
-^e various
forms of wall insulation systems. The general points steel inner tank. In this type of PUF applicaiion, the vapour
: scussed above are included. barrier/weather cover must also be of the spray applied
type.
?a-
' 9.3.4 Wall insulation materials . It can be foamed in situ between the tank shell and the
vapour barrier/weather shield. This method is only relevant
--e following is of necessity a brief review of the more com- to external shell insulation. The metallic vapour barrier is
t-c:
-lnly used materials and some points regarding their correct erected on all or part of the tank shell using suitable spac-
::p ication. As has been mentioned earlier, there is no substi- ers, usually made from PUF slab rnaterial, to ensure the
:,:e for experienced designers and installation contractors in correci finished thickness of the foam. The tlvo constituents
:^ s area. lvluch of the installation equipment and methodolo- which react to fofm the foam are mixed and injected into the
I es are of a proprietary nature. space between the tank shell and the cladding, either
through holes pre-dril ed in the sheeting or poured over the
1 9.3.4.1 Polyurethane foam
top of the partially erected cladding. The reaction between
: -obably the most commonly used material for the wall insula- the components produces a foam ofthe appropriate quality
: :n of tanks discussed in Section 19.3.2.1. wh ch fllls the space and adheres to both the cladding and
: trlyurethane foam (PUF) can be applied to the tank walls ln a ihe tank shel . This sounds straightfoMard, but there are
- many possib e piifalls which can only be overcome by atten-
"mber of different ways: tion to deiail and expefience.
. lt can be supplied as factory-made slabs and attached to
the tank wall by the Llse of a suitable adhesive. The fac- 19.3.4.2 PVC foam
tory-manufacture ensures a good quality of foam with con- PVC foam is a factory-made material and as such can only be
sistent properties. The adhesion to the tank wall is more applied to a tank shell in ihe first ofthe three methods described
problematic, but good site quality control and attention to above for PUF.
details such as the correct primer in a suitable condition on
19.3.4.3 Other plastic foam materiats
the steel wall should ensure success.
The tabulation in BS 7777 : Part 3, (see Figure 19.2), indicates
For insulation thicker than 50 mm, it may be wise to con- phenolic foam and polystyrene foam as possible materials for
sider using two layers of PUF with staggered joints. Clearly
this purpose. The use ofthese materials is outside the author's
a vapour barrier/weather cover will be required where the
experience and is suspected to be an uncommon practice.
insulation is exposed to the atmosphere. This could be a
metallic sheeting of galvanised steel, aluzinc sheeting, alu- 19.3.4.4 Cellular glass
minium sheeting or stainless steel sheeting, in all cases of Cellular glass materials have been used successfully as the ex-
either flat, corrugated or profiled section. ternal wall insulation in numerous cases. The cellular glass can
Attention to detail in the design and installation of the joints either be attached directly to the metallic iank shell bythe use of
between the sheets and the attachment of this barrier to the a suitable adhesive, or be installed as a free-standing wall. For
tank are essential to ensure adequate long term vapour thicknesses up to about 70 mm it is possible to use a single
tightness and wind and weather resistance. An alternative layer of cellular glass. For greater thicknesses it would be wise
vapour barrier/weather cover may be of the sprayed to consider the use of two layers, installed with theirjoints stag-
non-metallic type. This could be of a number ofdifferent ma- gered. As always a suitable weathercover/vapour seal must be
terials depending on the local conditions prevailing. used.
. ltcan bespray-applieddirectlytothetankshell. Theoverall The producers of cellular glass products have their own de-
thickness being made up of a number of layers, each usu- tailed designs and installation methods for such insulation sys-
ally about 'l2mm thick. This requires considerable experi- tems. Typical details are shown in Figure 19.12.
ence and skilled operatives if it is to be successful. The final Cellular glass is also used extensively as the bottom corner in-
quality ofsprayed PUF is notoriously susceptible to temper- sulation in numerous double-walled tanks with pre-stressed
ature and humidity. For this reason one contractor went to concrete outer tanks. This insulation is necessary to limit the

STORAGE TANKS & EQUTPMENT 389


19 lnsulation systems fot low temperaturc tanks

shear stresses at the junction of the wall and the base resukirE
from the innertank leakdesign scenario. This is particularlythe
case with the fixed orencastr6 bottom cornerdesign. The insl-]-
lation layer is applied to the bottom of the interspace and to rne
lower part of the tank wall, normally to an elevation of 3m to Sm
from the base slab.
A typical arrangement for a large LNG tank is shown in Figure
19.13. Most pre-stressed concrete tanks have a metallic liner
on their inner wall and base surfaces. The cellular glass must
be suitably attached to this liner and protected from the product
liquid in the inner tank overfill or leakage design case. The case
where the full inner tank contents are contained by the outer
tank is the most onerous for the designer The most frequenfly
used metallic barrier employed for this purpose is faced with rne
following two interesting and conflicting requiremenb:
. To be of an economic thickness, the protective layer must
rely on mechanical support from the underlying thermal in-
2 FOAMGLASo@llu|3rgless
sulation material to resist the hoop stresses which the ful
4 PITTCOTEo 404 (irspecitied) leaked product head will impose.
5 PCo FABRIC 79P {rf specilied)
. The temperature change brought about by coniact with the
product liquid willcausethe protective layerthe contract in-
wards and loose contact with the supporting insulation
The various ways of solving this apparent conundrum is dis-
cussed elsewhere in Sforage Tanks & Equipment.
Non-metallic solutions to this problematic area will require vali-
dation by suitable test work.
One of the attractions of the use of cellular glass materials in
this area is its ability to resist the heat generated by installation
welding activities.
19.3.4.5 Mineralwoo
For externally-applied wall insulation there are a few cases
where mineralwool products have been used. This system will
require even more careful attention to the weather cover/
vapour seal, as mineral wool has a low intrinsic resistance to
I Tankwall the flow of air with in itself. For this reason the orevention of con-
2 Tank root
? FOAMGLAS@cetlutarglass vection loopsbeingsetupwithinthe mineralwoolinsulationwill
4 PC9AA ADHFSIVE
also have to be considered.
5 Resilienl insulaiing matenal
6 PITTSEAL@,144 sealei
19.3.4.6 Perlite loose fill insulation systems
7 PITTCOTEO 404 + PC@ FABRIC 79P

Aloose fillinsulation system installed in the interspace between


Figure 19.12 Wall nsulation using Foamgtas@
two concentric vertical cvlindrical tanks consists of two comDo-
Couftesy of Piltsburgh Corning Corporatian nents. These are:

qL49S EIBBE 8AlNrcL. 350 IXPANDED PERLITE


{UNCOMPRESSED) ICOMPACIEO)
9% NiLINER
(VARY NGTHICKNESS)
5000 mm l\,llN. UP VERTICAL
iNNERTANKSHELL
OUTERTANK

3 mnTTFICKCARBON
STEEL LiNER
9% Ni ]NNER TANK EOTTOIl
CRYOGENIC CONCTE]E
250 rim THICK 1 X75 mm THICK
50 mm SCREED FOAMGLAS (ILB 8OO)

5 mm 9% Ni SECONDARY BOTTOM
SAND
50 mm SCREED

. CONCRETE OUTER TANK


4x t00mmTHIC(
FOAMGLAS (HLBSOO)
INTERLEAVEDWTH
PLUVEX s0 mm RESILIENT
BLANKET

l00mmSCREED

3 mmc STEELVAPOUR BARRIER


50mn RES L ENI 2r 100 mm Tl-llCK FOAMGLAS {HLB 1400)
ELANKET INIERLEAVED WITH PLUVEX
CONCRETE OUTER TANK

Figure 19.13 Boltom corner proteclion system

390 STOR,AGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


19 lnsulation systems for low temperaturc tanks

. The loose fill insulation


. The resilient blanket.
The loose fill insulalion
:or loose fill insulation systems pedite is reallythe only choice.
)erlite is a naturally occurring volcanic glass rock. lt is a bound
j.uminium silicate which contains some 3% water of
:rystallisation. When the material is ground to a suiiable size
:lrd subjected to rapid heating to around 1000 'C, the glass
:articles melt and the crystallised water evaporates and ex-
:ands the particles to between '10 and 40 times their original
. clume forming rigid foam cells. The resulting material is white
- colour and has excellent thermal properties. In small quanti-
--es the material can be produced in a suitable factory and
:ansported to site in bags.
Figure 19.14 Line diagram showing a site-based perlite expansion plant
-nis approach is a possibilityfor small tanks such as the small
=rd of the LOX, LIN and argon storage tanks. For larger tanks
:-rs rapidly becomes impractical in view of the quantities in-
, trlved. For a large multi-tank LNG facility, thousands oftonnes

:' expanded perlite will be required. At 60 kg/m3 density, 1000


::1nes of perlite requires a volume approaching '17000m3. The
':ctory route is clearly not a sensible proposition in this case.
-'e solution is the use of portable expansion plants. These can
:e set up on the construction site and the unexpanded perlite
:-e can be more sensiblytransported to site in 1 tonne big bags
:. in containers.
--e perlite is produced by continuously feeding the graded ore
-:o a purpose-designed furnace. The expansion is almost im-
-ediate and the product is exhausted from the furnace in the
-at gas stream which is filtered to separate the expanded
:dite. This is then pneumatically conveyed to the tank where it
-ttles out of the air stream and fills the inter-tank void. Special
?re must be taken to ensure that this conveying process does
-:t damage the perlite as attrition maytake place. To avoid this
:-e conveying velocity must be kept as low as possible, the
i.gths of hose should be kept as short as possible and any
:nds as few as possible and of the maximum practical radius. Flgure 19.15 A perlLte vibraiion sysiem
I re diagram showing this process is shown as Figure 19.14.
The solution chosen to solve this problem was to suspend a
I :/picalexample of the vibration equipment required to avoid glass fibre blanket from the top of the outer surface ofthe inner
i,cessive settlement of the pedite as discussed in Section tank shell. This blanket acted like a spring and controlled the
': 3.2.3 is shown in Figure 19.15. external loadings on the inner tank, especially when the inner
The resilient blanket tankwarmed upfollowing a period in service. Atthis point in the
tank's life cycle it is empty and most at risk from possible dam-
--e guroose of the resilient blanket is to control the external
age caused by external pressures. This test work enabled the
:-3ssures which the loose fill insulation material exerts on the design pressures to be predicted with confidence and the inner
--er liquid container These external pressures change in tank stiffening system to be designed. The design of the inner
- agn itude du ring the life cycle of the storage tank, but can gen- tank stifiening is discussed in detail in Chapter 18. The result of
:?lly be assumed to have their maximum value when the tank this work was that the resilient blanket system was the subject
: lecommissioned following a period in service. In simplistic ofajointly held patent, and the technologywas licensed to other
:."ns the wayin which this maximum design pressure is arrived
contractors until the patent cover expired in the late 1970s.
:: s illustrated in Figure 19.'16. Perlite in its expanded form is
: -3sumed to be incompressible at the low levelofloadings pre-
,, ing in this situation (higher loadings will cause expanded
As low temperature tanks, and LNG tanks in particular, became
:.'ite to break down in an irreversible fashion) and to be able to bigger, the suspended method of blanket installation became a
':,v freely into any voids which may be created. problem. The glass fibre manufacturers could only produce
--e problem was first given serious attention during the design suiiably-faced materials in limited lengths and the vertical load-
-" ase of the LNG tanks at the Canvey lsland lmport Terminal. ings on the blanket materials themselves became a limitation.
--e client was the East Midlands Gas Board (EMGB) and the Providing a second support ring at a point halfway up the tank
I was Whessoe Ltd. Ajointlyfunded research and de- shell and using two drops of blanket was one solution. Another
='rtractor
,E cpment programme was undertaken and a series of box was to impale the blanket material on pins which were attached
:s:s weredevised which simulated the intersoace between the to the outside ofthe innertank with suitable adhesives. Afurther
--er and the outertanks, the insulation materials which were to solution was to arrange forthe inner tank stiffening to be on the
:: installed in this space and the thermally-induced move- outer surface ofthe innertank (these stiffeners are most usually
-e'rts of the inner iank as it cooled to LNG temperature and to be found on the inner su rfaces of the inner tanks) and for the
. -rsequently warmed up again. The test facility had the equip- stiffeners themselves to be at a constant Ditch. The resilient
-elt necessary to measure the pressures on the outer sur- blanket material was then installed between these stiffeners
-3:es of the simulated inner tank at various stages during the and held in place with wire laced between the outer edges ofthe
:.s: cycte. stiffeners.

STOR,AGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 39,I


1 9 lnsulation systems for low tempenture tanks

Over the years furthertest work has been carried out and Brit-
ish Gas (of whom El\,lGB was formerly a part) continued its in-
terest in the subject and allowed some of its 50,000m3 LNG
Outer tanks to be fitted with pressure and blanket thickness measur-
wall 'Perlite ing equipment. Thus a full-scale test facility, withoutthe uncer-
iainties brought about by specimen end effects, which were al-
waysa problemwith the box tests, was made available. Mostof
the data collected was analysed by the late Dr lan Leadley of
Blanket Whessoe.
The relationship between the perlite, the resilient blanket and
the resultant pressures on the inner tank is complex and in-
volves a bewildering numberofvariables. Amongst these are:
. The physical dimensions ofthe hnks and the interspace
. The product and ambient temperatures
. The materials of the inner and of the outertanks
. The density ofthe perlite
The thickness of the resilient blanket
The compressive properties of the resilient blanket
The angle of internal friction of the perlite (this varies with
time)
The coefficient offriction at the various interfaces
The number of full and partial thermal and liquid filling cy-
cles for the inner tank
. The numberof pressure cycles for the outertank (applies to
- inlorspace filled wih Pedite steel outer ianks only)
All of the tank designers have their own ways of solving this
'"1"'.1*:"*o" \ complex problem. These are usually closely guarded secrets.
The whole subject is shrouded in uncertainty because ofthe dif-
ficulties with the perlite/blankevpressure relationship, the large
factors of safety used in the stiffenersize and pitch calculations
and the small number of lowtemperature tanks which are sub-
jected to the full loading cycle and then decommissioned and
examined.
Cold - inn6r tank conlracts
19.4 Roof insulation
Innr tank warms up and oxpands

19.4.1 General

The most commonly found forms of roof insulation fall into two
categones:
. For single-walled metallic tanks the insulation system is at-
tached to the external surfaces of the roof sheeting.
. For some single-skinned tanks and for the majority of dou-
Pe ite / bl.nket intBrface remains in same position as c) ,bove
ble-walled tanks, the insulalion system is supported on a
Ohis gives maximim exlamal prossure on inner tank)
suspended deck supported from the tank roof framework
and located within the tank.

19.4.2 External roof insulation

This is usually similar in form tothe externalshell insulation sys-


tems described above. The insulation materials used and the
need for an effective weather cover/vapour banier are the
same. lf anything, the local environment on the tank roof is
worse than for the tank shell in terms of exposure to severe
winds, rain and chemical aggression. For this reason it is not
uncommon for single-walled tanks to be constructed with inter-
nal suspended decks. In addition to the advantages of remov-
ing the insulation from this difficult environment, there are other
potential savings associated with the design temperature for
Non-f n6ar lastic proprli6s of reslient bbnket the outer roof sheeting and its supporting framework being
based on atmospheric temperatures and noton the lowerprod-
Figure l9.'16 Resilient blanket pressure history uct temperature. The insulation material may be cheaper i.e.

392 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


19 lnsulation systefis for low tempercturc tanks

rit- :r density glass fibre rather than polyurethane foam. The monia where the supply of suitable in{ank pumps is problem-
in- l r, eather cover/vapour barrierwill no longer be required. These atic. This is discussed in Chapter 21. Oxygen and nitrogen
!G ::vings may well offset the cost of providing the suspended tanks traditionally have side wallor bottom connections rather
iJ r- :eck and its supports and the longevity ofthe system is almost than in-tank pumps. Tanks which predated the general move
el ::rtain to be jmproved. away from single containment to the higher containment cate-
gories were also often fitted with side wall or bottom connec-
:o; 19.4.3 Internal suspended deck insulation tions, mainly for liquid import and export.
o'
The function of the fittings heat breaks are:
-.e most commonly used insulation materials for this purpose
i:c :-e low density glass fibre ofthe type often found in domestic at-
. To prevent excessive local heat gain
li
It'- : : :s or lofts, (usually around 0.75k9/m3 in density), mineralwool, . To provide a mechanical load transfer mechanism between
:
=!ain at the lower end of the range of densities available, and the attached pipework and the tank roof, wall of bottom
:dite. The pedite is most usually site-expanded and installed . To protect Darts of the tank which are constructed from ma-
:.3se or in bags. For suspended deck insulation, the following
terials which are not suitable for contact with the orod uct Iio-
::nsiderations must be taken into account:
uid design temperature
. Steps should be taken to prevent the roof insulation from . To avoid condensation orlocalice build uD around thefittino
contaminating the product liquid. For plate type suspended
decks this is only a problem around the periphery of the
deckand atfittings penetrations. A simple fabric shroud will 19.5.2 Heat breaks for roof connections
normally suffice. Fordecks constructed from structural sec-
iions and troughed sheeting where there are gaps between Figure 19.17 shows a typical roof heat break arrangementfor a
the sheets, this is more ofa problem and frequently requires lull containment LNG tank. Roof fittings for product liquid or
a layerofsuitable material between the deck and the insula- vapour can become quite large. The in-tank pump columns for
tion to covef such gaps. A commonly used material for this a typical LNG export terminal tank may well be up to 42" in di-
purpose is a glass reinforced paper. Perlite in particular is a
problem. lt has a tendency to flow through small gaps, and
for an apparently delicate material, can cause problems
with abrasion of the moving parts of certain downstream
process equipment, for example pumps.
. Where fibrous materials are used for deck insulation and
perlite for the wall insulation, the fabric shroud or the perlite
retaining wall must prevent the perlite from getting onto the
deck in addition to its other duty of retaining a sufficient hop-
per volume of perlite above the interspace.
. Steps must be taken to prevent the deck insulation from be-
ing "rearranged" by vapour movements above the deck or
from getting into the product via the deck vents.
. Steps should be taken to ensure that the final, installed deck
insulation thickness is what has been specified and used in
the thermal insulation calculations. A commonly used de-
vice is to put adhesive tape markers on the suspended deck
supporting rods or wires to indicate the required finished
thickness. By this means any settlement during installation
0ecomes oDVtous.
. For tanks where there is a possibility of condensation of the
product liquid on the underside ofthe outer roof (a problem
for butane tanks where the ambient temperature can occa-
sionally be lower than the storage temperature, and in ar-
eas ofthe world subject to very low temperatures, a similar
problem for propane tanks), provision must be made to en-
sure that the condensed liquid can make jts waythrough the
suspended deck. For double-walled tanks it is necessary to
ensure that the condensation will also not enter the wall in-
sulation interspace.

19.5 Insulation of heat breaks and fittings


19.5.1 General

-he majority of fittings in conventional vertical, cylindrical low


:emperature storage tanks pass through the tank roof. The lack
lftank wall penetrations is a prerequisite ofthe fullcontainment
of storage and is strongly preferred for the single and
=tegory
:ouble containment categories.
-here are a fewcircumstances where side walland bottom con-
rections are used. One of these is for the storage of liquid am- Fqure 19.1/ -ypical rool heal break arrange-lent for LNC se-vrce

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 393


1 I lnsulation systems for low temperature tanks

ameter and it is not unusual for the liouid import line and the
vapour return line for these tanks to be 32" in diameter

ln this case the tank roof is constructed from reinforced con-


crete with a non low temperature steel liner, i.e. the roof sheet-
ing. With the product storage temperature at about -162 'C an
efficient thermal heat break is required. The mechanical loads
to be transferred across the heat break arising from the
self-weight ofthe internal and external pipework and its insula-
tion, the piping system anchor loads and any local valves and
fittings will be substantial, particularly when the tank is to be
constructed in an area subjectto a severe seismic environment
and significant amplification of these static loadings can take
place. Consequently a robust connection is required.

Cleady the need for thermal efficiency and the need for me-
chanical strength are in conflict. This makes the design ofthese
fittings interesting. A lot of experience in the use and behaviour
ofthe various proprietary designs is useful here. lt is sometimes
written in specifications that the heat breaks shall prevent ice
formation orcondensation on the tank rooflocalto thefitting un-
der allatmospheric conditions. This is a quite unreasonable re-
quirement which is impossible to comply with. There willalways
be some measure of cooling ofthe roof or the warm side com-
ponents ofthe heat break adjacent to the fitting and under unfa-
vourable atmospheric conditions, some condensation or ice
build up is inevitable. lt would be more reasonable to require
that the heat break design will seek to minimise this phenome-
non.

For double-walled tanks where the inner tank has a fixed roof,
the situation is more complex as a means must be provided to
accommodate the differentialthermal movements which will be
present. These types oftanks are quite uncommon these days
although there are some companies in the Far East who still re-
main wedded to this arrangement. lt is most usual to include a
bellows in the penetration. This can be located between the two
roofs or external to the outer tank roof. Atypical arrangement is
illustrated in Figure 19.18.
For the heat break arrangement shown in Figure 19.17, experi- Figure 19.18 Atypical roof fitting for a double roof type of tank
ence has shown that the most effective form of insulation is
PUF. This can be installed in the fitting prior to its erection into
the tank roof. The most convenient way of achieving this is to
foam the PUF in situ into the inverted fitting using one ofthe pro-
prietary foam kits available on the market. The use ofglass fibre
or mineral wool packed into the insulation space has not been
good for the lowertemperature end of the product range. Prob-
lems of internal convection have frequently led to the appear-
ance of external ice spots.

For warmer products such as butane. ammonia or propane, a


simpler arrangement is frequently adopted. One such is illus-
trated in Figure 19.19. One of the significant savings results
from the elimination of the expensive stainless steel cone
piece. Forthese products the use of glass fibre or mineralwool
insulation may be appropriate.
Gl.ss flbre, miner5l wool

19.5.3 Heat breaks for tank sidewall connections

For single-walled tanks, there is no need fora heat break, since


the wall, fitting and the connected pipework all fallwithin the in-
sulation envelope.
For the now unusual, double-walled single containment type of
tanks, a typical arrangement is shown in Figure 19.20. The de-
sign of such flttings was not easy, the accommodation of the
thermal and mechanical movements of the inner shell and the
reduction ofthe external loadings from the connected pipework
to acceptable limits had to be considered. External spring sup-
ports and pipe loops were frequently required to resolve these
pro0rems. Figure 19.19 Atypical rcoffilting fot LPG or ammonia seruice

394 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1 e t,s,Eji9!:EE!:!!!9y!!29EyE !9!

Forthe much smallertanks for the storage ofoxygen, nitrogen


and argon, the use of sidewall connections is common. These
are frequently incorporated into a cold box built into the shell of
the outer carbon steel tank. Atypical arrangement is indicated
in Figure 19.21.

19.5.4 Heat breaks for tank bottom connections

Despite the apparent attractions oftank bottom connections in


terms of maximising the use of the tank capacity and of en-
abling the operators to drain the full tank contents for rapid de-
commissioning, bottom connections are uncommon.
For single-walled tanks there is no need for any form of heat
oreaK.
For double-walled tanks with small-sized iittings, the penetra-
tion of the inner tank bottom is connected by pipework running
in the base insulation and exiting through the outer shell. Here a
heat break arrangement similar to that required for Section
'19.4.3 is necessary Figure 19.22 The bottom connection at Mobil Oit's Coryton refinery

Figure 19.22 shows a detail which was used for a double con- worked successfully for some 15 years. ln this case the heat
tainment liquid butane tank constructed at l\Iobil Oil's CoMon break is the bellows.
refinery This was a double-walled metallic tank where in;or-
mal service the inner pipe is cold and the outer pipe is warm.
Under accident conditions both inner and outer pipes are cold. 19.6 Internal pipework insulation
This was a fitting which was difficult to construct, but which has
The only pipework to be found within the tank envelooe is nor-
mallythatwhich runs from the cold liquid orvapour roofconnec-
tion down to the suspended deck. The insulation is simDle usu-
ally consisting of multiple layers of a suitably-backed glass
fibre, wrapped around the pipe and held in place with wire or
---i-* plastic ties, or of preformed pipe insulation sections usually
made from glass fibre or mineral wool.

-t,.-
l',+ atr-j.r.r,t fr ,./ 19.7 External pipework insulation
.//)l !I --
The insulation of lowtemperature pipework is a signifi cantsub-
ject jn its own right and more properly belongs in a publicatjon
tiK ll'1 "",""i
dealing with pjpework systems.
Regularvisits to sites where lowtemperature liquids are stored
U .'' and processed will rapidly revealto the observerthat the maior-
ity of problems of ice build-up and condensation occur in ihe
pipework. In addition to causing expense by virtue of excessive
heat gain, the ice build-up can also be the source of safetv Drob-
lems by inhibiting thermal movements at bellows and pipe sup-
oorts.
Good low temperature pipework insulation is the result of cor-
rect system design, specification, material selection and proba_
Fjgure 19.20 A typicat sidewall connection fora double-wa ed sjngle contain-
bly most importantly, the careful installation and site supervision
by experienced specialists.
Traditionally,pipework insulation has been fitted followino erec-
tion ofthe piping system. In recent years there has been Jmove
away from site installation and it is now common for orefabri-
cated pipe spools to be sent to an insulation specialist to re-
ceive the thermal insulation prior to erection in the field. This
brings the benefits of controlled factory environments for this
activity, leaving onlythejoints between spools to be insulated at
site. Clearly good planning and dimensional control are a Dre-
requisite ofthe successful implementation ofthis method of in_
stallation.
The most commonly used materials for the insulation are pUF
and cellularglass. Both ofthese materials are available in fac-
tory-formed pipe profiles. lvlaterials commonly used for the
vapour seal/weather protection are galvanised or Aluzinc steel
sheeting, aluminium sheeting, stainless steel sheeting, poly-
ethylene and vadous non-mebllic mastics.
For manyyears an argument has raged concerning the relative
merits of the materials and combinations of materials in resist_
Figure 19.21 A typical sidewatt connection for a LOX or LtN tank
ing heat radiation loadings from various accident scenarios.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 395


19 lnsulation systems fot low tempercture tanks

This still continues, with allsides frequently claiming victory. lt is l\4ost thermal insulation materials have thermal conductivities
not unusual for composite systems using PUF for the inner which change with temperature. This is illustrated for cellular
layers and cellular glass for the outer layer to be specified. glass by Figure 19.6. Hence the mean temperature of a layer of
insulation material within the multi-layersystem must be known
An area where particularcare is needed is in the fitting of insula-
before the thermal resistance of that layer can be calculated,
tion to valves and other fittings.
and the thermal resistance is required to establish the mean
Infrared thermography discussed in Section 19.10 is a useful remperarure.
tool for inspecting low temperature pipe insulation systems.
The way out of this apparent impasse is to assume a tempera-
The identification of the causes of failure or lack of longevity of ture profile for the various interfaces within the system, use this
such pipe insulation systems is not always straightforward. A to calculate the mean temperatures of the individual layers and
refinery in the UK had problems of early breakdown of its care- this in turn to obtain the k values of the various materials to per-
fully installed cellular, glass-based insulation. The cause ofthis form the initial calculation. The results of this calculation allow
problem was eventuallyhaced to the fact that the workforce fre- the interface temperatures to be recalculated and the k values
quently used the larger insulated pipes as walkways to the to be revised. Asecond calculation is carried out and the results
more inaccessible parts ofthe site. The brittle cellularglass was ofthis allow a further revision of the k values. A couple offurther
no match for the workers' boots! iterations should show temperature values at the interfaces
converging and this should be sufficient. Figure 19.23 shows a
numerical example of this Drocess. This is a tedious calculation
19.8 Heat leak calculations
to carryoutbyhand and is ideallysuited to Excel spreadsheets.
The basis of the heat leak calculations is quite straightforward.
Itisonlyin the detail that the subject becomes a little more inter-
19.8.2 Thermal conductivity values
esting. The tank insulation system is divided up into the areas
where similar materials or combinations of materials have been
used. For a typical full containment tank these would be: Initially, the source of the thermal conductivity values (or K val-
ues) to be used in the basic calculations is the manufacture's
. The central area ofthe tank base technical literature. Mosi low temperature tank designers will
. The oerioheral area ofthe tank base produce their own detailed technical specifications for the sup-
ply and installation of the different parts of the insulation sys-
. The lower tank wall where thermal orotection has been in- tem. Within such specifications it would be unusual if there were
stalled not some means of confirming the K values of the materials.
. The upper tank wall where no thermal protection has been This could take the form of regular samples being taken from
installed the place of production, be this a factory for materials such as
slab stock PU F, PVC foam, cellular glass, glass fibre or mineral
. The tank roof wool, or the construction site for such materials as perlite or site
expanded PUF.
19.8.1 Basic calculation methods These samples would be sent to an agreed laboratory where
the K values would be verified at the appropriate temperature
The basic equation to calculate the heatflux through a particu- (or range of tem peratures). lt is usual for the eventual owners of
lar component to be adopted where a slngle insulation material the tank to witness this testing, either themselves or via their
is used is: hired engineering or inspection companies. As has been men-
H=k xAxAT iL equ 19.1 tioned earlier, the measurement of low temperature insulation
properties is noteasyand should be leftto those skilled and ex-
where: perienced in this work. Note that this testing is usually con-
ducted in air.
H = heat flux through component (W)
For porous materials such as perlite, glass fibre or mineral
k = thermal conductivity of the insulation material
wool, the vapour within which the insulation material is operaf
(W/m'K)
ing wiil have a significant effect on lts effective K value. Thus the
A = area of component (m2) test results which are based on air as the interstitial gas will
have to be adjusted to account for the presence of a different
AT = hot to cold face temperature range ('K)
gas. This is discussed in Section 19.8.3.
L = thickness of component (m)
Where the insulation material has been penetrated by items
Where more than one material is used the following method made from different materials, such as is the case for resilient
taken from section A3 oI Reference 79.3 is used: blankets supported by being impaled on pins, the effective K
equ 19.2
valueto be used in the calculations must be adjusted to take ac-
U = 1/ (R1+ R2 + R3+.....+Rn)
count of the short circuiting effect ofthe pins. Asuitable calcula-
wnere: tion method for making this adjustment is given in section ,q3 of
Reference 19.3.
U = thermal transmittance (Wm'? 'K)
Certain insulation materials have thermal properties which
R1 & thermal resistance ofthe various insulation change with time. PUF used as external insulation may display
R2 etc = components (m2'K iV)
- calculated from an increase in its K value as the original foaming gas within the
equation '19.3 below cells is progressively replaced byair.ltis importantthatin these
R=L/K equ 19.3 circumstances a suitably aged property is used in the calcula-
tion.
Hence the equation to calculate the heat flux through a multi-
layer component is:
19.8.3 The influence of different interstitial gases
H=U xAxAT equ 19.4
It is not normal to include surface resistance in these calcula- The various equations which allow the K values of the vapours
tions. ofthe various low temDerature oroducts to be calculated at dif-

396 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


19 lnsulatjon systems for low temperature tanks

ABumptions for the exercise:


To Outer surface tamperature +40'c
Ti lnner sutfsoa ternperature -165 'C
Intef,stltialgas Methane
Installed perlle density 60 kglm3
lnstallsd glass fibre dn8ity 24 relm3
Section through wa[:
Matedal Thickne6s(mm)
Outside Concte 600
Sleel linet 5 lgnor h thermalcalculation
Psdite 960
Glasslibre 240
Inside 90/6 ni inner tank 10 lgnore in thermalcahulalion

Assumed thermalgradienl ('C) CK)

Air/concrelg 40 313 3'13.0000 313.0000 313,0000


Conc|Eie,/perlite 30 3{X} 310.C015 310.256 310.7349
Prlite/gla8s tibre -125 148 117.1301 174,7136 174.5*1
Glass fibr/product -'165 108 108.0000 108,0000 108-0000

TRIAL No 1
' Calculate K values:
Concrete Taken as 1.60 Wm'K tiroughout calqiation
Perlite step l calculate K value of hterstitial gas (f1)
ATp 155 'K
KS1 0.0243158 w,lm'K
step 2 calculate K value of petlib (KP)
R 8.252384i|
y 0.137422
Kp 0.0401584 Wm'K
Gla6s fibre step 1 calculate K value of interstitial gas (lQ2)
ATfg 40'K
l{gz 0.0133521 dm"K
step 2 fuctor ftom Figure 19.25
f 1.455
step 3 calculale K value of glass fibr
Kg 0-0194273

Total hat f,ux (tdal 1)


. Matedal Thidmess (mm) K value Themalresistance(rn2 "K iv) AT
ConaGte 600 1.6 0.3750 2.0985
Perlite 960 0.0401584 23.9054 133.771407
Glass fib|e 240 0.0194273 12.3538 6S.1301

Total 36.6341 m5.0000

Heat FlI( (dmz) 5.5959

Figure 1 9.23 An sxample of a multilayer ln6ulation @mponent cslcllation - page t

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIFII'ENT 397


19 lnsulation systems for low temperdturc tanks

TRIAL No 2
Calcxrlate K values:
Concrets Taken as 1.60 Wm'K thrcughout calculation
Pedite step 1 calculate K value of intersfital gas (lg1)
ATp 133.7714'K
Kgl 0.0266994 w/m'K
stp 2 calculale K value of pertite (Kp)
R 7.87Tt517
y 0.1374?2.
.l
Kp o.o428oa w/m'K
Glass fib| step calculale K value of inteGfitial gas (Kg2)
Arfu 69.1901 'K
Kg2 0.01499s6 w/m'K
step 2 factor from Figure 9.2S
1
t 1.455
step 3 calculate K value of glass fibre
Kfs 0.0218187

Total heat flux (biat 1 )


Material Thlckness (mm) Kvalue Thermal resistance(mr.XLn) at
Concret 600 1.8 0.3750 2,2744
Perlfte 960 0.042808 22-4287 136.012036
cfass fibr6 240 O.O21B|B7 10.999g 66.7,13

Toiat $.9005 208.0000


Heat Ftux (dmz) 6.0650

TRIAL No 3
Calculale K values:
Conqeie Taken as 1.60 w/m'K throughout clculalion
Pedite step 1 calculate K value ot interstitiat gas (Kg1)
ATp 136.0i20 'K
lQl 0.0285485 w/m'K
step 2 calculate K value of pedite (Kp)
R 7.9020321
y 0.137422.
Kp 0.0426242 wtm'K
Glass fibr step 1 calculale K value of interstitial gas (Kg2)
ATfs 66.7136 'K
Kg2 0.0148s87 dm'K
step 2 factor from Figure 1 9.25
1.455
step 3 calculate K value of glass jibre
Kfg 0.02i6194

Total heat flux (trlat 1)


Matedal Thickness (mm) Kvalue The.malresistance(flf "tgu/) AT
Concrete 600 1.6 0.3750
pedite 960 0.0426242 Z2.Sn4
2.2611
135.8027i18
Glass fibre 240 0.0216194 11.'1011 66.936.1

Total 33.9986 205.0000

Hat Flux (dm2) 6.0297

Figure 19.23 An example ofa multi-tayer insulation component calcutation - page 2

398 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1 I lnsulation systems for low temperaturc tanks

'efent temperatures are given in Figure '19.24. The source of 19.8.4 Galculation of the hot face temperature
tis data is Reference 19.4.
The design specification will require a certain maximum heat
Fomula for themal conductivity In wm"K leak into the tank contents as described in Section 19.7 Ofren
o oorou * u'"tito'Lt'Jli the only data given is the maximum design ambient tempera-
ture, which is a shade temperature at the tank's geographic lo-
5 9l7 t 1o' ca on.
o.oos6r r lT'l''
The actual maximum temperatures to which the tank roof and
o.oorot .
uuttilo'[t.ll' walls will be subjected influenced by the local solar radiation
maximum levels, the attitude ofthe surface in question, the pre-
I 258'10 7
.-,e6rr, vailing weatherconditions (clear orcloudy skies)and the nature
nT t' lr
of the external surfaces. Data and calculation methods allowing
rrr,.1-.""" the actual maximum temperatures to be calculated for any set
\Ttll of circumstances are given in section AG ot Reference 19 3

L For the tank base. two possibilities exist:


-- )r'
^T . For tanks built on the ground, the hot face temperature is
-i--L'r', based on the operational settings of the base heating con-
trol system. lt is clearly unwise to have the base heating
Tl
system maintaining the base temperature at too high a
level. Purchasing expensive energy, be it electrical, steam
T,-T, fK) or heated brine to boil off more product than is necessary
t T+12CK) incurring further costs in terms of re-liquefaction or product
loss to atmosphere is clearly a nonsense. Consequently a
: g u re 1 L24 Formulae for calculating the K values of various gases at d ifferent design hot face value as low as possible is used. -5 'C is a
not unusualvalue to use in the calculations in these circum-
Forcalculating the Kvalue ofperlite with the air replaced byone stances.
cf these gases at a particular set oftemperature conditions, the
. For tanks built on elevated foundations, a hot face design
'ollowino formula can be used: temperature equal to the maximum shade temperature
xo=Kn(-v)+ equ 19.5 would seem to be a sensible choice. There is perhaps a
/^,+o-1f case for using a lower temperature. Experience suggests
that the space beneath the base slab of such tanks is a cold
vhere: place to be, even on hot days.
Kp = thermal conductivity of perlite in the replace'
ment interstitial gas (Wm 'K) 19.8.5 Overall heat leak
Ks = thermal conductivity of the interstitial gasatthe
appropriate temPerature (Wm "K) Acommon wayforthe tank maximum heat leakto be specifled
to the tank and insulation system designer is to express it in
R" = 0.114i Ks+ 3.608 terms of the escape to atmosphere of a percentage of the full
y = 3.9x10'3xp087 tank contents perday. Hence for a large LNG tank we may see:
"The maximum heat leak shall not exceed 0.05% of the full
p = installed perlite density (kgim3)
tank contents per day on the assumption that the tank con-
For calculating the K value of glass fibre or mineral wool, the tents are considered to be pure methane."
graph shown in Figure 19.25 can be used.
The latter requirement to consider the tank contents as a pure
(Both equation 19.5 and Figure '19.25 are attributed to the late product is to avoid the complication of working out the latent
Dr lan Leadley of Whessoe.) heat ofthe LNG which may have a range ofcompositions and to

lhermal conduclivity glass fibre


= factor x average conductivity of
gas

Figurc 19.25 K value ofglass fibre of mineralwool

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 399


19 Insulation systems for low temperature tanks

avoid subsequent contentious arguments. lt is normal to make . lt may be necessaryto run the in-tank pumps during the test
the same form of wording for any tank containing a mixed prod- period to ensure proper mixing. Allowance for the energy in-
uct, expressing the permitted heat leak in terms ofa percentage out from this source must be made.
ofthe major constituent. The following points are worth bearing . Boil off is known not to occur at a uniform rate, but rather as
in mind:
a series of irregular "burps". This is another reason why the
. lt is importantto use the correct density in the calculation of test must be conducted over a protracted period.
the permitted heat leak. For LNG a latent heat of 507.0 . Arrangements must be made to record and take account of
kJ/kg should be used with the pure methane density of the effects of wind and solar radiation.
0.422. Using the design density of LNG (frequently given as
0.48) will give too high a value of the permitted heat leak. These difficulties combine to make a physical heat leak test
time consuming, expensive and inconclusive. To avoid this
. lt is often presumed that the worst conditions pertaining at problem area, the following procedure is often adopted:
any point on the tank outer surface at any time during the . The tank designer must prepare detailed heat leak calcula-
whole day will persist for the full 24 hours. This has occa-
tions together with the appropriate certification (and possi-
sionally become a point of dispute beh,veen the owner and
bly QA records if these are available at the time) to
the designer, with the tank designer claiming that it repre-
demonstrate that the materials used havethe required ther-
sents an unnecessarily conservative interpretation.
mal properties.
. The full tank contents is usually taken to mean just that, i.e. . These calculations and the associated documentation will
with no deduction for in-tank pump NPSH etc. be submitted to an expert third party, previously agreed by
. both the owner and the tank contractor, who would review
Whilst the calculations seek to cover all of the sources of
possible heat leakage from tank to atmosphere, there will the calculations and whose findings would be binding on
probably be some which have been ignored or overlooked both parties.
such as the smaller connected pipe connections. To cover One of the added advantages of this procedure is that in the
for these uncertainties, it is usual for the designer to aim for event of a shortfall being found in the thermal insulation pro-
a calculated heat leak lower than the full target value. A not vided, then this can be made good prior to the tank entering ser-
unusual starting point would be to aim for 85% of the full vice. This could perhaps be by a simple addition to the thick-
value in the first instance. ness ofthe insulation on the suspended deck, an action with no
knock-on effects. With the physicaltest route, this pre-commis-
A well set out heat leak calculation for a large full containment sioning adjustment is not possible.
type LNG tank is shown in Figure 19.26. This makes use of a
series of linked Excel soreadsheets.
19.10 The use of the infrared camera
An infrared camera will produce images which will identify ar-
19.9 Heat leak testing
eas where the heat leak is abnormal or merelydifferentfrom the
With the customer or his engineer setting a heat leakage re- surrounding areas of insulation. lt is a useful tool both at the
quirement for the tank and the distinct possibility that at least time of tank commissioning and as an occasional maintenance
some of the process equipment will be designed based on this device to locate any changes in the thermal insulation system
figure, it would seem sensible to test the finished storage sys- and its performance, perhaps due to such time dependent phe-
tem to see that it fullllls this performance criteria. This is not as nomena as insulation material degradation or perlite settle-
simple as it would appear for a variety of reasons: ment. The equipment is nowadays quite cheap to purchase, or
there are companies who will come and perform this service.
. lvleasuring the heat leak will require either a significant
change in the tank liquid level to occur, which may take
some days depending upon the accuracy ofthe level mea- 19.1 1Insulation problems from the past
suring equipment provided, or will require the accurate and their lessons
measurement of the vapour flow through the vapour outlet
line, something difficult and expensive to achieve. Vapour
19.11.'l Base insulation failure
flow measurement is not a normal part of the tank instru-
mentation. For a large LNG tank with a specified boil off rate
of less than 0.05% (a typical figure for such tanks) the level Two LNG tanks belonging to GAZ Metropolitan in lMontreal,
change will be of the order of 15 mm/day. To get a sensible Canada, had been in continuous satisfactory service until July
measurement which will be sufiicient to negate any uncer- 1990, when instrumentation in the tank base ofone of the tanks
tainty caused by tolerances on gauging accuracy, it is clear began to show evidence of cold spots. After double checking
that the test duration must run into several days. and adding new thermocouples, the problem persisted and it
became obvious that the tank required to be taken out of
. The tank must be fullor close to full at the time of the test to service.
avoid contentious arguments revolving around the extrapo- Following decommissioning it was found that the cellular glass
lation ofthe heat leakfrom a lowerliquid levelto a fulltank. base insulation was the subject of massive cracking and me-
. The tank must not be subject to any liquid movements dur- chanical breakdown.
ing the test period. This damage eventually necessitated the lifting ofthe innertank
andthe complete replacement of the cellularglass base insula-
. The test must be carried out at a time when barometric tion, an expensive and time consuming process.
pressure is anticipated to remain relatively constant.
An investigation into the cause of this base insulation failure
. Ambient temperature must be monitored throughout the was carried out and this is reported in Reference 19.5.
test period.
The investigation revealed that in July 1990, blasting work had
. For LNG LPG and other mixed products, it is necessary to been carried out within 200 m ofthe two tanks. The tank nearest
determine the composition of the liquid in the tank. This will to the blasting was full of Iiquid at the time and undamaged. The
require sampling as the iank is filled. tankfurthest awayfrom the blasting location was fllled to 20% of

4OO STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


19 lnsulation systems for low tempenture tanks

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Figure '1 9.26 A typlcal heat leak calculalion for a laBe LNG tank _ page t

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 401


19 lnsulation systems for low tempenturc tanks

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Figure 19-26 A typical heat leak celculation for a laEe LNG tank - page 2

402 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


1 9 lnsulation systems for low tempenture tanks

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Figure 1 9-26 A typical heat leak calcutation for a large LNG tank - page J

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 403


19 lnsulation systems for low temperature tanks

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Figure 1 9.26 A typical h6at leak calculalion for a large LNG tank _ page 4

404 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


19 Insulation systems for low tempemture tanks

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Figure 1 9.26 A typical heat leak calculalion for a large LNG tank - page 5

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 405


19 lnsulation systems for low temperature knks

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Figura 1 9.26 A typical heat lek calculation for a large LNG tank - page 6

406 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


19 lnsulation systems for low temperature tanks

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Figure 1 9.26 A typical heat leak calculation for a large LNG tank - page 7

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 407


19 lnsulation systems for low tempercture tanks

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Figufe 19.26 A typ cal heat leak calculation for a Lafge LNG tank - page I

408 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


19 Insulation systems for low temperaturc tanks

:s capacity and was damaged as described. The investigation . Exposed to frequent waterfall events, due to concentrated
:ound that the partiallyfilled tank had a higher natural frequency rainfall from the roof and shell.
:han the fuller tank and was thus more susceptible to damage
iom the blasfinduced ground motions.
. Complications to detailed design caused by holding-down
-lhe anchors.
lesson from this incident is clearly that any blasting on the
same, or adjacentsites should be avoided, and ifthis is not pos- . The correct selection of materials, detailed design and
sible, then detailed investigations should be carried out to de- careful installation together with regular inspection all have
iermine the susceptibility of tanks with brittle base insulation their part to play in this area.
naierials to damage.
19.1 1.4 Perlite settlement
19.11.2 External vapour sealing
Double walled tianks using perlite insulation have on occasions
A number of low temoerature tanks with external thermal insu- had a history of poor performance. Aring of condensation orice
ation on their shells, and in some cases also on their roofs, at. or close to the top ofthe outer shell, is an indication of exces-
rave come to grief over the years. The reasons for these fail- sive perlite settlement. The reasons for this can be:
Jres are usually associated with poor performance of their ex- . Lack of, or inadequate, or ineffective vibration ofthe perlite
:ernal vapour sealing arrangements. This has allowed mois-
during its site expansion and insiallation.
iure-laden air to invade the insulation material and form ice
/vithin the insulation or on the tank shell beneath the insulation. . The provision of insufficient hoppervolume atthe top corner
The damage can manifest itself immediately following the tank of the tank.
cool down or following several years in service.
. On at least one occasion, the location of a large diesel-pow-
Higher than anticipated heat in leak and consequent product ered generatoradjacentto the tank following perlite installa-
Soiloff, the appearance of external condensation orofice spots tion.
or (in at least one case) sudden failure and collapse ofallor part
of the shell insulation are the usual signs. The use of experienced perlite installation companies using ap-
propriate methods and equipment will help to avoid this prob-
The lesson here is that the external vapour seal and its lem and its solution, expensive in service topping up of the
ong-term abilityto keep atmospheric moisture out ofthe insula- perlite.
tion material is viialto the survival ofthe insulation system. Cor-
r.ect material selection, sDecification and installation are all ac-
livities, which will help to ensure that the required performance 19.12 References
and service life are obtained.
19.1 Foamglas@ lndustrial lnsulation Handbook, Pittsburgh
Corning NV Waterloo, Belgium.
19,11.3 Bottom corners
19.2 Research into the structural integrity of LNG tanks,
The bottom corner of tanks where the wall insulation is on the D. Neville and G. White, British Gas Engineering Re-
outer surface ofthe shell and the base insulation is beneath the search Station. LNG 9. October 1989.
iank bottom, have on occasions given rise to problems. Again, 19.3 The lnternational Heating and Ventilating Guide, fhe
the cause is moisture ingress and the reason is poorwaterand Chartered Institution of Building Services.
vapour sealing materials and details. This is a difficult area of
the insulation system to design for, for a number of reasons:
19.4 The Handbook of Cryogenic Engineering, J.G.
Weisland ll, Taylor & Francis, London, 1998.
. Large radial thermal movements caused by tank contrac-
tion.
19.5 Damage to base ofLNG tanks from blast loadings - A
case study, R. Tinawi, A. Filiatrank, C Dor6, Journal of
. High shell line loadings, requiring materials with good, me- Performance of Constructed Facilities. Vol 7. No 3. Au-
chanical and thermal DroDerties. qust 1993.

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 409


410 STORAGE TANKS & EQUTPMENT
20 Ancillary equipment for low
temperature tanks
This Chapter provides a brief review of the ancillary equipment which goes to make up a low
temperature liquid storage system.

Contents:
20.1 General

20.2 In-tank pgmps and their handling equipment


20.2.1 In-tank pumps
20.2.2 In-tank pump removal systems
20.2.3 Pumo columns
20.3 Filling columns
20.4 Base heating systems
20,5 Tank cooldown systems
20.6 Internal shut-off valves
20.7 Venting systems
20.8 Fire protectlon aystems
20.8.1 Detection systems
20.8.2 Safety systems
20.8.2.1 Fire water system
20.8.2.2 Foam systems
20.8.2.3 Dry polvder systems
20.8.2.4 Local proteclion of vulnerabb equiprner
20.9 Instrumentation
20.9.1 Level measurement
20,9.2 Pressure measurement
20.9.3 Temperature measurement
20.9.4 Level/temperature/density (LTD) measurement
20.9.5 Leak detection
20.9.6 Internal cameras
20.10 Civil monitoring systems
20.11 Refurences

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 411


20 Ancillary eguipment for low temperature tanks

The modern land-based in-tank pumps owe much to the ship


20.1 General ping industry where similar pumps have been used for many
The ancillaryequipmentassociatedwith lowtemperalure tanks years and from whence they were developed. These pumps
falls into two categories. are required to lifr the product liquid out of the storage tank, ei-
. Equipmentwhich is generally uniqueto the lowtemperature therto deliver it to external pumps which willimpart the required
tiank category such as in-iank pumps, base heating sys- pressure to the product, or to impart this pressure themselves
tems, civil monitoring systems and some items of inslru- without the assistance of external pumps.
mentation. As would be expected, the biggest pumps are associated with
. Equipment which is similar to that normally provided for LNG tanks which are in general larger in capacitythan the tanks
tanks for ambient temperature service, but in certain ways for other products and require greaterthroughput. lt is generally
different, perhaps by being required to be more accurate or accepted that in order to avoid excessive demurrage charges,
to be made to higher safety standards. Certainly such a large LNG tanker should be loaded at 12,000 m3/hr. Presum-
equipment is generally more expensive than the equivalent ing thatthis tankeris being loadedfrom two land-based storage
items for ambient temperature service. Into this category tanks each fitted with three in-tank pumps, then pumps with a
would fall level, pressure and temperature measuring in- discharge rate of some 2000 m3/hr will be required. A typical
strumentation, venting and fire protection equipment. in-tank pump assembly is shown in FigUIe 2o.2.
Pump manufacturers are currently developing pumps with unit
capacities of 3000 m3/hr. Awide range of pressuremow combi-
20.2 In-tank pumps and their handling nations are available and these are illustrated in Figures 20.3
equipment and 20.4.
Clearlythe capacityofan in-tiank pump willdepend on the situa-
20.2.1 ln-tank pumps tion and function ofthe storage tank. For a liquid exportterminal
the requirement may be for a large capacity to speed the load-
As has been discussed in earlier Chapters, in-tank pumps have ing of shipping, but a comparatively modest delivery pressure,
become very much a standard item of equipment for low tem- sufficientto liftthe liquid from the tank and deliver it through the
perature tanks, especially for double and full containment sys- connecting pipework and loading arms to the ship. For an im-
tems. port terminal, the requirements in terms ofthroughput are more
The pumps and their driving motors are fitted into pump wells modest being related to the needs ofassociated processes, but
which are immersed in the product liquid. The pump wells run the requirements in terms of delivery pressure may be signifl-
verticallyfrom the bottom ofthe liquid-containing tank upwards, cant. Where external pumps are notto used in the system, it is
through the suspended deck where this is fitted and exit not unusualforthe in-tank pumps to be required to raisethe liq-
through the pressure-containing tank roof. Such a pump is illus- uid pressure to that of the final user, who may require a line
pressure of 40 bar or greater.
trated in Figure 20.1. The pump motor is cooled directly by the
passage ofthe product liquid for all of the low temperature liq- Pumps for high throughput but lowpressures tend to be large in
uids with the exception of ammonia. The reasons why liquid diameter with a single stage. High-pressure pumps with low
ammonia is the odd one out are described in Chapter 2l .

Operalionsl condilion

Figure 20.1 Alypical section lhrough an inlank pump Figure 20.2 A complete in-tank pump assembly
Court$y of Nikkjso Cryo Eurcpe Cou esy of Mkkjso Cryo Europe

412 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


2A Ancillary equipment fot law tempercture tanks

-a_..
50HZ
HEAD(m)
2ooo S<
N = "r--K :D\N\
1500

}:# ;)l ',) !x


-/.\!
-
l'

- -,1 x-
); \
r; l---\ N E
500

,r
5r+
rl-;-*
s '7- i
s:i!x
**l fi)'
)
)

r<i
sil $r
]-*'--..r

il>{
,l >L
/l<
L
.}]
\ 1=4,
/1,
s4
/-
.# h -{'r JD\
# t;.,
)/
\-i5* al
5 100 200

FLOW(m3/h)
: lure 20.3 Pump pressure/flow rate curves

HEAD(m)
60Hz zoc{

r500

r000

7m

500

4C0

300

200

150

- lure 20.4 Pump pressure/flow raie curues

:lroughput tend to have many stages and be smaller in diame- cooled and lubricated by the product liquld and restarting at
.:r low levels may have pump wearand frequency of major ser-
vjcing effects.
lne area of concern for ihe tank designer is the ability of the
: Jmp to pump down to a low liquid level without losing suction
The unravelling of these is usually decided by discussion be-
:td the minimum liquid level at which the pump may be re- tween the owner, the pfocess engineers, the tank designers
:iarted. These characteristics combine to dictate the unusable
and the pump suppliers.
:pace at the boiiom of the storage tank, which economics re-
ruires to be minimised. What was at one time expressed as a The electrical power supply to the pumps is usually made via
:lngle NPSH figure has in recent times become more complex. cables which penetrate the pump column head plate and pass
-he variables are;
down ihe pump column to the pump itself. They are supporied
. The minimum head at which the pump willcontinue to pump from ihe lifting cable. There is another less ffequently adopted
at its full-rated capacity is of interest from overall process system which uses power cables that run inside a tubular sup-
port, which is also used to lift the pump.
reasons.
. The minimum head ai which the pump willcontinue to pump For service and maintenance reasons the in-tank pump ar-
at reduced capacity is of interest from tank decommission- rangements must be such that the pump can be safely removed
ing reasons. The minimum level of residual liquid left in ihe from the tank without any form of interruption to the tank opera-
tank after the pump has ceased to function will have to be tion. For this reason it is usual to fit one spare pump and its as-
removed by other means and will have an influence on the sociated equipment. The most commonly used purnp removal
ovefall decommissioning period and consequent costs. system is described in Section 20.2.2.
. The minimum liquid level at which the pump can be re- To ensurethatthe pump is notdamaged bythe ingestion ofany
started will have process consequences. The pump is both construction debris which may have been left in the tank or in

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 413


20 Ancillary equipment for low temperature tanks

the connected pipework, it has become usual practice to install


a coarse filter around the bottom of the pump column.
The pumps should not be installed prior to the tank hydrostatic
test.
The European code for the design of onshore LNG installations
is EN 1473 (Reference 20.1). This document requires that
there shall be no penetrations of the primary and secondary
container walls or bases of storage tanks. This requirement
makes the use of in-tank pumps mandatory for all classifica-
tions of containment (i.e. single, double, full, membrane, dou-
ble concrete or spherical above ground types).

20.2.2 ln-tank pump removal system

The system described here is the most commonly adopted


within the industry. The pump column is fifted with a head piate FOOT VALVE OPEN FOOT VALVE CLOSED
which is bolted to the top flange of the pump column. This head
Figure 20.6 A typical foot valve
plate is fitted with a lifting device which can slide up and down
for a limited distance through a suitable gland arrangement. gas which forces the liquid out of the pump column through the
The pump body is attached to this lifting device by the pump
foot valve. This then allows the removal ofthe head plate from a
support cable. There is a second cable attached to the pump
nitrogen gas purged column, a much safer arrangement than
which also runs up the pump column to the head plate and the
would be the case if product liquid and vapour were present in
surplus of this longer lifting cable is stored beneath the head
the column during this operation.
olate. The head olate also contains the electrical connections
which pass through suitable pressure tight glands to an exter- The head plate is lifted sufficiently to allowfor the pump weight
naljunction box. Atypicalhead plate arrangement is shown in to be suDoorted whilstthe lift cable is attached to the drum ofthe
Figure 20.5. pump lifting arrangement. With the head plate removed, the
pump can be lifted and the power cables, which are attached to
The bottom of the oumD column is fitted with a foot valve. This is
the support cable, can be wound onto a suitable drum for safe
a spring-loaded valve which is held shut by the spring loading
storage. This sequence of events is illustrated in Figure 20.7.
and the product liquid pressure until it is opened by the imposi-
The replacement of a pump is simply a reversal of this proce-
tion of the dead weight of the pump which has been lowered
d ure.
down the column onto this valve. Atypicalfoot valve is shown in
Figure 20.6. Hoists for lifting the pumps, which can weigh as much as
4000 kg, are either of the gantry U beam or pedestal type. The
The function ofthe foot valve is to allow the pump column to be
emptied of product liquid prior to removing the in-tank pump. lifting arrangements must clearly cover all of the pump col-
Before removing the head plate, the pump weight is lifted offthe umns, any other associated equipment such as cable storage
foot valve allowing it to close. This is done using the pump sup- drums, and be capable of lowering pumps and other items
port cable. The pump column is then pressurised with nitrogen down to the local grade. lt is occasionally felt necessaryto pro-
vide a canister at roof levelforthe pump to be placed in immedi-
ately following removal to permit it to warm up and safely
release any product vapours.
There is an alternative in-tank pump support and removal sys-
tem which uses a system of connecting stainless steel tubes.
The use of this system is relatively uncommon.
These operations require considerable space at the tank roof
level and result in large platforms, an example of which is
shown in Figure 20.8.

20.2.3 Pump columns

Pump columns are usually sized by the pump supplier A Iarge


pump column would today be around 42" in diameter' The ma-
jority ofthe column length is a comfortable clearance fit around
the pump. The lower portion, foraboutthe heightofthe pump, is
a closer fit and serves to locate the pump accurately onto the
footvalve and contains a means of preventing pump rotation. lt
is usual for the tank builder to provide a dummy pump of the
same physical dimensions as the real pump. This is used to
demonstrate that the pump column will allow the pump to pass
without obstruction. The column is designed to pressure vessel
Codes and Standafds for the pump delivery pressure and usu-
ally for full vacuum or maximum externalliquid pressure ifthis is
happensto be greater. lt is usualto blank off and carry out an in
situ pressure test of the pump column.
The most commonly adopted material for pump columns is
stainless steel. This is due to the ready availability of suitable
Figure 20.5 Atypicalpump column head plate affangement large diameter tubes in this material. There is no reason why

414 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


20 Ancillary equipment for low tempemture tanks

C Headpr.G
'e@r

INIIIA! UF'

Figure 20.7 The pump lifting sequence

other materials such as 9% nickel steel should not be used if Wozniak unless more sophisticated methods are readily avail-
these could be shown to be economical. aote.
Pump columns may be supported from the base of the tank or It is wise to position the liquid outlet connection on the side of
suspended from the tank roof. The former arrangement would the column some way down from the head plate. This allows a
reouire some device such as a bellows to accommodate differ- vapour cushion to exist betvveen the maximum liquid level and
ential thermal movements between the tank and the pump col- the head plate, especially at start-up when the product liquid
umn and a suitably strong base insulation material to allow for rapidly ascends the column. Early experiences where this con-
the local loadings. lf the suspended route is adopted, guides nection was placed close to the top resulted in the liquid con-
must be fitted to restrain the bottom of the column. For both so- tacting the head plate and flange which promptly contracted
lutions it is not uncommon to provide guides or restraints be- whilst the bolting remained at ambient temperature. This fre-
tween the column and the tank shell at higher levels, especially quently caused a transient leakage situation on start-up which
when seismic sloshing loadings are to be allowed for. To evalu- challenged the operators fleetness of foot.
ate seismlc sloshing loadings, it is usual to use the work of
20.3 Filling columns
These have become a common feature, especially for the
larger tanks with high liquid inlet rates. Theirfunction is to sepa-
rate the liquid and the flashing vapour as they enter the tank.
They are fitted immediately beneath the main liquid bottom fill
line and are suDoorted from the tank base.
The most commonly found detail for this purpose is the propri-
etary design owned by MW Kellogg Ltd. A typical detail is indi-
cated in Figure 20.9. These fittings can be substantial in size.
The columns forthe DabholLNG tanks were 2.2 m in diameter.
Such large and heavyfittings must be accommodated in terms
of base insulation loading and must be located sufficiently far
from the tank shell not to inhibit the uplifting of the tank shell in
unanchored tank seismic design.
Doubts have been exDressed as to the usefulness ofthese ex-
pensive fittings, however a large number of tanks have been fit-
ted with these details, and there is no evidence thatthey do not
perform their intended function.

20.4 Base heating systems


Figure 20.8 Atypical roof platform for pump handling Low temperature tanks require base heating, and in some
Courtesy of Chicago Bidge & kon Conpany (CB & l) cases wall heating, to avoid the possibility ofthe occurrence of

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 415


The temperature of the supporting soil or concrete during
normal operation should not be less than 4'C.
When the soil is sensitive to drying and shrinkage, a maxi
mum temoerature should be defined.
The heating system should be designed to minimise exces-
sive temperatures, which could lead to high boil-off rates.
There is clearly little merit in purchasing expensive energy
to boiloff more expensive productthan is absolutely neces-
sary and then purchase more energy to reliquefy it.
SECIION A-A VAPO1IR OIJTLFI The arrangement should take account of differences in the
thermal characteristics of the base insulation. For instance
the difierence between the central area ofthe base and the
peflpnery
The system should allowfor the replacement of any heating
element or temoerature sensor
The design ofthe system should be such asto allowthe reg-
ular monitoring of its performance.
. The thermal design ofthe system should be based on the
heat leak calculations. Two sets of boundary conditions
should be considered, the design temperature of the prod-
uct and a soiltemperature at a depth belowthe tank. Forthis
Figure 20.9 Deiails of a lypical bottom llllconnection
Caunesy of M W Kellagg Ltd latter flg u re a value of 7'C at a depth of20m is suggested.
. A factor of safety of 1.3 is suggested for the heat input.
a phenomenon known as frost heave. This is wherethe zero'C
isotherm can penetrate the subsoil and cause the formation of . The heating circuit output should be contlolled bytempera-
an ice lens, most usually beneath the tank base. This ice lens ture sensors. These should be strategically located through
continues to grow and will eventually lift the tank bottom giving the system.
rise to damage and possible leakage. Different types oi subsoil . All temperature controllers should have spare sensors
are more susceptible than others to the formation of ice lenses available and permanently installed to allow for rapid
and the location ofthe localwatertable is clearly important An changeover in the event of sensor failure.
early paper on this problem is given as Reference 20.2.
. Electrical heating should consist of a number of independ-
Tanks with elevated bases do not require base heating Above ent parallel circuits designed such thatthefailure ofanyone
ground tanks, with bases located directly on the subsoil, are al- circuit does not decrease the power supply to the remaining
most alwaysfitted with base heating systems. There are a few circuits.
examples ofground-based tanks for the warmer products such
as normaland iso butane where no base heating is provided. In
. Heaters should be located such that the deficiency caused
ground and earth-bunded tanks will also require heating of the by the failure of any one heating circuit is spread evenly
throughout the heated area.
tank walls.
. Electrical heating should be designed sothat in the event of
The most common heating systems are electrical These use the failure of a main supply cable or a power transformef:
cables running in conduits such that any individual heater unit
can be removed and replaced. This is simple for the above - Sufficient time is available to repair the equipment before
ground tanks, but requires more care in the detailed design damage occurs due to excessive cooling.
phase to ensure that a heater unit traversing both tank walls
and base is readily removable and replaceable.
- Provision is made for connecting to a stand by heating
power source.
The less commonly adopted system uses warm water or brine The general flow diagram for a brine-based heating system is
circulating through pipework. shown in Figure 20.10.
BS 7777:Part 3 gives some guidance relating to base heating For LNG tanks, EN 1473 requires 100% redundancy to be pro-
systems. In brief these are: vided in the design of base heating systems.

,t')a -'t...\
tt /r/..,.)..
Brine slorage
Healing coils in
tank base slab

Figure 20.10 A flow diagtam lor a brine-based heating syslem

416 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


20 Ancillary equipment for low temperature tanks

20.5 Tank cool-down arrangements


The cooling down of lowtemperature tanks is an important part
of the commissioning procedure. The rate of cooling and the
permitted differential temperatures between various parts of
the tank structure should be determined in advance of the cool
down operation. lt is usualto cool the tanks with the product liq-
uid to be stored. The one exception to this general rule is the
case of a number of recently-constructed LNG tanks which
have been cooled with liquid nitrogen rather than with LNG
The means of cooling is to spfay the cooling liquid into the tank
through a roof-mounted connection located close to the centre
line of the tank. Clearly for tanks with suspended decks, the
spray connection should be beneath the deck. The spray ar-
rangements should create finely dispersed liquid droplets
which will result in a symmetrical convection loop which will
hopefully cool the tank in a suitably uniform fashion. lt is impor-
tant that the arrangement chosen produces a fine spray of liq-
uid droplets over the full range of cool-down liquid supply flow
rates and pressures. A device which simply rains liquid down
onto the tank bottom immediately beneath the spray location
when the supply of cool-down liquid is throttled back is of no
use. A number of different arrangements are in common use:

Figurc 20.12 A removable spray nozzle arrangement

necessary steps to ensure that damage due to overcooling


does not occur.
In addition to the primary function of allowing a controlled tank
cool-down, the cool-down system may be used during iank op-
eration as a means of controlling tank pressure.

Figure 20.11 A typical propr etary spray connecUon


20.6 Internal shut-off valves
. Asingle spray nozzle. The nozzle is a proprietary design se- The use of internal shut-off valves is uncommon for low temper-
lected to provide the required dispersion over the full range ature tanks with the exception of those storing liquid oxygen, ni-
of anticipated supply conditions. A typical spray nozzle is trogen orargon. BS 7777 : Pat14, which is specifically applica-
shown in Figure 20.11. This arrangement is prone to block- ble to tanks storing these products, makes lheir use mandatory
age and should be used in conjunction with a suitable filter. for all shell and bottom conneciions of 50 mm or laroer in diam-
eter.
. An internal ring pipe with a series on drilled holes. Unless
carefully designed these can turn into watering cans which
is not good.
. An internalring with multiple proprietaryspray connections.

. A removable spray head. This arrangement allows for the


single spray nozzleto be removed from the tank without any
decommissioning. The spray nozzle can be cleaned or re-
placed if the original is not found to be performing correctly.
A sketch of this arrangement is shown as Figure 20.12.

Having decided on the intended cool-down rate (usually be-


tween 1'C and s'C/hour) it is possible to calculate the rough
range of liquid flow rates required. Precise control of the flow
using a suitable valveand flow measuring device is necessary

A number of temperature measuring points are located within


the tank around a dozen distributed over the tank floor and
wall with-one located immediately below the spray arrange-
ment. An assessment of what constitutes an acceotable tem-
perature difference between adjacent thermocouples and what
the maximum temperature difference between any two
thermocouples should be made prior to commencement of
cool-down. The coofdown operation follows tank purging so
that the tank will be full of nitrogen gas. Spraying a cold liquid
into a nitrogen atmosphere can produce sub-cooling belowthe
temperature of the incoming liquid. Those carrying out the
cooldown should be aware of this Dossibilitv and take the Figure 20.13 A typical internal shuloff valve and iis opeior

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 417


20 Ancittary equipmenl [ot low temperature lanks

The most commonly found valves of this type are simple flap b) Maximum rate of withdrawal of liquid product
valves which are held open during service by cables running to c) Possible escape of product under emergency conditions
tank roof connections. In the event of a mishap being detected
by the instrumentation provided for that purpose, operators lo-
d) Suction capacity of comPressor

cated on the tank roof release the cables and shut the valves lt e) Heat leakage to the tank from atmosphere
is normal to reset (i.e. reopen) these valves manually from the f) Barometric pressure variation
tank roof. Atypical valve and operator is shown in Figure 20 13. g) Fire exposure
h) Any other special circumstances (e.g roll over)
20.7 Venting systems
The tankdesign Codes have contributionsto make in thisarea
As is the case for ambienttanks, the function ofthe venting sys-
API 620 requires that:
tem is to protect the tankfrom excessive levels of internal posF
tive pressure and negative pressure (i e. vacuum). . Automatic pressure relieving devices shall be fitted to pre-
The design and description of venting systems for ambient ventthe pressure atthe top ofthe tankfrom rising more than
1O7o above the maximum allowable working pressure (usu-
tanks has been described earlier in Chapter 8. The design and
types of equipment used for low temperature storage systems ally taken as the tank design pressure) except as provided
is essentiallythe same with a few differences to allowfor the low DCIOw'
temperature and higheroperating pressures commonly assocF . Where an additional hazard can be created bythe exposure
ated with low temperature storage and in some cases to cater of the tank to accidental fire or another unexpected source
for the very high throughputs required. of heat external to the tank, supplementary pressure rellev-
For the larger, more sophisticated tanks, it is usual to provide ing devices shall be installed. These devices shall be capa-
two pressure relief systems. The first of these is connected to a bl; of preventing the pressure from rising more than 20%
system of pipes which will deliver the relieved vapours to a re- above the maximum allowable working pressure. A single
mote location, usually a flare stack. where the vapours may be pressure relieving device may be used if it satisfies the re-
safely disposed of. The second system relieves directly to at- quirements of this Paragraph
mosphere. lt is usualto set the relieving pressure ofthe system Note: lt is normal practice to test low temperature tanks to
to flare at a lower setting than the relieving system to atmo- 25% overthe design pressure The 20% maximum ex-
sDhere. This ensures that the safer option istriedfirst and onlyif ternal fire induced excursion is then less than the pres-
this fails or is of insufficient capacity for the particular process sure to which the structure has been tested.
circumstance causing the upset, does the less desirable option
of relieving direct to atmosphere become operational
. Vacuum relieving devices shallbe installed to permitthe en-
try of air (or another gas or vapour if so designed) to avoid
A typical series of pressure and vacuum settings for a large the collapse ofthe tank wall ifthis could occur under natural
LNG tank are shown in Figure 20.14. operating conditions. These devices shall be located on the
The basis of the design of pressure and vacuum relief valve tank so that they will never be sealed off by the tank con-
systems is API 2O0O (Reference 20.3). Fot low temperature tents. Their size and pressure (or vacuum) setting shall be
tjnks, the section on refrigerated tanks is to be applied This such that the partial vacuum developed in the tank at the
document is, unusually, also quoted in BS 7777 : Part 1 lt is maximum specified rate of air (or gas) inflowwill not exceed
quite unusual for American Standards to be referenced in Brit- the partial vacuum for which the tank is designed.
ish Standards. . The system shall be designed in accordance with the re-
The design of product vapour (for pressure relief) and air (for quirements of API 2000.
vacuum relief)flow capacities are made up ofthe most onerous Pressure relieving devices shall be installed such that they
combination of the following: are readily accessible for inspection and removable for re-
a) Vapour displaced during filling at maximum rate pairs. The practices suggested in API RP 520 (Reference
20.4) shall generally aPPlY.

MRP, RVs oischa.gi.q to al,nospne6 319 lf the relieving devices are not located on the tank roof (a
290
most unusual situation), they shall be installed on the piping
sP, RYs Oischarging lo Almosphere
connected to the vapour space as close to the tank as is
MRP, Rvs D6chrrglng lo FlaE 245 practicable. lf the relieving devices are vented to atmo-
sP, RVs D schaE ng Io Fla sphere, they shall be at a sufflcient heightto prevent chance
ignition.
255
The opening from the tank leading to the relieving device
Maxidum Nodal OPe6ling P(essuE shall have a diameter at least equalto the inlet size ofthe re-
Minimum Nofral Opling Pessure 100 lieving device.
30
When a discharge pipe is fitted to the outlet side of the re-
15
lieving device, itshallbeofan area at leastequaltothe area
0
ofthtoutlet ofthe relieving device, or if a single plpe is pro-
vided for the discharge of several relieving devices, it shall
vaclum RlEf FlllFloe have an area not less than the aggregate areas ofthe multi-
ple valves. The discharge pipe shall have an open drain to
laEc
orevent wateror other liquids from accumulation on the dis-
Glossaryi MRP = Manmum Relieving Pessuc
RV= charge side of the relieving devices.
PABH = HEh Pressure Tdp {PressuE Alam High HEh) Discharge pipes shall be installed such that no undue stress
PAH .- High Pressure Peal.m
PA! = LN Pessure PE-alam is placed on the valve body. open discharges shall be
placed and orientated such thatthe oumowis directed away
Figure 20.14 Atypical LNG tank pressurc setting tabulation irom thetankand willnot cause a hazard to walkways, stair-
courlesy of l\4 W Keilogg Ltd ways or operating Platforms.

418 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


20 Ancillary equipment for low temperaturc tanks

. A vacuum relieving device shall have as direct an inflow to Normally the pressure and vacuum relief valves are sepa-
the tankas is possible, and shallhave no pipeworkahead of rated from each other However a combination may be
the inlet apart from a weather cover. used. This is taken to mean that valves with a combined
. pressure and vacuum relieffacility may be used. There are
Stop valves, if used between the relieving devices and the
such valves on the market and the minimising of the roof
tank to allow seryicing of these devices, shall be locked or
connections and isolating facilities makes this an attractive
sealed open, and an authorised person shall be present if
this situation is changed. lf the tank is in use, the authorised choice. However, care must be taken to ensure that full sys-
person shall remain there until the locked or sealed open tem capacity is maintained at all times and the distribution of
vapours beneath the tank roof is carefully thought out.
state of the relieving devices is restored.
It is interesting that API 620 does not make mandatory the pro-
For a full containment tank, the pressure relief system shall
vision ofa spare valve in any set and the use of stop or isolation be designed such that it can accommodate the vapours
generated from an innertankfailure. For this purpose a hole
VAIVES.
in the flrst course ofthe tank shell of 20mm in diameter may
BS 7777 : Part 1 make similar demands. but with some minor be assumed. The origin ofthis notional leak is a mystery not
differences: least to the authorwho served on the committee which cre-
. For "normal" pressure relief (i.e. as determined from a)to e) aied these rules! Clearly a concentration failure!
listed above), the internal pressure at the top of the tank The number of pressure relief valves required shall be cal-
shall not exceed the design internal pressure by more than culated based on the total product vapour outflow specified.
10v.. ln addition, one spare valve shall be installed for mainte-
. For vacuum relief, the internal negative pressure shall not nance purposes. The inlet piping shall penetrate the sus-
pended roof, where such a roof is fitted, thus preventing
exceed the internal negative design pressure by more than
2.5 mbar.
cold vapour from entering the warm space between the
outer roof and the suspended roof under relieving condi-
. For "emergency" pressure relief (i.e. as determined from f) tions.
and g) listed above), supplementary pressure relief should
be installed. These pressure relieving devices should not
The number of vacuum relief valves shall be calculated
based on the total air intlow specified. In addition one spare
allow the tank internal pressure from exceeding the design
valve shall befitted for maintenance purposes. The vacuum
internal pressure by more than 20%.
valves shall allow air to enter the vapour space located di-
. Where a single valve will satisfy the emergency venting re- rectly under the roof.
quirement, a duplicate valve should be installed to facilitiate
Because the design pressures of low temperature tanks are
inspection and maintenance. generally higher than is the case for ambient tanks, the use of
. Where multiple pressure relief valves are required for the dead weight valves for pressure relief is unusual, and in the
venting duty, they should allbe ofthe same capacityand at larger valve sizes, becomes impractical because of the physi-
least one additional valve should be fitted of the same ca- cal size of the weight required. lt is normal practice to use pilot
pacity as a standby for inspection, maintenance and possi- operated valves which have advantages of not leaking at pres-
ble replacement purposes. sures close to their set point, having a reduced blow down and
being more suited to operation with pipe-work on the inlet and
. The use of isolating valves installed between the pressure ouilet sides. This is discussed in some detail in ADDendix C of
relief valve and the tank should be agreed between the pur- B57777 : Pat11. Atypical pilofoperated pressure reliefvalve is
chaser and the contractor, i.e. is optional. Appendix C ofthis shown in Fioure 20.15.
part of the Code suggests rather more strongly that this
should be the case and normal industry practice usually de-
mands this facilityfor all pressure and vacuum reliefvalves.
. Appendix C repeats some of these requirements and pro-
vides additional guidance on this subject.
The newprovisional Euronormfor low temperature tanks, prEN
14620, is strangely reticent on the subject of pressure and vac-
uum relief bearing in mind the amount of detail that its ambient
tank counterpart (prEN 14015) has chosen to go into. Annex L
of this document provides comprehensive requirements forthe
design and installation ofventing systems, which for once is not
based upon API 2000.
Summarising the requiremenb of prEN 14620:
Venting to atmosphere shall be excluded from tanks de-
signed to contain toxic product.
For tanks designed to store non-toxic products, sufficient
margin shall be provided between the operating pressure
(i.e. the reliefvalve set pressure) and the design pressure of
the tank to avoid unnecessary (i.e. too frequent) venting.
l3 I r+
'T/-_l -T --l
I

The relief valve capacity (pressure and vacuum) shall be


designed based on normal operation and abnormalopera-
f,T*;r
ll-ul
I FT]"r
ll'.:>|
I

tion scenarios. Failures at interconnecting facilities, i.e. pro-


cess plants, vent or flare systems etc., shall also be "....:r+,..,.':F
considered. Note however that the responsibility for speci-
fying the flow rates forthe relief valve system is given byAn- Figure 20.15 Atypical pilot-operated pressure retief valve
nex C, Part 1 of this document to the tank Durchaser. From BS 7777 : Patl 1, figurc C.3

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 419


20 Ancillary equipmentfor low temperaturc tanks

A{nedyGs.e!5.Body
e!' xg|b.|qb.

2x3
t'x4' ft
4x6' wo
6xa
AxlO' !,
10\17 t,
l2'x 16 .q
NOIE vImN isan eunpl ol a suluble produd a\aihnF.onner.rxlv
Tlis infomauv. s sven rof ihe eneenihce ot LsE or rhis Pan of BS 77?7
Figure 20.17 An example of a range of pilofoperated pressure relief valves
Figure 20.16 A typical dead-weighi vacuum relief valve Coulesy of Tyca Valves & Conttols
From BS 7777 :Paft 1, figure c.4
need to design for a rollover has been largely removed by the
Vacuum relief valves are commonly of the dead-weight type orovision of level/temperature/density (LTD) measuring equip-
and an example is shown in Figure 20 16 Proprietary designs ment together with provisions for top filling, bottom filling and
product mixing via the in-tank pumps. These provisions gave
for pilot-operated vacuum valves and valves which combine
ihe tank ooerator an indication ofsituations within the tank con-
the pressure and vacuum relieving elements within the same
valve are available. These provide the possibility of reducing tents which were prone to initiate a rollover and the means to
the number of roof connections and consequent cost savings' take the appropriate preventative action.
For tanks of the suspended deck type using the conventional ln earlier times the rollover had to be considered, and one com-
system of separate valves for pressure and vacuum relief, it is pany designed and manufactured a large capacity relief-valve
usualto locate the pressure inlet to the valves beneath the sus- ior this puipose. tnis valve was made in large sizes (24" and
pended deck and arrange for the vacuum valves to discharge 36" diameter) and had correspondingly large throughput of
directly into the roof space above the deck The use of com- vapour. The basis of operation was a frangible link within the
binedvalves clearly does not permitthis arrangementand deci- vaive which held the valve closed in normal service and would
sions have to be made aboutthe configuration beneath the tank fail at a predetermined over pressure to allow the valve to fully
roof. Adjustments to the suspended deck venting system may open. The valvewasfitted with a spring which closed the valve'
be fequired if these combined relief valves are used albeit at a much lower pressure than the opening pressure'
These valves were also used when sudden inner tank failure
It isusualto mount pressure reliefvalves, vacuum reliefvalves
pressure and vacuum valves on individual rooffit was a design requirement. An example ofsuch a valve, known
or combined
as the reserve capacity relief valve, is given in Figure 20 18
tings. The fittings for pressure and combined valves in non low
temperature roofs willrequire heat-breaks to be fitted Vacuum For LNG tanks, EN 1473 suggests the use of rupture discs for
valves, drawing in air at atmospheric temperature will have no rollover relief and references the French AGT Code forthe ba-
need of heat-breaks. Similarly pressure and combined valves sis oftheirdesign. The use ofrupture discs has not been a pop-
will require to be manufactured from materials with suitable low ular choice for this purpose, possibly due to the proportionate
temperature properties whilst vacuum valves have no such re- uncertainties in the actual failure pressures of bursting discs at
quirement. There are occasions where two valves or more are the comparatively modest pressures associated with low tem-
mounted on a single roof penetration perature storage tanl(s.
For pressure relief valves, the higher tank pressures for low Where pressure relief valves are fitted in a system where multi-
temperature tanks means higher flow velocities and conse- ple relief valves are manifolded into to a system of closed
quently larger pressure losses in the connected pipework on oipe-work (i.e. to a flare) it is necessary to provide isolation
both the inlet and outlet sides of the valve. These losses must valves on both the inletand outletside ofthe relief valveto allow
be calculated and subtracted from the total pressure difference for valve removal from the system
between the tank and atmosphere to give the pressure drop
Fire orotection for relief valve tail pipes is covered in Section
across the valve itself which is used to calculate the flow rate
20.8.
through the valve. Some relief valve manufacturers provide
software to assist the tank designer with this task
Reliefvalves are available in a range of sizes depending on the 20.8 Fire protection systems
vapour throughput required. An example of a range of pilolop- Fire protection systems for above ground, low temperature
erated pressure reliefvalves is shown in Figure 20.17' tanks are generally a part of the overall facility fire protection
The orecise evaluation of the vapourflow rates resulting from a svstem. The development of such a system, sultable for ad-
tank rollover event is difficult to calculate. In recent times the diessing all ofthe equipment on the site and all of the perceived

420 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


20 Ancillary equipment for low tempercturc tanks

vate the situation, increasing the vapour formation rate which


may increase the burning rate.
The fire water system for the storage tanks is fed from the site
fire watersystem. This may be based on the use of fresh water,
sea water or a combination of both. A large diameter fire main
runs around the site passing the various items of equipment,
adjacent to which suitably sized off-takes are situated. lt is im-
portant that this fire main is itself suitably protected from fire.
This is usually accomplished by burying it. Thefire main is in its
standby state filled with fresh water which is maintained at the
desired operating pressure (commonly around 9 bars) by
jockey pumps. Two fire water pumps must be provided with in-
dependent powersources, such that if one system becomes in-
operative, the second willfulfil the full capacity required.
Tanks with steel outer shells and roofs are clearly more suscep-
tible to damage from adjacent tank fires than those with con-
crete outer shells and roofs. Not withstanding this fact, it is not
unusualfor cjrcumstances to conspire to require the use ofde-
luge systems for concrete tanks.
ohn.ioN,l.che.lmnl
The tank deluge system used to be a simple matter of a water
\6lE C D
pipe to the crown of the tank roof, which delivered the desired
lbllsl
quantity of water to a distribution crown arrangement. This
Fdl trirt @q Fl3| l4| trsl caused the fire water to flow to the periphery of the roof and
lsl thence down the iank shell to local grade. The coverage of the
tsiol tE4 tr164 t4t wl
roof and shell provided by this arrangement was extremely ap-
:igure 20.18 A reserue capacity relief valve proximate and was adversely affected by roof mounted ob-
aauttesy of Anderson creenwood structions and wind. Where steel tanks had external stiffening
and outstanding compression areas, rings of deflector plates
'rsks is a majortask, which is best lefl to companies and jndivid-
were needed to ensure that the fire water ran down the tank
Jals who possess the necessary expertise. Codes such as
shelland did notmerely run clear ofthe shell from the stiffeners.
NFPA58, NFPA59, NFPA59Aand EN 1473 give some general
guidance on the subject, but this falls a long way short ofwhat lvlore recently, where tankdeluging is a requirement, the Codes
the system designer will require. The design of a facility's fire and facility owners require that a system ofdirect impingement
protection system is intimately connected to the riskand hazard offire water on both the tank roof and shell be used to ensure a
assessment process. better distribution of the fire water This requires a series of fife
water pipes running over the tank roof and shell to distribute the
What is included in this Section is a brief look at some of the as-
water to suitable spray nozzles. One such arrangement is indi-
pects of fire protection systems as they relate to the storage
cated for an LNG tank on Figure 20.'19. The water flow rates for
tanks themselves.
a tank deluge system arise either from detailed calculations or
from flre protection Codes. A commonly adopted figure is 10.2
20.8.1 Detection systems litres/min/m2 which is derived from NFPA 1 5 (Reference 20.S).
It is common to arrange the layout ofthe deluge system to suit
EN 1473 (which it should be remembered is applicable onlyto
the local situation. For example, where two storage tanks are
LNG facilities) lists the various detection systems as follows:
located adjacent to one another, the adjacent tank fire risk for
. Gas detection each tank is associated with only one half of the shell and part
of, or perhaps all of the roof. For this reason it may be thought
. Cold detection
wise or economic to concentrate the fire protection on the ex-
. Smoke detection posed parts of the tanks, or to arrange a zoning system which
will allow different parts ofthe target tanks to be selectively pro-
. Fire detection tected.
It is clearly an essential part ofthe protection system to have a
good detection system which will trigger the appropriate re-
sponse from the fire fighting equipment provided.

20.8.2 Safety systems

These are the various items of equipment provided to address


problems arisjng from gas leakage, cold liquid leakage, pool
fires and adjacent tank or plant fires.
Fire protection systems are eitherclassified as being active (i.e.
water spray systems, deluge or sprinkler systems) or passive
(i.e. fireprooflng coatings or shielding systems).
20.8.2.1 Fire water systems
The application of water to items of plant and equipment has
more to dowith keeping them cool, when theyare the subjectof
heat radiation from fires in adjacent areas, than its contribution
to the efforts to extinguish fires. Indeed, in certain circum-
stances, the application ofwaterto liquid poolflres may aggra- Fjgure 20.19 An LNG tank rcof water drench system

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 421


20 Ancillary equipmentfor low temperctute tanKs

lf insufficient fresh wateris availableon the site, itwillbe neces- 20.9 lnstrumentation
saryto feed the fire water system with sea water in the event of The level of instrumentation which is supplied with a low tem-
an emergency. In the interests of corrosion protection following perature storage tank is usually specifled by the owner or his
exposure of all or part of the system to salt water, it will be nec-
engineer in the tank specification documentation The tank de-
essary to arrange suitable facilities for flushing the appropriate
sign Codes such as API 620, BS 7777 and prEN 14620 give lit-
parts of system with fresh water.
tl; or no guidance as to the extent of instrumentation which
It is usual to require the system to be tested on at regular inter- would be appropriate to supply with a low temperature tank to
vals. This is normallycarried outwith fresh waterand limitations ensure its correct and safe operation
in the available quantities of fresh water may necessitate the Codes and regulatory documents which have a wider scope
subdivision of the system such that it can be tested in smaller dealing with the overall storage and handling facility such as
sections. The system illustrated. which is for roof deluging only. NFPA 58, NFPA 59, NFPA 59A and EN 1473 are more forth-
is for this reason divided into six sections.
coming on the subject. The latter Code outlines what is now a
The equipment used to set the deluge system into action ls of- pretty huch agreed industry standard level of instrumentation
ten large, sophisticated and expensive Roof-mounted deluge for LNG tanks.
valves will themselves require a high level of fire protection
In addition to the deluge system, it is common to add a number 20.9.1 Level measurement
of fire monitors. A monitor is a means of providing a spray or
stream ofwaterfrom a fixed station to a locaiion where it is re- necessaryto measure the levelofthe product liquid
It is clearly
quired for fire fighting or equipment cooling. The control of the within theiankfor reasons such as inventory controland avoid-
waterspray and its direction can be achieved by either manual ance of overfilling. The normal form of level measuring equip-
or remote operation. ment used for these tanks consists of a roof-mounted servo
gauging unit connected via a suitable roof connection to a float
20.8.2.2 Foam systems
iitnin iperforateo stilling well inside the tank itself. Atypicalar-
For areas where liquid may accumulate such as tank bunds or rangement of this type is illustrated in Figure 20.20. The level
spillage impounding basins, it is usualto installa system of high gauging unit will be located where it can be readily accessed
expansion foam generators These will allow remotely-con- f-ronithe roof-mounted platform and may have a roofreading fa-
troiled blanketing ofthe spilled liquid which will either douse the cility.
fire or reduce the flame size and consequently the radiation
It is usual to have a remote transmitter associated with the
rate. Suitable systems, designed and tailored for the specific
oauoinq unit (proprietary equipment on the market often has
circumstances, are supplied by fire protection companies who
6uiliin iransmission equipment within the gauging unit) to send
specialise in this type of work. Asystem would consist ofthe fol-
the various level signals to the terminal control room lt is usual
lowing elements:
to provide each tank with two separate level measuring sys-
. High expansion foam generators tems, indeed EN 1473 insists upon this (with the exception of
peak shaving tanks where the level changes are slow and pre-
. Stoo valves
dictable). The level gauging equipment is almost always fitted
. Foam concentrate storage tanks with a set of levelalarms. These would normally be low low level
(LLA), low level (LL), high level (HL) and high high level (HHL)
. Foam inductors
It is also normal to install another instrument which is specifi-
It is usual to test the system at least once per yeat
cally to detect the HHL only The setting up of this system
20.8.2.3 Dry powder systems
Fires in pressure relief valve tailpipes are not unknown Forthis
reason it is common practice to fit a dry powder extinguishing
system. This will inject into the relief valve tailpipes a mixtureof
carbon dioxide and fire extinguishing powder in the event of a
tailpipe fire. The system is fitted localto the reliefvalves on the
tank ioof and should be capable of local or remote operation lt
is usualto allowsufficient storage of powderand propellantgas
to allow for two attempts to extinguish the fire. These systems
are the product of specialist companies and are often supplied
skid mounted.
20.8.2.4 Local protection of vulnerable equipment
It is imoortant that certain equipment associated with low tem-
peratuie storage tanks continue to perform their intended func-
iions when the tank is exposed to heat radiation, perhaps aris-
ing from an adjacent tankfire. ltems which fall into this category
arL relief valves, deluge valves and certain parts of the struc-
tural steel supporting critical equipment.
These are roof-mounted and may require specific fire protec-
tion. This is usually passive fire protection and can take the
form of proprietary intumescent paints, cementious coatings or
purpose designed shielding.
The principal value of this fireproofing is realised during the
earlystages of a fire when efforts are mainly directed at setting
in motion the various fire suppression equipment and prevent-
ing exacerbation by way of the addition of further fuel to the
evlnt. lf the fire is intense and prolonged' then passive fire-
proofing may prove ineffectual in preventing damage Figure 20.20 A typicallow lemperalure iank level gauge serup

422 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


20 Ancillary equipment for low temperature tanks

should be such that a safety shut-down of the pumping equip- 20.9.4 Level temperature density (LTD) measure-
ment(often the delivering ship's pumps) is triggered bythe vari- ment
ous high level alarms.
lfthe tank level measuring equipment is to be used to measure As has been mentioned elsewhere, the need to have knowl-
the exact capacity ofthe tank, or the amount of liquid product in- edge ofthe temperature and densitydistribution within the body
troduced to or abstracted from the tank for commercial or cus- ofthe product liquid is important to avoid situations which could
toms purposes, it is important that the equipment is as accurate resultin a rolloverevent, with the possible vapour release which
as Dossible and that the tank has been calibrated. Calibration is may be difficult or impossible to accommodate within the nor-
the precise measuring of the finished or as built primary liquid mal tank operating parameters. For this reason, and especially
containing element of the tank. When the measurements have on tanks containing mixed products like LPG and LNG, the LTD
been made, and appropriate corrections have been made for instrument has been developed. EN 1473 makes the supply of
thermal contraction and mechanicalexDansion. a set ofcalibra- these mandatory for LNG tanks.
tion tables are produced which relate the measured liqujd level
The instrument is in essence a very sophisticated servo driven
to the liquid capacity. This activity is the preserve of specialist
level gauge. Like the levelgauges it is roof-mounted and has a
companies who carryout this service. lt used to be the case that
sensor head which can track up and down inside the tank within
ihe various measurements were made by mechanical strap-
ping of the structure, but nowadays there are clever electronic a stilling well. lt can measure the product temperature and den-
sity at each location and convey this information to the control
surveying instruments which can gather the necessary infor-
room where suitable software will produce a level/tempera-
mation from a single site within the tank.
ture/density plotfor the tank contents. Armed with this informa-
tion and perhaps detailed knowledge of incoming shipments,
20.9.2 Pressure measurement the experienced tank operator should be able to spot potential
roll over situations and take the appropriate actions. These ac-
It is clearly important to know what the pressure ofthe product tions could be to top fill, bottom fillor stir up the tank contents by
vapour is within the tank. Too high a pressure would give rise to running the in-tiank pumps on recycle or by other means.
unnecessary and expensive venting, and in the extreme, en-
dangerthe tank structure, and too low a pressure would create The relationship between the many variables associated with
a vacuum and cause air to be introduced into the tank, which is roll over and the various remedial actions are ouite soDhisti-
a minor disaster from an operating point of view cated and not alloperators are conversantwith what represents
a dangerous situation and what actions should be taken. Gaz
It is usualto provide equipment to monitorthe following param- de France has developed some proprietary software into which
eters: the LTD parameterscan befed and which willprovide advice on
. Absolute tank pressure the appropriate acfions.

. Gauge tank pressure Both the measuring instruments and the operator's software
are expensrve.
. Tank pressure alarms (high and low) and local pressure in-
dication
20.9.5 Leak detection
As with level measurement, it is usualfor provisions for the con-
tinuous pressure data to be transmitted to the control room to
The provision of leak detection systems is usually confined to
be incorporated into the system together with the triggering of
double-walled tanks. The function ofthe leak detection system
suitable safety related activities (i.e. stopping the boil-off com-
isto identifyant leakagefrom the innertank. This could befrom
pressor when low pressures are detected).
the innertankshell, bottom or (foropen-topped innertanks)the
It is usualto mount pressure measuring equipment on tank roof result of overfilling or seismic sloshing.
penetrations.
The most commonly adopted system consists of a number of
For double-walled tanks where the inner tank has a fixed roof, it RTDS installed on the inside of the outer tank at the bottom of
is particularly important to measure and control the pressure in the intersoace and at various levels close to the bottom of the
the interspace around the inner tank to ensure that no exces- interspace. These record a temperature change in the event of
sive external loads are applied to the inner bnk shell or roof. a liquid leak which will be relayed to the control room and raise
the alarm. lt is normal to install a number of RTDS at each level,
20.9.3 Temperature measurement say four equally spaced around the tank.
Another system involves the installation of an optic fibre within
There are three areas where temperature measurement is im- the lower interspace to detect leakage.
portant. These are:
. During tankcooldownto controlthe operation and avoid ex- 20.9.6 lnternal cameras
cessive temperature gradients
. During normal operation These are thought to be an expensive luxury by manywithin the
industry They are normally only to be found in large LNG tanks.
. To monitor the base heating system The camera can either be located within the tank and subjectto
The normal temperature measuring elements are three wire the low temperature, or be external with suitable optics to be
platinum resistance temperature detectors (RTD). The number able to view within the tank. In addition to the camera, lighting
required for the various functions are either for the owner to and camera manipulation and focussing systems will be re-
specify, or to be based on the tank contractor's experience. It quired.
should be remembered that the temDerature elements cannot
Some tanks have been fitted with cameras. Films taken within
be replaced with the tank in service. Any redundancy required
LNG tanks show that the cameras have remarkable resolution
must be in the form of additional RTDS.
and can identify small marks on the innertank bottoms. LNG is
It is usual to arrange for a special fitting on the tank roof with a very clear liquid. Quite what the realfunction ofsuch a system
suitable glands to allowthe RTDS to penetrate the pressure en- is, and whether it justifies the price tag (some $'1.00 million) is
velope of the iank. an interesting question. Technically it is an impressive feat.

STOR,AGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 423


20 Ancillaty equipment for low temperature tanks

its full speed- Thus following an earthquake, there should be


20.10 Givil monitoring systems
suffcient realdata to pmvide adetailed description of the event
It is not uncommon, especially in the case of large LNG and itselfand ofthe modification ofthis event caused by the seismic
LPG tanks, for instrumentation to be required to monitor the isolation system. This will allowthe tank and the isolator design-
performance of the tank foundauon- ers to check the anticipated behaviouragainstthe recorded be-
For tanks which sit on ground-based slabs or slabs which are haviour. At least one seismic event of sufiicient magnitude to
elevaled above local grade, the measurementof the global set- trigger the system has occurred. No doubt when the data be-
tlementand the tilt at the peripheryof the slabs are quite simple. comes public, learned papers will appear and theories will be
Allthatis requjred isthe esiablishingofa site datum and a num- mnfirmed or will have to be revised.
ber of equally spaced points around the base slab plus some
basic surveying skills. The behaviour ofthe slab away from its 20.11 References
edge, particularly for ground-based slabs, is more difiicult. The
casting into the base slab of two inclinometer tubes, set at right 2O.1 EN1473:1997, lnstallation & eqaipment for liquefied
angles to one another, and the use ofsuitable inclinometers will natural gas, Design of onshore installafions, CEN
provide the dab required on anychanges ofshape. lt is usualto
20.2 Problems in connection with the foundation of tanks
take readings after construction, during and afier the hydro- containing a lower temperature media, E. Zellere\
static test and at intervals during service. Linde AG, Munchen, Paper ftom LNG 1.
The LNG tanks on Revithoussa lsland in Greece, were built in 20.3 Venting atmosphertc and low pressure storage tanks,
an area of high seismicity. The elevated base slabs were fitted non-refigerated and refrigerated,'fhe American pefo-
with a seismic isolation system. To monitorthe performance of leum Institute, API 2000, Fifth edition, April 1998.
these isolators, a number of accelerometers were fifted to the
iank, some below the level of the isolators and some above.
2o.4 Sizing, selection and installation of pressure relieving
devices in refineies, API RP 520, Part 1 , sizing & selec-
Under normal operating conditions these accelerometers tion, The American Petroleum Institute.
would not be remrding, but in the event of a seismic event
above a certain th reshold, the system was triggered to record at 20.5 NFPA 15 : watet spray, fixed system

424 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


21 Ammonia storage - a special case
Ammonia is a much used chemical in a number of industries and as such it is in need ofsystems
for its safe and economic bulk storage.
Ammonia is different from the other liquefied gases discussed in chapter 17
These differences in turn give rise to a variety of challenges in the search for suitable storage
systems. In particular the toxicity ofthe gas, the ability ofthe liquid to conduct electricity and the
susceptibility of carbon steels in contact with either the gaseous or the liquid phase to stress
corrosion cracking, give rise to problems. The problems related to toxicity speak forthemselves.
The truly lethal nature of the gas means that special measures are required for the design,
construction and especially the operation of storage facilities.
The significance of the electrical conductivity of the liquid is less obviously a problem area, but
this has, or at least has untilvery recently, prevented the development of in-tank pumps, and as
a consequence, offull containment storage systems for this product.
The stress corrosion cracking of carbon steels in contact with ammonia caused problems for the
early ambient temperature pressurised storage systems and more latterly has been found to
occur in refrigerated storage systems as well. This subiect has been researched extensively,
and would indeed probablyfurnish sufficient materialfor a book in its own right. The problem and
the main findings are discussed and references provided for further study if required.
The commonly adopted forms of refrigerated storage are described as well as an interesting
alternative system. The requirements for periodic inspection and repair of liquid ammonia
storage systems are also described.
Finally, a dramatic incident involving a liquid ammonia tank in Lithuania and the lessons to be
learnt are discussed .

Contents:
21,1 General
21.2What makes ammonia storage special?
21.2.1 Flammabiliiy
21 .2.2 f oxicity
21 .2.3 Latent heat
21.2.4 Eleclrical conductivity
2'1.2.5 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
21.3 Refrigerated storage of liquid ammonia
21.3. 1 Conventional systems
21.3 2 An alternative storage system
2'1.3.3 Chemical Industries Association guidance
21.3.4 Recent developments
21.3.5 Insulation systems
21.4 Inspection and repair of liquid ammonia storage systems
21.5 Incidents involving liquid ammonia tanks
21.6 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 425


21 Ammonia storcge - a special case

21.1 General It is estimated that there are currently around 1000 fully-refrig-
erated liquid ammonia tanks in ooeration worldwide of which
Ammonia is manufactured in large quantities and has numer- some 50 are located in Europe.
ous uses in the chemical industry Amongst these are:

- The manufacture of nitrogenous fertilisers


21.2What makes ammonia storage
- The manufacture of explosives
special?
- The manufacture of dyes
Liquid ammonia differs from the other liquid gas products listed
The manufacture of man made fibres in Chapter 17, Figure 17.1, in a number ofways.
As a chemical reagent in the forming ofamines and ammo-
nium compounds 21.2.1 Flammability
- As a refrigerant
Fof these reasons safe and economic bulk storaoe ofthis mate- ln common with allof the gases listed in Figure 17.1 with the ex-
rial is clearly necessary ception of oxygen, nitrogen and argon, ammonia is flammable
with flammable limits of between 16% and 25%. lt has the rela-
Ammonia can be liquefied bythe application ofpressure alone. tively high auto ignition temperature of 651 'C and for this rea-
At a maximum design temperature of 38 'C, the comparatively son liquid ammonia storage installations are not regarded as
modest pressure of 14.7 bar is required to maintain the gas in representing significant fire hazards in the same way as is the
liquid form. For many years, smaller quantities of ammonia (say case for the bulk storage of LPG, ethane, ethylene and LNG.
between 500 and 3000 tonnes) were stored in cylindrical or
spherical pressure vessels. For reasons which will be ex-
plained in Section 21.2.5, this practice has virtually ceased. 21.2.2 Toxicily
Liquid ammonia has also been stored in semi-refrigerated facil-
ities. At a storage temperature of 0 'C the pressure required to Ammonia is also highly toxic and it is this property that requires
maintain the liquid state is only 3.0 bar. Semi- refrigerated stor- particularcare to be taken with the design and operation of bulk
age is usually in spherical vessels, again in the 500 to 3000 storage systems for this product. The health hazards are sum-
tonnes range of unit capacity. This form of storage is also now marised in Figure 21.1 taken from References 21.1 and 21 .2
quite unusual. Fully pressurised and semi-refrigerated storage mentioned above. lt is to some extent fortunate that ammonia
systems are the subject of a Chemical Industries Association can be detected by the average person at the low concentra-
(ClA) Code of Practice (Reference 21.1). This document is now tions of around 50 ppm, well below the 500 - 1000 ppm levels
no longer published, perhaps an indication of the falling out of which are considered dangerous. lt is important that due atten-
favour of the pressurised and semi-refrigerated methods of tion is given to operator training and that the necessary site
storage. safety facilities are provided. Reference 27.2 provides guid-
ance !n this regard.
The majority of liquid ammonia storage facilities are now of the
fully-refrigerated type in which the liquid is stored at its atmo- One example of the special provisions required is that ammo-
spheric pressure boiling point of minus 33 'C. Lowtemperature nia storage facilities must have one or more wind socks fitted in
tanks with capacities of up to 60,000 m3 are not uncommon. high and prominent positions and that these must be illumi-
The fully-refrigerated storage systems are also the subject ofa nated at night to allow personnelto choose the correct escape
CIA Code of Practice (Reference 21.2). route in the event of a leakage incident.

Vapour
concentration
(ppm v/v) Generrl effect Expmure period

Thrshold Limit Value


Maximum for I hour
working period.
Odour detectable by most
persons.

100 No adverse effect for Deliberate exposure for


average worker. long periods not permitted.

lmmediate nose and 1/2 - t hour erposure ceuses


throat irritation. no serious effect.

700 Immediete eye irritation. 12 - t hour exposure causes


ro serious effect.
1,?00 Convulsive cougbing Could b fat'al after l,2 hour
severe eye, nose and
thrort irritation
2,000 - s,000 Convulsive coughing Could be fatal afler 1/4 hour
severe eye, nose and
throal irritation
5,000 - 10,000 Respiratory spasm. Rapid Fatal within minutes.
asphyxit,

Figure 21.1 Vapour concenlrauon health hazards

426 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


21 Ammonia storage _ a special case

21.2,3 Latent heat Although the main thrust ofthis effort was aimed at the storaoe
of ammoniaasa liquid in spherical vessels at ambienttempeL-
Liquid ammonia is also unusual in having a high latent heat tures, the findings are of interest and relevant in part to refriger-
(327.10 kcal/kg as opposed to the next highest listed gas which ated ammonia storage systems. The main conclusions were:
is methane at 121.86 kcal/kg). This makes it relatively easy to a) SCC initiation is influenced by the water and oxygen con-
achieve low atmospheric boil ofifigures, usually expressed as a tent of the ammonia as shown by Figure 21.2.
70 of the full tank contents per day, for liquid storage systems.
The commonly used insulation systems for liquid ammonia
b) Sufficient water addition to avoid cracking in liquid ammo-
nia may not always prevent its occurrence in the vapour
tanks are discussed in Section 21.3.5. phase, in the event ofcondensation, due to adverse oarti-
tion of oxygen and water
21.2,4 Electrical conductivity c) Under conditions typical of those known to cause SCC
(3 ppm oxygen and 50 ppm water) crack growth rates
Liquid ammonia in its pureform hasa high dielectric constant. lt found in the studies were similar to those found in service,
does however have a high affinity for water In addjtion, for rea- i.e. 2-6 mm/year dependent on stress intensity.
sons associated with the propensity of carbon steels to suffer d) Crack grolvth rates decreased markedly with time.
from stress corrosion when in contact with ammonia as de-
scribed in Section 21.2.5, water is deliberately added to stored
e) Lowerstrength steels showed generally lower susceptibil-
ity to SCC for both parent materiat and weld metal.
liquid ammonia. This generally gives a water content of be-
iween 1000 and 2000 ppm and at this level the liquid will con- f) The initiation of SCC is more djfficult and its propagation
duct electricity. The significance of this is that until recenflV it slower at -33 'C than at 18 'C, and is less affected by the
wasnot possible to develop an in-tank pump for liquid ammonia oxygen content at the lower temperature.
serytce. Both References 21.1 and 21.2include the following text:
Conventional in-tank pumps as described in Chapter20foruse "ln order to minimise the risk of stress corrosion crackino
with the other low temperature gases rely on the product liquid the welding consumables should overmatch the tensili
being pumped to both lubricate and cool the pump motor by properties ofthe plates by the smallest practicable amount
flowjng directly through the motoritself. This is clearly not possi- and carbon molybdenum electrodes shall not be used in
ble in the case of liquid ammonia. The influence of the lack of any circumstances. Furthermore, the tensile strenoth ofthe
availability of suitable in-tank pumping systems on the contain- plates shall not be allowed to exceed the maximum-detailed
ment systems is discussed in Section 21.3. in the plate soecifications."
The original versions of these guides to good practice were
21.2.5 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) published before the studies mentioned above had been car-
ried out.
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) has been known for many It is clear from the volume of work published during the 1970s
years to be a problem for the storage of liquid ammonia in car- and 1980s that SCC, particularly in the ambient temperature
bon steel vessels at or close to ambient temoeratures. paoers pressure storage area was seriously under the microscope.
were published on this phenomenon as early as 1956 (Refer- Work published by Cracknell in 1982 (Reference 21.5\ and
ences 21.3and 21.4). Although the potentialfor SCC to occur in Towers in 1984 (Reference 21.6) lutlnet explored the problem
carbon and low alloy steels in ammonia service was recoo- and served again to confirm the importance of variables such
nised, it was not until the 1970s that inspection technology ha-d as oxygen content, water content, steel strenqth and stress re_
developed to the point where the problem could be identified lief. Both suggest that refrigerated storage is l;ss tikely to suffer
and the effects quantified. This led to the discovery of wide- from this phenomenon than ambient temperature pressure
spread SCC in liquid ammonia storage spheres. For this rea- storage, but in the light of more recent findings, were wise notto
son, many of the facilities which stored ammonia in the have been too adamant that SCC will not occur at all in refrioer-
fully-pressurised or semi-refrigerated form were decommis-
sioned and were replaced by fully-refrigerated storage sys-
tems.
To provide more data on the problem of SCC in liquid ammonia
storage systems using carbon steel containment vessels. a A I
corporale research programme was Set up at the Institute for
Energy Tchnology in Oslo, Norway. This was sponsored join y
t! 1000 7
by BASF, DSN/, Kemira O! Norsk Hydro AJs, tcl, E I Dupont de e
Nemours Company Inc. and the UK Health and Safetv Execu- 3

tive. The work was all carried out by Lunde and Nyborg and the
early work was published in the proceedings of various confer-
i
g
B c
ences and in papers listed as References 21.7 to 21.11.
! 100
a
The general terms of reference for this work were:
a) To investigate the effect of operating parameters (espe-
cially water and oxygen concentrations and temperature)
on stress corrosion cracking.
b) To determine sfe/unsafe operating conditions for ammo- 1 10 100 t0o0
nra slorage spheres.
orys.n in trquid ph.$ ippn w/w)

c) To investigate the influence of material composition and A Itrsp.t rt normlt fftquency,

mechanical properties on susceptibilityto stress corrosion B Insp.ct rt le8l rwice mrnrt frequeng_

cracking for both parent material and weld mebl. C Donolopfut in lhisrrer.
rrr b bdng op.nring .ondi.iois iib zom A or B_

d) To investigate possible means of preventing stress corro_


Figure21.2 S-C-C, susceptibilily of C,lVn steels wilh diffefenl oxygen and water
sion cracking in ammonia environmenb. contents at 18 'C

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 427


21 Ammonia storcge a specialcase

ated storage systems. Alan Cracknell ends his paper with the construction using backing straps. lMany of the cracks were
following sensible suggestion: found in the tank bottoms and were repaired by fitting local
"ltwillbe appreciated that if SCC does turn out to be a prob- cover strips, a procedure which the authorwould not endorse. lt
lem in refrigerated storage, it is likely to affect all companies would be interesting to find out how these tanks have fared fol-
using as-welded equipment. Proving thatit is absentortak- lowing their subsequent inspections.
ing precautions against it can prove expensive. lt is sug- The industrywas atfirst slowto hold its hand up to the existence
gested therefore thatthe companies involved should set out of this problem. Indeed, it is probably unfair to blame those in-
to share information on their findings in much the same way volved in the refrigerated storage of liquid ammonia of an os-
as companies involved in the bulk (ambient temperature trich-like disingenuous self-interest for their failure to immedi-
pressurised) storage of ammonia. Hopefullythe information ately acknowledge the difficulty. ldentifying stress corrosion on
derived will benefit not only the refrigerated storage indus- the internal surfaces of carbon steel liouid ammonia tanks was
try, but will also give clues to the solution of the general not easy until detection techniques became more sophisti-
problem of avoiding SCC in ammonia storage." cated, largely due to workdone in the UK by NationalVulcan.
The earlyworkdone by Lund and Nyborg suggested that stress Separating the evidence of SCC from original construction de-
corrosion cracking was also a possibility at the temperature of fects and from hydrogen cracking is not easy. Since the publica-
the low temperature storage systems, i.e. -33 'C. This was tion ofthe reports of the BASF ammonia tank problems and the
something altogether new for the industry which had up to this availability of the means of detecting and identifying this phe-
time believed that refrigerated storage of liquid ammonia was nomenon, most of the liquid ammonia storage tanks in the UK
not susceotible to this oroblem. and Europe have been inspected. Some have been found to
The inspection of the 12,000 tonnes liquid ammonia tank exhibitthis problem and some have been found free of any sign
owned by BASF at the Seal Sands site in the UKwas something ofthe complaint. The reasons forthese apparent differences in
of a turning point. This tank was designed and constructed by behaviour between storage tanks (all builtfrom carbon manga-
Whessoe to BS 4741 and the CIA guidelines and entered ser- nese steels) is not clearly understood.
vice in 1978. The signiflcant variables would seem to be the same as those
The tank was previously owned by Monsanto who at that time identified for ambient temperature pressurised storage, i.e.:
were devotees ofacoustic emission (AE) methods of non-intru- - Stress in the parts ofthe tank exposed to the product liquid
sive inspection. The owners decided to override the CIA guide-
lines for the first internal inspection at six years after entering oxygen content within the tank during its early life (ie dur-
service, by carrying out an AE examination in 1984 and a fur- ing commissioning)
ther examination in 1985. These test procedures had the ad-
vantage that the expensive de-commissioning, internal exami-
- Water content ofthe stored product

nation and re-commissioning could be avoided. No defects - Stress relief


were found during these tlvo examinations. Welding techniques related to heat input and local hard-
ln 1985 the ownership of the site transferred to BASF. This ness
company did not favour the use of AE testing and arranged for
an internal insDection to take Dlace in 1987. This examination
- The selection of a weld metal which closely matches the
strength of the parent plate
found a large number of internal stress corrosion cracks, many
associated with original hydrogen cracks. The defects were in It is uncertain if this Iist includes allof the important variables. lt
the main associated with welded seams and areas of construc- is also uncertain which individual variable, or indeed combina-
tion attachments (such as blank nuts and erection brackets) in tion of variables is the most important. There is however con-
the lower shell where the stronger steel (minimum yield siderable circumstantial evidence to link these to the problem. lt
strength 355 N/mm2) had been used. The upper courses where has become common practice to use a low strength steelforthe
steels of lower strengths had been used (minimum yield inner tank in contact with the product liquid and vapour (i.e. a
strengths 280 and 245 N/mm2) were found to be almosi com- 275 N/mm2 yield strength grade steel rather than a 355 N/mm2
pletely free of signs of SCC. grade whichwould otherwise provide a more economic storage
tank) and to pay particular attention to the othervariables listed
This tank insDection is reDorted in considerable detail in Refer-
above.
ences 21.12 and 21.73. The defects were dressed out by local
grinding and the tank was re-commissioned wlth suitable care. Later work, again by Lunde and Nyborg of the Norwegian En-
Some years following this inspection the tank was again de- ergy Institute and sponsored by the ammonia storage industry
commissioned and subject to an internal inspection. By this was presented to the A.l.Chem.E. Ammonia Safety Sympo-
time the SCC was such that it was decided to remove and re- sium held in Vancouver in October '1994 (References 21.15
place the tank bottom and annular plating and the lower five and 2t. t6). These papers are well worth reading for those with
(higher strength steel) shell courses. This was an expensive a special interest in this problem area and contain a large num-
and time-consuming modification and suggests that if SCC can ber of useful references for further study. The figure comparing
be avoided by the use ofweakerand less economical materials the stress corrosion susceptibility of carbon steel as a function
(in the short term), by correct selection of welding procedures of oxygen and water content at temperatures of 18 'C and
and consumables and by careful commissioning, de-commis- -33 'C is interesting and is shown in Figure 2'1.3.
sioning and operating procedures, then this is money well
spent.
21.3 Refrigerated storage of liquid
BASF also owned and operated two refrigerated ammonia
tanks at Ludwigshafen Germany. These were each of 25,000
ammonia
tonnes capacity, constructed in 1969 and 1981 by Ktockner.
Alerted by the Seal Sands experience, BASF decided to in- 21.3.1 Conventional systems
spect these tanks internally. Both were found to have indica-
tions of SCC. This is reported in Reference 21 .14.lnteteslingly, The early liquid ammonia tanks were of the single containment
the older tankwas less badly affected than its newer partner (27 type with remote low bunds as illustrated in Figure 21.4. As
reported defects as compared to 214). The report is at a loss to safety standards increased, the tank type most commonly
explain this difference. The tank bottom was of butt-welded adopted by the industry became the double containment type

428 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


21 Ammonia storage - a special case

as illustrated in Figure 21 .5. The final move through the types of


containmentfrom double to full, which was made in the cases of
many of the other low temperature gases, was not followed in
the case of ammonia. The reason for this is associated with the
last of the properties listed in Section 21.2.4, i.e. the ability of
the liquid ammonia to conduct electricity. For many years this
E
8^l A precluded the industry's ability to develop an in-tank pump for
use with liquid ammonia, a central requisite for the elimination
c yl of bottom or lower shell liquid outlets required for full contain-
ment systems.
u {l As has been stated in Section 21.2.4, in-tank pumps for the
BaY-
8!5 rl .! 83 other low temperature products are directly cooled and lubri-
cated by the pumped liquid. The first of these is clearly not pos-
sible with Iiquid ammonia. This problem was not aided by a fur-
ther unhelpful property of liquid ammonja its affinity for
-
attacking copper bearing alloys. Recent developments which
will hopefully overcome this problem are described in Section
21.3.4.
The liquid containing metaltanks weredesigned in accordance
with API 620 appendix R or to BS 4741 and more latterly to its
E
reolacement Code BS 7777.
E e.< The outer wall may be constructed from low temperature car-
bon steel or prestressed concrete designed to contain the full
liquid contents of the inner tank without leakage. l\ilany of the
-.+' concrete wallswere prestressed using the "Preload" wirewind-
Ing system.
0.1 1 10 100
The tanks were most usually supported on elevated unheated
Oxygen ppm
reinforced concrete base slabs supported on pile extensions or
by other suitable arrangements. The connection between the
concrete wall and the base slab was usually ofthe sliding or the
:igure 21.3 Comparison ofihe susceptibilily of cabon steelio SCC as a lunc-
ron ofoxygen and waler content at temperatures of 18'C and -33 'C

On ground

: gure 21.4 Single containment storage arrangements

: qire 21.5 Double conlainmenl storage arfangements

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 429


21 Ammonia storage - a special case

Thin dudntum $cdon b Pdvido


waalh.rp@nno M tll(t, vt !@l &
hof2.nbl @6trEt of bnk b bto cla6

Prsbrn d ctc6d 6ll polytrm

Figure 21.6 Interspace roofdetailof lcl North Tees ammonia tank No.2
pinned type. The insulation systems were quite unsophisti- 21.3.2 An alternative storage system
cated as described in Section 21.3 5
It is important to prevent
rainwaterfrom entering the interspace The storage arrangement shown in Figure 21.7was developed
between the inner insulated steel shell and the outer steel or between the plant owner and the tank contractor for a
Drestressed concrete wall. The undetected accumulation of 22,000 m3 ammoniatankat a site in the UK and seemsto getas
rainwaterand possible condensation within this interspace has close to full containmentas the lack ofsuitable in-tank pumps at
led to a number of tanks of this configuration having to be de- that time would allow. The outertank is designed to contiain the
commissioned and be the recipients of expensive and time full liquid contents ofthe innertankwhich are assumed to reach
consuming remedial work. Clearly an effective roof covering
the interspace is a necessity.
The design of an efficient roof with a sensible lifespan would
seem straightfoMard, but for the reasons listed is not easily
achieved and requires carefuldesign and careful construction:

- The roof is some 30 m above local grade and conse-


quently subject to strong winds.
Ammonia tanks are mmmonly built at coastal locations
and are subject to adverse corrosion regimes.

- The roof sDans between the steel inner tank which is sub-
ject to thermal movemenb and the concrete outer tank
which is not subject to thermal movements (at least not to
the same extent).

- The roof is difficult to inspect and repair.


The arrangement indicated in Figure 21.6 was adopted by lcl
for the reolacement roof for the No. 2 ammonia tank at North
TeesWorks. This has served its purposewelland seems to an-
swer the various problems posed.
O InBrsh.rl @
It is also important to inspectthe interspace regulailyto ensure oui*3hn
@ @
an early indication is obtained of anywateraccumulation and to @ shlbtrv.N. @
have a suitable drainage system together with site operating @ Bsh.lt.lloi @
Drocedures to remove such water before it can damage the
tank base insulation. Figure 21.7 An alternative storage anangement

430 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


21 Ammonia storcge - a special case

the equilibrium level in the outer tank within 5 minutes of the


leak commencing, i.e. a fast but non-zip type of failure.
The outer tank shell and bottom are cold in service which
means that there will be no thermal shock in the event that the
inner tank leaks its contents into the outer tank. The cold outer
tank also means that there will be no significant evolution of
vapourinthe inner tank failure case. The vulnerable lowershell
liquid outlets are protected by shut-off valves within the
interspace between the inner and outer tank shells as indicated
in Figure 21.8.

Figure 21.9 Bottom corner details forthe altemative arrangement

sons associated with the stress corrosion cracking problems.


The ability to get as much product liquid out of the tank as
quickly as possible leaving the minimum volume to be removed
via the atmospheric heatleak route willclearly be useful in mini-
mising the decommission/inspecvre-commission period and
consequent costs associated with unavailability of the tank. A
@ small drain connection also protected by two interspace valves
@ with a suitable external pump arrangement maywell be a good
investment. A photo of this facility is shown in Figure 21 .10.
@

Figure 21.8 Liquid oullet details for the allernative arangement

The first valve (i.e. thefirstvalve that the exiting liquid meets) is
a manually-operated valve whose purpose is to allow the sec-
ond valve to be serviced. This second valve is open during nor-
mal service, but is pneumatically-closed in the event of liquid
leakage being detected by instrumentation located close to the
liquid outlet connection. The purpose of this arrangement is to
protect the plant and its surroundings from an incident involving
the liouid outlet externalto the outertank and before the first ex-
ternal shut-off valve in the outlet pipework. Without this ar-
rangement, this incident would cause the tank to dump its entire
contents through the liquid outlet connection.

With this equipment in place, the amount of liquid escaping to


the environment would be that which would flow out ofthe tank
during the period that the detection equipment took to identify
the problem and the second pneumatically-operated shut-off
valve took to close. This is bad enough with a toxic product like Figure 21.'10 An ammonia storage tank ofthe alternative lype
ammonia but much preferable to leakage of the full tank con-
tentS.
21.3.3 Chemical Industries Association guidance

The apparently curious arrangementwhere the inner and outer


tanks share a common roof is important. This allows the Much ofwhat is discussed in Sections 21.3.1 and 21 .3.2 is also
interspace between the two tank shells to be filled with air. This covered by the latest version of Reference 27-2. This divides
air space is within the insulation envelope and consequentially the types of tanks to be used for the storage of refrigerated liq-
at the product temperature of -33 "C. Cold and inhospitable uefied ammonia into the nowfamiliar three categories. The ex-
though this interspace is, it allows the valves in the liquid outlet act definitions vary from those given in Chapter 17, Section
'17.6 onwards which were derived from BS 7777 and EN 1473,
lineto be accessed and serviced which is vitaltothe overallvia-
bility of the system. This arrangement does require the inner and for this reason are ouoted in full:
tank to be fitted with holding down bolts or straps as the internal
pressure is predominantly applied to the part of the single roof . Single containment
attached to the inner tank shell. The design of the anchorage
system which must penetrate the outer tank bottom can prove This is a tank designed and constructed so that only the
interesting. The bottom cornerdetail for this tank is illustrated in containing element in contact with the refrigerated ammo-
Figure 21.9. nia is required to meet the lowtemperature ductility require-
ments for storage of the ammonia. Any outerwall ofa single
As a side issue, when designing such a system it is importantto containment storage system is primarily for the retention
remember that ammonia tanks are likely to have to be decom- and protection of insulation and is not designed to contain
missioned, probably more than once during their careerfor rea- liquid in the event of ammonia leakage from the innertank.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 431


21 Ammonia storage a special case

A single containment tank is traditionally surrounded by the inner tank and wall. An isolation valve is required to be
secondary containment in the form of a low bund wall to fitted betvveen the remote closing valve and the tank and
contain any leakage. should be located as closetothetank as possible Asingle
outlet is permissible.
Afootnote elsewhere in the document shtes:
4. ln the event of power failure, the remote closing valve(s)
"storage tanks, for example tanks containing petroleum should close automatically. The consequences to down-
products, are frequently surrounded with low earthern or stream operations should be evaluated
concrete bunds which will contain the liquid in a large open
Dool should failure ofthe main tank occur. lfthis method was
5. The outlet pipe (or pipes) shall be anchored into the base
slab (or wall if this is preferred in a structure which is not
adopted with an ammonia tank, evaporation from the pool
oost-tensioned) and due allowance made for the move-
of ammonia would cause toxic concentrations considerable ments which will occur when the bnk cools down
distances downwind and is not considered desirable, nor
acceotable in the UK." 6. The tank should preferably be fitted with two liquid outlets.
Both shall be fitted with internal valves capable of remote
We also find: closure.
"lvlany tanks were originally built as single containment type Items 1 to 5 apply to double containment systems with concrete
but have been retrofitted to become double containment outer walls. ltems 1 to 6 apply to double containment systems
type". with steel outer tanks and to full containment systems with both
These are quite strong indicators that single containment is not steel and concrete outer tanks/walls.
currently preferred. The document makes it mandatory for steel shell plates with
. Double containment mountings (penetrating fittings) to be stress-relieved. A sensi-
ble SCC precaution.
This refers to an inner tank designed and constructed with
secondary containment in the form of a wall or outer tank The document has a section on commissioning and de-com-
Both the inner tank and the wall or outer tank shall be capa- missioning. Again SCC raises its head and the following advice
ble of containing the refrigerated liquid ammonia. To mini- is offered:
mise the pool of escaping liquid, the wall or outer tank "Recognition should be given to the possibility of stress corro-
should be located at a distance not exceeding 1.5 m from
sion cracking (SCC) occurring in ammonia storage tanks. Ap-
the inner tank. The innertank shall store the refrigerated liq- propriate design and construction techniques wlll minimise this
uid under normal operating conditions. The wall or outer risk but it should also be noted that research work has shown
tank shall be able to contain the refrigerated liquid ammonia the following:
leakage from the inner tank.
The outer tank is not designed to contain vapour released
. SCC does not occur without the presence of oxygen
due to ammonia leakage from the inner tank . The oresence of water may inhibit Scc
. Full containment Therefore the purging ofthe tank with inert gas priorto the addi-
This refers to a tankdesigned and constructed with second- tion of ammonia, and the maintenance of a water content in the
ary containment in the form of a wall or outer tank. Both the ammonia of 0.15% to 0.20% should be considered The inert
inner tank and the wall or outer tank shall be capable of con- gas purging ofa tank priorto the addltion of ammonia is recom-
taining the refrigerated liquid ammonia mended as a standard industry practice."

The innertank shall store the refrigerated liquid and vapour


ammonia under normal operating conditions. 21.3.4 Recent developments
The wall or outer tank shall be capable of containing both
Quite recently in-tank pumps suitable for use with liquid ammo-
the refrigerated liquid and vapour ammonia resulting from nia have been developed. The pump is described in detail in
ammonia leakage from the inner tank
Reference 21 17.fhe design of this pump incorporates the fol-
It is a shame that the authors of this document have sought to lowing features to deal with the problems of liquid ammonia's
modify the definitions which were developed in EEN'4UA 147 electrical conductivity and its highly corrosive action on copper
and repeated in BS 7777. The wording of the full containment and copper bearing alloYS:
definition suggests a fixed inner tank roofto contain the product
vapourduring normaloperation, whereas the figure (taken from
. Electric motor housed in a liquid and gas tight enclosure
BS 7777) clearly indicates that a suspended ceiling is accept- . Magnetic coupling to connect motor to pump
able.
. Motor cooled indirectly by the product liquid
The outer containment of double and full containment systems
is oermitted to be of steel or reinforced or postlensioned con- . Nitrogen-purged motor enclosure and electrical contain-
crete. For steel components the rules of BS 7777 are required ment system
to be adopted. . Power cable assembly enclosed in a flexible bellows type
As has been mentioned, when this guide was written (1997), hose assemblY
in-iank pumps for ammonia service were not available. Conse-
quently, liquid outlet connections which penetrated the inner
. Filtered product liquid bearing and coupling lubrication sys-
tem
and outer tank walls could not be avoided. The guide gives the
lollowing advice regarding liquid outlet connections: The Dumps can be installed with the usualtype offootvalve, op-
1 . The liquid outlet pipe (or pipes) should be taken from the erated by the pump self-weight and allowing the pump column
side oithe innertank, as close to the base as permissible' to be purged and freed from ammonia Iiquid and vapour priorto
removal or replacement, especially important for personnel
2. Each outlet pipe shall incorporate a valve for remote clo-
safety with this particular product.
sure. Where internal valves are the preferred type of re-
mote closing valve, two outlet pipes are recommende0' Pumps of this type have been specified and installed at the
plant operated by Shanghai Golden Conti Petrochemicals in
3. When a remote closing valve is fitted externally to the in-
ner tank, it should be sited in the annular space between China. They have been in service for some four years and other

432 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


21 Ammonia storage - a special case

e than problems relating to the product cleanliness, have oper- . Careful visual inspection of:
o ated successfully.
e All other welds in floor and shell plates
For land-based storage systems, this development opens the
way to true full containment for liquid ammonia. All other internal brackets and attachments

These new pumos could also be a useful addition to the marine Although it is not expressly stated, it is presumed that this in-
transport of liquid ammonia where external motors and long spection will be confined to the internal surfaces ofthe primary
drive shafts have traditionally been used. liquid container. The outer surfaces ofthe primary container are
often inaccessible due to the presence of the thermal insula-
tion.
21.3.5 Insulation systems
Some guidance is given regarding the methodology of MPI to
Because of the high latent heat of this gas, the tank insulation be used, but this is in outline only and would not impress those
systems are usually quite straighforward. organisations skilled in the techniques necessarylor the detec-
tion of SCC. The sensible observation that "Those carrying out
For the tank base, two layers of cellular glass with a load bear- the tests should be experienced with the techniques and of the
ing ringwall dependent upon the seismic environment normally interpretation of the results obtained." is included.
suffices. For the tank walls, polyurethane foam, either foamed
n-situ behind metallic cladding or spray applied with a mastic External inspection is confined to looking for insulation cold
weatherproof coating are commonly used on the outside sur- spots and ammonia leakage around fittings and pipework. For
faces. There are a few double-walled tanks which use perlite in- this the tank should be three-quarters full oi liquid ammonia.
sulation. Four holding down bolts and their boxes or holding down straps
should also be inspected.
The tank roof could have a similar arrangementto the tankwalls
orfor reasons associated with weather protection, befitted with An interesting more recent development is the "Recommenda-
an internal suspended deck supporting a glass fibre or mineral tions for safe and reliable inspection of atmospheric, refriger-
wool insulation. ated ammonia storage tanks" published in October 2002 by the
European Fertiliser ManufacturersAssociation (EFMA) (Refer-
ence 21.18). This document brings attention to the fact that
21.4 Inspection and repair of liquid there are major differences between the national regulations
ammonia storage systems and/or Codes of Practice from different EuroDean countries re-
garding the frequency of inspection of liquid ammonia tanks.
Reference 27.2 also provides guidance regarding inspection This is illustrated in Figure21.11.
and maintenance of refrigerated liquid ammonia storage tanks.
Clearlythe possibilityof SCC is the reason why rules specific to These regulations and Codes of Practice also do not discfimi-
ammonia storage are required. The Reference suggests: nate between tanks of diflerent lypes of construction, different
operating practices and posing different risks to the surround-
"All tanks should be thoroughly inspected, both internally ing envifonment. This new guidance is based on Risk Based In-
and externally, not more than 6 years from the date of inltial spection (RBl). and seeks to evaluate the pfobability and con-
commissioning. Thereafter, the interval between major in- sequences of failure of each lndividuaL tank. This process is in
spections should be determined by the tank owner, depend- turn intended to optimise the lnspection frequency to obtain
ing on past experience. For example, if SCC was found at knowledge about the tank and its cond tion and the negative ef-
the first inspection, then it may be necessary to carry out fects of opening the tank for intefnal lnspection which could in-
subsequent inspection at an interval of less than 12 years, crease the potential for the occufrence of SCC
and if it (the extent of SCC) was sufficient to warrant sub-
stantial repair or rebuilding, then it is recommended that the An inspection procedure is suggesied (Figure 2'1 .'12). A proce-
next major inspection should be carried out within a further dure is given for determining the maximum tolerable defect size
6 years."'
For such an important issue in terms of public safety, these
guidelines are remarkably non-specific and non-mandatory Maximum inspcctioD iotcrvrl for 2tnrosph(flc.
The Reference goes on to say:
"For guidance, inspection intervals in the region of 12 years
are considered an appropriate balance between the need to 20 years, but a notijled body can de(jde shoner

monitor the tank and the risk incurred during de-commis-


sioning and subsequent re-commissioning."
And:
None (VAWS, weter protection act, state 5, 1 0 or I 5
"lf, outside the recommendations of this guidance, a single
containment design of tank is operated, then the inspection
period shall (mandatory) not exceed 12 yearc."
It recommends that the first inspection should include:
. Magnetic particle flaw detection (MPl) of all tee welds in
floor plates, for a length of 230 mm along each arm of the
weto.
. l\y'agnetic particle flaw detection in accordance with BS
6072 of lojo/a of first course vertical and horizontal welds depending on inspecuon rsults. according to CLA +

(including the shell-to-floor weld), plus at least 50% of the


C!eicrl lldst y Ass@iatiod Cuidd@ for &c lege scale sromge offtly
tee welds in the remaining shell plates, for a length of .rny.LM ql@olia in ihc UK Jue 1997.
230 mm along each arm of the weld, plus all internal attach-
ment welds below the first to second course circumferential Figu re 21 . 1 1 Nalional rules or recognised standa rds for th e frequ ency of in
weld. This shall include all areas of temporarv attachment speclion of atmospheric (lquld) ammonia storage tanks n Europe
wetos. Fram EFMA document. Abjendix 1

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 433


21 Ammonia storage - a specialcase

SteD I Step 2 Step 3 tank of carbon steel to retiain and protect the perlite thermal in-
I00% sulation. The tank was supported on an elevated base slab and
100% was surrounded by a concrete wall supported at local grade
B;ftom plates 50% r00%
level and described as reinforced (as opposed to prestressed).
SheLl Dlat6, T-wlds ir co@e I &d 2 t00%
Shll plales, honzontal atrd verhcsr t0% ICD% The inner tank was 30.3 m in diameter and 21 3 m high.
welds itrcowse I ed2
Shell Dlats. T-welds in @us 3 !o top to% 50% ILD'/O Itwould seem thatan operating erroralloweda small quantityof
Shell plat6, horizontal md vertic.l to% tatJ% warm ammonia liquid to enter the tank and this caused a large
welds in couie 3 to tot quantity of vapour which over-pressurised the tank. Failure of
Marhols, pip cotne.tio&s, purnp sink 1rfro/o
dd other sDeaial details the shell-to-bottom joint and of the holding down anchors then
clamp marks or t@pomry fabrieiion l0/o 100% occurred and the failure sequence is illustrated in Figure 21.14
poeeadon welds
which is taken from the SUPRA report.
89qq!@!e 100%
Ar.a! s biect to prvious repaiB 100./"
In much the same way as the Qatar LPG tank failure' the tank
was moved sideways by the reaction to the exiting liquid and
Figure 21 12 Inlernal nsoeclion Iecommendatol
smashed its waythrough the concrete bund wall, tlnally landing
Frcm EFMA docunent, Aq?endix I some 25 m from the originalfoundation. The tank bottom was
left on the elevated foundation slab.
The liquid ammonia vaporised and caught fire, in turn setting
fire to an adjacent 15,OOO tonnes store of NPKwhich continued
to burn/decompose for 3 days. The official number offatalities
E6 was 7, a surprisingly low figure for the magnitude of the event
and the number of employees. Jonava was evacuated for a
short period of time.
10yrs
It is a pity that there is so little published information relating to
this incident. The lessons which can be learnt would seem to
be:
0
12 24 3.0 4.8 60 72
The necessity for careful process control, especially dur-
Fallure Probabllity number ing unusual operating conditions such as start up or
Figure 21.13 Inspection frequency diagram re-commissioning activities, to avoid the unforeseen im-
port of warm liquid.
From EFMA dacunent

based on BS 7910 (Reference 21.19). An RBI evaluation - The design of a pressure relief valve system adequate to
method is provided which results in arithmetic scores forfailure cater for all uPSet conditions.
probability and failure consequence. These scores are entered incident, the tank failure
- ln an extreme overpressure provisions
in the inspection frequency diagram (Figure 21.13)and indicate modes must be reviewed and to ensure
made
an inspection frequencyforthe particulartank in question rang- that failure cannot occur in elements which will cause the
ing from greater than 20 years to a minimum of 3 years This tank to release the contained liquid, i e failure in the roof
seems a sensible and disciplined approach in an area where sheeting or the shell{o-roof compression area ratherthan
there is a confusing amount of non-specific advice. the shell, the shell-to-bottom junction or the holding down
arrangements.

21.5 Incidents involving liquid ammonia The reinforced concrete secondary liquid containing wall
must bedesignedto containthe productliquid in anycredi-
tanks ble inner tank leakageifailure scenario.
The history of liquid ammonia storage has been comparatively
- The location ofthe storage tank relative to othervulnerable
free of incident. A number of minor incidents involving vapour
eouiDment or materials on the site
releases to the atmosphere, non-performance ofvacuum relief
valves and foundation problems usually associated with pooror
inadequate base heating systems have happened over the 21 .6 References
years.
The one serious incident involved a liquid ammonia storage
21 .1 Code of Practice for the Storage on Anhydrous Ammo-
nia Under Pressure in fhe UK The Chemical Industries
tankin Lithuaniain 1989. Little information is available concern- Association Ltd - January 1980, (nowno longer avail-
ing this incident due to the site's military links, but despite this able).
the site was visited some two months afterthe event by a group
from the Swedish National Rescue Group (SUPRA) and a re- 21.2 Code of Practice for the Large Scale Storcge of Fully
port was written by a member of that group (Reference 21'20) Refrigerated Anhydrous Ammonia in the UK, The
This is interesting reading and the dearth (thankfully) of serious Chemical lndustries Association Ltd - 1997.
incidents in this area makes it importantthatthose that do occur 21.3 Behavior of welded pressure vessels in agriculturalam-
are recorded and published aswidelyas possible so that all the monia service, T.J. Dawson, The welding Journal Vol
lessons are learnt and any modifications to industrial practices 35, pp 568-574, 1956.
and regulations are made and implemented as soon as practi-
2'1.4 Sfress corrosion cracking of steeis ln agricultural am-
caole.
monia, A.W. Loginow and E.H. Phelps, Corrosion 18
The accident took place at the "Azotas" fertilizer plant'12 km (8), 1962.
from Jonava in Lithuania. Jonava has a population of around 21.5 Stress Corrosion cracking of Steels in Ammonia,
40.000 and the plant around 5OOo employees. The ammonia A.Cracknell,lcl The lnstitute of Refrigeration, Paper
tank was of 10,000 tonnes capacity and at the time of the inci- presented 6 MaY, '1982.
dent held some 70OO tonnes of ammonia The tankwasofJap-
anese design and was constructed by Soviet personnel in 21.6 SCC in welded ammonia vesse/s, O.L Towers, Metal
1978. The innertank was of lowtemperature steel and the outer Construction, August 1984

434 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


21 Ammonia stonge - a specia/ case

Position before accidEnt

f-
r
F

Failure of anchors Agitation of tank begins


Base break-away

Position of tank afier accident

Figure 2'1.'14 Lithuanian ammonla lank faitu sequonc

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 435


21 Ammonia storage - a speclal case

21.7 Stress corrosion Uacking of some metallic maErtab in 21 .14 New Cases of Stress Co/'rosrbn Cra cking in Large Am'
ammonia at ambient and low temperatures, L. Lund and monia gorage Tanks, M. Appl, K. Fabler, D. Fromm, H.
R. Nyborg, UK Corrosion 1985, Hanogate UK. Gebhard and H.Portl, (BASF AG).
21.8 The Etrec't of Orygen and Water on Stress corrosion 21.15 Measures for Reducing Sfress Conosion Cracking in
Cracking of Mild steel in Liquid and Vapotous Ammonia Anhydrous Ammonla Storage lanks, Rolf Nyborg and
P/ant L. Lunde and R. Nyborg, Operations Progress Liv Lunde, lnstituftfor Energiteknikk Norway, presented
Vol 6, No 1, Januayl987. to the A.l.Chem. E. Ammonia Safety Symposium, Van-
couver, Canada, October 1994.
21.9 Sfress Corroslon Cracking in Different Steels in Liquid
and vaporous Ammonia, L. Lundeand R. Nyborg, cor- 21.16 Sfress Corro sion Cracking in Low Temperature Ammo-
rosion '87, Paper no 17, San Francisco, USA. n,a Slorage lanks, Rolf Nyborg and Liv Lunde - Institutt
21.10 Sf/'ess Corrosion Crack Growth Rate of Carbon Manga- forEnergiteknikk Norway, presented to the A.l.Chem. E.
nese Sfee/s, L. Lunde and R. Nyborg, Corrosion Pre- Ammonia Safety Symposium, Vancouver, Canada, Oc-
vention in the Process Industries Conference, 1988 - tober'1994.
Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 21.17 Advanced design for submerged liquid ammonia
21.11 Effect of Welding Electrode Composition and Storcge pumps, D- Cullen and H. Kimme!, Ebara International
Temperature on Slrcss Corroslon Cracking of Carbon Corporation, Nevada, USA, International Journal of Hy'
steels in Liquid ammofla, L. Lunde and R. Nyborg, drocarbon Engineering, April 1998.
NACE Corrosion Conference 1991, Cincinnatti, USA.
21 .'18 Recommendationsfor safe and reliable inspection of at'
21.12 Sfress corroslo n in a 12,000 tonne fully-refigerated am- mosphefic, reftigerated storcge tanks, P repared by the
monia storage tank, J.R. Byrne and F.E. Moir (National European Fertiliser Manufacturers Association,
Vulcan Engineering Group Ltd) and R.D.Williams (EFMA), October 2002.
(BASF Chemicals Ltd), 1988 Ammonia Symposium - 21.19 BS 7910 : 1999, Auide on method for assessing the ac-
Safety in Ammonia plants and related facilities, AICE,
Denver Colorado, August 1988. ceptability of flaws in metallic structures, British Stan-
dards lnstitution, London.
21 -13 gructural lntegrity of a 1 2,000 tonne Refrigerated Am-
monia gorage Tank in the presence of Slress Conosion 21.20 March 20 1989 accident in Lithuanian feftilizet plant'
Cracks, R.A. Selva (NationalVulcan Engineering Group B.O. Andersson, Swedish National Rescue Board (SU-
Ltd) and A.H. Heuser (BASF AG). PRA). A.l. Chem. E. Technical Manual, Vol 31, 1991.

436 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


Am-
r, H.
22 Material selection criteria for low
gtn
ano temperature tanks
nted
'lan-
The means of selecting appropriate metallic materials for the various component parts, which
vno- make up the structure of a low temperature tank, are described in this Chapter and the
Etutt differences between the American, the British and the draft European Codes are discussed.
1. E. An interesting historical material selection procedure is also described.
Oc-
Contents:
,NE 22,'l General
)nal
Hy- 222 The requirements of API 620
22.2.1 API 620 Appendix R
fat- 22.2-1.1 Materials lor parts subjected to ambient temperatures
lhe
22.2-1.2 Maletials tor parts subjected to low temperatures
on,
22.2.2 API 620 Appendix Q
22.2.2.1 Matenals tor parts subjected to ambient temperatures
ac-
En- 22.2.2.2 Maltials lor parts subjected to low temperatures
22.3 The requirements of BS 7777 | Paft2
ant, 22.3.1 Materials for parts subjected to ambient temperatures
su- 22.3.2 Materials for parts subjected to low temperatures
1.
22,4 The requirements of 857777':Patl4
22.4.1 Parts subjected to ambient temperatures
22.4.2 Parts subjected to low temperatures
22.5 The requirements of PD 7777 l2OOO
22.6 The requirements of prEN 14620
22.6.1 Materials for parts subject to ambient tempratures
22.6-2 Matenals for parts subject to low temperatures
22.7 An example of a material selection method ftom the past
22.8 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


22 Mateial selection criteia for low temperaturc tanks

22.1 General heat treatment, the applied stress and the number, size and
shape of any defects in the finished assembly.
This Chapter is devoted to the rules covering the selection of
There are a number of test methods which are used to deter-
materials suitable for use in low temoerature tanks of metallic
construction. lt limits its interest to the selection of plate materi-
mine the material toughness at a particular temperature.
Amongst these are:
als for the main parts ofthe tank structure, i.e. the bottom, shell
and roof plating. The various Codes give guidance for the se- . Wide plate tests
lection of materials such as structural sections, pipe, forgings,
bolting, etc. Those interested in this sort of detail should make . Pellini-type drop weight tests
reference to the appropriate parts of these Codes.
. crack opening displacement (coD) tests
To venture deeply into the philosophywhich underpins the ba-
Allofthese tests are difficult, expensive and time consuming to
sis of the metallic material selection for these tanks is beyond
perform, but arguably get somewhere close to determining the
the scope of Slorage Tanks & EquipmenL and certainly beyond
intrinsic toughness of the steel.
the abilities and knowledge of the author. The detailed discus-
sions surrounding such subjects as avoidance of brittle frac- A test which is suitably quick and cheap, and with which the
ture, fracture arrest, critical defect sizes and the like must be steel producers are familiar and comfortable with is Charpy
found elsewhere. V-notch impact testing. Unfortunately the industry is less confi-
dent ofthe ability ofthis test to revealthe true nature ofthe prop-
What will be discussed are the relatively simple rules for mate-
erty of interest for the materials in question. So, the unsatisfac-
rial selection which have been developed from a great deal of
tory situation exists of tests which provide an answer which can
detailed study and test work, carried out over a considerable
be believed with some confidence, but which are too expensive
number of years, resulting in the requirements of the various
and slow to be of use as a production quality control tool, and a
design Codes.
test which is quick and cheap, but which produces answers
The material selection falls into tlvo separate areas: which are contentious.
. Materials for primary and secondary liquid-containing parts. Fortunately much work has been done to accommodate this
apparent dilemma. lmproved production methods have
- These are the inner tanks of single containment tanks resulted in generally tougher steels and the design codes have
and the outer metallic tanks of double and full contain- in some cases become more conservative in the material
ment tanks. These parts are subjected to both the mini- selection area. As a consequence, for ferritic materials the
mum product liquid temperature and the full hydrostatic Charpy V-notch impact test is used as the toughness criterion
head. despite its limitations.
. Materials for the outer metallic tanks of single containment Aluminium alloys and austenitic stainless steels are not sus-
tanks. ceptible to temperature dependent tough/brittle transitions in
the same wayas ferritic steels and consequentlytheir base ma-
- These are subjected to the minimum ambient tempera-
terials are excluded from impact testing requirements.
tures and comparatively modest stress levels arising
from internal vapour pressures and self-weight, wind
and seismic loadings. For these components the mate- 22.2The requirements of API 620
rialselection rules followthe ambient temperature prac-
tices. The requirements of API 620 regarding material selection re-
quirements are based in the main on the use of ASTM stan-
The material selected for the various parts ofthe structure must dards. Some Canadian Standards Association (CSA) and In-
possess the necessary strength, the ability to be fabricated into ternational Standards Association (lSO) steels are also
the required forms, weldability and the necessary toughness at included in the listings. The useofsteels manufactured to other
the design temperature to avoid the possibilityof brittle fracture. national and international standards requires careful study of
Ensuring that the materials possess the necessary propertaes the steel specification and the code rules to ensure that all of
to demonstrate their suitability for the first two of these consid- the necessary requirements have been fulfilled. It is frequently
erations is relatively straightfoMard. The usual tensile testing necessary to have to resort to additional testing of such steels
required by the material specifications to determine yield to be able to demonstrate equivalence. The code contains a
strength, ultimate tensile strength and elongation to failure are large number of rules, specific exceptions and footnotes relat-
normally sufficient. These properties are usually measured at ing to material selection. For those involved in the task of mate-
room temperature. rial selection, there is little choice but to become immersed in
As most materials are stronger at the lower service tempera- the fine print of the Code and consequently there is no need to
quote "chapter and verse" in Storage Tanks & Equipment. A
tures, this gives rise to a factor of safety additional to that im-
posed by the Codes in the determination of the allowable ten- brief overview is thus offered with some ofthe significant points
sile stresses. For certain materials this can be substantial. ln highllghted.
the case of 9% nickelsteels used at LNG temperatures, recent With the exception of plates which have their thickness se-
data suggests that this "hidden" factor can be as high as 50% lected based on minimum thickness requirements, plates are
for both the plate material and the weld metal. lt should be re- permitted to be a maximum of0.01" thinnerthan the calculated
membered that for LNG service, it is the latter property which thicknesses required, based on edge thickness measure-
controls the selected plate thickness. lt is the last of the re- ments.
quired properties that tends to cause the most concern. Ferritic
steels at warm temperatures, are malleable and can be plastic-
ally deformed without risk of fracture provided the materials 22.2.1 API620 Appendix R
elongation has not been exhausted. When the service temper-
ature is reduced, the material may become brittle and failure 22.2.1.1 Materials for parts subjected to ambienttempera-
can occurat low stresses with little or no plastic deformation. tures
The temperature at which the transition from ductile to brittle The Code describes these parts as basic orsecondary compo-
behaviour occurs is dependent upon the steel chemistry the nents.

438 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


22 Mateial seledion aiteia for low temoenture tdnks

no

er-
ae.
Pcrmi$ribh Spacifi crtio0s
Derign Mctd Plnc Thickn6s
lbmpcnum IrEludirS Co.rosion Spocid Roquilrrncnts
(icc 4.2,1) Allounmc (iD.) Spcci[c.rion Grr& (in ddirion to ,1.2.3)

65'F rrd or{ Any listql io 2-2.3 Nooc


<l ASTM A 36 Nooc
>l CSA C,|{}.21-M Nonc I
Ito
25'F rnd o\rcr 3.tk Any lhtld in 2"23 1o*,mr|/,l5o* NorNc
he sl ASTM A 36 Mod 2 Nonc
ASTM A I3I B Nooc
CSA C'lll2l -M 26|}w3(x)w350w Nonc
he >l Notc I
pv - 5"F jd ovr sth ASTM A I3I B Notrc
IIF CSA G4O2I.M 260fl,3SW,35{tW Nonc
)P
tc- >th ASTtr{A 13l cs NUlc
an ASruA516 55,6(},65.70 Noc I
re ASIl,lA 573 5& 65,m Nd. I
ta ASruA662 BrdC Nel
ASruAn? B Nale
:{s ASTI'iA tal Clsl NqE
csAeo2t-M 26OW 3dtu
350W Notc 2
E '150630 E Zt5. 8355 Qudiry D NccE l.rd2
ve
ve ASTI| A 516 55,60,65, m l,lqF
ial ASIUA 53? Cl|s|.r I rdz Ncte
he ASTlr,lA t3 5& 65, ?0 Noor
m ASTMA d}3 CqdD l{o.
ASTtr{A 662 B rdC tlooe
6?t A rdE I\toE
1S- ^SII{A
ASruA73? B I\bE
h ASruAgl ('|ttt t\hoc
E- csA c(t2t{l 60w'3r[1v.:]fnt Noc 2
ISO 630 E 275, E355 Qutiry D NGtrd2
<l
Astlt A t3t cs l{fic
ASTM A 516 55,60,65,70 Noac 3
ASruAtJ? at-..Gl I .nd 2 Nqrc
e- ASTM A 5t Norc 3
tl- ASTI| A 633 '] C|rdD Nqrc
[} ASTM A 662 BrndC Noac 3
x) ASTI{A 678 A|trlB None
Ef ASTMA 737 B Noo!
(t ASruAgl Cl|sr I Nooc
d cs^ G402t-M 2601V.3mw' 3t0w Ndrs 2 rnd 3
>l tso 630 Ein5, E355 |nlQudhy Norcs 2 |ld 3
ry D
ls ASTM A IlI Noac 4
a ASTM A 516 cs Notc$ 1 d4
rt- ASTM A 5I? 55.60,65, m Norc 4
e- ASTM A 5?3 Ch*.cs I .||d 2 Nolcs I rnd 4
it ASTM A 6!t 5t Nqc 4
b ASTM A 66? CrndD Nqcl| 3 rrd 4
A ASTM A 6?8 EaMC Norc 4
as ASTM A ?I? ArndB N(xc.l
ASTM A 8,1| Clrss I N(|rtc
csA Glo.] -M B Ndcs 1..1. irnd 4
rso 6.1(l l6{rwT. .r(x}wT. r50 wT N(*:\ :- J. and J
rE E2?5, El55Qlalily D
d
I All pht6 ovd lla l. ttkl d.ll b. mr'Idlad
2 Tb! *.cl lrtl lhdl L U[.a lrd nrd. rta! th. grdr prrcd.e
3 Tlc plrt . |rl[ bc .omdh.d o. qrcrcr r.nFrid (..c {.24r)
a Er.b pLae |irll D. lDp.ct ae.!.d tr rccsrd co wXt {2J

tgurs 22.1 Minimum requkemenb for pl6te sFcifcaflons to be usd for design metal temperature
Bo.n API 620, Awendlx R, table +1

STORAGE TANKS A EQUIPMENT 439


22 Matedal selection cdteia for low tempercturc tanks

D.dgn M.rd TcmFnfiE ofsccoid.rJ Compon rt


-6lPF to Bclow -20PF -20'F lo +40'F
M ..Lb 19 llsr.d in Tlblc R-4 Mr|ri* r! lilt dinnbb R4

Pip. ASTM A 106 As lis&d in 2J

SEudonl ntnbcrs Plra or pipc !s list d .borc na. or pipc .! li$.d lbovc
ASTM A 36 Mod | lluctunl dupca (i.c 2.6) Suucnlrrl lhati ar liir.d io 2.6 or a.r li$cd ud.r E
- 6fF to - m'F llmpcr.|un hrding
ASTM A l3lOr?&CS
CSA C4021-M C6d.s 26OW..100W. rnd lsOW (s.. Mt!)

Forlrngs ASTMA 105

Eolu ASTM A l9l Gnd{ a?


ASTM A 120 Cad. L?
Nor(: Thc \lcclthxll h.lolly hillcd m'j madc |oli*-g.n ptulr.c

Figure 22.2 IVaterials for secondary componenls


Fron API 620, Appendix R, table R-3

Minimum D6ign Mctal Tcmpcmturc, oF


Plarc Thickncss lncluding CoFosion Allowsrlcc. in,
Spccific8don
Group Numbct G'adc th6-3ls >3!E-th >l/2-l > t-lr/2
| (scmikillcd) A 36 Mod 2. -m -t0 +5
A I3I B -m -t0 +J
csAG4o.2r-M 260W 0 +10 +zt
150630 E 2?5 Qualhy Co -m -10 +) +)

ll (fuUy ldll.d) A 573 58' -30 -10


A l3l cs -60 -J.' -35 -m
A 516 55 rr|d 60 -30 -N -t0 0
A 516 55 and 60P -40 -ln
ISO 630 E 2?5 Qudity Db -30 -n -10 0
cs^ c40.2r-M 26oWD -,t0 -30 -15 0

Itr (fully killcd utd A 573 65 dd ?0 -N _10 +5


high 3ulNrglh)
A 516 65 .rd 70 -m -t0 +5
A 516 65 rrd ?0 Mod lr -40 -30 _15 0
A 537 l.rdz -60 -50 -15 -m
A662 BandC -40 -30 _15 0
A 633 CtndD -60 -50 -35 -m
A 6?8 A udE -@ -50 -35 -20
AW -60 -50 -35 -m
ISO 630 E 35sQurliry DD -30 -m -10 +5
csA c40.2t-M 3mwo -io -30 -15
+J +m
0
csA G40.2r-M 2{0wD -30 -10
NoEi:
Whrt Dorndizi4 mrtcrirl$ in 6is r.blc |!ry bc urcd at tcmpqafils 20"F blo$, drc6! shown (dccpt fgr A t3l Gndc CS, A 537 Cl.!sc! |
rnd e A 633 Grld.s C ard D, A 6?8 Crad.! A rnd B, And A 737 Gradc B). lf lmpaca tclas Equircd for thc metrrid! listld itr thit tablc,
0l.y rh.ll bc in occordrtE! wfth Tablc f,-5. 'l!
rscc 4,2.3 for r cottrpLtr dclcaiption of ddr hrtrrial.
blftc n cl ihall bc frllly killcd aDd na& witb 6nc-8rain Frclicc, vithout lonnrlizin& fo( thickEoslg of 116 in. ttugu8h I lD in.
cThc mragmcac cootcd shall bc in thc nDg. from 0,&5% ro ll0% by bdlc amlysi!.

Figure 22.3 lvlinimum pemissible design metal temperature for plates used as secondary components without impacl testing
From API 620, Appendix R, tabla R-4

Basic components are those that contain the vapodsed lique- 6000 lb/in'z. Secondary components which could be designed
fied gas from the stored refrigerated liquid, but primarily oper- within this reduced stress are roof plates, including roof
ate at atmospheric temperature because of insulation system manways and nozzleswith their reinforcement, roof supporting
design and naturalambient heating. Examples ofsuch compo- structural members and shell stifieners.
nents are the outerwalland roofs ofdouble walltanks and roof
These components are furtherdivided into thosewhich contain
componenb above the internally insulated suspended deck.
the vaporised gas and those which do not. The materials forthe
former may (a curious choice of word, a BS or CEN standard
Secondary components are those whose failure would not re- would have used "shall" here) conform to one ofthe following:
sult in leakage of the liquid being stored. Secondary compo-
nents also include those components that are not in contact . Table4-1 (Figure 22.1 )fordesign metal temperatures down
with the refrigerated liquid but are subject to the refrigerated to -35'F (i.e. a lowestone day mean ambient temperature of
temperature vapours and have a combined tensile and primary -35'F) without impact testing unless these are required by
bending stress under design conditions that does not exceed Table 4-1 or by the purchaser.

440 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


22 Material selection citeia for low temperaturc tanks

Plate Impacr valueb (ft-lb) W.ld Innact Value (fllb)


Speai6cation Rangc in
Number Grade Thickness (in.) lndividual lndividual
ASTM A I3I Csc ,16 - llh 25 20 20 t5
ASTM A 516 55 and 60 11j -2 25 20 20 t5
ASTM A 516 3t6-2 25 20 20 l5
3tft
ASTM A 516 65 ard'tO Mod td -2 25 20 20
ASTM A 516 65 and ?0 Mod 2d 3tft -z 25 20 20 l5
ASTM A 84I I 3116
-z 25 20 20
ASTM A 53? Jlt6 20
I - 2 20
ASTM A 53? 2 3116-2 30 25 25 m
ASTM A 662 BandC 31rc-2 25 20 20 l5
ASTM A 678 3h6
- tt t2 25 m m l5
ASTM A 678 B. 3l16-2 30 25 25 20
th6
ASTM A 73? -2 25 20 20
3116
ASTM A 84I I -2 20 20

ISO 630 D..ac


E 355 Qualiry ,rc-2 25 m m l5
csA G40.21-M 260WT.& 3t6-2 25 ?! 20 l5
CSA G4O.2I-M 3oovrFn ,\6-2 25 m m
csA G40.21-M 350s/tc'd' tlrc-2 25 20 m l5

Notcs:
.SrcR.2.l.2.
bFor design mc(al tcmpcratures of- 40oF ,nd lowcr {tc p(ate impact values shall bc nis.d 5 fl-lh
cThc tiequcocics of tcsting for ncrharical and chemical prcpcnies shall be at l.ast e4ual ro $osc of ASTM A 20.
dscc 4.23 for a complctc dascripiion of rhis matctial.
Thc sEel shall bc fully killd aM madc with fine-grain Factice.

r-rgure 22.4 IVinimum Charpy V-noich impact requlremenls for primary components plate specimens (transverse) and weld spec mens incJuding ihe heal affected

Fron API 620 Appendix R. table R 2

. Table R-3 (Figure 22.2) for design metal temperature down supporting structufal members and shell stiffeners where the
to -60"F without impact tests unless they are requifed by Ta- combined tensile and primary bending stress under design
ble R-4 (Figure 22.3) or by the purchaser cond tions exceeds 6000 lb/in2.
. lfapproved bythe purchaser, the material may be seiecled For components falling into this category, Charpy V-notch im-
by the requirements of paragraph 4.2.2 of API 620. This pact testing at or below the minimum design metal temperature
provides three oossibilities for the reduction in the stfin- shall be carried out to achieve the energy values given in table
gency of the material selection criteria where the actual R-2 (Figute 22.4). f he impact specimens shall be taken trans-
stress under design conditions in the component in ques- verse to the difection of final plate rolling. This is different to the
tion does not exceed one third of the allowable tensile requirements of BS 7777 which requires the impact test speci-
stress. mens to be taken parallel to the direction of final plate rolling
For the parts of an outer tank which do noi contain the vapor- (i.e. longitudinal). Some steel specifications quote impact en-
sed gas (i.e. in the case of a design using a fixed roof inner ergy levels for both longitudinal and transverse specimens, in
tank), the material may conform to any of the materials listed in which case the steel seleciion is quite straightforward. Other
Table 4-1 . Consideration ofthe design metal temperature is not specifications only quote longitudjnal Charpy V-notch require-
required if the actual stress in the component of the outer tank ments, in which case additional testing must be undertaken to
n question does not exceed one halfofthe allowabletensile de- ensure that the required properties are provided.
sign stress for the material.
It is not wise to estimate the transverse plate properties based
22.2.1 -2 Materials tor parts subjected to low temperatures on the longitudinal properties determined at the same tempera-
These parts are described as primary components which are in tures. The relationship between the two properties is depend-
turn defined as components whose failure would result in leak- ent upon the directionality of the plate which is in turn a funciion
age of the liquid being stored, components which are exposed of the amount of cross rolling in the production process. As a
to the refrigerated temperature and those subject to thermal guide, the transverse energy levels can be between 50% and
snocK. 90% of the equivalent longitudinal values.

These primary components shall include, but not be limited to, Note: Table R-2 also gives energy values for the weld metal
the following parts ofa single walltank or the innerwallof a dou- and the heat-affected zone (HAZ)for use in the welding
ble walltank: shell plates, bottom plates, knuckle plates, com- Orocedure Oualifications.
pression rings, shell manways and nozzles including reinforce-
ment, shell anchors, piping, tubing, forgings and bolting. Roof 22.2.2 API620 Appendix Q
nozzles in contactwith the refrigerated liquid shall also be con-
sidered as pfimary components.
22.2.2.1 Malerials lor parts subjected to ambient tempera-
Also included are those parts of a single wall or an inner tank IUres
which is not in contactwith the refrigerated liquid butare subject
to the refrigerated temperature. Such components include roof The Code describes these as secondarv comDonents defined
plates, roofmanways and nozzles with their reinforcement, roof as follows:

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 441


22 Mateial selection c teia fot low temperature tanks

Secondary components include those components thatwill not . 9% nickel steel


be stressed to a significant level by the refrigerated liquid, those
whose failure will not result in leakage ofthe liquid being stored, . 5% nickel steel
those exposed to product vapours, and those having a design
metal temperature of -60'F or higher. When roof plates, . Austenitic stainless steel
knuckle plates, compression rings, and manways and nozzles
including reinforcing are primarily subjected to atmospheric
. Aluminium alloy
temperatures, these shall also be classified as secondary . Nickel alloys (i.e. Invar, Hastelloy etc)
components.
9% nickel steel is the most commonly used material for LNG,
The selection of materials for these oarts is as described in
ethylene and ethane service. lts strength, weldability, availabil-
Section 22.2.1 .1.
ity and cost make this the obvious choice.
22.2.2.2 Materials tor parts sublected to low temperatures
5% nickel steel is less widely available and its use is normally
These are described as primary components, and again API
restricted to ethylene and ethane service.
620 launches into a lengthy definition of which parts fall into this
caregory: Austenitic stainless steel is uneconomic for large low tempera-
Primary components include those components that may be ture tanks, but is commonly used for the smaller tanks for the
stressed to a significant level, those whose failure would permit storage of liquid oxygen, nitrogen and argon.
leakage of the liquid being stored, those exposed to a refriger-
Aluminium alloy was once wideiy used for the construction of
ated temperature between -60"F and -270'F and those that are
large low temperature tanks. The manufacture of aluminium al-
subject to thermal shock.
loys is an energy intensive process and the significant in-
The primary components shall include, but will not be limited to, creases in energy costs which took place in the early 1970s
the following parts of a single walltank (most unusual to Appen- caused the pendulum to swing towards 9% nickel steel as the
dix Q), or ofthe innertank in a double walltank: shell plates, bot- economic choice, and this remains the case today.
tom plates, roofplates, knuckleplates, compression rings, shell
stiffeners, manways and nozzles including reinforcing, shell The use of nickel alloys is most unusual and will not be further
anchors, pipe, tubing, forgings and bolting. considered.

This part ofthe code allows the use ofthe following materials for The commonly used AST[,4 materials are listed in table Q-1
pnmary components: (Figure 22.5).

PlaGs ar|d Sruclu.al Piping


Mcmbcrs and Tubing Forgings BoltinB

A 153 (Scc not. l) A 333, C.adc 8 (scc not.2)


B 444 (UNS-N06625), Cr. I

A 553, TyF I (scc not. l) A 334, Gradc 8 (scc notc 2)


B 444 (UNS-N06625). Gr. 2

A 645 B 619 (UNS-N l0276xscc norc 3)


B 622 (UNS-N102?6)

A 24O, Typc 304 A 213, Gr.de TP 3O4 A 182, Gradc F 304 A 320, CradcsBE, B8C, B8M
A 240, Tnc 3ML A 2 I 3, Gradc TP 304 L A | 82, Cradc F 304L and B8T
A 312, Crrdc TP 304 (scc notc 3)
A 313, GrNde TP 304L (s.c norc 3)

A 358. Gnde 304, Class I


(!cc Dote 4)

B 209, Alloy 30034 (scc notc 5 B 210, Alloy 3003-0 B 247, Alloy 3m3-HI12 82l I, Alloy 606l -T6
B 209, Alloy 5052{ (s.t notc 5) B 2 10,Alloy 3003-H I 12 E 24?, Alloy 5083-Hlt2Mod
B 209, Alloy 50E3{ (!.c nolc 5) B 2lq Alloy 5052{
B 209, Alloy 508tu (scc notc 5) B 210, Alloy 508tu
B 209, Alloy 51544 (!cc notc 5) B 2l0,Alloy 5154{

B 209, Alloy 545@ (scc notc 5) B 24l,Alloy 50524


B 22t,Alloy 6061-T4 udT6 B 241, Alloy 5083-0
B 3O8, Alloy 6061-T2 ard T6 B Zl, Alloy 5066{
B 241, Alloy 5454{
B 241, Alloy 5456{)

Notas:
l. Whc{r Fcssurc para d! rndc ofASTM A 353 orA 553 rnat dd or nickcl rlloy, pipe nangc! or pipc may bc rustcnitic stainlcss sl.cl of
r rr?c that cannot bc hardcdcd by hat EEaEncnL Pipc nanSca or pipc may bc wcldcd to nozzlc nccks of dE prcssurc part mat tial if thc
butr wcld b locltrd rno(c than I dist$cc cqual !o thc 4 mcrsurcd from thc facc ofthc rcinforccmcnl whcrr r= insidc ridius of $c nozzlc
ncclq in iL
rnd r s thick|ess of thc mzzlc ncck in in. Thc d.sigr of thc nozzlc ncck rhall bc bas.d on thc allo*blc stcss veluc of
wcrkcr mrlc.ial.
2. Scrmlcss piping rnd rubing only.
3. Wcldcd piF sha bc wcld.d ftom rhc ootsidc only by thc tungstcn-arc inscn gas-shieldcd CfC) prcccss nithout $c addition of 6llcr
mctrl and Ehall bc hydroslaticdly testcd.
4. Impacl lcst of wcld! shall bc madc for thc w.lding proccdurc whcn rcquncd by Q.6,3.
5. ASTM B 221 structural scctions dE also Dcrmittcd.

Figure 22.5 ASTM materials fof primary components


Fron API 620.Iable A-1

442 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


22 Mate al selection criteria for low temperature tanks

for
V.lu. R.qoicd Mhimln V.l@ Wi$oot vrlcRcqli!dd MiniooD hlc Wirh&l
Aeco(li.C Rcquiriq R.r.!P A...ptd R.qrili.t Ra6tr
(rr.lb) (ftlb) (ftnb) (finb)
l0 x 10.00 a l6 25 2A

l0 x ?J0 t5 t2 t9

l0 x667 t3 t0 t7 ll
l0 x5.0 l0 8 t0

r0x333 7 5 a 1
.NG,
abil- t0x2-!) 5 6 5

N'ld:
rA$dg. of dr!. rFdeaB
rally lonly G .pcdm of. .c!
: gure 22.6 Charpy V-notch impact value
+om API 620, table Q-2
the
mpact testing is not required for primary components made
iom austenitic stainless steel, nickel alloys oraluminium Mlntnrm Thtclness Mste d2)
1of ddlgn metd .
aUoys.

in- mpact testing is required for primary components made from


70s 3% and 5'/o nickel steels. T>O ts15 BS EN 10025 : 1990
Fb 430 B or
the )laie matedals shall be imDact tested in accordance with the Fe 610 B
'bllowing:
15<t<36 BS EN 10026 : 1990
ner . lmpact test soecimens shall be taken transverse to the di- Fe 430 C or
Fe 510 D1
rection of final plate rolling.
. T> -20 ,<16 BS EN 10026 : 1990
Charpy V-notch specimens shall be cooled to a tempera- Fe 430 B or
ture of -320"F for impact testing (conveniently the tempera- Fe 610 C
ture of liquid nitrogen). 15<ts35 BS EN 10026 : 1990
. For 5% nickel steel only, the test temperature may be raised Fe 430 Dl or
Fe 510 DD1
Io -22O'F.
'/ See 6.2.2.
. The transverse Charpy V-notch impact energy values shall Other matelials may be used pmvided thy ar equivalent
'?)
conform to table Q-2 (Figute 22.6). to rhos spcilied, and pfolided rhe purchasr and
manufacturer aSree [o such a subsriturion.
. Each test shallconsist of three specimens, and each speci-
men shall have a lateral expansion opposite the notch of not F gure 22 7 Stee s fof outer tank compresson area, roof and roofstr!ct!re
less than 0.015". where the minim!m desgn tempeture is based on ambient lempeture
Frcn BS 77/7 : Pai2, table 6
The Charpy V-notch impact energy levels quoted in Table Q-2
afe low by comparison with the levels usually associated with
5% and 9% nickelsteel olate materials ofrecent manufacture.
-ihe 22.3.1 Materials for parts subjected to ambient
code also gives rules for the impact testing of structural temperatures
shapes and forgings in these materials. The manufacture and
rse of these is most uncommon.
For steel outer tank parts where the minimum design tempera-
ture is based on ambient temperatures, the materials shall be
22.3 The requirements ol BS 7777 i Paft 2 selected from Table 6 (Figure 22.7). These parts would nor-
mally be the compression area, the roof plating and the foof
'.1inimum supplied plate thicknesses for tanks designed to this
rode fall into two categories: structure. lt is recommended that for the uK the design metal
temperature should be taken as -10'C. For areas outside the
. For shellplates where thethickness is based on axialstabil- UKthedesign metaltemperature should betaken as the lowest
ity or internalvapour pressure considerations, for roofthick- daily mean temperature (i.e one half of the sum of the daily
nesses based on minimum requirements, bottom or maximum and minimum temperatures).
annular plates, The minimum thickness based on edge
measurement shall not be less than the specified thickness For the outer tanks of double-walled single containment tanks
less one halfof the total thickness tolerance specified in EN (i.e. those for containment of gas only), the materials shall be
10025:1990. selected from Table 7 (Figure 22.8).
. For shell plates where the thickness is based on fluid pres- Note: The steel designations given in these Tables are those
sure considerations or roof Dlates where the thickness is from the earlier version of BS EN 10025 (Reference
based on a calculated thickness. the minimum thickness 22.1). fhese have now changed and the appropriate
based on edge measurements of the plates supplied shall new designation should be used taken from the latest
not be less than the calculated values. version of this Code (Reference 22.2).
:or 9% nickel steels where the required thickness is based on
:re properties ofthe weld metal ratherthan the properties ofthe 22.3.2 Materials for parts subjected to low tempera-
rlate, local thinning remote from the edge of the plate, due to tures
'olled in scattered scale on the plate surface, is acceptable pro-
/ided that the measured thickness is not less than g0% of the The Code focuses its attention on the use ofsteels for inner and
:alculated thickness of the Dlate. outer tanks designed to contain refrigerated liquid.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 443


22 Material selection citeria for low temperature tanks

]Iinimum design Thickness Materiatl) Product SinBle Double or Typical


contrlnment full product
cont$lnment etordge
7' tempetatute
Butane Iype II *10.c
T > r l0 I =:10 BS EN 10O25 : Ammonia Tlpe II Tlpe I -35 0C
1990
Fe 360 B, Propane/ TYpe iII Type tr *50.c
propylene
Fe 430 B or
Fe 510 B Ethare/ Tlpe W lVpe IV - 105 0c
ethylene
+10>7>0 t s25 BS EN 10025
LNG D?e V or I}pe IVr) - 165 0C
1990
VI
Fe 360 B,
Fe 430 B or 'r For thicknesses geater than 30 rnrn and less than or equal
to 40 mm, 'lvpe V or VI is necessary,
Fe 510 B
2'o <t <35 BS EN TOO25 Fjgure22.9 l\4aterial iypesfortankshell and bottom
1990 BS 7777 : Part 2, table 2
Fe 360 C,
Fe 430 C or quently been replaced by BS EN 10028-4 (Reference
Fe 510 Dl 22.7)).
0 > 7 > -20 t < 12.5 BS EN 10025 : . Type V steel: lmproved 9% nickel steels conforming to BS
1990 15O1 : Par12: 1988 type 510 improved.
Fe 360 B,
!'e 430 B or . Type Vl steel: Austenitic stainless steel conforming to BS
Fe 510 B 1501: Part 3 : 1990 (Reference 22.8).
12.5<r<20 BS EN TOO25 : It is interesting to note that the BS Code does not quote or allow
r990 the use of a 5% nickel steel which API 620 indicates as being
Fe 360 C, suitable for ethane and ethylene storage tanks. A reason put
Fe 430 C or forward for this was that the use of 5% nickelsteelwas quite un-
Fe 510 C usual and the infrequent manufacture ofthis steelwas inconve-
20<r<35 BS EN 10025 :
nient to the mills which charged a premium for its supply. This,
1990 together with the difierence in strength between 5% and 9%
Fe 360 Dl, nickel steel, combined to make gyo nickel steel a more eco-
Fe 430 Dl or nomic proposition and consequently the 5% nickel steel be-
Fe 510 DDI came irrelevant. A recent re-examination of this supply
rrSee 6.2.2. cosUstrength issue suggests that this perception is no longer
true.
z)Other ma.tedals may be used provided they are equivalent
to those specified, and provided the purchaser and The use of the six types of steel for the various products to be
manufacturer agree to such a substitution, stored is described in table2of 857777 :Paftz, (Figurc 22.9).
For single containment systems, the material chosen is gener-
Figure 22.8 Steelfof outer conlainers forsingle containmeni ianks
ally one type higher in quality than is the case for double and full
BS 7777 : Patl2, table 7 containment systems. Although experience has demonstrated
that the risk of failure of a single containment system, correctly
The use of aluminium alloys is subject to agreement between designed and fabricated in accordance with British Standards,
the purchaser and the manufacturer of the tank in question. As is very low, an enhanced material quality for this type oftank is
has been mentioned earlier, the use of aluminium alloysforthe made in the attemptto offset the more serious consequences of
construction of low temperature tanks these days is very un- failure. This table gives no rules for materials to be used for the
usual. storage of liquid oxygen, nitrogen and argon. These products
Guidanceforthe use of aluminium alloys is given in AnnexC of are covered by BS 7777 :Paft4 (Reference 22.9) ,the rcquie-
B57777 : Patt2- This Annex requires the use of plate materials ments of which are described in Section 22.4 below.
to BS 1471 (Reference 22.3) and structural materials to BS The Charpy V-notch impact testing requirements for the plate
'1474 (Reference 22.4). No doubt these rules could be ex- materials is given in Table 3 ofthe Code (Figure 22.10). Note
tended to cover materials of US origin to ASTM standards by that the impact testing is specified as longitudinal which is dif-
agreement. The maximum shell plate thickness is restricted to ferent from the API requirements.
55 mm.
The CharpyV-notch impact testing forthe weld metal is given in
For the use ofsteel materials, the code has defined six material Table 5 of the Code (Figure 22.11).
types:
The philosophy behind the materialselection and testing ofthe
. Type I steel:
Normalised carbon manganese steel con- types ll and lll steels needs some words of clarification. The ba-
forming to BS EN 10028-3 (Reference 22.5) gtades P275 sic requirement is to provlde a toughness of at least 27J at the
NLI or NL2 or grade P355 grades NL1 or NL2. design metal temperature in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of
. Type ll steel: lmproved toughness carbon manganese the production welds of tanks for double or full containment
types, and 27J at 25"C +/- 5"C lowerthan the design metaltem-
steels.
perature for single containment tanks. The steels used in these
. Type lll steel: Low nickel steels (normallythese are propri- categories are well known to be susceptible to degradation of
etary steels with nickelcontents of between 1 .5 and 3.5%). the weld metal impact properties in the HAZ.
. Type lV steel:9% nickelsteels conforming to BS 1501: Part The normal practices of allowing the tank manufacturer to
2 | 1988 (Reference 22.6) type 510 (this code has subse- specify and purchase the steel, the welding methods and

444 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


22 Material selection citeria for tow temperature tanks

n?e I Nomalized carbon-manganese 27 J at -50 'C Not required


TYpe tr Irnproved toughness caxbon-manganese 27 J at -50 oC - LIa) -20 ac
\?eIIl Low nickel steel 27 J -80 oC
- L?a) -50 oc
'I!"e IV I % nickel steel 36 J
^t
at 196 oC Not required
I}pe v Improved I % nickel 100 J at -196 .C Not requircd
TJpe VI Austenitic stairiless steel No impact testing requircd
'' Ener$ lelue the minirnufr 8kge oI itRe sleimens, wi$ only one siqle r?rue bs than the i?tue specified and with no
i5
stnele Elue les than ?6 * ol the lalue soeified.
a,
For matedrl lh'cknes ls rhm 11 nn, 10 nn x 6 m sub,si@ specihens are ro be u*d, rnd demonstate ?O % of the
values speilied lh thri ia.ble_ Ibr 1}?e V sieet, rhe lulue js ro be 50 % of the Btu spejfld in tnis t5bte,
3r lrnp&i t$rhg i5.arnd our on esch Dtare ro demorotrate the required inpacr rrlue. In ad<tftion, rGring rr s frcquency of one
t4t pr40 t batch i! to be clrded out to demomtrate the 120 J requiremtrr (4e anner A). The deti iions of pl&te.nd iaich
aE given in BS EN 10025.
', RefeFnce should be hdde to urex A,

. gLre 22.10 Longitudinal Charpy V-notch impact lesling


33 7777 : Pat12, table 3

Weld metrl tor desiglnrtrd Charpy V-not h lnpact te8t


steel tyle enefgy,
For matedals used at 27 J at -L0 6C
BS
ambient temperatures lo Hut weld
|- :loo t
For lype I steels 60 J at -30 'Cz) I - rJ
tsS
For $pe tr steeis 60 J at - 60 ocz) f-_-lE ut_l_
For TYpe III steels 50 J at -80 ocz)

rg
For l}pe [V steels 35 J at - 196 oCa) NqlE l A mininun oi 15 pllre specinero are taken ar mid rhickne$ ioh rhe 3de side

l..li For lYpe V 35 J at - 196 oC3) Longitudinal dis of sDcinens ii !o be prpendicutd to weld uis.
NOlIj 2. A ninjhum of 15.pecimens.F taken ar mjd rhickne$, wiih rhe noLh tdated in
For $pe VI Not rquircd lhe tlAz, and e etched io denon6i6ie that rhe norch is hoi in veld melat o. parnt

.S, ', Enerty velue ls the minihum average of three spcimns,


with otrly one sirui]e !'alue leis than the value specilid and
).: Mth no single value less than 76 % of the vatue specified.
u )
Th intent of this speciJication is to ensurc that the
F gute 22 12 Lacal a. af Charpy V,noich impact energy test spec mens
)?- Foduction \ileld6 in the tank meet ihe 20 J minimum at the
te8t temperoiue gi\,n above. In ordet to achieve thjs, the Fron BS 7777 : Pan 2. figure A3
procedur tst of weld mtal for \?es I, II and III steels is
ie: requird to demoistmte a higher Charpy V-notch energ/
this lT. involving a standardised weld specimen as illustrated jn
value to compensate for the scatter oi rcsults inherent in
Chaey V testiru of weld matdals. figure A.1, A.2 and A.3 (F)gwe 22.12).
Employing the forcgoing welding prccdure, prcduclion test
plates are nolmally unncessaq/, and ai not a feaiure of thjs Th jsallowed a minimum of 15 Charpy V-notch specimens to be
standard. However, if Uoduction test plates arc called for t'y taken from both the parent plate and the HAZ, tested at different
the pllldns! minimum averaS energy values of 2? J for temperatures to allow the 27J transjtion graph indicated in Fig-
three speeimem with no single mlue less than 20 J are
requLed at the te8t temperature given. ure 22.13lo be produced. With the AT determjned, the plate
3)
'Ihe minimum average impact enemr for the weld metal for material could be tested at a temperature of AT below the de_
'Ihes lvand V is based on the high nicket, austenitic weld sign metal temperature to ensure that the required 27J will be
metal. In the event of weld metl bing offered in achieved in the HAZ at the design metal temperature.
composition matching that of I % ntckel plate, additiona.l
speciallst advice ehould be obtelned. To ensure that the material does not exhibit a flat Charpy
NmD. Where austenitic weld metal is usd for weldin! V-notch transition, a batch test (one test per 40 tonnes) is re-
T}?e I or'IVpe m stls, Charpy V-nokh inpact rcsring of quired to show a longitudinal impact of .120J at either _20"C
the tlcld metal is not rqukd.
(type ll) or -50'C (type lll).
't-,e 22.11 Weld metat C harpy V-notch impact test energy This then pre-qualifies the particu lar steel. lf any ofthe following
:'.n BS 7777 : Patt 2, tabte 5 change, then the test must be repeatedl

r:'rsumables, and to then demonstrate that the 27J had been . Steelmaker
::rieved in the HAz by means of production weld testinq on . Steelmaking process
: ::. carries with it the possibility offailure to attain the req;ire-
-ent. This would have a devastating effect on the cost and . Deoxidation process
:'rgress of the project in question as by this time the steel . Desulphurisationprocess
, : JId have been purchased, delivered, fabricated, erected and
:;'iially welded. To avoid the possibility of encounters with this . Casting practice
:-barrassing and expensive scenario, it was decided to devjse . Heat treatment
: -ethod of pre-qualification for the steels commonlV used for
:-:se products. . Changes in specified chemical composition including mi_
cro-alloy additions.
This materialselection method has given rise to a long-running
-- s pre-qualification procedure was based around the deter-
and occasionally acrimonious argument. The UK a;d
- -atron of the AT shift for the material jn question. This
is the pean-based steel producers were opposed to the proposal and
Euro_
-:asurement by testing of the actual decrease in the touoh_ refused to carry out the test work necessary to pre-qualify their
-
.:s ofthe parent plate and the HAZ of the steel. Annex Aof -BS steels. When BS 7777 was presented as a possible draft for in_
---7 : Patt 2 gives the details of the methods of determinino corporation into the new European lowtemperature tank Code,

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 445


22 Mateial selection citeia for low temperature tanks

At the time when this PD was published, there were no national


or international standards for ferritic steels in which toughness
requirements are specified for crack arrest capability. Anumber
of proprietiary steels have been developed for which some test
datia have been provided, and these are summarised in Table 1
(Figure 22.14)with their related references.
It isthe responsibility of the purchaserand the manufacturerto
satisfy themselves that the steel suppliers possess the neces-
sary expertise to produce suitable steels and provide the nec-
essary evidence that these properties can be achieved in pro-
duction. Where possible such evidence should be based on
production data, but, because of the stage of development of
these steels, the evidence may have to be based upon trial pro-
d uction run data. In this case, the PD recommends that the ma-

Figure 22.13 Temperature shift (AT)at the 27 J toughness tevel terial property data should be based on a minimum of two casts
Fram BS 7777 : Parl2, figure A.4
of steel of at least 250 tonnes each.
The PD goes on to make a number of points relating to the steel
this issue was atthe heart ofan ill-tempered series of meetings making process and the chemical composition of the steel. In
which delayed the production of the new standard for years, a
brief these are:
reaction which seemed to be disproportionate to the impor-
tance of the issue. The end result is that the new EN will not . All steels should be produced by a basic oxygen process
have this selection method for the materials to use for butane, and vacuum degassed.
ammonaa, propane and propylene tanks. The pre-qualification
route always seemed sensibleto the author, and it is hoped that
. Steels should be made to fine grain practice.
nottoo many tank builders fall into the holes described above. . It is likely, but not mandatory that these steels will be pro-
Type lV steel is now something of a historical irrelevance these duced by either a thermo-mechanical controlled process
days. lmprovements in production methods and chemistry (TN/CP), or by quenching and tempeing (Q&T).
have meant that nearly all9% nickelsteels produced are nowof . The tank manufacturer should obtain from the steelmaker
the improved quality. lt is not uncommon for the tank specifica-
the composition limits of the elements specified in EN
tion writers to require restrictions on sulphur and phosphorous
10028-4 (Reference 22.7)together with those elements, as
tevets.
agreed between the purchaser, the manufacturer and the
steelmaker, which are likely to afiect the final properties of
22.4 The requirements of BS 7777 : Part 4 the steel.

As has been mentioned earlier. this Dart ofthe Code is for tanks . The chemical composition as measured by the ladle analy-
for the storage of liquid oxygen, nitrogen and argon. lt was wri! sis should be reported.
ten at the request of the UK paft of the industry which had for
many years specialised in the production, storage and distribu-
. Requirements for product analysis and for carbon equiva-
lent should be agreed between the purchaser, the manufac-
tion of these products. This group argued that their intrinsically
turer and the steelmaker.
safer products did not require double or full containment sys-
tems which form much of the thrust of the remainder of BS Next, detailed Charpy V-notch testing requirements for the
7777. plate and drop-weight testing to determine the nil ductility test
They were of the opinion that single containment was appropri- temperatures (NDTT) of the plate and the HAZ, are given in
ate to their industry and persuaded the committee to let them considerable detail.
write BS 7777: Part 4 which gives the rutes which they consid- Two points are worth making at this stage:
ered that they needed.
. The various parties required to come to the above agree-
22.4.1 Parts subjected to ambient temperatures ments will need to have knowledge in depth of the
steelmaking process and the influence of the variables on
the steel orooerties.
The materials for these parts are carbon steels selected in ac-
cordance with the appropriate parts of BS 7777: Pan 2 Gee . This process makes the steel very much a non-standard
Section 22.3.1). product. Bearing in mind the arguments surrounding the AT
proposals which took place in the CEN committee, much of
22,4,2 Parts subjected to low temperatures which was lead by European steel makers who were reluc-
tant to manufacture non-standard or special steels, it willbe
TypeV orVlsteel in accordance with BS 7777: Part 2 (see Sec- interesting to see if this proposal gains in popularity. Per-
tion 22.3.2) or aluminium alloy in accordance with Annex C of haps the "carrot" ofthe steel weight-saving associated with
BS 7777: Pan2 shall be used. the partial hydrostatic test may prevailand force the issue.

The most usual choice is austenitic stainless steel.


22.6 The requirements of prEN 14620
22.5 The requirements ot PD 7777 : 2000 The material selectjon requirements of this draft Code are in
general similar to those of BS 7777 : Part 2, described in Sec-
This published document (Reference 22.10) has been dis-
cussed in Chapter'18. lt is concerned with the use of 9% nickel tion 22.3. The AT method of pre-qualif,/ing steels oftypes ll and
or of austenitic stainless steels which can be demonstrated to lll has been excluded for the reasons given. At risk of tedious
possess crack arrest properties and the influence ofthis fact on repetition, it should be remembered that this is a draft or provi-
the hydrosiatic testing requirements. sional document and the formally adopted Euronorm may con-
tain changes.

446 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


22 Material selection criteria for low temperature tanks

fypkrl BoUrrg Sultrblc stccl g.rdcs Pbt NI}TT l{ln. Bib.


deBlSr
Uqutd SG (Not rotc! .thrn NDI-T + t0'C)
qc
'c t
n-butne 0.60 GMn TMCP 35 -55 l7l
iso - -12.0 0.60 0.16%NiC-MnQ&TGr33B 38 -rc t8l
butane 0.15% Ni GMn Q&T Gr3? 38 -66 t8l
GMn TMCP 35 -70 -30 {71

0.2 96Ni GMn TMCP 35 -30 tel


0.25 96 Ni c.Mn TMCP GESB 38 -70 -30 t8l
Propane -44.6 0.59 0.26 96 Ni Glvln TMCP Gr 33B 18 {81

0.25 96 Ni c.Mn TMCP Gr 33B 30 -95 t8l


0.6 % Ni GMn TMCP 40 -100 -60 f)
1.6 % Ni 1MCP 20 -105 tel

_IUt'
kopylene -,t8 0.61 3.5% Ni Q &T -05 tiol
2.6% Ni TMCP M -110 -70 I71

3.5%NiQ&T - lrc t8l


3.6%NiQ&T -115 t10l
3.5%NiQ&T 26 -r20 -80 t?1

2.6% Ni TMCP l0 -r20 -80 I8l


3.5 % Ni Q &T 25 -r20 -80 t81

2.6 % Ni 'IMCP zo -:126 I7l


2.6 % Ni TMCP 60 -126 t81

Etlrane 0.65 2.6% Ni TMCP 20 -130 -90 t81


-88.6
2.696 Ni 'IMCP -lso -90 t8l
Etlylene -,.04.0 0.67 2.6 96 Ni TMCP - 1,15 - 105 t8l
2.6 % Ni 1MCP -145 tsl
2.696 Ni TMCP ID <1500 <1I5 t9l
Methane 0.47 9 96 Ni NNT rge tul
9%NiQ&T =$6b tlu
996 Ni Q&T <196b tLzl
'Ba.ad on rid,. NDTT + {0!C'
b'Nobr?!r rt tnprsore lntticrr.d, NItTT.r l4* I - 6'q D.6sibly lofti

Bibliography
qflah atrest @ aeptsfor
tll SJ. Carwood and C S, wiFl er., lan tetupetuhttein tute reqiru,nenls drtd'
it;roge tar*s, Proc Conf. "Bulk Storage lbnlis', Paper 4, IBC Guif Confelenceq Abu Dhabi, 1996'
[2] C.S. wie6net and B. Hayesi A rari4u oJ L'rt/* araest t2sta, nadds unl' applica'i'7t5' Ptoc Conf 'Crack
iirest Concepts for Failure hevention and Life b<tension", Papr 3, Abington PubXshing, 1996'
[3) C.S. Wiesner, SJ, Ga$rood and J.B, Denham; Thz s"ecili/ntiorl oi crock arrest Pvperti$ Jor stornse tanks
'b;ci$dnd d.nd tqownadati.otls. ASTM SI? 1337, Symposia on Design Cdteda to assue Stuc'h|ral Integdry,
New Odea$, May 1997.
[4] c.P Smedley; Pr"dtcrira and. specifiaatiotu oJ crad anest
poperti.4s oJ stcd plalr. Intemational Jounal for
Prssure vessels and Piping, 40 (f989), pp 279 - 302
[5] C.S. Uinet B. Hqyes and .!LA Mlowhb$ Ctudk d|'tzst in nadern steels ond, theb udhnetts
-Cowarison, -
behtwn snat! and large scdle tzst fta
,s. Int4rtBtional Joumal for Prs$rc Vssel md Ptping,
53 (1993), 100.
qnest bdtsviour 6i/ng s1t81Ls@14 ,nilefial chdlv.Eti&liort
[6] C.S. Wiesnef Predtcaing sttltotrEal, cftek
isrs. Intrnational Journal for hessule vessel ard Piping' 69 (1996) pp185 - 196.
lfl Y. fawauchi and A-A- Willoughby; Ctu.& orsst tpst and t].eir uae i,n etxhaliw nraterialytpefli8,'fhe
W;lding Institute Sympooiuft\ Newcasde upon Tne' Apiil f986.
[8] B6syo, Ozaw4 lbwaguchi and Nalonishi n@cerrt dadrpnett of 6beLplat"s for lan lqtuperfr1re sbt!4e
;aalis. 'Ihe Sumitomo Se;ah No. 2q November l9B4 Sumitomo Metal llrdusbies Ltd, 'Iblvo
I9l K Bessyq lMcPsred plorpJo lau tzrhperal'un stotuge ta*s, ?m Intnrational hEss|ne Vessd
Conference, Druseldo4 September l9g2
l10l hirate corununication' British Steel Corporatioq June 1984
Illl
'un'
Doucet, hessouyre, Bourges, Blondeau and C?diou Raenl yrogress in 9% Ni stzelfor LNG 6ppli.olions:
WCS gron" E;oya n;mish Society of Engineers Ltrnational Confelence, Brugge, MAy 1984.
$4P "bel.
alrd WJ M!trplry, Erpldsion bulge and d'tq ueight bsnkt4 oJ QT I Ni stql A&IE
oA
llzj Benter,
Peholeun MedEnical EngineeF Confercnce, September 1967.

: !ure 22.14 Suiiable steels


:'.n PD 7777 :2000,table 1

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 447


22 Mateial selection criteria for low temperature tanks

22.6.1 Materials for parts subject to ambient tem- 2) The steel shall be in the normalized condition or produced
peratures by the Thermo-Mechanical Control Process (Tl\y'CP).
3) The carbon content shall be less than 0.20 %. The carbon
The steelfor the vapour containing outer tank shall be selected equivalent Ceq shall be equal to or less than 0.43 with
in accordance with Table 3 Figure 22.15. alternative types of
C"o = C + lVn/6 + (Cr + N.4o + \4i5 + (Ni + Cu) 115
steel are permitted providing equivalent properties can be dem-
onstrated. c) Type lll steel:
AType lll steel is a fine grained low nickel alloy steel which shall
22.6.2 Materials for parts subject to low tempera. be specified for pressure purposes at temperatures down to mi-
tures nus 80 'C. The steel shall meet the following requiremenb:

The plate materials are again classified into a numberoftypes


1) The steelshallbe specified to meetthe requirements ofan
established European Standard (e.9. EN 10028-4);
in the same way as 857777 :Patt2.The normalor unimproved
9% nickel steel is no longer included for reasons already dis- 2) The steelshallhave been heattreated to obtain a fine, uni-
cussed. The steeltypes, products to be stored and containment form grain size or produced by The Thermo-l\.4echanical
types are the subject ofTable 1, Figure 22.16. The general re- Control Process (TlVlCP).
quirements of the five steel types are as follows: d) Type lV steel:
a) Type I steel: A Type lV steel is aI %-nickel steelwhich shall be specified for
pressure purposes at temperatures down to minus 196'C. The
A Type I steel is a fine grained, low carbon steel which shall be
specified for pressure purposes attemperatures downto minus steel shall meet the following requiremenb:
35 'C. The steel shall meet the following requiremenb: 1 ) The steel shall be specified to meet the req uirements of an
1) established European Standard (e.9. EN 10028-4);
The steelshallbe specified to meetthe requirements ofan
established European Standard (e.9. EN 10028-3). Steels 2) The steel shall be quenched and tempered
with a minimum yield skength greater than 355 N/mm, e) Type V steel:
shall not be used.
A Type V steel is an austenitic stainless steel type which shall
2) The steel shall be in the normalized condition or produced
meet the following requiremenb:
by the Thermo-Mechanical Control Process (Tl\4CP).
3) The carbon content shall be less than 0.20 %. The carbon
1) The steel shall be of 18 Cr 9 Ni type with low carbon con-
IENI,
equivalent Ceo shall be equal to or less than 0.43 with
2) Flat plates shall be obtained from rolled coil, cold finished.
C",r = C + Mn/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)i5 + (Ni+ Cu) 115
3) The steel shall be delivered in the solution annealed con-
b) Type ll steel: dition.
AType ll steel is a Jine grained low carbon steelwhich shall be Plate thickness tolerances for Types I to lV shall be in accor-
specified for pressure purposes at temperatures down to minus dance with EN 10029 : 1991 , Table 1, classB, Reference 22.12.
50 'C. The steel shall meet the following requiremenb: Plate thickness tolerances for Type V shall be in accordance
'l
) The steel shall be specified to meet the requirements of an with EN 10082-2, Reference 22.12.
established European Standard (e.9. EN 10028-3). Steels Charpy V-notch impact test values for base material; HAZ and
with a minimum yield strength greater than 355 N/mm2 weld metal shall be in accordance with Table 2, Figve 22.17 .
shall not be used. Note the change lrom longitudinal to transverse specimen ori-
entation.
The document goes on to make a number of more general
Marenalsrade (EN 1002sr1993)
points amongst which are:

'c . For material thickness less than 11 mm, the largest practical
S 235 JRG2orS;75 JR orS 3551R sub-size specimen shall be used. The minimum Charpy
S 235 J0 or S 275 J0 or S 355 J0 V-notch impact test values shall be in direct proportions to
S 235 J0 or S 275 J0 or S 355 J0 the value sDecified for full size soecimen.
S 235J2G3 orS 275 J2G3 ors 355 J2G3
s ?35 J2G3 0r S 275 J2G3 0r S 355 J?G3
. lmpact testing shall be carried out for each inner tank shell
s 235 J2G3 or S 275 r2G3 or S 355 J2G4 plate and annular plate. For other components impact tests
Fo'desiQn meral lempeEtures below 20 "C 6nd/or for rhicknesses shall be carried out per heavcast of the material.
above 40 n6. lhe charovv notch value shll be 27.1 rono rud,nar
NOT For desiqn neiar Gmpra|lr6 be]ow 0'c, rhe rouqhness or l}E Ne d . The degradation effect due to welding shall be taken into
account.

Figure 22.15 Sieel for vapour container/outer tank


Fron prEN 4620-2 : 2003, table
1 3

Low remperature ca6on-

lmoroved 9 % n,ckelsleel
NOIE For nidrer base weLd nerars ior Type rv sGsrs th rmp8cr roughns 6n6Qy tu w6ld m5r6l
and heal fiecred 20n6 shan be 55J

Figure 22.16 Product and steelclass Figure 22.17 lrinimum Charpy V-notch impact lesl enercy
Fron prEN 4620-2 : 2003, table
1 I Fran prEN 14620-2:2043, bble 2

448 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


22 Material selection citeria fot low temperature tanks

!
-f!
lE*
VTI
IBe
g!r
cFg ^
"Ill 5

rrr .E

ag

.E

I !;
e btl r
ff .e!. i
EE;P
;!;d
; i:" o

:;gure 22.18 l\/linimum Charpy V-notch inrpact


requifemenls for ptates and sections
-.an BS 4741, figure 6

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 449


22 Material selection criteria for low tempercture tanks

. For certain materials, higher Charpy V-notch impact test sheet of Dapef. lt also reflected a time when the material cost
values of lower test temperatures may be needed for the savings in a structure were seen as being a major factor in the
base materials to meet the requirements in the HAz final price. The increase in the cost of the labour element of
such work in relation to the material costs in the intervening
The latter two requirements perhaps represent an olive branch years, has made this rather fussy procedure seem less rele-
to the losers of the pre-qualification arrangemenb. vant.

22.7 An example of a material selection


22.8 References
method from the past
Travelling back in time, the British Standards for low tempera- 22.1 BS EN 10025: 1990 specification fot hot rolled products
ture lanks were published as two separate documents. BS of non-alloy structural steels and their technical delivery
474'l (Reference 22.73) dealt with tanks for service down to conditions.
temperatures of -50"C and BS 5387 (Reference 22.14) deall 22.2 EN 10025:1993 plus Amendment number 1, dated 15
with tanks for service down to temperatures of -196'C. June 1995, Hot rolled products of non-alloyed steels -
As was, and indeed still is the case for API low temperature Tech n i c al de I ive ry co nd iti on s.
codes, these British Standards contained rules for single con-
tainment designs only.
22.3 Bs 1471:1987 Specification for wrcught aluminium al-
loys for general engineering purposes: plate, sheet and
The material selection criteria for BS 5387 were unremarkable. striP.
For BS 4741, which confined its attention to carbon manganese
steels, the material selection methodswere more adventurous
22.4 85 1474: 1987 Specification for wrought aluminium al-
loys for general engineeing purposes: bars, extruded
Based on test work on a series of notched and welded Wells
round tubes and sections.
Wide Plate Tests (WWP tests) carried out by the Welding Insti-
tute (reported in the main in The British Welding Journal ir' 22.5 BS EN 10028-3:1993 Specification for flat ptoducts
'1964), a new selection process was devised The tesl work made of steels for pressure vesse/purposes - Weldable
showed that the resistance to brittle fracture ofcarbon and car- fine grain steels, normalised.
bon manganese steels at low temperatures is dependent upon:
22.6 Bs 1501:Paft 2 : 1988 Specification for alloy steels -
. The notch toughness ofthe material. ptates.
. The plate thickness. 22.7 BS EN 10028-4 :1995 Specification for Flat products
. The extent ofcrackiike defects present (The introduction to made of steels for pressure purposes - pa ft 4 : Nickelal-
the Code states: "lt is believed that if such defects are ab- loy steels with specified low temperature propeiies
sent, brittle fracture will not be a problem at normal rates of 22.8 BS 1501 :Patl3:1990 Specification for corrosion and
loading"). heal resisfing sfee/s: plates, sheet and strip
. Degree of local embrittlement at the tip of pre-existing de-
22.9 BS 7777 : Paft 4 : 1993 FIat bottomed, vertical, cylindri-
fects. (The introduction to the Code goes on to explain that:
cal storage tanks for low temperature seruice: PatT 4
for carbon and carbon manganese steels, post-weld heat Specification for the design and construction of single
treatment in the stress-relieving range temperature is effec- containment tanks for the storage of liquid oxygen' liq-
tive in removing severe embrittlement arising as a result of uid nitrogen or Iiquid argon.
welding or flame cutting during fabrication and construc-
tion.) 22j0 PD 7777 : 20OO Altemative steel selection and its effect
on design and testing of tanks to BS 7777
. The influence of mechanical over-stressing during the hy-
drostatic test. 22j1 EN 10029 : 1991 Specifications for tolerances on di-
mensions, shape and mass for hot tolled steel plates 3
In an attempt to relate all of these variables to the material se-
mm thick or above.
lection process, figure 6 was produced (see Figure 22.18) This
involved the use ofscales L. M and N and was quite difficultfor 22.12 EN 1OOB2-2 Staintess steels - Paft 2 : Technical deliv-
the designer to use. The result of using this figure often meant ery conditions for sheet/plate and strip for general pur-
that a single tank shell could have four or five different steels poses.
Sadly the early version of this code was held to be a contribu-
tory cause to the Qatar LPG tank failure, and the rules were 22.13 BS 4741:1971 Specification for vedical cylindrical
welded steelstorage tanksfor low temperature serutce:
changed. In particular the elegant figure 6 was removed and re-
singte walltanks for temperatures down to -50'C (sub-
placed by a simpler API type material selection method, and a
jeci to major amendments in January 1980).
full height hydrostatic test requirement was imposed
So it was discredited and deleted, but nevertheless to the au- 22.14 BS 5387:1976 Specification for veftical cylindrical
thor's mind, itwas an heroicattemptto relate a large numberof welded storage tanks forlowtemperature lanks servlce
different variables to a material selection method on a single double watl tanks for temperaturcs down to -196'c'

450 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


x)st
the
Iof 23 Erection considerations for low
ring
ele- temperature tanks
Efficient erection techniques have always been important to trank constructors for reasons of
'finished costs". Nowadays it is frequently the case that a short construction timescale is as
,cts important as the cost. Driven by the need for fast, cheap and high quality site construction and
Ery further driven by tha often-onerous financial time penalties for non-performance, numerous
novel construction techniques have been adopted by the industry.
Whilstseeming to lag behind industries such as shipbuilding and offshore rig building in terms of
| 15 the scale of modularisation and prefabrication methods adopted, tank builders have made
6- modest steps in the same general direction and some of these are described in brief in this
Chaoter.
I al-
and
Contents:
23,1 General
I al-
hd 23.2 Air raising of tank roofs
23.3 Tank jacking (or jack building)
,cts
rble 23.4 A fast track ethylene tank
23.5 A fast track liquid orygen tank
b-
23.6 Spiral jacking

6 23.7 The construction of tanks with reinforced conclete roofs


lal-
23.8 Concrete wall construction
tnd 23.9 Wall and base linels
23.10 Modular construction and p.efabrication techniques
dti-
tt4 23.11 Automated welding methods
gte
Its- 23.12 Large inground LNG tanks
23.13 References

cli-
s3

tiv-
w-

'cal
oe-'
l.|b-

@I
@:

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPITIENT 451


23 Ercction conaiderctions lor low tempercture tanks

23.1 General The basic methods oftank erection, particularly relating to the
steelcomponents, are based on the methods used for ambient
tanks and these are described in ChaDter 12.
Large low temperature tanks are often the critical components
of a terminal or storage facility in terms of time. This fact tends
to place a great deal of emphasis on the tank construction pe- 23.2 Air raising of tank roofs
riod. Time is often equally, or on occasions, more important
This is a commonly adopted practice for large tanks of the full
than cost to the facility owner. Early completion equals early
containment type, although there is no reason why the tech-
revenue, and forfacilities such as LNG terminals, the revenues
nioue should not be used in other circumsbnces.
are enormous and so speak loudly in this equation.
Where a pre-stressed concrete outertank is adopted, there are
As a consequence, the tank contractors and their subcontrae two options for the construction ofthe steeltank roofframework
tors are always under pressure in their efforts to obtain con- and roof sheeting which will be required for both steel or rein-
tracts by promising tighttimescales and furtherdriven in this di- forced concrete roof types:
reclion, once successful, by the financial penalties associated It can be built at the fulltank height afterthe outertank shell
with not performing to these anticipated schedules. Over the is completed.
years, these pressures, together with those aimed at'Tinished
costs", have given rise to some interesting and ingenious con- It can be constructed within the outer tank whilst the con-
struction methods. lt would be thought that novel and advanta- crete shell is being built and air lifted into its final position
geous construction methodswould remain the closely guarded when both are complete.
secrets oftheir originators, but forvarious reasons the geneEl
The former route requires the outerconcrete tank shelland the
methods tend to leak out into the Dublic domain and become
roof framework construction operations to be in series, whilst
common knowledge quite quickly, whilstthe details and equip-
the latter puts these operations substantially in parallel. The
ment used tend to remain the property of individual companies. time required to design, procure the materials, carryout the fab-
rication and erect the steel roof is often comparable with the
Some of these methods and sequences are described in the time to construct the concrete wall, which is convenientfrom a
following Sections. programming point of view.

Figure 23.1 Atypical airlifted roof conslruction sequence

452 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


23 Erection considerations for low temperature tanks

the The roof framework is erected within the concrete outer tank
ient during the construction period forthe latter method, starting as
soon as materials become available and the concrete workswill
allow lt is usual to provide a central king post and a peripheral
ring ofsupports to construct the roofframework. For certain de-
signs of dome roof structures further intermediate supports
rfull may be required.
)ch- The roofsheeting can be constructed to be a loose membrane
only supported by this framework, or may be welded to the
iramework to provide a generally more robust structure. lt is
usual to construct the suspended deck and arrange for it to be
/ork
lifted with the roof. The sealaround the Derimeter ofthe roof can
ein-
be a specially designed segmental rubber type or a simple ar-
rangement of polythene film and wire mesh. Other aspects lo
hell be considered are:
. Suitable details must be provided to ensure that during the Figure 23.4 Large dome roof under construction, showing king post in position
and slart of roof plating
lifting operation the roof remains level, circularand concen- Cautesy af Whessoe
lron tric within the outer shell.
. When the roof arrives at the top of the shell, suitable ar-
Ine rangements are made to secure it from its upper surface.
,lilst . Trial lifts are helpful to trim and balance the roof before the
fhe final lift.

the
. The roof and the concrete shell must be surveyed prior to
lifting to determine that no unacceptable out ofshape prob-
lems exist.

Tempory extension to
Cantibwr sction of roof

Figure 23.5 The dome roofemerglnq towards the end of a successiutair-tift


Couftesy af Whessoe

. Arrangements must be made to collect and dispose of rain-


water which falls during roof construciion period, particu-
larly if other works are being carried out beneath the roof
prior to air-lifting.
Many of these details are of a company-confidential or propri-
etary nature. Figure 23.'1 shows a typical construction se-
quence involving an air-lifted roof.
Alternative arrangements involving air lifting are possible and
: 9(]re 23.2 Air lifiing a roof up the inside of the inner shell of a double-watted
Figure 23.2 shows diagrammatically one such, where the roof
was air-lifted up the inside of an inner steel tank.

: gure 23,3 Large dome roof framework under construction


:curlesy of Whessoe

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 453


Figures 23.3 and 23.4 show a large dome roofframework (77 m
in diameter) being erected within the outer pre-stresseo con-
crete wall. The two people to be seen walking around the perim-
eter support in Figure 23.3 gives an indication of the scaie of
this particular structure. Figure 23.5 shows a dome roof emerg-
ing into view towards the end of a successful air-lifting opera-
lon.
An alternative, but generally similar erection technique involves
the roof structure being erected at a low level. Instead of the
roof being lifted into place by air pressure, a mechanical lifting
method using multiple strand type jacks is used

23.3 Tank jacking (or jack buitding)


Aswith ambient tanks, jack building hascertain attractions For
a single-walled tank or the outer metallic wall of a double-walled
Figure 23.7 Atank beingiack built
tank, the usual construction sequence is:
. Erect and weld the top two shell courses on temporary sup-
Suspended deck erected
ports.
. Erect the compression area
. Erect the tank roof.
. Install the jacking system.
. Jack up the tank and install the remaining courses one at a
time and weld.
. Installthe annular plate.
. Jack down the tank and weld the shell-to-bottom joint
Jack building can have certain advantages lt clearly depends
upon local circumstances but these can be:
. The tank is protected from the possibility ofwind damage as
shown in Figure 23.6 |n this example, the outer tank of a Figure 23.8 A possible variation on jack building
double-walled LNG tank was being built by conventional
methods. lt blew down just before the compression area stalled at a low leveland the permanentwind stiffening is in-
and tank roof could be installed, which would have stabi- t
stalled progressively as the shell increases in height,
lised the structure. The temporarywind stiffening used was consequently the structure is saieguarded from possible
clearly inadequate. With the jacking method, the roof is in- wind damage at all stages of the erection procedure
. Roof erection is carried out at a low level.
. Shell erection, welding and inspection is carried out at a low
level and this technique can be combined with automated
welding techniques.
. "staging out" ofthe tank shelland subsequent clean down ls
avoided.
The disadvantages can be the cost of the jacking equipment
and a lack oi flexibility if anything goes wrong
Fioure 23.7 shows a tank beingjack built. Figure 23 8 illustrates
a Sossible variation which has been used where the outer tank
is jacked and the inner tank is hoisted up with it such that.both
tanks are builtfrom the top down and allerection and welding is
conducted at low levels.

23.4 A fast track ethylene tank


This tankwas a double containmenttype consisting ofan inner
tank of 9% nickel steel, an outer tank of carbon steel wlthin a
hiqh Dre-stressed concrete wall ofthe Preload wire wound type
tni base was ofthe elevated type built on a poor riverside allu-
vial site which required heavy piling. The tank was of modest
orooortions, the innertank being 23 0 m in diameterand 23 5m
in height giving a useful capacity of 9730m3 A set of unusual
lomm"ercial colndition" relating to the price and availability of
liouid ethvlene pertained at this time ('1977) which dictated the
Figure 23.6 Wind damage to an outertank being buili by conveniional
meth- necessity of a very fast construction programme 1o allow the
owner to take advantage of this transient economic situation'

454 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


23 Etection considerctions fot low temperature tanks

1) - Sta.i pemanenttoundalion prling The tank owner was lCl at North Tees Works, situated in the
- Erect temporary ioundaton
north east ofthe United Kingdom, who at that time had its own
engineering and construction staff. The tank design, fabrication
and erection contractor was Whessoe Heavy Engineering who

I had its head offices and fabrication facility nearby in Darlington.


The erection sequence proposed involved the placing in paral-
lel of the following activities:
. The construction ofthe piled base slab and the erection on
2) - Consrrucl pehanenr elevared slab an adjacent temporary foundation ofthe outercarbon steel
tanK.
. The construction of the base insulation and the inner 9%
nickel steeltank and the outer ore-stressed concrete wall.
:= The first of these parallel activities required the moving of the
completed outer steel tank from its temporary foundation onto
the permanent elevated base slab. This was accomplished by
the hovercraft technique of attaching a specially designed skirt
around the bottom of the tank shell. The tank was to be lifted by
this means and towed onto its new permanent base slab. This
3) - Aj. I comp eled outd tank ahd technique has been around for many years and has been com-
mo! onto comdeted elevaled
monly used to move mainly ambient temperature tanks, usually
to other locations on the same sites. ln this instance the tank
was quite heavy and calculations showed that the pressure re-
quired to lift this tank could damage the shell-to-bottom detail
due to high radial loadings caused by the pressure beneath the
bottom plates.
To avoid this possibility of damage, air was bled into the tank to
balance the pressure beneath the tank bottom. During this op-
eration, an interesting and amusing event took place. The skirt
was fitted, the air blowers installed and the operation com-
- Remove tedporary f oundaton
menced. The air pressure beneath the tank bottorn was moni-
tored and rose slowly to the pressufe calculated to equate to
the tank weight. Nothing happened. The pressure continued to
rise to around iwice the calculated lift pressure and still nothing
happened. Greai consiernaiion. much head scratching and the
beginn ngs of rurnblings amongst ihe numefous onJookers of:
"lt was a silly scheme anwvay. , lt will never work." and "lt will
have to be cut down and erected conventionally." took hold. All
of a sudden, there was a loud bang, the tank leapt some 3 feet
into the air and lurched alarmingly, sending the accumulated
onlookers scuttling away from the tank in panic. The tank then
behaved perfectly and was duly towed to and installed on its
5l E.e6t nne.9% nickelster sherl new base.
- Erdl outer pr6lr6sed conc.ete shell
nternal plate handling arEigemenl

6)- Complete nnerlank, hydrc tesl


- Codpl.16 ouler concGle wll, prslrds

Complete fLfiings ] a E, elc

Figure 23.10 Simultaneous conslruction of the carbon shell ouler tank and the
elevated perma nent fou ndation
::-re 23.9 The fasl track elhylene tank erection sequence

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 455


23 Erectian cansicleratians far low tenperctLtre lanks

.t

F.
-F3"rb.!+*FF=?.=_

Fg!re23.1lTre nf atec sk rt used to fl lh-..!1-.. isrrk Fgure 23 13 The neary compleied strLrcture

23.12) and a view on the roof showing the nearly compleied


tank (Figure 23.13).
The existing good relationship between the owner and the tank
contractor, the r geographical proximity, the existence of a sub-
stantia site work force who could be quickly mobilised to sort
out problems and obstacles, and a generous penalty/bonus
scherne all conspired to get this project compleied some three
months ahead of the programrne, to the satisfaction of all of the
part es involved.

23.5 A fast track liquid oxygen tank


This tank was built at the British Gas Research Centre at
Westfield in Scotland. lt was a part of a development project to
update the gas from coal technology and for reasons which
have now van shed into the past, was fequlred to be built in a
shod period of time.
The tank was supported by a ground-based, electrically-heated
slab which was supported by piles. The tank itself was a typical
liquid oxygen tank consisting of a stalnless steel lnnef tank wiih
a fixed dome roofsituated withln a carbon steel outer tank with a
radial rafter-supported cone roof.
The construction/erect on sequence adopted involved:
F g!re 23.12 Wife w nd ng afrangernents
. Start construction of the permanent tank foundation and
siart construction of two temporary foundations immedi-
The problem was tfaced to the temporary foundation being fin- ately adjacent to the permanent foundation.
ished with a sand /bjtumen layer. The welding of the iank bot-
iom had effeciively glued the tank down, and refused to allow . Start construciion of the lnner stainless steel tank on one
air beneath to I ft it, untiL such a point where it dec ded to sud- tempofary foundatlon and the outer carbon steeltank on the
denly unstick itselfl second temporary foundation.

The second of the paralel activities required the steel outer


. Lift the outer tank onto the permanent foundation as soon
as both are comp eted.
tank to be fitted with lnternal liftjng arrangernents to handle the
inner tank insulation and I % nickel steel plate materials to- . InstalL the cellular glass base insulaiion within the outer
gether with a sultably waterproofed foof material access tank.
arrangement.
. Lift off the removable roof of the outer tank.
This construct on sequence s I ustrated in Figure 23.9.
. Lift the now completed inner tank into the outer tank to be
Photographs show the simu taneous construction of the outer supported by the base insulation.
cafbon steel tank and the elevated base slab type foundat on . Replace the removable roof of the outer tank.
(Figure 23.10), the beginning of the air rnoving operation (Fig-
ure 23.11 ), the cjrcumferential wire w nd ng in progress (F gure . Complete the tank insulation and fittings.

456 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


23 Erection considerctions fot low temperature tanks

1) slanphqror pemaneft base srab

TWTWV,Z - Z-
2)-comprere peJma^0dbasesrab
.::

I
!

Figure 23.15 Remov ng lhe roofofthe outer carbon sieeltank


i=

Eq 2 16I1-q -l .<SSee ra e.(dr. orreol.p tda-

5) Lfl ,enovabreroorottoder taik aid This sequence put various operations in parallel and produced
a very shorl constructlon period. The erectlon sequence is illus-
tfated n Figure 23.14.
What made it possible was the relatively small size and weights
ofthe two tanks lnvolved. The inner tank was 12.0 m in diameter
and 12.35 m high whilst the outer tank was 16.0 m in diameter
and 16.9 m in height. The useable capacity was 1326 m3 which
is not unusual for a liquid oxygen tank. With careful attention to
the detailed design, it was possible to arrange for both tanks to
be lifted with a reasonable sized crane.
Figures 23. 15 and 23.16 show the removal of the outer tank
roof and the installation ofthe innertank within the outertank.

6)- Lift 6nerlankhlo oute,bnk


. Rp ace oulerbnk,ool
'comdere nsurdon r& E. rttnss pipework etc
23.6 Spiral jacking
Spiraljacking is an erection technique which has been around
for a number of years and has been used for both ambient and
low temperature tanks. The basics of the technique are illus-
trated in Figure 23.17.
The top and bottom course are made from tapered plates and
this seis up the spiral. The remaining plates are of constant
width and are reciangular, as for conventional tank erection.
Thetop and bottom coursesare set up and their vertical seams
welded. The two parts of the tank shell rest one upon the other,
supported and separated by a system of rollers, and can be
pushed around in a circumferential direction to produce a slot
into which one of the rectang u lar plates can be fitted. lt is usual
to join a numberofthe rectangular plates togetherand feed this

: ;-re strip into the slot formed by rotating the upper part of the shell
23.14 The fast track lquid oxygen tank ereclion sequence
on the lower part.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 457


23 Erection considerctions for low temperature tanks

Step 2 -
SlKlniionu'rv ti,e bottom course of tank coivenLrona ly erect the top course of tank complete

w
"r""t w h toD strfiener directly on top of bottom course.
lnstatl iackrnq equrpmeni and drect suooort steework for
plate cbrl and'wdldlng machines (rnside and outside oftank)

\,.-
N----l
\De ivered plates
prepared at mil
N\i-t\

\fl\ _Delivered plates


prepared at mill prepared at mill

Step 3 - Step 5 -
MJJe p ate coil forward and acd Contrnue assernbIng plates Complete
Stari plate coild outside of the tank. next plate We d veriical jo nt rnsrde.
Tack and roofweld vertical ioints. welding vertical joints.

Delivered p ates

Step 6 -
Spiia top course round 1 plate length, move coil n and make vertical
conrnJe sorralino lanl shelland wed Lpp'l'o'iTorta
r:ms end no sltreneB nsrdeLan^ hsb;ctweloeo sedn5

Figure 23.17 The spiraljacking erection technique

458 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


23 Erection cansiderations fat law tetlperctute tanks

-re equipment used io allow the shell parts to slide on each erection method. The outer pre-stressed concrete tank was
-:her and be pushed circumferentially is of a proprietary nature built whilst the outer steel portions of the roof were being con-
ird the patents are owned by the Swedish company structed within it and air lifted to its final position when it was
iodoverken. lf spiraljacking is the chosen erection method, it is completed. The inner tank was built by spiraljacking with the
-sualto hire the necessary equipment and the site supervision "tail" of shell plates, joined by having their vertical seams
'lr its operation from this company. welded, protruding out of the concrete shell via a suitable ac-
- re advantage of this erection method cess opening. This tank in its finished form is shown in Figure
is that all of the plating,
23.18.
,,e ding, inspection and repair activities take place in fixed ar-
?s which can be arranged to have more sophisticated equip-
-ent that might normally be the case. lt is particularly suited to 23.7 The construction of tanks with rein-
-echanised plate handling, welding and inspection methods A forced concrete roofs
: g LNG tank of 75 m in diameter and 32.5 m shell height will
-?ve some 242 identically sized (apart of course from the plate Full containment tanks often have reinforced concrete roofs for
:-lckness) rectangular plates to erect. This volume of repetitive reasons associaled with providrng protection From external
., ork is suited to the setting up of a factory-like environment and missiles, fire or blasi loadings. Such tanks will also require a
':r continuous shift operation to reduce costs and programme steel roof sheeting to provide a product vapour and mols-
: Tles. No scaffolding and subsequent cleaning down of the ture-tight lining fof the tank roof.
:lmpleted tank shell will be involved To erect such a roof sheeting clearly requires a supporting roof
-re disadvantages are thai the equipment is expensive to hire framework, as does the placing of the concrete feinforcing sys-
: rd if anything goes wrong, perhaps with the plate material tem and the uncured concrete. lt is this latter loading which
: Jpply chain orwith the equipment used, the method leaves lit- causes the problems. A 500 mm thick layer of concrete at 25
: : flexibility for
alternative methods to be considered, whereas kN/m 'willgive a roof loading some 10 times the 1 .2 kN/m' used
:cnventional erection would provide a numberofways of possi- to design a "normal" roof framework. To design for supporting
: y circumventing the problems. the full 500mm ofwet concrete will give rise to a massive frame-
-1e design of tanks for erection by spiral jacking is interesting. work and the costs associated with such a structure. This
seems a very wasteful concept, made the more so by the
'',/ith the exception of the upper courses of minimum thickness thoughtthat the roofstructure is only required to fulfll its full load
js required by the design Codes, all of the other shell plates,
bearing function for a brief period during the placement and ini-
'.nere the thicknesses are derived from hydrostatically-in-
tial curing of the concrete. Indeed, if it were practicable to re-
:Jced loadings, can in theory be of different thicknesses. The
move ihe roof framework once it had done its job, this would be
:'oblems of manufacturing all of these shell plates at margin-
done providing rneans were made to support the roof sheeting
. ly different thicknesses and of maintaining their identification
from the now load-beafing reinforced concrete stlucture.
:r avoid getting them mixed up during ihe subsequent fabrica-
: on, transport and erection processes are well known. To min!- Even if the con cfete ls placed n two or rnore layers ltlsstillex-
-;se these potential problems, it is usual to arrange ior the penslve to provide a foof framewofkwhich w i dlrectly support
: ate thickness to change only for each full or half revolution of such a loadlng. So. as concrete toofs becarne more common,
:re tank circumference. This small sacriflce n overall shel the ndustry cast about fof means of avoid ng these costs. Most
,,eight is usually considered as money well spent. of the tank contfactors came to the sarne conclusion which was
-'re disposition of the shell stiffening is also lnteresting. lt LS
to use internal air pressure to balance the weight of the uncured
concrete and to maintain this pressure unti such a time that the
-sual to arrange these members as a series of fings set paralle concfete roof could be considered self-supporting.
:l the ground. This however does not suit the erection and
', elding mechanisms for which an arrangement with the stiffen- Points which require consideration when designing such an
:'s running parallel to the spiral is more convenient. A tech- erect,on syster wrll include the tollowing:
- a ue which has been used is to allow the stiffeners to follow the . lt is normal to provide an erection opening in the shell of
:eifal for the majority of their circumference and to have a spe- concrete outer tanks and this opening will be required after
: al section which crosses the main tank spiral seam ioining the the roof concrete-placing operation. Conseq uentially a suit-
:,vo ends of the ring of stiffening. The detailed design of such an able air tight door is needed to provide a temporary seal for
:rrangement to cater for wind, vacuum and insulation loadings this opening. lt is usual to incorporate connections for the
s quiet demanding.
incoming air and control and measuring equipment as a
-he full containment 105,000 m3 tank built at the Cartagena ter- part of this door. A typical arrangement is illustrated in Fig-
-.lnal in Spain had its inner 9% nickel steel tank built using this

= gure 23.18 The 105,000m3 Cartagena terminal LNG tank Figure 23.19 Atempofary closure lor the concrete outer tank wall
:.unesy of Enagas Couftesy of Whessae an.l DEPA

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 459


23 Ercction considerctions fot low tempetuture tanks

ure 23.19. Such a closure may also be useful during the in- . Slip forming is fast
ner steel roof air lifting operation if this is the chosen . Slip forming systems must run continuously once started to
erection method.
avoid expensive cold joint work Th's means shift working.
lf a concrete roof can be designed which is self-supporting . Afullset of slip formworkfor a big tank is expensive. This will
with only a part of the cured concrete present (typically one militate against the simultaneous construction of more than
halfor one third ofthe totalfinished thickness), then this can one tank at a time on a particular site.
provide advantages. For large diameter tank roofs, the air
pressure required to balance the whole weight of the con- . Cleaning ofjump formwork is labour intensive. Cheap la-
crete placed in a single thickness pour may give rise to in- bour favours this aspect.
creases in the plating thickness above the Code minimum . Slip forming requires the whole supply and installation sys-
values of 5 mm ot 3/16". tem to work close to perfectly. Jump forming is more accom-
lvlultiple layer concrete placement may lead to costly clean- modating of delays and interruptions.
ing ofthe upper parts ofthe reinforcement which may have . Different areas of the world have their own traditions and
been effected by earlier concreting operations. skills. An area where slip forming is common will have com-
The air oressure must be maintained until such a time that panies, workpeople and supply infrastructures who are
the newly placed concrete can be considered self-support- used to this technique. Introducing it into other areas may
ing. This usually takes a few days depending upon the de- present problems.
tails and the concrete mix chosen. Arrangements must be Which ever construction method is adopted, there are a lot of
made to ensure that the air supply is secure for this period. different activities going on in a confined area and good organi-
Duplication of blowers and power supply to drivers willavoid sation and supervision are essential to good performance.
any unpleasant surprises. The thought of watching the roof Some indication of the congestion may be gleaned from Fi9-
slowly succumb to the full weight of the wet concrete and ures 23.20 and 23.21 . Figure 23.22 shows a jump form at the
disappear from view, to take its piace on the tank bottom Dabhol site in India.
with the carefully constructed roof frame crumpled beneath
several hundred tonnes of heavily reinforced concrete, cur-
ing rapidly in the hot sun, is one which should concentrate
the mind on this matterl
The slope of the roof at the periphery may be such that the
newlyplaced concrete tends to slide off the roof. lfthis is the
case then shuttering may be required to contain the un-
cured concrete for some distance radially inwards to the
point where there is no longer a tendency to slide. A
mock-up of this oortion ofthe roof can be useful in assess-
ing the need for shuttering.

The loading on the roof during concrete placement should


be maintained as circumferentially uniform as possible
Placing the concrete in a series of single or multistart cir-
cumferential pours is the usual choice. The radial width of
Figufe 23.20 Tank wallformwork
these pours should be related to the speed of placement to Counesv of whessaelTaylor Woodrow Construction
ensure that no problems related to the joints between adja-
cent poureo nngs occurs.

23.8 Goncrete wall construction


Pre-stressed concrete walls for double orfull containment stor-
age systems generally divide into the wire wound or Preload
types and the internal multi strand tendon types. Both have the
vertical pre-stress (where required) applied by internal tendons
located within the walls, the difference is in the manner of the
application ofthe circumferential stressing. Both types are sub-
ject to similar construction methods.
The two principal contending methods are slip forming and
jump forming;

The first involves the setting up of a complete inner and


outer circumferential form and the continuous casting of
the wall from bottom to top. This requires the continuous
installation ofthe reinforcing bars, the post-tensioning ten-
don ducts and the placement of the concrete
The second uses a small number of inner and outer forms
which are in an area where the rebar and ducting are al-
ready installed and remain in place until the concrete is
placed and partially cured. when they will be relocated cir-
cumferentially untilthe complete lift is finished. Atthis point
the next lift of the wall is started
The relative merits of these methods have amongst them the Figure 23.21 Rebariltting above the iomwork
following; Cauttesy of WhessoelTaylor Waodrow Canstructian

460 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


23 Erection considerations for low temperaturc tanks

to
9.

an

/s-

nd

tre :gure 23.22 Example ofajump form


a), :cunesy of Whessoe
Figufe 23 23 A modulaf stairlower

23.9 Wall and base liners ing backwards. This is a shame as there seems considerable
E merit in pursuing these methods. As has been discovered by
As has been discussed in earlier Chapters, the provision of a
9- the shipbuilders and the offshore rig-builders, productivity and
ner, impervious to a degree specified in the tank specification
I'e quality can both be improved by operating as far as is possible
:c the product vapour and to watervapouris a common compo-
in a factory environment. The examples described in Sections
"ent, particularly for the inner surfaces of the outer 23.4 and 23.5 show a tentative step in this direction, although
3re-stressed concrete tanks of full containment systems
both of these examples are now somewhat dated. Further
\on-metiallic systems involving the spray application of propri- steps in this direction involve:
alary coatings, such as are marketed and installed by Recinco
.f Belgium, have been successfully used, either in isolation or
. Prefabrication of steel shell plates intodoublewidth panels
:ombined with an insulation layer.
This can save some 50% of the onsite circumferential
welded seam length.
-he more commonly adopted system is to use a metallic car-
tron steel barrier for both the wall and the base of the bnk.
. Prefabrication of roof frame sections away from the tank
and lifting these into place
he base liner is usually lap-welded from 3 or 5 mm thick steel
,
:lates. For reasons to do with the finished flatness of such a
. Prefabrication of concrete tank parts for wire-wound type
tanks
ner, it has sometimes been found convenient to weld this liner
:J cast-in inserts in the tank base slab. . Modularising the roof platforms, especially the in-tank
-te pump platforms. These could be factory-builtand lifted onto
wall liner is also usually made from 3 or 5 mm thick steel
the tank roof as a single module.
:lates and the most common means of installation is to weld
--'rese plates to inserts cast into the concrete wall. Vertical in- . Modularising the tower stairway. Figure 23.23 shows a stair
-.erts at between 1.5 and 2.0 m centres (usually dictated by the towerwhich was factory-built in three sections and fitted out
tf .vailable width of carbon steel strip mill plate) seem to be the with the stairway, the lighting and electrics priorto being de-
tl :Jrrent favourite. livered and erected in a single day. The intention was to in-
inother method which has been utilised is to make use of the clude all of the pipework (including the thermal insulation)
JJi -ner steel liner as the inner shutter for the construction of the running to the tank roof in these modules, but circum-
:oncrete wall. This involves the earlier construction ofthe liner, stances prevented this.
: ther as a complete tank shell or course by course in advance . For membrane type tanks there is considerable prefabrica-
:! the construction of the concrete wall. The liner/shutter must tion in the production of the stainless steel panels and the
:e strong enough to resist the external loadings from the con- insulation panels, both of which are factory made.
:'ete as it is placed. This will require an increase in the thick-
-ess of the plating or temporary/permanent stiffening being Clearly there is a lot of work to be done in this area.
:dded.
23.11 Automated welding methods
23.10 Modular construction and prefabri- The low temperature tank builders have followed the practices
of the ambient tank builders in this respect. There seems con-
cation techniques
it -f're tank construction industry has, to the mind of the author,
siderable room for automated welding methods, perhaps ac-
companied by automated inspection methods, to be borrowed
from other industries and used in the tank building area. For
8 agged behind the shipbuilding and offshore industries in the
-se of modular construction techniques. The building of low conventional tanks, the focus of automated welding has been
::mperature tanks is no exception. The building of ships fre- the tank shell, and in the past particularly the circumferential
:Jently involves subsiantial component parts being made in seams. In more recent times, the vertical seams have also
r'fferent locations, commonly in different countries, being been welded by automated methods. As has been mentioned
:'ought together and assembled in a single location. Similarly earller, automated welding techniques are particularly suited to
:^e offshore industry has equipped itself and become familiar the spiral jacking erection methods.
.,,.th the lifting and moving over considerable distances, of
One area where this apparent Luddite approach to automation
^:odules in excess of 5000 tonnes in weight.
is not the case is in the construction of membrane tanks. Auto-
?nk builders are new boys on this particular block, indeed in matic welding of the seams between the membrane sheets is
:.rms of modular construction techniques, may even be mov- an essential part ofthe construction of these tanks. The smaller

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 461

p'
23 Ercction considerations for low temperaturc tanks

Excavalion

Figure 23.24 Atotally buried 200,000 m3 tank


Couftesy of LNG Journal

'.._.-.-\

Bottom SIab and Side Wall

t'-

Figure 23.25 A200,000 m3 tank buried up 1o the-shell-to-roofjunction


Coulesy af LNG Journal

size of the fabficated stainless steel panels means that the


lengths of welded seam in these tanks are much greaterthan is
the case for a conventional tanks.

23.12 Large in-ground LNG tanks


The majority of in-ground membrane LNG tanks are to be found
in Japan, with a few in both Taiwan and South Korea. Their ad-
vantages over the above ground tanks are numerous: @

. Being buried provides protection from adjacent tank fires


and external missiles and blast loadings. Some like the
200,000 m3 tank at the Ohgishima Terminal of Tokyo Gas
are totally buried (illustrated in Figure 23.24) and some like
the tank of the same capacity at the Chita l\ilidorihama Ter-
minalofTohoGas, are buried up to the shell-to-roofjunction
(shown in Figure 23.25), so the roof is exposed and must be
suitably protected.
. lt is argued that in-ground tanks can be designed and con-
structed at greater capacities that the above ground tanks
. Because of the protection provided by burial, in-ground
tanks do not need such large separation distances from Figure 23.26 construcuon sequence for a 200,000 m3 in-gtound LNG tank in
each other or from site boundaries. This means that more
produce can be stored in a given area. This is important Couftesy of LNG Jaurnal

462 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


23 Erection considentions for low tempetaturc tanks

when land is expensive, perhaps because it has been re- and the placement of the concrete from the bottom up-
claimed from the sea as at Inchon in South Korea, or is just wards, so as to displace the bentonite mud, is a remarkable
expensive or in short supply. achievement in its own right. 35,300 m3 of concrete and
2,300 tonnes of rebar were used.
. The partial or full burial is a useful plus in planning discus-
sions, and may allow in-ground tanks to be built in locations This retaining wall allowed the inner excavation to take
where the visual impact of above ground tanks would pro- place. Around 284,000 m3 of material were removed.
hibit their use.
When the excavation was completed, a gravel layer was
The disadvaniages lie in the increased construction costs, placed in the bottom of the hole and a heavily reinforced
f,/hich may be offset bythe better use of land or planning issues
base slab 9.0 m thick was cast involving 42,200 m3 of con-
Tentioned above, and in the increased construction time. Fora crete and 7,600 tonnesofrebar. Thethickness and strength
oig LNG tank the approximate construction time would be 54 of this base slab is a function of the high groundWater uplift
Tonths which comDares with around 36 months for an above oressures.
lround iank.
The construction of thesetanks, currentlyata maximum capac- The concrete side wallwas 2.5 m thick and required 33,200
ty of 200,000 m3, is quite remarkable. There are a number of m3 of concrete and 5,100 tonnes of rebar
Dapers and articles which describe the construction process The steel roof was assembled on the bottom ofthe tank and
rublished in the LNG Journal (References 23.1, 23.2and 23.3) ised to its permanent position by air lifring orjacking.
rr presented at the LNG conferences.
Both the walland the base werefitted with a heating system
The 200,000 m3 LNG tank, described in Reference 23.3 andil-
to protect from frost heave.
ustrated in Figure 23.25, at the Chita Midorihama Terminal is
rypical. The construction sequence is shown in simplified form The fitting of the thermal insulation and the membrane fol-
n Figure 23.26. The following lists some ofthe construction as- lowed the conventional membrane type bnk methods.
rects of this project:
. The liquid containing membrane is 74.0 m in diameter and
23.13 References
46.6 m deep.
. The site has been reclaimed from the sea and was of such 23.1 Development and construction of large LNG in-ground
poor load bearing capability that a major soil improvement storage tanks, Junji Umemura and Sasao Goto, Tokyo
programme had to be undertaken before construction vehi- Gas, LNG Journal November/December 1996.
cles could access the site. 23.2 Construction of an underground storage tank, Kenji
. The nature of the subsoil was such that a slurry wall 100 m
Yanagiya and Tomoyuki Ogawa, Kajima Corporation,
LNG Journal November/December 1999.
deepand'1.4 m thick hadto be constructed to reach downto
the impermeable rock layer The excavation ofthis retiaining 23.3 Construction of a new LNG receiving terminalin central
wall, the balancing ofthe soil pressures with heavy benton- Japan, Naoshi Furukawa, Toho Gas, LNG Journal
ite muds, the insertion ofthe 100 m deep reinforcing cages March/Apil .1997.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 463


464 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
24 Foundations for low temperature
tanks
This Chapter provides a brief review of the basic requirements for the foundations of low
temperature tanks. The guidance provided by the tank design Codes on the subject is ou ined
and a few examples of past practice and some of the problems encountered are discussed.

Contents:
24.1 General
24.2 Code requirements and guidance
24.2.1 API620
24.2.2 BS 7777
24.2.3 DIEN 14620
24.3 Some examples and problem areas
24.4 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 465


24 Foundations for low temperature tanks

24.1 General cific and consequently of little help in resolving contractual


disputes between the parties involved in a particular project.
The foundations for above ground vertical cylindrical tanks for
low temperature service are generally similar to those de- 24.2.2 BS 7777
scribed in Chapter 13 for ambient temperature tanks. The addi-
tion of base heating systems and the use of base insulation
Part 3 of BS 7777 has quite a lot to say about foundations ofver-
constructed from brittle materials such as cellular glass means
tical cylindrical above ground storage bnks.
that in general low temperature tanks have less tolerance to
settlement and foundation movement durino service that their It should be remembered that this part ofthe Code represents a
ambient temperature cousins. set of recommendations, and hence its contents are not man-
datory
For these reasons the foundations tend to be of a higher quality.
Reinforced concrete ring wallswith graded infillare uncommon The foundation design should be in accordance with BS 8004
for LPG tanks and almost unknown for LNG tanks. The most (Reference 24.1).
commonly adopted foundation types for low temperature tanks Prior to the design and construction of a foundation, a number
are the ground-based and the elevated reinforced base slab of site specific investigations are suggested;
types.
. Soil investigation
The finished shape of the foundation, especially around the pe-
riphery is important. Agood levelfoundation in this area means . Ground water investigation
that the steel tank erector has a better chance of producing a . Seismicinvestigation
good shaped tank. A poor foundation means that he willalways
These should be carried out by individuals or companies suit-
be struggling to achieve the desired tank shell tolerances.
ably experienced in this work.
ln-pit tanks tend io have the same types of foundations as
The following types of sjtes should be avoided:
above ground tanks with the added complications brought
about by considerations of possible floatation and ground, rain . Sites where part of the tank is on rock or other firm undis-
or flre water removal. turbed ground, and part is on fill. Sites where the depth offlLl
is variable. Sites where the ground under part of the tank is
In-ground tanks are a specialist subject area, which is not dis-
pre-consolidated.
cusseo nere-
. Sites on swamps, or where layers of highly compressible
material lie beneath the surface.
24.2 Code requirements and guidance
. Sites where the stability of the ground is questionable for
reasons which may be associated with proximity to deep
24.2.1 API620 water courses, mining operations, excavation or steeply
sloping hillsides, karst topography or gypsiferous mater;als
Appendix C of API 620 provides some general guidance on which could include weak lenses subject to dilution.
foundations, which is intended for tanks operating at ambient
temperatures. This Appendix is invoked by both of the low tem- . Sites where tanks may be subject to flood waters.
perature Appendices (Q and R), which both go on to give spe- . Sites near active faults or susceptible to liquefaction during
cific instruction regarding the design loadings for downward or seismic excitation
bearing loading and resistance to uplift from anchorage where
The Code addresses the subject of permissible settlement duf-
this is fitted. lt will be remembered that an essential difference
ing the life ofthe tank. The limits are to be agreed between the
between these Appendices is in the test water levels required.
Appendix Q allows a partial test filling height whilst Appendix R foundation designer and the tank designer and between the
purchaser and the contractor(s) and take account ofthe design
demands a test fill to the maximum operating liquid level.
of the tank, the size of the tank and the local subsoil conditions.
One requirement oJ Appendix C is worth highlighting. For con- The values given in Figure 24.1 are to be used for guidance.
crete ringwallor slab foundations, the leveltolerances are given
Advice is given on the means of monitoring foundation move-
as+%" in any 30 feet of tank circumference and t %" around ments during the construction, test and operating phases ofthe
the total circumference. As it is common for the foundation con- tank's life. These include conduits within the foundation to ac-
tractor and the tank contractor to be difierent companies, these commodate suitable instrumentation.
tolerances often become the subject of heated discussion at
Where the subsoil on the chosen site is found to be incapable of
the point of handover.
carrying the loadings without sufiering excessive settlement, a
Specific limits for foundation settlement are not provided, al- number of methods of improvement are suggested:
though the section dealing with tank hydrostatic testing does re-
quire level readings to be taken at the start of the test and at . Removal and replacement of unsatisfactory material by a
"reasonable" intervals during the test. These readings are to be suitably compacted granular fill
plotted promptly in a suitable form to see if undue or uneven
settlement is occurring. The results ofthese observations shall Diffcrcntial setllement llEil
be reported to the tank erector and the purchaser or his engi-
Tilt oI the tank Ir500
neering representative.
Thnk floor srttlcnleni 1r300
lf anyexcessive rate or amount of settlement is found, the filling along a mdial line from
the pcriphery to the
shall stop until a decision is reached as to what, if any, correc-
2
tive measures are needed. lf a minor amount of settlement is Settlement aroun.l the 1 : 500 but not
found to occur during filling and this continues after the tank is peripherl of thc tank exceding thc maxim'rm
.:
at the full test water height, the water level in the tank shall not
calculated for tilr ol thc
be lowered until the settlement has substantially ceased, or a
-
decision is reached which suggests that it is unsafe to maintain
the full test water level. Flgure 24.1 Differential settlement limiis

All of this is sensible advice, but for various reasons, non-spe- Frcn BS 7777 : Pat13:1993,table 3

466 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


24 Foundations for low temperature tanks

ntractual . lmprovement by vibration or dynamic compaction expensive to construct in the first olace.
proJect.
. Pre-loading with a temporary overburden For a site which has been piled, the elevated slab may be con-
structed on extended piles which will make the cost difference
. Enhanced sub soil draining with pre-loading
between on-ground/elevated solutions perhaps less than
. Stabilisation by chemical or grout injection where a ground-based slab, columns and an upper slab are
1S Of Ver- reoutred.
. Piling
Where seismic isolation is required, an elevated slab is a matter
esents a idvice is also offered on the avoidance of frost heave and local
of necessity. lsolator inspection, maintenance, removal and re-
)ot man- :?lnage. placement may have an impact on the design.
:our different types of foundation are suggested and a brief
Worries about product vapour accumulation beneath the ele-
35 8004 :ommentary is provided on each type. These are:
vated slab, particularly for LPG, may have an influence on the
. The ring beam type choice. A butane iank at the CoMon refinerywas designed and
number . constructed with an elevated base slab. Worries about safety
The surface rafr type
caused this to be subsequently back-fllled with sand and fitted
. The pile supported base type with a base heating system to give the arrangement shown in
. The elevated base slab type
Floute 24.2.

-he commentary includes much sensible advice. Amongst


,{hich is the suggestion that the minimum space beneath an el-
es suit- ?vated base slab is 1.5 m and that gas detection equipment
s'rould be insialled within this space.
-eveltolerances forthe as-constructed base slab are given as
undis-
6 mm in any 10 m of tank circumference and :t 12 mm be-
://een any two points around the circumference. These are
th oftill
tank is
louble the values allowed by API 620. *\-
24.2.3 prEN 14620 -
-sssible
Part 3 ofthis provisional Standard provides a limited amount of
ble for lformation regarding tank foundations which are classified as
) deep shallow foundations and piled foundations. The shallow type
iteeply are further divided into Iaft (or ground-supported slab) and ring
terials ram types.
=he rafr type is appropriate for soils which are shown to be ca-
trable of supporting the designated loadings and may require
:rickened sections in areas ofadditional loads such as beneath
luring
:re tank shell or concrete wall.
-he rjng beam type is the cheapest foundation option and is
rlour-
:rearly dependent upon the ability of the subsoil to bear the im-
ln tne
In the
ssed loadings. The ring beam must be designed for the shell
're loadingsand any uplift loadsfrom tankanchors. Differential
esign
:ettlement between the ring beam and the soil or iniill must be
tlons.
:onsidered for its possible effects on the tank bottom, the base
nce.
:sulation and the base heating system.
love- -he piled type includes both on ground and elevated bases. Figure 24.2 The CoMon butane tank foundation
lf the The owners of an liquid ethylene tank built on a Teesside site
Part 2 of the provisional Standard provides tolerances for the
were concerned about the vulnerability oftheir elevated slab to
3s-built tank base. The peripheral tolerances, which include an
deliberate sabotage. Their solution was to fit a substantial gril-
:rea 300 mm inside and 300 mm outside the line of the tank
)le of lage around the perimeter of the elevated slab to prevent ac-
snell, aret 3 mm in any 10 m of circumference and t 6 mm be-
Int. a cess to the space beneath the slab.
:,,veen any two points on the complete circumference. These
are interestingly the same as API 620 and one half of the BS Tankswhich have bottom liquidllttings, which are quite unusual
Dya -777 tolerances. these days, give rise to problems for theirfoundations. The first
-ne Code also provides a localflatness tolerancewhich can be LNG tanks on Das lsland were eventually demolished and re-
'nportantforthe correct insiallation of base insulation materials placed for reasons closely associated with problems to their
sJch as cellular glass. This is: Any deviation, measured with a foundations and bottom connections
i m long template, shall not exceed 15 mm. Clearly the decision as to the choice of the base slab type re-
\o guidance regarding permissible settlement is provided. quires all ot these considerations to be taken into account on a
job-specific basis.

24.3 Some examples and problem areas Most elevated slabs are supported by a number of columns of
-he choice between a ground-based slab and an elevated square or circular section. The number and layout ofthese col
umns may be dictated bythe shength ofthe elevated slab orthe
'cundation and the reasoning behind this choice is interesting.
pile layout. An alternative scheme, which has been used be-
lleady a ground-based slab will require some form of base neath the liquid ammonia tank built at Ravenna in ltaly, uses a
-eating which is itself expensive and has ongoing costs in series of radialwallsto separate the ground bearing and the el-
:erms of power and maintenance. The elevated slab does not evated slabs. Some of these walls run almost to the centre of
-ave any ongoing costs in the same sense, but may be more the slab and some stop short. lt had been questioned as to

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 467


24 Foundations for low temperature tanks

Figure 24.3 The Reviihoussa lsland LNG tank arrangement


Coulesy of Whessoe

Flgure 24.4 The Trinidad LNG piling anangement


Cowlesy of Whessoe

whetherthis arrangementwould allowa suitablyfree circulation Figure 24.5 Concreling oflhe reinforced base slab at Reviihoussa lsland

of air beneath the slab, but experience has shown this not to Couiesy of Whessoe
have been a problem. revealed a widecrack in the limestone, running acrossthe base
For the LNG tanks on Revithoussa lsland in Greece, the ele-
ofone ofthe tanks. Aprotracted discussion took place to decide
vated slab located within a pitwith an interspace covershown in
if this was a harmless defect, a seismic fault or an ancient de-
Figure 24.3 presented problems of limited air circulation to pro-
bris-filled sea cave. lt was eventually sentenced to be the latter
vide heat to both the tank bottom and the tank walls. This was
for a mixture of reasons, a decision which allowed the project to
eventually overcome by the installation of a quite sophisticated proceed. The technical solution adopted was to construct a
(and expensive) system of forced ventilation.
massive 2.5 m thick, heavily reinforced slab. This shown under
The LNG tanks at Point Fortin in Tdnidadwere constructed on a
construction in Figure 24.5.
site with very poor load-bearing ability. The eventual solution
chosen was to use a ground-based slab supported by some
'1200 steel pipe piles, each of 600mm diameter and around 30
24.4 References
m long, beneath each tank base. This is shown in Figure 24 4.
Returning to the LNQ tanks in Greece, the excavation ofthe pit 24.1 BS 8004:1986 Code of practice for foundations

468 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


25 Regulations governing the layout
of refrigerated liquid gas tanks
There are a host of regulatory documents, which seek to dictate the layout on a particular site of
refrigerated liquid gas tanks and associated equipment.
The more commonly used ofthese regulatory documents are examined in this Chapter and their
differences highlighted.
There are some interesting differences in approach, especially between the European and the
USA's approach to the various problems which arise.

Contents:
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Regulations governing LPG storage tacilities
25.2.1 NFPA 58
25.2.1.1 Pressurised LP-Gas storage
25.2.1.2 Rettigetaled LP-Gas storage
25.2.2 NFPA 59
25.2.2.'1 Pressurised LP-cas storage
25.2.2.2 Reftige.aled LP-cas storage
25.2.3 fhe Institute of Petroleum rules
25.2.3.1 Genetal
25.2.3.2 LPG pressure storage (Volume 1, Chapter 2)
25.2.3.3 Refrigerated LPG storage (Volume 2, Chapter 3)
25.2.3.4 Storage tank spacing
25.2.3.5 Vapour travel requirements
25.2.3.6 Bunding requirements
25.2.4 APt 2510
25.2.4.1 Pressurised LPG storage
25.2.4.2 Re'friget ated storage
25.3 Regulations governing LNG storage facilities
25.3. 1 DOT.CFR rules
25.3.2 NFPA 59 A rules
cide 25.3.2.1 Origin and development of NFPA 59A
25.3.2.2 lmpoundment
?tte- 25.3.2.3 The design spill
qIc 25.3.2.4 Thermal radiation
rde-
25.3.2.5 Vapourdilution considerations
25.3.2.6 Minimum spacing requirements
25.3.3 EN 1473:1997 rules
25.3.3.1 Scope
25.3.3.2 Scenarios to be considered
25.3.3.3 Design spill
25.3.3.4 Thermal radiation
25.3.3.5 Vapourdilution
25.3.3.6 Minimum spacing requirements
25.4 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 469


25 Regulations governing the layout of refrigerated liquid gas tanks

25.1 lntroduction This seems to leave LP-Gas marine import terminals not asso-
ciated with refineries, petrochemicals and gas plants - not a
This Chapter is devoted to the codes and regulatory guidelines very wide area of application.
which govern the layout on site of vertical cylindrical fu lly refrig-
The Code also excludesa numberofother applications includ-
erated tanks for the storage of the various products described
in Chapter 17. For completeness and for purposes of compari- ing frozen ground containers and underground storage in cav-
son some of the regulations relating to pressurised storage of erns.
these products are also included in this chapter. Note LP-Gas is defined as "any material having a vapour
pressure not exceeding that allowed for commercial
The various codes and standards are soecificallv addressed to propane that is composed predominantly of the follow-
the storage of LPG and LNG. ing hydrocarbons, either bythemselves or as a mixture;
The discussion ofthese regulations has been confined to those propane, propylene, butane (normal butane or isobu-
most widely used. The National Fire Protection Association tane) and butylene". This is similar to but not exactly
(NFPA) standards are legal requirements in the USA and are the same as LPG as defined in Chaoter 17. Section
commonly employed elsewhere in the wodd. The US Depart- 17.1.
ment of Transport Code of Federal Regulations 25.2.1.1 Pressurised LP-Gas storage
(USA.DOICFR) is mostly confined to use in the USA and
makes many references to the NFPA regulations over which it The Code provides a bewildering number of spacing rules and
interestingly takes precedence. The American Petroleu m Insti- exceptions to these rules. Much of this is devoted to small ca-
tute (APl) publish guidelines for LPG installations which fall out- pacity storage units (cylinders) and is of little interest to storage
side the NFPA area of regulation. The Euronorm Regulations tank designers. Figure 25.1 giving the separation distances be-
(EN) are more recent documents which reflect European prac- tween containers, important buildings and other properties is
tices taking into account the various categories of containment interesting particularly because of the apparent advantages of
discussed in Chapter 17. The Instltute of Petroleum (lP) repre- mounded or underground containers over above ground con-
sents UK Dractices for LPG and it is oresumed that the lP rules tainers in terms of spacing requiremenb.
will eventually be replaced by EN rules. 25-2-1.2 Relrigercted LP-Gas storage
There are a multitude of other regulatory guidelines, some lmpoundment
country specific or even more locally based where certain local
The main rules governing impoundment for refrigerated
circumstances may necessitate their own requirements. No at-
LP-Gas tanks are given briefly below:
tempt has been made to address these other documenb.
- lmpoundment shall have a volumetric holding capacity
equal to total volume of liquid in the container assuming
25.2 Regulations governing LPG storage that the container is full.
facilities - If an outside container wall is used as a spill containment
the materialto be used shall be suitable for exposure to the
25.2.1 NFPA 58 Reference 25.1 temperature of the refrigerated LP-Gas liquid.
-
The areas ofapplicabilityofthis documentare not entirely clear. - lmpoundment structures, and any penetrations thereof,
shall be designed to withstand the full hydrostatic head of
It appears that it is; "The design, construction, installation and
impounded LP-Gas and the effect of rapid cooling to the
operation of marine terminals whose primary purpose is the re-
temperatures of the liquids to be confined.
ceipt of LP-Gas for delivery to transporters, distributors or us-
ers". This is then conditioned by two exceptions: Provisions shall be made to clear the impounding area of
pe! rain or other water.
Exception I - Marine terminals associated with refineries,
rochemicals and gas plants. Minimum spacing requirements
Exception 2 - lvlarine terminals whose purpose is the delivery For refrigerated tanks designed to operate at below 15 psig, the
of LP-Gas to marine vessels. minimum spacing from occupied buildings, storage containers

Midrnum Dltt ncca


Moundcd o.
rllhi.. Crpdty Und.igmurd rt5ov.!tound
plr Cont incr Conr.lncri'

s.t
<129d <o.5d lo 0 0" 0 0
125-250 0.5-1.0 l0 $ l0 3 0 0
25t-600 1.0r-1.9 l0 n l0 3 3 I
50r-2000 l.9r-?,6 l0 25 7.6 3 I
200r-a0,000 7.6+l 14 50 50 l5 5

30,001-?0,000 11{r-265 50 23
?0,001-90,000 265F:Xl 50 t00 30
90,001-120,000 Wlt-454 50 125 38 diamctc$ of
I m,001-200,000 SL-157 50 ?00 6t aqjaccnt con-

200,001-1,000,000 751+-3185 50 300 9l


>1,000,000 >3?85 50 400

'S.c !.2.2: Exc.Ptiotr No. ,


rsbc !,2.t.:(g)
.s..3.2,t:(0.
ds.. !.2.?.2(r).
'scc !.?.2.2(b),
(.), sd (d).

Figure 25.1 Sepafation disiances betlveen conlainers, imporlani buildings and olher propedies
Fron NFPA 58, table 3.2.2.2

470 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


25 Regulations governing the layout of reftigerated tiquid gas tanks

i asso-
\thicr Cryacity Abovcgrourd
-nota Pcl coIrtaber Codain ll Walcr C.pa.ity

cd (-)
s.r (m)
nctuo- Up lo 70,000 (265)
<70,000 965 15
't cav- 70,00r to9o,0,00 (265.0 3{r} 100
>?0,000 >265 100
'l) 90,m1 to l1O,O00 (!41 to4t{) 7

/apour : 25.2 IVinimum disiances


tm,oor to mO,00O (454 to 757) 20O
200,001 ro 1,0O0,00O (757 to 3?85)
-:Lrre
'ercial :'on 300
NFPA 58, table 9.5.2
bllow- oi,r 1,00o,mo (3785) 400
xture: 'rr flammable or combustible liquids and lines of adjoining Figure 25.4 Refrigerated conlainer insta ations minimum distances
Sobu- :ropertywhich can be built upon shall be in accordance with Ta_
xactly From NFPA 59. table 3.5.1
:le 9.5.2 as shown in Figure 25.2.
eclion
-he edgeofa dike, impoundment or drainage
system that is in-
25.2.2.2 Retrigercled LP-cas storage
:ended for a refrjgerated LP-Gas container shall be 100ft or lmpoundment
rore from a property line that can be built upon, a public way, or
: navigable waterway. These requirements are the same as those required bv NFPA
s and
58 (see Section 25.2.1.2).
l ca- -he minimum djstance between above ground refrigerated
Minimum spacing requirements
-P-Gas contiainers shall be one half of the diameier of the
arger container. Spacing of refrigerated propane containers (and presumably
es is
containers of other LP-gases) from important buildings, stor_
Fire exposure
-he reference to fire exposure is concerned only with age for flammable or combustible liquids and lines of adjacent
con- the nec- property that can be built upon shall be in accordance with Ta_
3ssary provision for pressure relief related to fire exposure for
ble 3.5.1 as shown in Figure 25.4.
vhich detailed rules are provided.
The remaining spacing requirements are the same as required
Vapour dilution requirements
by NFPA 58 (see Section 25.2.1.2).
\FPA 58 does not have vapour dilution at site boundary re_
:uirements.
Fire exposure
These requirements are the same as are required for NFpA 5g
25.2.2 NFPA 59 (see Section 25.2.1.2).
r' .E - lReference 25.21
Vapour dilution requirements
-he scope of this Code states that it shall apply to the design,
NFPA 59 does not have vapour dilution at siie boundary re_
:onstruction, location, installation, operation and maintenance
quirements.
):te rf refrigerated and non-refrigerated utility gas plants. Installa-
:ons having a capacity less than 15.14m3 are referred to NFpA
td. 25.2.3 The Institute of Petroleum rules
,:c'
25.2.2.1 Pressurised LP-cas storage (Reference 25.31 -
>ressur-ised storage is generally
referred to in this Standard as This Code is Part g of The Institute of pet roieum Modet Code of
.on-refrigerated storage. For above ground coniainers the
-r|nrmum spaqng requjrements Safe Practice in the Petroleum Industry.fhe latest edition was
are given by Figure 25.3 which published in February 1987 replacing the earlier edition pub_
s the same in most respects as the NFPA 58 Table 3.2.2.2 but
lished in 1967. lt represents a series of recommendations for
loes not consider mounded or underground systems.
safe practice ratherthan a set of rigid rules. lt interestingly sug-
-he following rather ominous requirement for above ground gests that this more flexible approach should more easilv allow
oressurised systems is made: the use of new methods, techniques. materials, etc., whi;h mav
"Containers shall be orientated so that their lonqitudinal be developed in the future and which meet the requirements for
axes do not point towards other containers, abovJground safe practice given in the Code.
LNG tanks, and flammable liquid storage tanks on th5 same The Code is arranged as two volumes with the followino con_
or adjoining property". tents:

trlulcont ber ao Ned'i l|bDortrat


Buildlag or Cloop of Bolldlob Not
AsEo.tat d *16 ine udtt.y c.3 Phoi"
or r rit of Adjorohg piprty Tha!
lrrrter .rf-tq ofEad Coa.atrer Btw.e! Conbirct' Cian Bc BuIt UDod

20Ol ro E0,000 7.6 nt ll4 50


3O,O0l to 70,000 ll4 to 2d5 r/i of surt of diaoet r! ofadjecor 23
coIttainerl
70,001 to 90,000 265 b 341 100 30
9O,0Ot b 120,000 A4l @ 4U 125 E8
12o,O0l to 200,000 451to 757 200 6l
200,o0l ro I,OO0,0O0 747.ogiA5 300 9l
or more
I ,0OO,0OI ovcr 3785 {00 tn
Note Thc.pacinE of@ntdD4 &om butlditra! at5_l2r.d sith u.iug,
Te.blc 2.{.t.2, eirh e minlmluE epndon of 50 n (l5 m). -ts pLnt3.h.lt b. F.r ned b b. rcduccd @ 50 pcrccDr of the dilqncci in

:igure 25.3 Above ground


container instaltation minimum djstances
=rcn NFPA 59, table 2.4.1.2

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 471


25 Regulations governing the layout of rcfigented liquid gas tanks

Volume I cluded.
. Chapter 1 - General information applicable to LPG The rules governing equipment layout are numerous and in-
cruoe:
. Chapter 2 - Pressure storage at reflneries, bulk distribution
plants and also industrial consumer premises, where such LPG storage vessels shall be located to ensure that the
storage is large minimum distances to fixed sources of ignition are:
22.5m for storage vessels not exceeding 337m3
. Chapter3-RefrigeratedLPG 30.0m for storage vessels exceeding 337m3.
. Relevant appendices The radiation flux levels given in Table 1 of Appendix'1 (Fig-
Volume 2 ure 25.5) shall be complied with. Calculation methods for
determining the radiation flux levels are given in Appendix
. Chapter 1 - Pressure storage at industrial, commercial and 2.
domestic premises
The rate ofspillage and its duration used to calculate the ra-
. Chapter 2 - Plant for filling, handling and storage of cylin-
diation flux levels shall be based on identified potentialleak
oers
sources in the system. The identification and quantitative
. Chapter 3 - Transport by road and rail assessment of such leak sources requires a systematic SJ
evaluation of the design and operating procedures taking
. Relevant aDoendices
into accountfailure modes and the likelihood oftheir occur-
25.2.3.1 General rence. Examoles of potential leak sources and indications
This document contains a great deal of sensible and practical of leakage rates from them under specific conditions using
advice and guidance, only a little of which will be described in simplified typical equations are given in Appendix 3.
this Section. Three baslc points relating to safety of LPG stor- Provisions shall be made to minimise the prcbability of a
age systems in general are worth repeating; flammable cloud resulting from a spill as defined above
. LPG at ambient temperature and normal atmospheric pres- from reaching the site boundary Typical provisions may in-
sure is normally heavier than air. Commercial butane clude such measures as spacing, limitation of spill pool
vapour and commercial propane vapour are approximately area, screening and vapour dispersion equipment. Appen-
2.0 and 1.5times as heavyas air respectively. LPG vapours dix 3 gives examples of leak sources and Appendix 4 pro-
will therefore sink to the lowest levels of the surroundings vides means of calculating hazard distances for these
and flow along the ground or through drains or similar pas- releases.
sages. Under still air conditions the natural dissipation of The permitted radiation level on thermally protected adja-
accumulated vaPour may be slow cent LPG storage vessels is based on the protection ofthe 2a

. LPG has a low viscosity. Hence it is more likelyto find a leak- adjacent vessel bythe application of cooling water at a rate
age path than water or most other petroleum products. of 7 litres/(minute,m3).

. Although LPG in its liquid and vapour phases is colourless, There shallbe a minimum spacing between adjacentabove
'e
the evaporation which occurs when liquid leaks results in ground vessels of 1.5 m or 0.25 times the sum oi the adja-
water condensation or water freezing which appears as a cent vessel diameters.
white mist or cloud. For below ground-mounded vessels, the spacing between ]
a'
25.2.3.2 LPG pressure storage (Volume 1, Chapter 2) adjacent vessels shall be determined by the site conditions
.a
and the requirements for safe operation/ removalofthe ves-
The scope of this chapter covers above ground, mounded or 5t
sels in addition to inspection, testing and malntenance re-
belowground storage of LPG involving vessels ofindividualca- qutrements. 2l
pacity greater than 135m3 or group storage greater than 450m3
Storage in frozen ground or underground caverns are not in- The maximum number of vessels in any group shall be 6.
Prcesurc siongc

Mesimum radialiott lux hrcb


rwd BTU(hd)

Bquipdcrt
Thcoutcrrurfrcasof adjaccdt
prsuEtaftge Y?rtcb(l)
TrAnfltlb proi.crcdQ) 44 13,750
Unpro&cr.d (3) 2,ffi
f h! outcrrurf acas ohdjacc
itoragc kr&rco rinin&flamttabL
products (4) mdproccss tacilitics
Th.nnallt protcd.d (21 10,000
UnFotdcd (3) 8 25@

F liog/dirdErgc poitrts 2,51X)

Pc.Eonncl iosidc boundary


Proca$ .tc! (5) 8 2,5m
Protr.lcd wolk rrca (6) 8 2,5m
Wo.t lrcr(7) 5 1,5m
Critical src.a (8) 500

Plant boundary
Romorc rroa (9) 4,000
Urban lrcr (10) 5 1,500
Critical arcr (8) 1.5 500

Figurc 25.5 Radiation flux levels for pressure storage


From The lnstitute of Petroleum Code of Safe Practice, Appendix 1 , table 1

472 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


25 Regulafions goveming the layout of rcfigercted liquid gas tanks

. Any one group shall be separated from any other group by used above shall be based on ideniified potential leak
ano ln- 15m. sources in the facilities which need to be considered. The
identification and quantitative assessment of leak sources
. In any group vessels shall be in a single line, i.e. shell to should be based on a systematic evaluation of ihe design
rat ihe shell and not shell to end or end io end. and operating procedures of such facilities, taking into ac-
. The layout and spacing of above ground vessels should re- countfailure modes and the likelihood oftheif occurring. Ex-
ceive careful consideration to ensure accessibility for fire amoles of ootential leak sources from LPG facilities and
fighting and to avoid spillage from one vessel from flowing indications of leakage rates from them under specific condi-
1(Fig- under any other vessel or other vulnefable equipment. tions are quoted in Appendix 3.
rds for . The provision of bunds around above ground pfessurised 25.2.3,5 Vapour travel requirements
cendlx LPG storage is not normally required. Provision shall be made to minimise ihe possibility of a flamma-
. Separation cufbs may be required to direct spillage away ble vapour cloud of LPG from a spill as defined above from
:ne ra-
from storage vessels and other vulnerable equipment. reaching the site boundary. Such provisions may include such
alleak measures as spacing, limitations of spill area, insulation of the
-he Code gives wide spread advice on good practice in pres-
:rtative bund or impounding areas, screening or vapour dispersion
ematic :urised LPG storage facilities under ihe following headings; equipment. Appendix 4 contains references relating to various
taking . Pressure storage (i.e. the design of the pressure vessels mathematical models for calculating hazard disiances arising
cccur- themselves) out of spillages of LPG and the resultant vapour cloud forma-
ations tton.
using . Piping, valves and tlttings
25.2.3.6 Bunding requirements
. Foundations and supports for vessels and piping
The various requirements relating to the need for bunding, the
:lofa . Pumps, compressors and meters bund capacity and the bund design include the following:
:oove
'ay in- . Road and rail loading and unloading facilities . No refrigerated tank shallbe located within the bund enclos-
pooi ing any other storage tank.
. Electrical, static electricity, lightning protection
cpen- .
. Each refrigerated storage tank shall be completely sur-
.1 pro_ Reouirements for fire orotection
rounded by a bund unless the topography of the area is
. Operations such, either naturally or by construction, that spills will be di-
rected safely by gravity drainage and diversion walls (if re-
adJa-
. Inspection of pressure storage quired) away from adjaceni tanks, equipment and sensitive
trf the 25.2.3.3 Refrigerated LPG storage (Volume 2, Chapter 3) areas to an impound!ng basin suitably located within the site
r rate The scope ofthis chapter covers refrigerated LPG tanks, above oounoary
;round, fully in-ground and partly in-ground. lt does noi cover . Fu I and double containment systems by def nition fulfil the
cove storage in frozen earth pits, in underground caverns or partially above requirements but low bunds may be required around
adla- 'efrigerated storage. the tank main connections to contain leaks ffom external
-he three categories of liquid containmeni are discussed to- piping. valves and fittings.
I een :ether wlth guidance for provisions fof spil age containnrent . Forsystemswhichdonotconformtodoubleorful contain-
:rons :nd handllng, the avoidance of leakage, the minirnising of ment, the bund/impoundlng basin sha I be capable of re-
/es- ,'apour formation following a liquid leak and reducing the con- tain ng the tota content above ground level or of the largest
I re- sequences of a fire following a liquid leak. tank connected to any shared impounding basin.
25.2.3.4 Storage tank spacing r Where bunds are provided around tank connections they
Ihe rules for location and spacing of refrigerated storage tanks should be of sufficient capacity to contain the anticipated
are summarised as follows; spill volume.
. Refrigeraied LPG storage tanks and their containment sys- . Bunds and impounding basins shall be provided with water
tems shall be located and soaced so that the minimum dis- removal systems designed to prevent LPG spiilages escap-
tance to any fixed source of ignition is 30m, irrespective of ing into any system outside the area of the bund/impound-
radiation flux levels. in9 basin.
. Containment systems, i.e. tanks and the associated bunds . The capacity and reliability of water removal systems for
and impounding basins, shall be located and spaced so that rain and fire waier where aDolicable shall be sufficient to
in the event of a fire, eg a tank fire or fire resulting ffom the prevent the accumulation of such quantities of water as
ignition of spillage of flammable products, thermal radiation would cause damage to the tank foundations, bund wall or
flux levels shall not exceed the maximum levels given in Ta- would lead to tank flotation.
ble 2 ofAppendix 1 (see Figure 25.6)
. Consideration should be given to the monitoring of bunded
. The thermal radiation flux levels in the above requirement areas for LPG leakage.
shall be based on the ignition of flammable product either in
This section of the Code also gives sensible advice on a num-
a tank or from spillage. In the case of spillage, the pool
ber of other related subjects.
formed will be dictated by the spillage rate, the evaporation
rate and the duraiion ofthe spill (see below) and the topog-
25.2.4 API2510 (Reference 25.41
raphy/locatlon of the site and facilitjes associated with it.
-
. Reference should be made to Appendix 2 for guidance on
The scope of this Siandard includes the design, construction
ihe calculation of thermal radiation levels with respect to and location of both pressurised and refrigerated LPG storage
LPG facilities. Appendix 2 includes comprehensive guid-
vessels, loading systems, unloading systems, piping and re-
ance, references and a number of excellent worked exam-
lated equipment for installations at marine and pipeline termi-
ples on this subject.
nals, reiineries, petrochemical plants and tankfarms. Excluded
. The rate of leakage of flammable product and its duration from the scope of this Standard are:

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 473


25 Regulations goveming the layout of refigerated liquid gas tanks

Rc(rigc.atcd storsgc

Maximam rtennat radiationfur kv.l\


kwm2 B11r(h ftr)

Equipmcnt
Thc outcr surfaccs of adj accot
I cfr4c rutc d s to n Ee la n ks
Thznw lproucad(z) 32 10,000
Unprotc.tcd (3) 8 2,5m

Thc outcrsurfaccs of adiacent itorugc


unkr @n|,'ininglfa,''|tnatLproducts (4)
The,rnaIy prokd.n (2) 10,m0
Unprot..lcd (3) E 2,500

Thc outcr surfaccs of adj aocnt LPG


prcrsufa ttorrga v.Jsels and proccss
fadlitics (U) 2,vn
Pclsontrcl i8idc boundary
Proccss arca(5) 8 2,500
P.otctcd$,ork.r.a (6) 6 2,ffi
Work.!ca O) 5 1,500
Clitical arca (8) 1.5 500

Plart boutrdary
Rcrdotcarca (9) 1,000
Urbno arca (10) 1Joo
Gitical area (8) 1.5 500

Nots
(1) The distance from all LPG presrare storsgc v.ssel to a refrigeruted storage rark is detcrmincd by thc
re{uircmcnt of Chapter 3 (Eee 3.3.1) ard Tsble 2 of this appcndix.
(2) Such facilitieJareas arg protcctod by means ofwater sprays, iosulation, mdiation screens or similar systems.
(3) Protecion is providcd by spacing alooe.
(4) Spc<ial co[sidcration Ehould bc givcn to the location of floating roof tan&s containing high vapour pressurc
produds si[cc cffcctivc watcr cooling of thcir roof structures is impraciicablo.
(5) A normalty unocorpied arca occasionally Dattncd by traincd and suitably clothcd pcrsons familiar both with
cscapc rout6 and opportuoitics for tcmporary shcltcr afforded by tbc proccss plant,
(6) A pcrmancnt building whcrc pcrsonnl insidc arc shicldcd and/or bavc shicldcd mcans ofcscapc.
(7) An open arca or small (c,g. temporary) building without shicldcd mcaus of cscapc.
(8) This is cithcr an uoshiclded 8(ca of critical imponaoce where pcoplc without protcctivc clothing may bc
rcquircd it all timcs iocludiog during cmcrgencies or a place diffiorlt or dangerous to cvacuatc rt short
loticc (e.g, a spors stadium).
(9) An arca only infre4uently occupied by small numbcrs of persons, c.g. moorland, farmland, dqscrt.
(10) A.u arca which is noither a remote area oor a Gitical arca.
(11) Thc allowablc thermal ndiation flux levcl is rcstrictcd for thcr facilitics h vicw of the potcntially longer
duratioo of crposure resulting from a rc/z'gc rafud t4nkl bund fiIe.

TigLre )5.6 The'mal'ad alion irux levels forefrge'aled slotage


From The lnstitute of Petroleum Code af Safe Practice, Appendix 1, table 2

. Frozen earth pits . Where residences, public buildings, places of assembly, or


industrial sites are located on adjacent property, greater
. Underground storage caverns distances or other supplemental protection must be pro-
. Underground or mounded storage tanks vided.

. Above ground concrete tanks . The minimum distances betvveen the shells of pressurised
LPG tanks or between the shell of a pressurised LPG tank
. Tanks covered by NFPA 58 and NFPA 59
and the shell of any other pressurised hazardous or flam-
. Tanks with capacities less than 2000 US gallons mable storage tank shall be as follows:

It is not entirely clearjust howthe decision is made, presumably


- Betvveen two spheres, between two vertical vessels, or
by the local regulatory authorities, as to which facilities fall between a sphere and a verticalvessel, 5 ft or halfofthe
within the scope ofthis Standard, of NFPA58 and of NFPA59. diameterof the largervessel, whicheveris the greater.
25.2.4.1 Pressurised LPG storage
- Between two horizontal vessels, or betlveen a horizon-
The Standard provides spacing and impoundment rules for tal vessel and a sphere or vertical vessel, 5 ft or three
storagevessels and other equipment which are briefly summa- quarters ofthe diameter ofthe largervessel, whichever
rised in the following Sections. is the larger.
Minimum spacing requirements . The minimum horizontal distance between the shell of a
. The minimum horizontal distance between the shell of a pressurised LPG tank and the shell of any other non-pres-
pressurised LPG tank and the line of adjoining property that surised hazardous or flammable storage tank shall be the
may be developed shall be as shown in Figure 25.7. largest of the following subject to a maximum of 200 ft:

474 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


25 Regulations governing the layout of rcfigercted liquid gas tanks

Water Capaciry of Each Minimum tanks each. Where multiple groups of horizontal LPG ves-
Tnnk (gallons) Distance (feet) sels are to be provided, each group shall be separated from
2,000-30,000 50 adjacent groups by a minimum horizontal shell-to-shell dis-
30,001-?0,000 75 tance of 50 ft.
70.001-90.000 100
90.001-120.000 125
And again
- the ominous Note: Horizontal vessels used to
store LPG should be orientated so that their longitudinal axes
120,00t or grcater 200
do not point towards other facilities (such as containers, pro-
:rqJ'e 25.7 ll"e mrnrmum d stance between lhe -nel' ola p'essur sed LoG cess equipment, control rooms, loading or unloading facilities,
:ana drd t1e rine ol adjoirilq propeny thal Fay be developed or flammable or combustible liquid storage facilities or offsite
non APl251A, bble 1 facilities located in the facility of the horizontal vessel). The vi-
sion of a ruptured LPG vessel "rocketing" through a control
- lf the other storage is refrigerated, three quarters of the room is difficult to suDoress!
greater diameter.
SDill containment
lfthe storage is in atmospheric tanks and is designed to Spill containment may be achieved by either remote impound-
contain a material with a flash point of 1000 F or less, ment or by the provision of a dike around the tank. The main
one diameter of the larger bnk. points to consider are:
- lf the other storage is in atmospheric tanks designed to . For remote impoundment systems:
contain materials wiih a flash point greater than 100" F,
half of the diameter of the larger tank. - The remote impoundmentarea shall be located at least
50 ft from the vessels draining into it and from any hy-
- 100 ft. drocarbon piping or other equipment
. The minimum horizontal distance betlveen the shell of an The holdupofthe remote impoundmentarea shallbe at
LPG tank and a regularly occupied building shall be as fol- least 25% of the volume of the largest vessel draining
lows: into it. lf the material stored in the vessel has a vaoour
pressure that is less than 100 psia at 100'F, the holdup
lfthe building is used for the controlofthe storage facil-
ity, 50 ft. forthe remote impoundment shall be at least 50% ofthe
volume of the largest vessel draining into it
lf the building is used solely for other purposes (unre-
lated to the control of the storage facility), 100 ft.
. For diked systems:
lf an LPG sphere is diked, each sphere shall be pro-
- Both of the above requirements may be replaced by
vided with its own diked area. lf LPG stored in horizontal
comDliance with API 752.
vesels, a single diked area may serve a group oftanks
. The minimum horizontal distance between the shell of an
LPG tank and facilities or equipment not covered above - The holdup ofthe diked area shallbe at least25% ofthe
volume of the largest vessel within it. lf the material
shall be as follows:
stored in the vessel has a vapour pressure that of less
- For orocess vessels 50 ft. than 100 psig at 100 'F, the holdup for the diked area
shall be at least 50% of the volurr]e of the larqest vessel
For flares or other equipment containing exposed withln it.
flames, 100 ft.
25.2-4.2 Retrigetale d storage
For other fired equipment, including process furnaces
and utility boilers, 50 ft. Again a number of requirements are included in the Standard.
Minimum spacing requirements
For rotating equipment, 50 ft, except for pumps taking
suction from the LPG tanks, 10 ft. The following requirements apply:

- For overhead powertransmission lines and electric sub- . The minimum horizontal distance between the shell of a re-
stations, 50 ft. In addition siting shall be such that a frigerated LPG tank and the line of adjoining property that
break in the overhead line shall not cause the exposed may be developed shall be 200 ft. Where residences, public
ends to fall on any vessel or equipment. buildings, places oi assembly, or industrial sites are located
on adjacent property, greater distances or other supple-
For loading and unloading facilities for trucks and mental Drotection shall be orovided.
railcars, 50 ft.
. The minimum distance between the shells of adjacent re-
. The minimum horizontal distance betlveen the shell of an frigerated LPG tanks shall be halfthe diameterofthe larger
LPG tankand the edge ofa spill containment area for flam- taNK,
mable or combustible Iiquid storage tanks shall be 100 ft.
. The minimum distance between the shell of a refrigerated
. Pressurised LPG tanks shallnot be locatedwithin buildings, LPG tank and the shell of another non refrigerated hydro-
within the spill containment area of flammable or combusti- carbon storage facility shall be the largest of the following
ble liquid storage tanks as defined in NFPA 30, or within the subject to a maximum distance of 200 ft:
spill containment area for refrigerated storage bnks.
lf the other storage is pressurised, three quarters ofthe
. Compressors and pumps taking suction from the LPG tanks larger tank diameter
should not be located within the spill containment area of
any storage facility unless provisions are made to protect lf the other storage is in atmospheric tanks and is de-
the storage vessel from the potential fire exposure. Exam- signed to contain materialwith a flash point of 100'F or
ples of such include (a) a submerged motor direct-coupled less, one diameter of the larger tank.
pump with no rotating equipment outside the pump contain- - lf the other storage is in atmospheric tanks and is de-
ment vessel or (b) a submersible pump within the LPG tank. signed to contain material with a flash point greaterthan
. Horizonial LPG tanks with capacities of 12,000 US gallons 100 'F, half the diameter of the larger tank.
or greater shall not be formed into groups of more than six - 100 ft.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 475


25 Regulations governing the layout of rcfrigeated liquid gas tanks

Soill containment porated documents are listed with the appropriate edition re-
As is the case with pressurised storage, spitl containment may lated to each DOT.CFR paragraph.
be achieved by the provision of remote impoundment or by In brief, the salient points from this document are:
diking.
. ln the event of conflict between DOICFR and NFPA 59A.
Remote impoundment the DOT.CFR prevails.
The following requiremenb apply: . This Standard applies to any new LNG facilities placed in
. The remote impoundment area shall be located at least 50 ft service after l\4arch 31, 2000.
from the vessels draining into it and from any piping or other
eouroment.
. lf an existing LNG facility is replaced, relocated or signifi-
cantly altered after March 31 , 2000, it must comply with the
. The holdup of the remote impoundment area shall be at salient part of these regulations (with certain exceptions).
least 100% of the volume of the largest vessel drain ing into . Each container must have a thermal exclusion zone in ac-
it.
cordance with NFPA 59A 2-2.3.1 (see Section 25.3.'1).
Diking
. Each LNG container must have a dispersion exclusion zone
The following requirements apply: in accordance wjth NFPA59A2-2.3.2 (see Section 25.3.2).
. Each refrigerated LPG tank shall be provided with its own . Average gas concentration at boundaries = 2.5%.
diked area. The holdup of the diked area shall be at least
100% of the volume of the tank. . The design spil! shall be determined in accordance with
NFPA 59A 2-2.3.3.
EXCEPTION: More than one tank may be enclosed within
the same diked area provided provisions are made to pre- . An outerwallofa component served by an impounding sys-
vent lowtemperature exposure resulting from leakage from tem may not be used as a dike unless the outerwall is con-
any one tank from causing subsequent leakage from any structed of concrete.
other tank. . A covered impounding system is prohibited except for con-
. When dikes are used as part of the spill containment sys- cfete wall desjgned tanks where the concrete wall is an
tem, the minimum height shall be 1.5 ft measured from the outer wall serving as a dike.
inside of the diked area. When dikes must be higher than Note: These last two points suggest that this Agency has be-
6 ft, provisions shall be made for normal and emergency ac- gun to accept the concept offull containment tanks and
cess into and out of the diked enclosure. Where dikes must the advantages which accompany this category of con-
be higher than 12 ft or where ventilation is restricted by the tainment.
dike, provision shall be made for normal operation ofvalves
and access to the top of the tank or tanks without the need
. Each impounding system serving an LNG storage tank
for personnel to enter into the area of the diked enclosure must have a minimum volumetric liouid imDoundment ca-
pacity of 1 10% of the LNG tanks maximum liquid capacity
that is below the top of the dike wall. All earthen dikes shall
(for an impoundment serving a single tank).
have a flat top section at least 2 ft wide.
. Aflammable non-metallic membrane liner may not be used
as an inner container in a storage tank.
25.3 Regulations governing LNG storage
Note: A throwback to the Staten lsland LNG Tank incident,
facilities see Chapter 17, Section 17.3.

25.3.1 DOT.CFR rules 25.3.2 NFPA 59A rules


The appropriate section of these documents from the tJS De-
25.3.2.1 Origin and Development of NFPA 59A
oartment of Transport is:
Acommittee of theAmerican GasAssociation beganworkon a
DOT.CFR Title 49 Transportation
Standard for liquefied natural gas circa 1960. Intheautumnof
Subtitle B Other regulations relating to '1964 a drafr was submitted to NFPAwith the request that it be
transportation (continued) considered asthe basisforan NFPAStandard. The first official
Chapter 1 Research and special pro- edition was adopted at the 1967 NFPA annual meeting.
grams administration By early 1969 it had become apparentthatthe use of LNG was
Department of Transporta- expanding and the API suggested that its Standard PUBL
tion (continued) 2510A (Design and Construction of Liquefied and Petroleum
Subchapter D Pipeline safety Gas (LPG) Installations) be used to help develop a Standard
having a broader scope. The committee on Liquefied Natural
Part 193 Liquefied natural gas facjli- Gas was established and in 1971 a new edition encomDassino
ties the broader scoDe was adoDted.
Federal safety Standards
Subsequent editions were adopted in 1972,1975, '1979, 1985,
This is lengthy and so is normally referred to as DOT.CFR.49. 1990, '1994 and 1996. The 2001 edition was developed in a
Part '193 (latest version dated October 2000). joint effort between NFPAand the Canadian Standards Associ-
This document has little to say in its own right, but makes refer- ation LNG committees to harmonise the requirements of NFPA
ences on most subjects to other Standards (mainly NFPA 59A 59A and CSA Z 276.
which is discussed in Section 25.3.2) which are described as 25.3.2.2 lmpoundment
"N,4aterials Approved for Incorporation by Reference". Interesf
The rules governing impoundment for LNG tanks are given
ingly and rather confusingly, the DOT document makes refer-
briefly below. lt should be noted that for an LNG storage and
ence to different earlier versions of NFPA 59A in different sec-
handling facility, areas in addition to the storage tanks such as
tions and not the most recent publication as one might expect. process areas, vaporisation areas and transfer areas will also
Fortunately the document is well indexed and the various incor- reouire their own imooundment.

476 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


25 Regulations governing the layout of rcfigehted tiquid gas tanks

. Flammable liquid and flammable refrigerant storage tanks


Contaiaer Dsigtr Spll
shall not be located within an LNG container impoundment. Dstp Sp[I Duraiio!
' The impounding area shall have a minimum volumetric ContaineBwith A3pil thougha$ Us rhe fomrula
holdlng capacity equal to the total volume of liquid in the
pntfations assumedoDeDins
,59A, belo{ &e liquid aq ara eq;a iD 4 a r-
container assuming the container is full. Thisisforanim- pe!- q = aa-4n
il-:Tli9::--
rnremalsnuron
ffea to, tha!
poundment for a single LNG tank and allowance shall be Eation bloi r}re until rhe differen-
red in made for any displacement due to snow accumulation or IiI: l:"lto*.o tial head aadng on
other eouiDment. P-q T 9I
tlow
gryt the openins b o
rom alr rnn
gn ifl- . Dikes and impounding walls for LNG containment shall be tiauy full containex'*'"''
n tne constructed of compacted earth, concrete, metal or other Us the coolzinr
)ns). materials. They shall be permitted to be independent of the ni& the largeJi flow
container, or they shall be permitted to be mounded integral if more itlao on
't ac- contairr ia the
to or constructed against the container. They,andanypen- iErgouddi-og erea-
etrations thereof, shall be designed to withstand the full hy-
zone Coltaioenwith Th largerr0ow The largestdow
drostatic head of impounded LNG, the effeci of rapid cooling over-drc-top 6ll, tom anyslagte ftoma{ringle !!e
2\ wltn oo
to the temperature of the liquid to be confined, any antici- Peft$a- lile llra! could b rlEtcould be
pated fire exposure and natural forces such as earth- F.99.*r:. Y
tn. puEpd i.oro rlrc puopd hro itle
[qurorever' impoundtagarea i-por*a;"g..*
quakes, wind and rain.
with ihe cotrtaiqer lvith tbe cootaisr
,,y'tth
. Where the outer shell of a double wall tank complies with wiihdiav-al withdrrl|?lpulrpG)
puep(s) coDsid- dli\rirg fie tujl
these requirements, it shall be permitted to be considered ered to be delivr- raoed capacirF
SYS- as the impounding area for the purposes of tank siting dis- rared (l)ForloEitruG!
ilrg the full
tances etc. lf the containment integrity ofthe outer shellcan c.rpacity. ifsunillalrce atrd
shurdovrx b dla-
be affected by an inner tank failure, mode, then an addi- oBtrated atrd
tional impounding area shall be provided. apProved by the
iaa . The relationship between dike and impounding wall heights
aurhodry harhg
juridictioo.
and their distance from the primary container shall be as (2)For the tilDe
ce- Figure 25.8. [eded to ernpt/ e
full cotrtailei
anc . Provision shall be made to clear rain or other waterfrom the rvhere rurveillance
tc l- impounding area. Clearly such provisions shall not allow and 3hutdor{tr ir
0or app(red,
the escape of LNG.
Codtaitrerswidr Thendw*|rowhao Us the formula
2n4 . The impounding system shall, as a minimum, be designed Peleo-atioos
oeloav urc xqrxq
assuEedoPohgaq
?.od equ"l io area !o, 4aE4
to withstand an SSE event whilst empty and an OBE whilst poetndoD q=
11,LT-T.1."_5.':_ tlar iz-4
contajning the maximum volume of LNG as defined above.
After an OBE or SSE, there shall be no loss of containment
fl"J:A'#* F\*,n"r,q*g
with6.s.3.3. *1l"'.-lto
forrhour.
capability. regrlt n tnela gs!
flow fto(o a! ilitialy
25.3.2.3 The design spill firfl coDtainer.

Figure 25.9 attempts to define the design spill, forthree types LDpoundingarea Th oow bom any For l0 mioures or
*rvt(Ig only sirgle accidenral for ? shodr tjroe
of storage tank: !?Ponzauon,.., leakagesource. ba5edoodemon-
proceJs, or LNU
. Containers with penetrations below the liquid level without trarBfer areas
sFable surveil

internal shuloff valves. shuadol{n provi-


siors acceptable to
. Containers with penetrations below the liquid level wiih in- the aufioriry hav-
ternal shufoff valves in accordance with certain desion re- irgjuridicrion.
Nore gbdteflosBre lftmin (m3,hin)l o{tquld dirdrcdianFcr [i!.
(mm)l of tank Fr.trariod bdos rhc &uid t'icl. Ll! dl. h.qttt tft (m) l
ofliquld abo! p.n duion ln dE contetne. *hcn fic @nt2lncr t fdt

Fgure 25.9 Design sp llfor three types of siorage lank


From NFPA 594, tabte 2.2.3.5

quirements.
. Containers with over the top fill, with no penetrations below
the liquid level (also presumed to be equipped with in-tank
pumps for unloading).
For the first two tank types ihe calculation of the design spill is
quite straightforward. The formula given is:
Noiac
4 ^-
. oimensbn Xshall q]a, or xced the sum of fmendoo yDlus t|e
sqivalnt head ln LNG of he prgssu.o In tt vapor spaco abovo
o'3= d'Jh equ 25.1
t|s huld.
Excf,pfKn: WtBr tto h,lght ol he dl@ or hrvwNing *aI ls equdt A where
or gealer tlgn, tE nptdmrm qtfr le'/el, X ntsl hd!.e any velue-
. Do|enslon Xb h dshnco ipm fie hnr wall of fis cootalnr b tl6 q = flow rate (ft3/min)
closest hce of |hs dik6 or [npounding walt
. DinFnslon yb fls dstance ftom t| marmun lilrld lgvel h ho d = diameter of the tank penetration (ins)
conblnr b tho iop ol th dlks or trpoundng wafl.
h = height of liquid above the penetration when the
Figure 25.8 Dlke or impoundment wallproximtty ro conlarners tank is full (ft)
Fran NFPA 59A, figute 2.2.2.6 The spill duration is also given in Figure 25.9.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 477


25 Regulations goveming the layout of refigerated liquid gas tanks

For the third tank type the picture is less clear. The industry shows the large differences in the various spacing require-
practice has been to take the maximum export rate (i.e. the ments and the savings in site area arising from the use of the
combined flow of all of the installed in-tank pumps assuming different types ofcontainmentcategory The summary ofthe re-
these to be manifold together) as the 10 minute duration spill sults of this exercise are given in Figure 25.10.
(presuming a suitable shutdown system is provided). However,
One additional requirement relating to thermal radiation is that
the design spill wording "The largest flow from any single line
the LNG container impounding areas shall be located so that
that could be pumped into the impounding area with the con-
the heat flux from a fire over the impounding area shall not
tainer withdrawal pump(s) considered to be delivering the full
cause major structural damage to any LNG marine carrier that
rated capacity,", leaves room for doubl.
could Drevent its movement.
Fora typical LNG import terminal, the liquid pumpout rate from 25.3.2.5 Vapour dilution considerations z
a large tank may be ofthe order of 2000 m3/hr whereas the liq- ,1
uid import rate (i.e. the carrier's maximum unloading rate) may NFPA 59A has the following requiremenb:
be as high as 12000 m3ihr The 10 minute spillvolume in one . The spacing of an LNG tank impoundment to the property
case is 2000 x 10/60 = 333 m3 and in the othercase is 12000 x line which can be built upon shall be such that, in the event
10/60 = 2000 m3. ofthe design spill(Section 25.3.2.3), an average concentra- lr
The logic of postulating a possible failure in the case ofthe liq- tion of methane in air of 50% on the lower flammability limit
uid export line whilst not doing the same in the case ofthe liquid (LFL) does not extend beyond the property line that can be
import line seems contentious. The differences between the built upon. Three different calculation methods are given:
two figures in terms of the cost and difficulty of containing the
spill at the tank roof level, the conveying ofthe spilled liquid to
- GRI 0242 "LNG vapour dispersion prediction with the
DEGADIS dense gas dispersion model".
localgrade and the further guiding of liquid to the site impound-
ing basin are substantial. - GRI-96/0396.5 "Evaluation of mitigation models for ac-
cidental LNG releases-Volume 5; using FEM3Aforac-
25.3.2.4 Thermal radiation
NFPA 59A requires provisions to be made (almost always by
adjusting the site layout)to preventthe thermal radiation from a
tire from exceeding the limits listed belowundera defined setof
atmosphe c conditions (zero windspeed, 70oE 50% relative
humidity):
o 1600 Btu/hr/fi3 (5000 w/mr) at a property line that can be
built upon for ignition of a design spill (see Section
25.3.2.3).
. 1600 Btu/hr/ft, (5000w/mz) atthe nearest point located out-
side the owners property line that, at the time of plant siting,
is used for outdoor assembly by groups of 50 or more per- 2
sons for a fire over an impounding area containing the full
T
design volume (see Section 25.3.2.2).
3000 Btu/hr/ftz (9000 Mm2) at the nearest point ofthe build- ]
ing orstructure oulside the owners property line that is in ex-
istence at the time of plant siting and used for occupancies =(
classified by NFPA 101 (Life Safety Code) as assembly, ed-
ucational, health care, detention and correction or residen-
tial for a fire over an impounding area containing the full
design volume.
',OOOO t,urn7ftz (30000 wim2) at a property line which can
be built upon for a fire over an impounding area containing
the full design volume.
The calculations of radiation distances shall be calculated by
the following method:
Gas Research lnstitute Reoort GRl0176 "LNG Fire:Ather-
mal radiation model for LNG fires"
lfthe ratio ofthe majorto minor dimensions ofthe impound-
ment does not exceed 2 then:
d =F./a equ25.2

where
d = distance from the edge ofthe impounded LNG
(ft)

A = surface area of the impounded LNG (ft )


F = flux correction factor as follows: 3.0 for 1600
Btu/hr/ft2 2.0 for 3000 Btu/hr/ft, 0.8 for 10000
Btu/hr/ft'z
An example using the simpleformula for tanks for the storage of
Figure 25. 1 0 Comparison of site layouts with differenl types of liquid contain-
160,000 m3 of LNG of the single and full containment types

478 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


25 Regulations govening the layout of rcftigerated liquid gas tanks

requtre- cidental LNG accident consequent analysis". e Part 6.1 ofthe Standard states "Tanks can be Dlaced on the
se of the ground.....
of the
Another model subject to stated guidelines.
re-
. Provisions shall be made to minimise the possibility of a
.....The raft of the tank can be supported by raised piles.

In isthat flammable mixture of vapours from the design spill from . Part 6.2.3 states "there shall be no penetrations of the pri-
i so that reaching the property line that can be built upon and that mary and secondary container walls or base.
;hall not would result in a distinct hazard. Flammable mixture disper- .....The absence of wall or base penetrations requires the
rier that sion distances shall be calculated in accordance with GRI use of submerged pumps." Le. tanks ofall types must be fit-
0242 subject to certain stated conditions. ted with in{ank pumps, This is very different from NFPA
25.3.2.6 Minimum spacing requirements 59A.
n addition tothe spacing requirements arisingfrom the require- 25.3.3.3 Design spill
Tents of impoundment (Section 25.3.2.2) thermal radiation The Standard mentions "loss ofcontainment of LNG and of nat-
rroperty Section 25,3.2.4) and vapour dilution (Section 25.3.2.5) con- ural gas" in Section 4.4.3.1, "Evaporation of spilled LNG" in
e event siderations, the following minimum spacing requirements ap- 4.4.5.1, "Atmospheric dispersion of LNG vapour'' in Section
centra- lly: 3.3.4 and "Provisions for control of leaks or spillage" in Section
lity limit
can be
. The minimum distance from the edge of the impoundment 4.5.2. lt does not provide means of evaluating the flow rate or
to buildings or property lines shall not be less than 0.7times duration ofthe design spill. The Standard provides guidance on
given:
the container diameter or 100 ft whichever is the greater. hazard assessment using probabilistic and deterministic ap-
/iih the proaches, the use of hazard and operability studies (HAZOP),
. The minimum distance between LNG storage containers failure mode effect analysis (FMEA), eventtree method (ETM)
shall not be less than 1/4 ofthe sum ofthe diameter of adja- and fault tree method (FTM) together with a listing of possibte
for ac- cent containers or sfr whichever is the greater. hazards of both internal (i.e. within the site) and external origin
lor ac-
Hote: Both ofthe above applyto LNG tanks with capacities in (i.e. from outside the site).
excess of 265 mJ. Forverysmall tanks refer to Table There is also some briefguidance on the estimation of probabil-
2.2.4.1 of NFPA 59A. ities (Section 4.4.4) and the estimation of consequences (Sec-
. In no case shall the distance from the nearest edge of im- tion 4.4.5 and Annex F). Whilst allof this guidance is admirable,
pounded liquid to a property line which can be built upon, or it leaves the deflnition ofthis important design event a matter of
the near edge of a navigable water way as defined by fed- conjecture and debate which will require a lengthy and expen-
eral regulations be less than 50fr. sive site specific studyto resolve. The much simplerapproach
to this issue taken by NFPA 59A, albeit not entirely clear in all of
xoie: Clearly for tanks with capacities >265 m3, the first con-
its aspects, may appealto terminal designers and contractors
dition above willgovern for disiances to property lines.
and to the various regulatory authorities in view of ib clarity.
25.3.3 EN1473 : 1997 rules 25.3.3.4 Thermal radiation
Figure 25.12 gives recommended maximum incident radiation
25.3.3.1 Scope values for equipment within the site boundary including tanks
-r;s European Standard gives guidelines for the design, con- with outer surfaces constructed of concrete or steel. oressure
3:!ction and operation of all onshore stationary LNG installa- vessels, process facilities, control rooms, workshops and ad-
:ons including those for the liquefaction, storage, vaporisation, ministrative buildings arising from an LNGtankpoolfire. These
are maximum values to be used unless deflned otheMise in lo-
-nsfer and handling of LNG The Standard is valid for the fol- cal regulations. The Standard then moves on to suggest that
c$iing plant types:
the maximum radiation flux levels for each main structure shall
. Export terminals between the desjgnated gas inlet bound- be calculated and provides some guidance on how this may be
ary limit and the ships manifold. achieved.
. Receiving terminals, between the ships manifold and the For LNG storage tanks, the permissible radiation flux shall be
designated gas outlet boundary limit. determined taking into account the following factors as a mini
. Peak-shaving plants, between designated gas inlet and mum:
outlet boundary limits. . lf no deluge system is installed, watercooling is deemed to
. LNG satellite plants with a totial storage capacity above 2OO
applyafterthe time required to provide firewater in sufficient
tonnes, including the loading station up to the designated
gas outlet boundary limited.
tlote: Satellite planb with a total storage capacity less than
200 tonnes are excluded from the scoDe of this Stan- SingIE conteinnent l)
dard. Double co0unn$eltt 2)
-^is Standard is very difierent in philosophy and content from Fltl contairunent 2) s)
1- USADOT.CFR and NFPAStandards. lt is based on hazard Mernbrane 2) 3)
rd consequent risk assessment methods and is generallyless Ctyogmic conste 2l 3)
in its requirements than the American Codes. The fol- l)
=ecific
or/ing Sections are an attempt to abstract the salient points Slraical
fngrttrd 4 3)
:r',en jn this EN Standard astheyrelateto LNG storagetanks.
S@Ei6 to b @Eid.rE l:
25.3.3.2 Scenarios to be considered r) Ir .3le of @Uar6e of tlE Lrik
lrlnrry .onr.hr, !n pool
rlr. conldpd& !o the inpdtndng.ie..
-'ese are summarised for the full range oftank types in Figure 4 h ce ol @0qe o( dE tsn* rcoq tlE !E loot tdr!
:5 11 . lt is interesting to note the distinction made between full @nt{d& b dE lDdlry cont lE
r) No @U!9e i! @Etder.d for tlse t !* h,!..,
tanks without concrete roofs where the pool fire
=.ltainment
;ze is based on the secondary contiainer and full containment Figure25.11 Scenarioslobeconsidered inlhehazad assessmentasfunctionof
E-KS with concrete roofs where no collapse is considered and tank types
r., implication no poolfire is to be considered. Frcn EN 473, table
1 5

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 479


25 Regulations goveming the layout of refigerated liquid gas tanks

Eqqlpn..r luld. bouduy


(lwD'l)
Remote areal) t3
Concrete outer 6urf9ae of adiacmt 32
storage tanls: unprotectedi) 3) or Urban atea 6
behind thennal proteciionz, Critical area2)
Mtal outer surface of adja4ent storage t) An area only infEqu4tly o.cupied by smal nmbB of
tanlr unplotected3) or behind thermal peMF, e8. moorlmd, fanntand, de&
gotctionz), (see n3) D'ftis is ettle-r !n u$hhlded e. ofailical lnlortrnce eh@
The outer surfaces of aqjacent prss&e Deoole sit rout prctecdre .lothi.8 ce b iequjred at 3I tiro
lnctudinS duing energendes or B plae difrodt o! dangercus to
storage vssls alrd plocess facilities
eEurte !t dblt nodce (eg sports stadrum, play groud,
(se ng)
C4ntrol room, Maintenaice workshops, 8
laboratoriG, werehouss, etc. (see P.2) Figure 25.13 Allowable themal radiauon flux excluding solar rad ation outside
Administrativ buildin$ (see P.2) 5
rJ For prest@d concrelt t2.k, naximum ddiation nues Frcm EN 1473, table 2
my detlnnined bt fie requiremenG given in 4,5.2.
be
:)such facih es are prot crld by m.es or watf,r srrEys, firc
Eq{lDn.rt luide bouar.ry
Dmiing, rad8tlon *reens o.simil& systms
3' Proteciion is Drcvidd by sDa.inr .lone.

Flow rtte e dnled lD 11.6


Fig ure 25.1 2 Allowable thefmal radiation flux exclud ing sola r tadiation inside lhe Base of the flai in a tsbcted 5 I
Dounoary ala wher well trained
FFrn EN 1473. table I operators wil be present only
for maintenarce. (s P.3)
ouantities from external sources Roads and open aras 3 6
'Ibiks erd proce$ equipments 5
. Loss of strength of container
Contsol room, mahten nce 1,5 5
. Pressure build up within the container workshops, Izboratones,

. The temperature ofthe safetyvalve shallnot reach the auto Adminjstrative buildings 5
ignition temperature of the flammable substance in the
tank. Figufe 25.14 Allowable themal radiation flux excluding solar radiation inside
the boundary
. Surface emissive powers Fron EN 1473, table 3

Figure 25.13 similarly provides maximum recommended inci-


dent radiation flux levels arising from an LNG poolfire within the radistion nux (kwn'?)
boundary on different types ofareas outside the site boundary Flow rrte a delined ir 11.6 Nomal I Ac.ident'l
The maximum recommended incident radlation levels arising Remote arear.) 3 5
from the flare are given in Figure 25.14 for areas within the Urban area 3
boundary and in Figure 25.15 for areas outside the boundary Criticrl area2) 1,5
These Tables give two levels of radiation fluxfor normal and ac- 1r @a only infrequntly @cupid by sall nmbe6 of
An
cidental operations. pcen' e,g, m@rle4 fmland, desrr
,) This is eirler d NNelded ea ol cdtical importa@ ttEre
25.3.3.5 Vapourdilution psple witlDur pmtectiv clothing cd be required at all tines
inctuding duinS emergencies or e pl&e drfficuli o. dege.os to
EN1473 gives no specific rules for dilution levels at site bound- evacuare at short nolice (e,9. sports stadjw, pl4v groud,
aries. lt does give some guidance on the calculation methods
to determine the furthest distance to the lower flammable limit
Fjgure 25.15 Allowable thermal radlation flux excluding solar radiaiion outside
and of what factors to take into account in this calculation, but the boundary
no specific requirements.
Frcm EN 1473, table 4
25.3.3.6 Minimum spacing requirements
Again EN1473 gives little guidance on this subject. lt does troleum lndustry - Part I Volumes 1 and 2 - Liquefied
Petroleum Gas February 1987.
stater "The spacing between two adjacent tanks for which no
collapse is considered (i.e. full containment, membrane, cryo-
genic concrete or in-ground tanks, in each case with a concrete
25.4 API 2510 Eighth edition, May 2001 Design and Con-
struction of LPG lnstallations.
roof), shall be (as a) minimum equal to a half diameter of the
secondary container of the larger tan k". Th is is essentially sim- 25.5 United Sfates of America Deparlment of Transpotl
ilar to the NFPA 59Aone quarter times the sum ofthe diameters Rules.- Title 49 - Subtitle B - Chapter 1 - Subchapter D
of the adjacent containers requirement. - Part 193 - October 2000.
25.6 NFPA 59A, Standard for the production, storage & han-
25.4 References dling of liquefied natural gas (LNG), 2001 Edition,
National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massa-
25.1 NFPA 58 Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code 2001 Edition, chusetts.
National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massa-
chusetts. 25.7 BS EN 1473 : 1997 lnsta ation of equipment for lique-
fied natural gas - design ofOn-shore installaflo,s, Euro-
25.2 NFPA 59 Utility LP-Gas Plant Code 2001 Edition. pean Committee for Standardisation and British
25.3 lnstitute of Petroleum Code of Safe Practice in the Pe' Standards Institution.

480 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


26 Seismic design of low temperature
tanks
This Chapter represents a brief visit to what is a large and complex area. Much has been
researched and wriften on the subject and it is difficult to do it justice in so few words. lt has
becomethe practice to approachthe seismic design of low temperatu re tanks at a higher levelof
sophistication than has been the case of tanks storing products at ambient temperatures.
The Chapter is restricted to the design of metallic, liquid-coniaining, vertical cylindrical tanks.
Those looking for detailed information on the seismic design of low temperature tanks of
different geometries and construction materials will have to seek the information they require
elsewhere.
The importantareas of seismic design have been reviewed and illustrated by means ofa worked
example, using an LNG tank of modest proportions.

Contents:
26.1 General
26,2 The basic seismic design data
26.3 Damping
25.4 Directional combinations
26.5 The behaviour of the product llquid
26.6 Natural frequencies
26.6.1 The horizontal convective frequency
26.6-2 The horizontal impulsive frequency
26.6.3 The vertical barelling Aequency
26.7 Ductility
26.8 Calculation of the design accelrations

26.9 Product liquid pressures acting on tank shells


26,10 Tank stability under seismic loadings
26.11 Tank sliding
26.12 Liquid sloshing
26.13 Seismic isolation
fed 26.14 The design Codes

26.15 Gonclusion
bn-
26.16 References
nrt
YD

fl>
'ot
,
aa-

IF
to-
istr

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 48,I


26 Seismic design of low temperaturc tanks

concrete tanks, membrane tanks, roof-mounted equipment,


26.1 General in-ground tanks and tanks of shapes other than vertical and cy-
Chapter 15 describes the relatively straightforward rules given lindrical, apologies are given. However, a brief search of the
in the various ambient storage tank design codes to cover the subject area should produce the necessary information.
design of such tanks for seismic loadings. These are based on The various national and international Standards and regula-
the work of Wozniak and Mitchell and use as their input the ac- tory organisations also have views on the subject ofthe seismic
celerations given for the various zones given in the American design of liquid storage systems. These are reviewed in the ap-
Uniform Building Code or similar sources. This approach ig- propriate Sections of this Chapter and in Section 26.13. . '-.:
nores the influence of the vertical components of the design
seismic events. The recent earthquakes, particularly those in
Kobe in Japan and in Taiwan have provided evidence that this 26.2 The basic seismic design data
componentis particularly destructive and has traditionally been A real or a design seismic event can be expressed in a number
underestimated. o{ different ways. A real time history is a plot of the actual re- :=
For low temperature tanks where the risks associated with Iiq- corded ground motions (acceleration, velocity and displace-
uid containment failure are generally considered to be more se- ment) against the elapsed time of the event. lt is acceleration
rious and certainly the costs of the facility are generally greater, which interests the designer most, and an example of such a
the seismic design is taken more seriously as has been men- plot is shown in Figure 26.1. There are techniques which allow
tioned in Chapter 15. Whether the risk or the cost arguments in- the design process to be based upon such realtime histories,
deed justify this approach is perhaps contentious. Large single butthese are outside the chosen scope ofthis Chapter. In such
containment refined product tanks are themselves dangerous cases it is usual to use a number of real time histories of events
beasts, the consequences ofwhose failure in refineries are per- from a similar geological setting and of a similar magnitude, or
haps the equal in terms of risk and cost of similar events in scaled to the same magnitude.
many low temperature facilities. A more useful starting point for the designer is the response
Passing over this point, it is the case thai low temperature tanks spectrum. The response spectrum repfesents the peak re-
have traditionally warranted this enhanced level of attention sponse ofa single degree offreedom damped system to a base
Perhaps the apparent recent trend of placing large LNG export excitation. Such a single degree of freedom system is illus-
and import terminals in areas of high seismic activity has had trated in Figu re 26.2. The precise means of getting from a real
something to do with this. The LNG tanks located at the Bay of time history considered relevant for the particular site to an
Marmara in Turkey, Revithoussa lsland in Greece and Point agreed design response spectrum are complex and are best
Fortin in Trinidad are all examples of this trend. left to those with the appropriate expertise in these matters

The amount of theoretical and test work carried out in this area
is awesome. Not only have the giants of the subject like
Housner, Veletsos, Yang, Haroun, Manos, Wozniak, Newmark
and Hall been publishing learned works for many years. but
they are joined by a host of other authors working in the same
area. A fook at the list of publications in References 26.1, 26.2 :J,

and 26.3 will illustrate this point.


In addition to the volume of work existing in this area, there are
also a variety of different approaches to the seismic design of
the various components which go to make up the difierent types
I

L______' t,
I

of low temperature liquid storage systems described in Chapter SUPPORT I.IOTION: v, v, v MASS f10Ti0N:
17. For example the approach of the designer of the steel inner
liquid container is often very different to that of the designer of Figure 26.2 Asingle degree offreedom damped system
the outer pre-stressed concrete tank.
The provision ofdesign spectra to the tank designer is usuallya
It is clearly not possible to describe the whole breadth of this task placed in the hands of specialist geo-technical consul-
area of activity in a single chapter, indeed it would be difficult to tants. These are companies with wide and respected experi-
envisage doing itjustice in a single book. Forthis reason the fol- ence in the study of seismic events. The days when a single nu-
lowing Sections confine their interest to the seismic design of merical reference to an anticipated seismic event using such
vertical, cylindrical, flat-bottomed steel primary liquid contain- devices as the Richter Scale was considered sufiicient input for
ment tanks. These are one of the most commonly found com- the tank designer are long past. The RichterScale isstillused in
oonents of low temperature liquid conbinment systems the media to describe the magnitude of seismic events, and for
The level of sophistication of the analysis is that which the au- interest the scale and a subjective set ofeffects is shown in Fig-
thor has found to be sufficient to satisfy the owners of newstor- ure 26.3.
age facilities togetherwith their engineers and technical consul-
tants. To those seeking information on the seismic design of The usual outputfrom such specialists is a site-specific seismic

-500

<Q

il5

F gure 26.1 A typical real 1me history ground ac.elerai on rccord

482 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


26 Seismic design of low tempercture tanks

-oquipment, necessitate a site investigation if the information is not al-


caland cy, Modified Mercali Richter
Acceleration ready available)
arch of the Intensity Scale Magnitude Scale
rtion. . The nature ofthe structure, its contents and the possible in-
M fluence ofthese on the people and property adjacent to the
nd regula-
letected only by very site
he seismic rE srDve rn$rumenis
J in the ap- '-:tt by b* persols at The sections of the SHA whjch the tank designer is most in
"
Lspended objecls swing need of are the design response spectra. lt is usualforthese re-
'.13. u3
sponse spectra to be presented for both the horizonial and the
I F"[ l"d"-"jut""id ,005 vertical seismic events. Until quite recently only the horizontal
as an earthquake
=cognised
:;TA spectra was provided and a factorwas given for scaling this to
a number Indoot bv a fevr
uolor cars rock nbliceably .01 M4 be used as the vertical seismic design criteria. This factor has
actual re_ grown with time from 0.5 to 0.6 and 0.67 as the significance of
displace- , Feitby most. Som this part of the seismic event became apparent. Following the
)eleration ..ndows break. Little damage
recent events in Japan and Taiwan it could well be the case that
u5
of such a
rich allow
;"- b*r r"r*
:. mneys. Damage-smatl .05
this factor will increase and approach unity. lt is now usual to
presentseparate vertical design spectra, whichtake account of
histories,
t-rn the magnitude ofthis part ofthe event and anydifferences in the
"t*" -ar*
0.1
r. ln such rependrng upon construction applicable spectral shape.
u0
lfevents l1l Fall of watts. cht'nnevs
ritude, or -ionuments. A fair amoutit The usual practice is to considertwo levels of seismic event for
the design of a particular structure. The allowable stress and
x B!ildinqs 6hifted otf
0,5
SZ levels of permitted damage criteria which apply to each level of
esponse =fi dation-s. Much damage
event are described below There have been a varietv of differ-
)eak re-
cabase
;;""*'""*"" d"",,** 1.0
ent definitions for these two event levels used over ihe vears.
3rcund cracks, Landslide's The most commonly used in the past have been the operating
is illus- UC
basis earthquake (OBE) and the safe shutdown earthquake
m a real
a**u|"" or"r*
f,iiges destroied
" (SSE). These were events with return periods of 475 and
etoan 10,000 years respectively. ln recent time things have become
rre Dest
"-"."t*","t W**
sen on oround suna@. more complex. NFPA 59 A which is a significant design docu-
rlters. f,tiecls thrown in sr
ment for most LNG tanks has chosen to introduce the maxi-
mum considered earthquake (MCE) which is the event having a
:ure 26.3 The RichterScale and set of subjeclive
effecis 2% probability of exceedance within a 50 yearperiod (mean re-
currence interval 2475 yearcl. subject to a number of defined
-azard assessment (SHA). This is a substantial document
exceptions. The liquid container and the impounding system
:ank designers have been known to unkindly suggest that this are then designed for an OBE and SSE which are deiined as
:ocument is sold by weight alone). lt takes account of the fol- follows:
owing in arriving at ib conclusions:
The OBE shall be represented by a ground motion response
. The detailed geology and tectonics ofthe selected site spectrum in which the spectral acceleration at any period T
. The seismic history of the area shall be equal to 2/3 of the spectral acceleration of the NICE
ground moiion defined. The OBE ground motion need not ex-
. The details of the matedals and structures which will lie be- ceed the motion represented by a 5% damped acceleration re-
tween the bedrock and the base of the structure (this mav sponse having a 10% probability of exceedance within a S0
Typical Horizontal Response Spectra
tatry a
0.500
)NSUF
(pel.-
0.450
e nu-
suc- 0_400
ut fo-
0.350
d fo.
I o.3oo
OBE - 5% Damplng

E 0.250
6
9 0.200

0.150

0.100

0_050

0.000
0 0.5 11.52 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 77.58 8.5 9 s.5 10
Priod T , secs

:igure 26.4A Atypical horizonlat seismic


design response spectra in graphicatform for 5% damping

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 483


26 Seismic design of low temperaturc tanks

Typical Vertical Response Spctra

t
l - 5% Damping
c 0.200
-OBE - 5%
-ssE
E o.tso

0.100

0.050
\

0.000
0.5 1.5 4.5 5 5.5
Period T , secs

Figure 26.48 A typical vertical seismic design response spectra in graphicalfom for 5% damping

year penoo. of accuracy when extracting design data. An example is given


in Figure 26.5. -9
The SSE ground motion shall be the motion represented by a
5% damped acceleration response spectrum having a 1% Damping levels arediscussed further in Section 26.3. On occa-
lE
probability of exceedance within a 50 year period (mean return sions the seismic design spectra are presented in the form ofa
interval 4975 years). Howeverthe spectral acceleration of the series of equations. An example ofthis type of presentiation, to-
ns
SSE resDonse spectrum shall not exceed twice the corre- getherwith the graphs which can be derived from these equa-
recipe tions is shown in Figures 26.6 A & B. lt is usual for the time-
f,rr
sponding OBE spectral acceleration. This seems to be a
for confusion, but doubtless there are good reasons for the scaleto run from zero upto, orjustbeyond'10 seconds. Thiswill
tx
cover the sloshing or convective periods of the biggest tanks
ilc(
changeswhich willbe apparenttothose skilled in the prediction
'r(
of seismic design criteria. currently envisaged,
It is most common to present the seismic design spectra in Where a site specific SHAis not carried out, the seismic design
graphicalform and atypicalexample is shown in Figures 26.4A data can be based upon artificial response spectra. Onesuch is
& B. These are given for 5% damping which is also usual and Desisn Spectlm {5%)
for both the OBE and the SSE events. Plots, which include the Hodzontal

displacement and velocity data in addition to the acceleration


data, are frequently used and these can includethe data atvari-
ous different levels of critical damping. These tend to get con-
gested and are sometimes difilcultto usewiththe required level

eadhd@ke. acceler,alion (a)


0,+1.0

OBE oos+

ssE o-+

Figure 26,6AAn example of sismic design data presented as a sedes of


Figure 26.5 A typical t.ipa.tite acceleration, veloci9 and displacement plot equalDns and also In grapnrcr rcrm

484 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


26 Seismic design of low tempercturc tanks

able to use this guide meaningfully. The use of an artificial re-


sponse spectra is a cheaper but very much inferior means of
providing a seismic design basis than that provided by a site
specific SHA study.

26.3 Damping
It is important to select the appropriate level of damping for the
djfferent component parts of a storage system for the (usually
two) levels of seismic design event being considered. Guid-
ance can be found in Iable 4.2 of Reference 26. / which is reoro-
duced in Figure 26.9. This reference uses the ierms "probable
design earthquake" (PDE) and "contingency design earth-
quake" (CDE) in place of the more familiar OBE and SSE.
Where the seismic design data provided is tied to a single
damping level (usually 5%), it is necessary to have a means of
converting to other levels of damping as indicated in Figure
26.9. The accepted means of doing this is to use the Newmark
and Hall amplification factors as shown in the table (Figure
26.10). The three columns headed A(B), V(p)and D(B)apply to
the constant acceleration, constant velocity and the constant
displacement parts ofthe response spectrum. This is illustrated
"-'i in Figure 26.11. T2 is usually around 3 seconds.
a3@
?t\r)
or+ So, by way of an example:
The natural frequency of the impulsive portion of the tank liquid
contents falls between To and T1 and is 0.609 taken from the
OBE 5% critical damping horizontal seismic response spec-
: trre 26.68 An example ofselsmjc design data presenled as a series of
::.a1ions and also in gfaphical form
trum. lt is required to determine the acceleration appropriate to
2o/o ctilical damping as required for OBE design as shown in
',-at given in the USAEC Regulatory cuide 1.60 (Reference Figure 26.9.
r5.4). The spectral shape is expressed in a tabularform cover-
-g a fange of levels ofdamping (Figure 26 7). When plotted oui The acceleration is then
ue-
'q --is is as shown in Figure 26.8. The point where the accelera- Nt3\(2V"\
: rn intercepts the zero time axis is known as the peak ground - -" '"
nA^
4 B ttsv" )
::celeration (PGA) and in these plots it has a value of unity. lt is
-ecessary to know the PGAappropriate to the chosen site to be Using the data from Figure 26.10 this becomes:
is 9-
0.60 y::: = 0.81o
c-s ' 2.71

26.4 Directional combinations


0,5 l Cr 5.95 -1.20
Any seismic event is made up of a combination of motions in the
2.0 1.0 3_54 4.25 2.t0
5.0 i.0 2.61 3 ri 2.05 two horizontal (X and Y) and the vertical (Z) directions. Clearly it
7,0 i.0 2.27 2_12 1,88 is unreasonable to assume that the three orthogonal compo-
10.0 t.0 t.90 2,14 l.?0
nents will be simultaneously at their maximum values. The in-
rlv nnum sohd displacnenr r ekcn proporriont io nuxinro dustry has decided that the following represent sensible
sound accelsalion, dd is 36 in. for Brornd accelsationol l.0 gravjry. combinations:
:Acelchrto. rid
reonhond"roir
disFlacenrem
siver rnEfergncc l
xmplifiolioi raao* rs bk.n f'orl
. 100% X +l- 30o Y +l- 30%Z
. 30'/oX +/- 1004 Y +l- 3O%Z
Amprili.ation F .rou ro' conror Poina . 3Oo/oX +/- 30a Y +l- l}OYaZ
It is convenient to combine the two horizonlal components.
So for --
the first two combinations listed above a facior of
t.0
t, :-
0.5 4.96 t 6rl
J(10' 0.3') - 1044can beuseoandforthethirdcombination
2_t3
2.0 t.0 3.54 4.05 ).67
5.0 1,0 2.61 2.94 1.31
1.O 1.0 2.27 2.59 1.25 a factor of 03+ 03'z) = 0424 is appropriate.
10.0 i.0 t.90 2.17 r.l3
There have been occasions when a 100% +l- 40% +l- 40ok
'Maxjmum grolnd displaetent is r.l.n troportionit to nariDun combination has been required, bui this is less usual.
grou.d a.eletation and is 36 i.. aor eround acehrarion of I 0 gnvily.
! Acceleration anllticarion facros aor fie vertical dcxrsn r$pon*
sp.ctra aE eqkl 16 ihos ior horizonlal deslgn rcspoise 3p.cttr ar r sivcn
rr.qu.ncy, lhereas di$lacamenl aBpuliBIion lacroB aIo 2/3 nb$for lrori.
anlal destgn lesponse specta. Itles rdios blveen llre amptitierion tuctou
26.5 The behaviour of the product liquid
for the r{o desiri spectarretn agre.ftenr pnh lhosg tecomneidcd
in retercnce I . 'espone The means of calculating the effective masses ofthe impulsive
!Th6e valu.s were changed lo ruke rhis tablc consistem Nilh rhe dn and the convective portions ofthe stored liquid and the heights
cusion dl veniel.onponenls in Sectiod B ol tirguide.
above the tank bottom of their centres of gravity are exactly the
same as are used for ambient temperature tanks. This is de-
Figure 26.7 Tables I and ll from ihe IJSAEC Regulatory cuide 1.60 scribed in Chapterl5, Section 15.2.2.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 485


26 Seismic design of low tempenture tanks

ll

Figure 26.8 The USAEC date plotted out

26.6 Natural frequencies where:

In orderthatthe designer can extract the appropriate accelera-


T = first liquid sloshing period (sec)
t
tions from the design seismic response spectra provided, it is K = a factor taken from figure L-4 (Figure 26.12) !
necessary to determine the naturalfrequencies associated with
the significant loading componenb. These are the horizontal
D = tank diameter (ft)
;
impulsive frequency of the liquid tank system, the horizontal H = liquid fill height {ft) I
convective frequency, and the vertical "breathing" mode fre-
quency. There is a considerable volume of information on this
Note: lf the tank diameter is given in metres, this equation be-

subject and the influences of tiank flexibility and foundation stiff- comes T = 1.81 1k(D)' '. (Rememberto use consistent
ness. In the interests of avoiding over complication, the meth- units for D and H in Figure 26.12.)
ods considered in this ChaDterare limited to those discussed in This calculation method is probablythe most commonly used to
References 26.3, 26.5 and 26.6. determine this period.
From References 26.1, 26.3 and 26.5
26.6.1 Horizontal convective frequency
The same equation forthe frequency ofthejth sloshing mode is
oiven in each of these references and is:
From APf 620 (Reference 26.q
.1
This is the same method as is used for ambient temperature
tanks (see API 650 Appendix E ) and is described in detail in '2n .F'*"6H equ26.2

Chapter 15. For convenience this is repeated here:


where:
The period of the first liquid sloshing mode is given by:
R tank radius (m)
u
r = t(D)o equ 26.1 n liquid fill height (m)

486 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


26 Seismic design of low tempercture tanks

c.itical D;npjne'
constanr cssbnr comt.nr
I I vr.dry I dr!pr.c.m.d
)'obdble De)lgn
:.rt\qudre (P0F)
biplig, v"ssels, 5!a.ts, eqJio- to ? +--+--,-
'c.6rrarion
_,__+
flusr r4.in elasric
lelded sleel, p.est.essed
concreter rcll relnforced
concfete (only sli9hr c.acking)
Reinforced .o^.rete Hith
conside.able c.acklns
Bolted andlo. .iveted sreel,
{ood st.uctu.er rith nailed

eral Tanir - .onvecrlve {slosh)


- inpulsive

Pltinq, v4iele, sract5, equlp-


ne.t, and ce.laln sttuclures that
Fig ure 26. 1 1 lllustraling the porlions of the response spectru m associated wilh
constanl acceleration, conslant velocity and constant displacement
telded steel, Orert..ssed
conc.ete (rjthout cooplete
I oss or P.strets)i Presr.ess.n
prethess lef! 1.0

0.8
Bolred and/or rivered steel, rood
stfuclu.es rlrh bolred jojnts
$ri nal red joln.s 0.6
Ileial ranks - convective (slosh) 0.5
- rnp! r5lve 4.O 7.0 80
Soil-str0ctu.. iiteraction effectr nor in.1!qe!
DIH

:gufe 26.9 Damping levels appropriate for different componenls Figure 26.12 Figure L-4 from API 620 Appendix L
-.ken fram Table 4.2 from Relercnce 26.1
E Young's modulus of tank shell material (N/m2)
pm density of the tank shell material (kg/m3)
Cr A dimensionless coefficient which depends on
the tank proportions (H/R and VR in consistent
units), the Poisson's ratio of the tank shell ma-
terial and the relative densities of the oroduct
liquid and the shell material (p /p.)
nence:
;
-1
P'
In rhi$ obr. rhe f!.rots (P), v (P) and D (p) ryty ro ie conea r..l.mnD. !,n$d \ dsi!. rd
^
r.nianr dBprrancm p.niotu. esperildy. ofrtrc tl.ssn sp.(nnn.
where:
pw = density ofiresh water (1000k9/m3)
:igure 26.10 Newma* and Halldamping amptificalion factors
pr = density of the product liquid (kg/m3)

g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) pn = density ofthe tank shell material (kg/m3)

li = 1841 C" = factor taken from Figure 26.13 (also plotted as


Figure 26.14)
using real numbers (D= 65 m and H= 25 m), equation 26.1
gives a period of8.76 seconds, whilstequation 26.3 gives 8.95 It as suggested that for a shell of non-uniform thickness, the av-
seconds which is reassuringly close. The small difference is al- erage thickness is used. The data in Figures 26.13 and 26.14
most certainly due to the manual interpolation of Figure 26.12. assumes a Poisson's ratio of 0.3 for the tank shell material.
Equation '15.2 in Chapter 15, gives means of calculating K ex- The method given in Reference 26.3
actly.
The period ofvibration ofthefirst impulsive tankiiquid horizon-
tal mode is given by:
26.6.2 The horizontal impulsive frequency
_rr =5.61rH n; equ26.4
The method given in References 26.1 and 26.5 Kn ll tr9
The formulae given in these References are essentially the
-./=-
where:
same and take account of the flexibility of the tank itself. The
natural frequency ofthe tank{iquid system, using the terminol- TI product liquid fill height (m)
ogy given in Reference 26.5, is given by: kh period coetficient from figure C2.29 (Figure
{ _ "1
.fF iL
26.15)
equ 26.3
z^n ! pm \ts liquid density (kg/m3)

wnere: E Young's modulus of the tank shell material


(N/m,)
fo = natural frequency (Hz)
It is again suggested that for a shell of non-uniform thickness,
H = liquid fitl heisht (m) the average thickness is used and that the data in Figure 26.15

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 487


26 Seismic design of low tempercture tanks

o28
Frequent @6cient, C-, in expressio! for fthdmertal
Mtdal frequelcy, to, of tels fll wirh wateri v=03,
AIP =0'127
HIR vzt@ ol c.
tlR=00fd5 I JR = 0.N1

0.5 0 050 6 o.t1r9


0.6 00538 0.9763 0.20
0.7 00564 0.079 9
O,E 0 058 ? 0.02 9
0.9 0.060 5 0.065 4
.9
1.0 0.062 0 0.08'/ 5
5
0 064 1
0.065 0
0.090 3
0.0915
I
0.065 1 0.091?

Figure 26.13 Table 1 from Reference 26.5

Height !o radius ratio, H/Rm

Figure 26.15 Figure C2.29frcm Relerence 26.3

andaql ol0.127 (i.e. a steeltank containing water).

These tables give a very limited amount of data when com-


pared with Figure 26.13 and for steel tanks, is confined to a VR
ratio of 0.001 . This makes it quite hard to use in practice. It also
requires adjustment for different product specific gravities in
the same way as C1 in Section 26.6.2.1.
Thus the value of this factor to be used in equation 26.5 in the
place of Cu is:

The method given in Reference 26.3


The period ofvibration ofthe flrst tank-liquid vertical (breathing)
mode is given by:
Figure 26.14 Data from Figure 26.13 extrapolated and plotted
equ 26.6
is based on a tank shell material with a Poisson's ratio of 0.3.

Using real numbers again (D = 65 m, H = 25 m, product liquid


Where the variables are as given in Section 26.6.2 with the ex- 2e
SG = 0.48, shell material density = 8000 kg/m3 and E= 210 x 10e
ceDtion of:
N/m2, average shellthickness = 20 mm) both methods give a ti(
period of0.35 seconds, which is again reassuring and suggests ku = factor taken from figure c2.30 (Figure 26.18)
that they emanate from the same source.
When the same real numbers given above are used, these two
All of these References (26.1, 26.3 and 26.5) provide worked methods give values for this period of 0.32 and 0.30 seconds
examples which are helpful, particularly in sorting out the ap- respectively.
orooriate units.

26.7 Ductility
26,6.3 The vertical barrelling frequency
This is a complex subject about which much has been written.
In this level of analysis it is dealt with in a very simple manner.
The method given in References 26.1 and 26-5 Wozniak and Mitchell in their paper (Reference 26.7) support-
The natural frequency of the axisymmetric breathing mode is ing their proposal for a seismic Appendix to API 650 suggest
grven by: the following:
"The increased hoop tension due to earthquake ground motion
{,YLl: equ 26.5 should be added to the hoop tension due to hydrostatic pres-
z,rn \l pm sure. The hydrodynamic portion (i.e. that part due to the earth-
quake) should be divided by a ductility factor of2.0 for applica-
Where the variables are as given in Section 26.6.2 with the ex- tion in the design at the normal allowable stresses."
ception of:
This method ofanalysis treats ductility in a different way. Forthe
C" = factor taken from table 7 .5 of Reference 26.1 oBE condition the structure must remain elastic and a ductility
(Figure 26.16) or table 4 ot Reference 26.5 factor on 1 .0 is used. For the SSE condition the structure must
(Figure 26.17). remain nearly elastic and ductilityfactors of 1 .2 to 1.3 are usual.
Note: This table is for materials with a Poisson's ratio of 0.3 A factor is calculated using the formulal

488 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


26 Seismic design of low temperature tanks

C0EFFICIENT Cv IN EXPRISSIoN FoR FUNDAT4ENTAL FRIQIIENCY 0F events at 5% damping in Figure 26.6 and using the periods cal-
AXISYI'1I,IETR1C, SREATHIN6 I,IODT OF VIBRATI(]N OF TULL TANKS culated above (i.e. horizontal convective = 8.95 sec, horizontal
impulsive = 0.35 sec and vertical barrelling = 0.30 sec) the ba-
sic accelerations can be taken from the graphs, or more accu-
Bending Bending rately calculated from the formulae given.
Sol ution Sol uti on
These accelerations must now be adjusted for the corlect level
of damping, the inclusion of the second horizontal component
!.?0 0.0467 0.052I 0.0787 0.1135
and the influence of ductility.
0.30 0,056/ 0.06 L0 0.09/ 3 0,1250
0.50 0.0705 0.0738 0. t230 0,1414 Figure 26.6 does include a means of adjusting the damping
0,75 0.0808 0.0834 0.1423 0.1564 from the 5% figure provided to othervalues, but in this instance
1.0 0.0868 0,0889 0.1533 0.1650 the more commonly used Newmark and Hall relationships will
1,5 0.0925 0.0950 0.1641 a -r7 26
be adopted (see Figure 26.10).
?.0 0.0949 0.0964 0.r688 0. i/56 The damping values suggested in Figure 26.9 for the OBE and
3.0 0.0969 0,0982 D,TI24 0. l7 70 the SSE for various actions have been adopted. These adiust-
5.0 0.0979 0.0992 0.1/44 0.1775 ments are illustrated in Figure 26.19.

* h/R = 0.001, erlp = 0.127, ! = 0.30


26.9 Product liquid pressures acting on
t h/R = 0,01, o!/o = 0.40, ! ' 0,17
tank shells
:.ure 26-16 Table 7.5 from Reference 26.1 The tank shell is normally designed for the hoop tension result-
ing from either the maximum operating liquid fill height orfor the
Cofrcienl C, in exPrssion hydrostatic test condition as described in Chapter 18. Where
for tundalaental ftequency of the tank is subjected to seismic loadings, the hoop stresses are
aisymmetric. breatbing node increased.
ol vibration of full lanh =
'
0.3, tlR = 0'$1, PtlP =0127 The total hoop tension is made up ofthe following components:
The stress due to the normal operating condition (P")
05 0.ff70 5
The stress due to the horizontal impulsive action (Pi)
075 0.080 8
10 0-086 8
15 o.w5 The stress due to the horizontal convective action (P")
The stress due to the vertical barrelling action (P")
. aJrc 26.11 Table 4lrcm Reference 26 5 These are all the maximum values calculated when the tank is
_,1 equ 26.7
full of product liquid. From Section 26.4, it can be seen that
t^ these actions do not act simulianeously at their maximum cal-
'- -J zlt - ,|
culated values. but give rise to the following two combinations:
. Ps +P +P.+0.3P,
u = ductility faclor (i.e. 25"k is given as 1 .25) . Ps + 0.3(Pi + Pc) + P"
-ris factor is then applied directly to the design accelerations The means of calculating the actual values of these various
:s indicated in the following section. components are taken from Reference 26.7 This refefence
uses US units.
26.8 Calculation of the design accelera- R = 2.6YDG equ 26.8
tions wnere:
-aving calculated the naturalfrequencies ofthe Iiquid-tank sys- P" = hoop tension per inch of shell heightdueto
:em for the horizontal convective, horizontal impulsive and the normal product filling (lb/in)
.ertical barrelling modes, the basic accelerations for each
'rode for both the OBE and the SSE cases can be found from Y = distance from the point on the tank shell under
:re appropriate response spectra. consideration to the liquid surface (ft)
arom the datia given for the horizontal and vertical seismic D = tank diameter (ft)
6 = product liquid specific gravity
For tanks where D/H is greater than 1 333:
rY' -0.51.v''l , .^^Dt
P .4.5A.GDH| -l I tanh 0.5oo equ 26.9
' JH tt-lrl
where:
0r
Pr hoop tension per inch of shell height due to the
horizontal impulsive action (lb/in)
horizontal impulsive design acceleration (g)
see Section 26.8 above
2
TI liquid filling height (ft)
For tanks where D/H is less than 1.333:
Figure 26.18 Figure C2.30ftom Reference 26.3 Y< 0.75D:

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 489


26 Seismic design of low temperature tanks

oosign lIod6 Priod Batrc gcond Crilical Dqmping Ductility 0uctillty O..lon
aerSmlc tonzonlEl dafiprn0 adjul|med factor adjultm! Edjustod
EV6nl (c) lclor faclar
faalor s6lgclgd A'B'CD
(%)

Horizontl conv6ctiv6 8S5 0.0028 1.U4 0.5 1.512 1.00 1.000 0,0044
HorizonlEl inpLrlsive 035 0.175 1.U4 1.00 1.000 0.2645
Vertlcel barrsling 030 0.1153 1.000 2.O 1.35i 1.00 1.000

Horizontel convclive 0.0112 1.044 0.5 1.512 1.25 0,816 0.0144


Horizontl impuliive 0.35 0.7500 LU4 '1.000 1.25 0.816 0.63E9
Varlical ba ling 030 0.4610 1.000 5.0 1.m0 1.00 1.000 0.4610

Figure 26.19 Adjustments to the basic acceleraions

Y Y o prEN 14620
P o.sl
-277AGD,[0.75D r 0.75D'
l'z equ 26.10
L
This allows '1.33 times the allowable stress for normaloper-
ation (as Chapter'18) for the OBE case and minimum yield
Y> 0.75D: of the olate or weld metal for the SSE case.

R = 1 .384AiGD'z equ26.11 The required thickness of the tank shell to comply with these
criteriaforthe OBE and SSE casescan becalculated and com-
/HY) pared with that derived from the static normal operation rules.
cosh 3.68
P^ 0.975A-cD/ / ^'
u
equ26.12
As the seismic loadings can be the governing criteria for shell
H\ thickness at different levels, it is necessary to calculate the
cosh 3.68 I I thicknesses required for both the OBE and the SSE cases for
T D,j
each course of the tank shell. This is lengthy and tedious work,
wnere: best carried out by bespoke computer programs or by the use
of spreadsheets.
P" = hoop tension per inch of shell heightduetothe
horizontal convective acceleration (lbi in) It is customary to use the fixed fraction combinations of the
three components for the OBE thickness calculations and the
A" = horizontal convective acceleration (g) souare root ofthe sum ofthe souares forthe SSE thickness cal-
see Section 26.8 above culations. Using the 65 m diametertank adopted as an example
I rr-r-v'l
P" = AP,cos ,r * equ 26.13
earlier, and the accelerations from Figure 26.19, Figure 26.20
shows these calculations. lt can be seen that to accommodate
L \ zn 1)
|

the OBE. courses 4.5 and 6 need to be increased in thickness


where: whilst the SSE courses 2,3,4,5 and 6 need to be increased in
thickness.
P" = hoop tension per inch of shell heightduetothe
The distribution of Pi, P", and Pu over the height of the tank are
vertical barrelling acceleration (lb/in)
shown in Figure 26.21. fhe impulsive and vertical barrelling
A" = vertical barrelling acceleration (g) comoonents are at their maximum value at the bottom of the
see Section 26.8 above tank whilst the convective comoonent is at its maximum value
at the liquid surface. There is a school ofthought that Pu should
normalto calculatethe hoootension in the tank shell result-
It is
ing from the operating static loadings combined with the most be distributed in a Iinear fashion over the tank height. Figure
26.21 shows the more onerous ootions.
onerous combinations of the OBE and SSE loadings.
The allowable tensile stress in the tank shell for seismic OBE The distribution of the impulsive and convective components
around the periphery of the tank shell is a function ofthe cosine
and SSE loadings are given in the various tank design Codes.
of the angle to the point under consideration whilst the vertical
Briefly these are:
barrelling pressure is equally distributed around the tank
. APt 620 circumference.
Appendices Q and R suggest that 1.33 times the allowable That partofthe seismic moment which acts onthe basearea of
stress for "normal" operation may be used. As API 620 does the tank may be required to be evaluated for reasons offounda-
not consider the seismic events at two different levels, this tion design or base insulation compressive loadings. As has
allowable stress is usually taken to apply to the OBE case. been described in Chapter 15, this moment is the difference be-
Q.3.3.6 does apply the additional criteria of not exceeding tween l\illBP and MEBP The distribution of this moment in
90% of yield stress for tanks of stainless steel and alu- terms of base pressures across the tank bottom is given in Ref-
minium alloy only. The criteria for the "normal" allowable erence 26.3.
stress is as described in Chapter 18. As API 620 gives no
criteria for the SSE case, the rule in NFPA 59A is frequently
borrowed. This limits the tensile stress to the minimum 26.10 Tank stability under seismic
specified yield strength of the plate, or of the weld metal if loadings
this under-matches the plate material.
The basic calculation methods used are the same as are used
. BS 7777 for ambient tanks and described in Chapter 15. These come
from API 620 AppendixL (Reference 26.6) which is based on
In Annex B of part '1, the tensile stress in the OBE case is
the workofWozniak and Mitchell (Reference 26.4. Appendix L
limited to 85% of the plate or weld metal minimum yield
of API 620 is essentially the same as Appendix E of API 650.
strength, and for the SSE case to the yield strength of the
plate or weld metal. The methods of calculating the impulsive and convective

490 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


26 Seismic design of low temperature tanks

TANK SEISMIC DESIGN .SUMMARY OF HOOP LOADINGS


Fixed fraction load combination
Square root of lhe sum of the squares combinalion

OAE LOAD CASE

Design code API 620

A i =l 0.2645 I Kl= 9774,Q28 A{rowabre srress =L9q!!9L


H, Tank ht: ac =[ ooo+l ] K2= 42.944
25.000 & =fo.r55tl D/H = 2.600

P' P. Pa,* P",.. P".., Ts

2 2.700 22.3AA 19471 3352 4830 43 25350 24245 25351 14.83 14.52 13.91 14.52
3 2.700 13.600 17114 3207 4659 45 22740 21732 22770 13.03 '13.04 12.44 13.04
2.704 16.900 14756 297A 4374 4A 20069 19053 20443 11.49 10.91 11.48
5 2.704 14.240 12399 2647 3975 51 17219 16254 17175 9.44 9.86 9.31 S.84
6 2_704 11.500 10041 2249 3r'62 56 14234 13346 14170 8.00 815 7U 8.11
7 2_7AA 8.800 7644 1786 2835 62 11117 10339 11035 8.00 6 37 5.92 6.32
)e1 I 2_7AA 6.'100 5326 '1272 2094 fa 7472 7247 7777 8.00 4.51 4.15 4.45
I 2.744 3.400 2969 721 1239 79 4503 4085 4404 8.00 2 5a 2.U 2.52
10 90

Ph*, = The maximum hoop tension as a rcsult ol the combined masses in lhe horizontat; phnax=ps+pi+pc+0.3pv
:--
P",". = The maximum hoop tnsion as a resuttoflhe cdombined masses tn the vedjcal;
-9
:_ -: P","" - The squarc rcol ot the sum of the squares Ps/ss=Ps+!@-t[7;j
-:-
Ts: Thickness ofsnettdue to hyd.ostatic toadings onty

Th = Thickness otshelldue to maximum hoopiension as a resutt of ho zontalmorion;

T,= Thickness ofshellduelo maximum hoop lension as a resutr of verricai motionj


:_:
:_: T*" = Thicknss ofshelldue to maxrmum hoop tension irom squarc rcot otthe sums sqlaredi

:' TANK SEISMIC DESIGN .SUMMARY OF HOOP LOADINGS


a-= Fixed fiaclion load cambinatlon
Squarc rcol ofthe sum of the sqlares combination
:- SSE LOAD CASE

Design code API 620

Ar =l 0-63E9 | K1 = 23609.174 Allowable stress =l 400.000


:_: Ac=-o.oi K2 = 140.556
_- 25.000 A"=T;36fi--l D/H = 2 600

-: G. Product SG =

2 2.700 22.300 '19471 9919 11667 142 34256 32932 34785 14.83 15.00 14.42 15.23
3 2.700 19.600 17114 9489 '11254 147 31362 30023 31835 13.03 13.73 13.15 13.94
2.700 16.900 '14756 8788 10565 156 28113 26760 28499 11.24 12_31 11.72 12.48
5 2.700 14.200 12399 7834 9602 168 2451A 23163 24792 9.44 14.74 10.14 10.86
6 2.700 11.500 10041 6655 4362 '184 20544 19260 20730 8.00 9.01 8.43 9.08
2.700 8.800 7684 5285 6848 204 16321 15084 16336 8.00 7.15 6.61 7.15
8 2.700 6.100 5326 3763 5058 229 11742 10675 1 1635 8.00 5.14 4.68 5.10
I 2.700 3.400 2969 2133 2993 259 6861 6078 6653 8.00 3.00 2.66 2.91
10 442 1338

Ph,* = The maximum hoop tension as a resu[ o he combined masses in the hodzontat] phnat=ps+pi+pc+0.3pv

P*,"= The maximum hoop tension as a rcsutt ofthe cdombined masses in the vedicat; Ps+ Pv + A.j ei + Pc)

P"* = The square rootoithe sum ofth squares csns=es+1/jF +a +Ej


Ts: Thickness ofshelldue to hydroslatic toadings only

Th = Thickness of shell due to maximum hoop le.sion as a resutr of ho zontat motion;

T" = Thickness ofshelldue to naximum hooptension as a resutt of vedica{motion;

T"* = Thickness ofshsttdue to maimum hoop tension frcn square root ofrhe sums squaredl

: gure 26.20 Spreadsheets showing the calculaiions for siabjtity and axiat compressive toadings

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 491


26 Seismic design of low tempercture tanks

-e!
:'f,.
o =P ae,
-:C
:lr'

N\
0.8
\
\ ,a
p
.g \ \
t
\.
\ Pi
-o 0.4

Pv \,,
\
\
\
0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0

Pressure (1.0 = maximum value)

Figure 26.21 The distribution ofthe ho zontal impulsive, horizontal convective and the vedical barrelling pressures on lhe tank shell

masses and their moment arms, the resistance to overturning compressive stress is one third ofthe classical buckling stress
provided by the liquid action on the annular plate, the axialcom- for a perfect cylinder When the influence of the internal liquid
pressive stresses in the tank shell and the overall stability are pressure is considered, there is clearly room to increase this
exactly as described in Chapter 15. stress, especially for extreme load cases like the SSE. NFPA
59A, which is often one ofthe significant design codesfor LNG
One difference is that the calculations are carried out for both
tanks, requires the design limit for the SSE case to be "critical"
the OBE and the SSE seismic events and for a numberofload-
for buckling.
ing casesfor each event involving the directions [horizontal (H)
and vertical (VI and coexistent proportions (usually 100% and l\.4uch has been written about allowable buckling stresses in
30%). lt is usualto look at the following for both OBE and SSE: vertical cylindricalvessels. Before choosing a value for the SS E
. 100%H + 30%v condition it would be wise to look at in Figure 18.5, in Chapter
18, (The Royal Aeronautical Society Structural Data sheet).
. 100%H - 30%v This takes account of fabrication and erection imperfections
. 30%H + 100%V and the influence of internal pressure on axialbuckling strength
of vertical cylindrical vessels.
. 30%H - 100%v
A similar relationship between these variables is illustrated in
This represents quite a lot of work and is best achieved by the Figure 26.27 taken ftom Reference 26.3. Also the elastic plastic
use of spreadsheets. The means of including the vertical com- collapse (elephant's foot buckling) criteria given in this Refer-
ponent into the calculation is to increase or decrease the den- ence could usefully be explored. Figure 26.28 shows a tank
sity of the product liquid and the effective weight of the tank which has suffered an eleDhant's foot buckle in the first course.
shell. These calculations have been carried out for the 65m di- It may be that in the light ofthese investigations, a factor of 1.33
ametertankand are shown as Figures 26.22 to 26.26. Notallof is found to be conservative figure for SSE buckling. Indeed, BS
the load cases have been included as it is clearthattheydo not 7777 in Annex B to part 1 suggests that the same value for al-
all play any part in the selection of the tank scantlings. lowable compressive stress as is permitted byAPl 620 is used
It is clear from these soreadsheeb that the various OBE load for the oBE and a vatue oto.+lEllis used for the sSE. This is
cases do not change anything other than the annular plate \R/
width, which is increased from the API 620 minimum require- two thirds ofthe "critical" value and is the same as using a factor
ments. The dominant load case is the SSE 100% horizontal of2.0 rather than 1.33.
plus 30% vertical combination. To achieve a workable solution
for an unanchored tank, the annular plate must be thickened lf it isdecided thatan anchored design can be adopted, then the
and made wider, and the lower shell courses be made thicker. situation becomes easier in certain respects. The axial com-
The axial compressive stress criteria adopted in this calculation oressive stresses in the lowercourses ofthe tank shellare con-
has been theAPI 620Appendix Lvalue increased bya factorof siderably reduced, as are the local high line loadings being fed
1.33. into the base insulation and thence into the foundation.
As has been mentioned in Chapter 15, the API allowable axial As has been discussed in Chapter 15, this is due to the bending

492 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


26 Seismic design of low temperature tanks

-eutral axis of the cylinder being maintained in a central posi- to be substantial and will need to be attached to the low-
:on, ratherthan being displaced to one side and effectively con- est shell course where the hoop and vertical bending
:entrating the axial compressive portion of the bending load stresses are high during the defining seismic event. i.e.
rto a small Dortion of the shell circumference. In certain cir- when the tank is full of product liquid. The addition of
:umstances, perhaps where the site is of restricted area and large localstresses into this area is seen by manyas en-
:re spacing rules diciate a tank of proportions unhelpful to the hancing the risk of tank failure under seismic loading
sismic design process (i.e. tall and of a small diameter), then conditions.
anchorage is inevitable unless expensive options such as seis-
-ric isolation are adopted. Where either design is a possibility,
:ren a number of other factors come into play: 26.11 Tank sliding
As has been mentioned earlierin Chapter 15, there are differing
. Where the tank can withstand the seismic loadings without
views held by those with seismic design wisdom on the need to
increasing the tank shellthickness, the only increased cost
prevent tanks from moving horizontally during seismic events.
ofthe unanchored alternative being an increase in annular
One school ofthought, which probably represents the majority
plate width and thickness, then it is usualto choose the un-
view and certainly has determined the Code requirements on
anchored alternative.
the subject, requires there to be no movement during the most
. When significant increases in shell thicknesses are re- onerous seismic design event. The second school of thought
quired to make the unanchored alternative viable, then an considers the horizontal seismic desagn event to be a sefies of
economic assessment will help to make the decision, un- rapid reversals as is illustrated in Figure 26.1 with the input en-
tess: ergy equally distributed around the zero acceleration axis. Con-
sequently the tank shuffles around on the spot and any lateral
- The owner, or his engineer have strong views regarding
displacemenb are small. This shuffling about is considered a
the use of anchors. These usually relate to the non-de-
useful and harmless way for the system to increase damping
sirability of attaching anchors to an already highly-
and dissipate the input energy.
stressed part ofthe tank shell. The anchors may require

Seishic Design of Storooe Tonlc Seismic Desiqn of Storoqe Torks

!!q 65m dio x 27ln high LNr tonk Mg 65n did x27n high LN6 tonk
Led @s. OB 100% horizodol+ 30% vedi@l Ldd .ose OBE 100% horizoni.l - 30% ve.ticol

*zon c.efticient -l
z.fl--o.+loo 'Zo^z c.ztticient
Essntidl Fociliti.s fodor r.[--iE--l i<entidl Focilitier f octor
weighi of l@k shell. insulotion Tsoa- Weighl of rank shell+ insuldtion W,= 1021577 l') T?rn
Roof l@d c.frled by 5hll
Height oJ tdnr shell Hr= 88-58 ft
r-nrl
?r.oo
|- I
Roof led cd.ied by shell
Height of tonk shell
w.= O lb
HJ. 88.58 fr
T-rl
t ,?.@-l
uid 'fork Dionete. D= 213-25 fr f6;_oo I Tdnk Diohetef D: 213.25 lt l-6l-00
his Produ.t specif ic 6.dvity 6.fi---5024 -l P.odlct specif i. Gravit 6=f-nE6-l
I

IPA H= 42,02 ft frj.oo I H. A2.OZ tt


liloxihuh liquid level Moxilnln liquid level frjoo I
\iG rhickne3 of firsr course 0,657 in Tl-.io I Thi.kn$ of first colrte t= 0.657 in fto.?o l
T1lkkness of 6d!ld.s pldte3 0.1rc9 in T-ioE-] Thicknels of onnsldrs Plotes 'rb' 0.409 ir frcro l
Yield sfEngth of onNldrJ Yield strengih of dnnulo.s
l in yieid of 1st.ourse l ii yield of 15i @u.se
tn Forc @efficient Force coeffi.i.ht
Sate Atnplif i@tloh f oclof
SE Site Anplif i.otion f octor
ter W.i9hl of tdnk .orterrs Wight of tonk conints W,. 37961434.83 k9

lm
= z 6ot)
D/H
= 2.600
: 0,613k
D/H
k. 0613
'r= kool = 8.958
ln c?= 3-375 3/12. 0.0166
r. koo5). 8.958
c2.3.375 S/t2 - 00166
bc Wtlwt- 0:4344 wl= 39914438.12 O 4344
Wzlwt. 0.5309 Wz= 44742749-44 Wr/W'= W1= 36355188.86
'tk x/H: 0.3750 Xr. 30.76 W?/q. 0.5309 Wz- 44432695.35
xz/H- 0.5693 Xz- 46.69 X1/H. O.37aO X1 = 30.76
iLn.nr (EBP) lb-fr : 334rt99504.9 xz/H - 0.5693 x, . 46.69
P.oduct weight wL = 6053.70 lblfi
l enent (E8P) lb-ft = 322887096.9
'J Productweight WL=
S Min ridth of onnu,or = 4925 ft -
5777.49 tb/tt
F sloshing mve height d= 0.656 lt Mii widih.f dnrulor 4.28
GHD,/1, . 4335010 sloshihg wove heighi d. 0.656 fr
d shelllii lood GHD,/t,
M/ID1WJ+ W!) : I.0O9 5helllihe lood Wi. 1524.85

iEX loi9 @lnp force b- l$47.O1 M/tD1%* w,) . 0.972


longiiudiml cohp strss l4al.29 nBx bng .ohP rorce b: 10388.93
tf 't316.76
oll.wable conp shs F.. 3083.11 longitudiml comp stress
che.k stresses : Ok allowoble cohp stfess F". 3083.11
check stobjliiy : Ok ch.ck dr6se5 : Ok
3
check stdbilily ' ol

l.!ote: ZlCi A\and ZIC2. A. Note: ZTcFAno d ZIcz=A.


,{nnriL. plate thick|l6i fron,lPI620 rabl. Q-4A ploi thi.kh.$ from API620 Tabl Q 4A
l ^n.!lo.

Figure 26.22 Spreadsheet calculations for stability and axial compressive Figure 26.23 Spreadsheet calculations forstability and axial compressive
|oaorngs rcaorngs

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 493


26 Seismic design of low tempenture tanks

Scienic Dcsion of Slorooc lanks


s.ishic Desion of Storooe Tqnk API 620 oppendix L
rPl650 oppcndix

!!t 65n dio x 27n high !| ronk !S9- 65n dio x 27|n nigh LNG tonl

l4s!L!s$ sse rco% ho.itontdl * 30U wrt 6l L.od c.t sSE I0o% horieitdl- 3o%v.tti6l

'Zoe .oetficiqt 'ZotE ..ettiei'n z=[---iG-l


B34tiol F4ilti* fdri4 .!rtiol F.cilhi.s f dctor r = f---i-oo--l
W.ight of td|( 3h.ll. i@krion Weight of tonl sh.ll+ in3rhiion fu'-s3l
Roof l@d 6ried by shell Roof l@d .drri.d by shcll
t1: 88.58 t
f!"0 I
H.jght of t@k sh.ll
ldk Dio|n.i4 0. ?13.25 ft
Height of tdnk lhell F ,r"oo I
Tonl Diomeler D= zB.e5 ft frr-06-1
Prod@t Sp4'fi. 6mttt 6 =[-i.-6d.l Produ.r s?cific orovit a [-o.-ii:?-l
MqiNn liquid l.vel l1= 4232 ft t ,5,@ l"' =

,5'o
Thi.lB of fhst .dE f ezoo l* l^.rihuln liquid l.vel H: 42.02 ft T 1
_rhickn
Thi.l6*s of @nuhB pldtd T ro.oo l.'" $ of fa.sr cou.s. |z16-l
Yi.ld siretdn of omhrs r,,.f-J5@-*ltuzin' ThicloBs of .irEh.s pldta f-63o-l
l in yi.ld of 13t @urs. rn = l--ffi--lturin' Yield srreryth of orrul@s Fq.f--ffi-lturin'
FoE e.fficidt l^in yield of lsi cours? r,".|--ffi-.]tuuin'
sir. I nplifi..rion fodd "'=|"-_-l
s.l 1.0o I For.e coefficient =f-o;-l
c'
site Arnplif icotion fdctor s:l r.@ I
W.irhl ot ronk @nr.ii3
Weight of tonk contnis wl: 3112963719

- 2.600
0/H
, = 0.613
T.k(Dd5). a.95a 6/H= ?.600
C2: 3.375 s/T? : 0.0135
I : 0.613
wl/Wi. 0.4344 wt= 44O7f444.59 T. k(Dot) = 8.956
W,/W'. 0-5309 W,.53870759,14 c2 :3.375 s/.'2. 0.0135
Xt/ta= O3IAJ Xr = 30.76 wy'W.= 0.4344 Wt. 32459497.b?
x,/H: 0,5693 X2= 46.69 wrl4. 0.5309 W,: {01503?0.8
l.ndt (ESt) lb-fi = 937391231 X,/H : 0.3750 X, = 30.7b
Product rejghr wL. 1212996 lb/ft X/H: 0.5693 X, = 46.69
l{in width of omkr : 73U lt iLn r$ G8P) lb-fr : 6984?51Y.4
5l6hin9 ME h.ignr d= 1-?91 ft P.oduci ri9hi wt= 9o42.al lb/L
6H6"F . 1331396
sh.ll liE load . M46.72 lbltt l in wadrh of .nelqr = 7.304 f+
d-
Wt
Sloshiis *6ve heighi 1.291 tr
. 7.475
^.!/lo'(wi*wJ
M lo'g .olnp fft. 6 : 797A2.A6 l6/lt 6Hb'/{ . t36a295
r4itudjel @nP 5116 6254.5a lb/inz shelllihe lodd wl: 1378.39 lb/ft
otkMbl coinp iifd F,. 49A4.68 lb/i.z l 4D'z(wi* wD = 1 475
|mx loig conp for@ b = 59472.33 lh/tr
chck !i..sg dlebl. conP.6iv. !tr4 sceed.d
= Wornhg longiiudiml .onp s+fss 4662.34 lb/i,J
olloftbL @hPte$iv. st,B O(
Enhohc.d .lloebr. comp dr63 F,= 49W.6a lb/i^z
-
chal srohili'y ol' check sire$e. : Ol
zIq+\atdzrc2=A. (mlu.s of z did c,.djGr.d r. suir) chak ndbility : Ok
amslor lhte rhicktEs iMr@.d to lllow d tukhor.d $iurroh
Eotros shll couE. 6lso ind.@d to ollow oh uMchorsd $lution N.ie ZIc'=iiand 2TCr:,t" 1o erit)
(wiues of Z 6nd C, adjusted
Othc. low *ell cdr36 tjll rcquir. chcli'g fof 4Pr6ive str4 dd 5ow lnruld. pldle thickrcss inc@!d to dllo{ uekhored solution
on
Sottoh colrse sh.ll plot. thickns. incM!.d fo dlloa oi un nchor.d sorution
(e. Figta 26-24)

ap|.""O"n""t calculations for stability and axial compressive Figure 26.25 Spreadsheet calculations for stability and axial compressive
lJSOrffi.rO toaotngs

using the materials and finishes proposed. Small-scale testing rc


The calculations are simple and are shown in Figure 26.29 for tr
must be carried out with care by those experienced with this
the 65 m diametertank. The direction ofthe verticalcomponent
type of work. The apparently simple small scale friction tests
is taken to give the minimum effective self-weight and conse- f
can be misleading. There is some published data available and
quently the minimum horizontal restraint.
one such source is Reference 26.8.
The maximum value of the required coefficient of friction be- The various design Codes give some limited guidance in this
tween the tank and the underlying base is calculated, for the
SSE case with the verticalcomponent in the unhelpfuldirection,
as 0.3478 in this case. For mnventional LNG tanks, the inner . API 620 Appendix L This suggests the use of a coefficient ta

of friction of 0.40. B
tank bottom will be constructed of9% nickelsteeland the base
insulation willmost usuallybe capped with a concrete screed or .
t
BS 7777 This gives no advice regarding this matter.
similar lt is this interface that predominantly concerns the de- n
signer, although it is worth considering the possibility of there o prEN 14620 This gives the following mandatory (i.e. shall
being another interface within the base insulation "sandwich" rather than should) requiremenb n
which may be the more likely slip plane. This is not usually the n
case. Assuming the 9% nickel steeliconcrete screed situation
- Horizontal sliding ofthe tank shall not be allowed
in this case, the efiective ooefficient of friction can vary widely - Friction factors shall be based on literature ortesting I
depending on the surfacefinishes ofthe steeland the concrete.
- For the OBE case a factor of safety of 1.5 shall beap-
The steel can be supplied untreated, shot-blasted or shot-
olied
blasted and primed. The concrete screed can be supplied with
a wide variation of compositions and finishes. Proprietary mate- - Far the SSE case a factor of safety of 1.0 shall beap-
rialssuch as are often used onfactoryfloors and concretewalk- plied
ways can be used to increase the coefficient of friction. I
The resistance-to-sliding throughfriction between the tank bot-
The best source offriction datia is derived from laboratorytests tom plating and whatever lies beneath will impose significant I

494 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


26 Seismic design of low temperature tanks

XE Seisnic besion of Storooe Tar*s


EL 66h dia x 27n high L|.l6 tdnk
l,.d .@ SSE 301 hod:ontal + $0n varicdl

rzor..o.tfi.i!nt z=[-o.orE
*l
ilr" rtrtidl F@iliris f.dor r=[--i]ii-l
W.i+t of iq.k 3h.lllin{ldrion &= 1238549 rb | lflr 1

-Jr" Roof lo.d.dried hy!hll f-0.i-l


lJ' Holgnt ot tok4.ll | 27.00 |
lJh TokOl6etcf D: 2F-45 ft f6r.oo I
Prodlcr Sp.cltic 6.dviy o.[-i]EEiil
Mdxinub liqlid l.!.1 H: 42.02 fi Ta5.oo I
l'' Thickn.# of fir.t .oqrr.
Thickn.s of d.ular pldr.r
Yalld rtrcngth of dnnuldH r',=l---5i6-o_lruzi"'
rirzii-l
T ,oJo I
fiin yi.ld of l.r couB. Fo
=f-166-d--lttri"'
Forc. co.ffi.iqt c,=f o.o--l
5it. Anplif icarioi f @r.r s:l 1.00 |

W.igl'r of rdk.6ir.nr.

D/H: 2.600
k= 0 613 Figure 26.27 Figure C4.5lrom Reference 26.3
T= ktDo6) = a.958
C2= 3.375 Sff2. O!:o41
WtIWr= 04344 Wt:440774aa.59
WrlW1: 0,5309 Wr= $47O75t14
x/l: 0.3750 x= 30.76
X?Al: 0-5693 Xz= 46,69
l 6at (EBF) lb-ti = 27361536!.3
PFodu.r w.ighr WL= 1?12956 l6/tr
Min odth of qnnula : 7.304 fi
slhingMw highr d: O.ll7 ll
a\bz/rz : 1831396
sh.ll litr. load Wr = t84A.72 lb/lr
M/tD1W'tw.) . o43o
nd hn9 .ohP f.r.. b = 94f,7-9o lb/I1
longitudind conp.rr.s 74537 lb/it'
.lloeble conp dr.# F. = 49t4.68 lb,li?
chak.t..#ee = Ok
ch.ckltability: Ok

ACiArad4cz=A\ {vdlue of zod c, adjBred to surr


Annuld Phterhi.kn # in+.c.d 16 i{ir rcO%H+30AVcG (i..li9 26.24)

=igure 26.26 Sp.eadsheet calculalions fof stabilily and axial compressive


odrngs

ing loadingson the bottom as a membrane. The loadings which are


N|s the cause ofthe sliding are acting on the tank walls and the re-
sistance to this are acting on the iank bottom. Consequently
no there is a need to transfer the loading from the bottom to the
wall. For reasons which are not entirely obvious, the industry
lrs
has largely turned a blind eye to this aspect ofthe seismic de-
sign. lf this scenado is to be taken sedously, it could result in in-
creases in the bottom plating joint factor (i.e. from single-sided
nt lap welds to double-sided lap welds or buttwelds), increases in Figure 26.28 Alank whjch has suffsred an elephant's fool buckle in the tirct
the bottom plate thickness or changes to both joint factor and
thickness.
down systems were even more relevant. This option, despite
lfthe requirements for sliding resistance cannot be met and the being cheaperthan the eventually chosen seismic isolation ar-
argument that sliding does not matter are not accepted, then rangement, was rejected for reasons associated with the per-
the designer has no option butto provide some form ofphysical ceived increased risk of failure due to stress concentrations in
restraint or to change the tank geometry The design of a sys- the lower tank shell. lf there are particular constraints which
tem to provide physical horizontal restraint to a large tank is prevent either of these courses of action being appropriate or
both difficult and problematical. possible, then the next steps are relocation of the facility or
seismic isolation.
An early design forthe 65,000 m3 LNG tanks at Revithoussa ls-
land in Greece had a system of inclined seismic anchorsforthis
purpose. These are illustrated in Figure 26.30. The anchor
26.12 Liquid sloshing
straps were large (some 300mm x 25mm in section) and gave
rise to serious congestion in the bottom corner ofthe tank. The This is discussed in Chapte|l5, Section 15.2.7. The basic Apl
loads transferred to the tank shell were massive and the argu- formula for calculating the slosh height is given in equation
ments which have been used agalnstthe use of simple holding- 15.27. There is a suspicion thatthisformula may not be correct.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 495

p
2 6 s ei
]!f39:p!!! j!!!!9E!Ep!t

Inc_rsd-di(a|a
W
ho|tl tt'" cclier 6ladrtilm5 thc 6lbr'1l|g psk grod dccetariicrs d[I b. ur.d r. d"rrfriE
if tl'. i||'s td* is sbirct t6 taizurtol stdiB due ro s.irric fr.c.i

o!!E 55E
,tccbnrion of itqdd!. .o{pqsr,
",=f.:,645-1 f o.e:r, 1

/tcclrlti)|| of 6aE in:coi?orE r'. q..r3ffi-l rT:6m-l


,t...lel!tia of raridl coi?aEr, .,=r-T:iE-l f-6r6o I

TIle dio4.|n sl|ors d'. drsfim of dcftE fof.es;

@Cdr|lcti{dcc

*E- lqdicft?cc

.@
hortzortrlslidiq t'I
slf |.dgkr

W
ll'a folbaing l.3ds nrrst S oo.6id.rc4

o 5.F r"&||l of tu* dE[, niffas! drd 6rry aiidch.j in$hticr W : f:G6]r.
b E tecti tr6 of tutt c.frbs rhich nlows iI l,|is.ri rith rE k C*ll is irqrli\*; Y,r: fEzlr.
c Ef6".ti!" tl6otftikdrdlnt3di.fi ne!s in t E fst slo*iT hode i.c-.rn crirc %: fiiifiIlr.
&srn'c td* s?F r.iglt Fc*.rr&ds tipubw liquid

Thre 3".isric eE|rs dbfi bc cordd:rc,*

I Horizlrdrl sisnic ont


2 "!'t|rt
lhrizontdl + O-3 V"rli.al sieric ?Etrt
3 o'3 lhri:ontal + V.rtiool s.isfc ?srt
irors Dirr.tiofi df l.rlic.l ac.dadi|n is idl(.,' to educc ff..tiE slidh9 rt*rdi.c

Figure 26.29 Sliding calculations - pag6 I

496. STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


26 Seismic design of low temperaturc tanks

m 3.1 OOE das.

r+: oYrrytq . (w'q,

4: 4:n 5-OO T.
T6id .tf,lctiri sdf rdghr. S'Wi YrW,rW?
5Ir: t69ta@ TG

R!+irdcocffid.nrof fti.t.\ i= jL . O-t?re,


SI'

3,2 sSE CG
lhi.(rrhl frtr.G, t+= (y . yiq + (g?)q.

f+! rtg-17 L
Totd dnlciiF.dfndgftt, Sl{: t' + yr. y,
SAr: 3AIa.lD Tc

F.{itd *fftdarot frLrhr. t* = o-gf


ff

%aant.
/t.f OBE d@
lhdzrrrd ft.c., l*= (W*Ur)c * (Vtq.

+: ,r7 .q) Tc

Tordcft rliE.dt $rhr SW: tW. Vr + W.) - O.3atU + Ur . W.)


-O.3 tdtid -{* er,
5Y: 37@a97 f.
r.4*ld.ocffi.irrt.ffii.tbq rt : O.ta,3
fl

4.2 SSE Cca

!t: (v.woq + (w!)q


l|f: tt66-ry Jc

Tstd .ff.clir! rdf r4tr su. (W r g ' lyr - o,3o.(V + ry1, W,


- Oi tr.rfi.d *-*rr,
Stit: 33535,64 T.
E S.!d .o.ffi.-riof 6icrbr. |lt= _!L : O-:ifrt
fl

Frgure 26.29 Sliding calculations - page 2

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 497


26 Seismie design of low tempenturc tanks

Fgcrh
5.1 OBE f@
o3lr,rard fq!.. lt= or'[*'t1". ft;* ]
+: 143E8O TG

Totdcff*li*rdf righr, S[tr (V r lttr . vr) - * {rry,rv!)


- V.rnid aidsckt
ff: 3?45{.54 TG

Rlqild.o.fftd.'t|ot ftidn , 4 : O-Oa3a


F
5.2 SsE Cot

o.3lci',id fd!.. rlr: *'fo-*,1.,. (r * ]


llr = 3,1t9.34 T.

Taid.f6EiiEdf dgft!. slt: (ly. Wr + r, -.r (I+w|tlrt


- trrlird ..*ric .{t|t
54.! 20976,80 T.

Fleftd @ctfi.i''taf ticfdt. 6! = }t . o-165t?


5v

Figure 26.29 Sliding calculations - page 3

498 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


26 Seismic design of low temperaturc tanks

It does seem to give similarslosh heights fortankswith verydif-


ferent geometries. For this reason it is probably wise to check
the value given by equation 15.27 using the following:
d=0.837xRx,\ equ26.'14

wnere
AASE
INSJLATId'l R = tank Edius
A = design convective acceleration (g)
MNCRETg This is taken from Reference 26.1.
BASE 5LA8
It is generally accepted thatseismic calculations should be car-
ried out based on the normal maximum tank filling level and not
the very maximum under excursion conditions, (i.e. HHLA
level).

26.13 Seismic isolation


By placing the tank on seismic isolators, it is possible to reduce
the horizontal seismic loadings which act on the tank and its
contents. These isolators do little or nothing about the vertical
component of the seismic loading which is passed to the tank
undiminished.
The arguments for and against the use of seismic isolation in-
volve a mixture of cost and safety considerations which are
briefly reviewed as follows:
For seismic isolation:
. The facility can be constructed on the desired site
. Large local loads on the tank shell due to holding-down
straos or lateral restraint are avoided
. Savings to the inner shell due to thinner shell and thin-
ner/narrower annular olate are Dossible
. Loadings on the foundation, especially the high peripheral
line loads, are reduced
PAO
. Sliding problems are reduced
Against seismic isolation:
. Costs ofthe second base slab are high
. Seismic isolator units are expensive
. Construction programme is extended
. Large horizontal movements may cause problems with the
design of the connected pipework
There are a number ofdifferent types of seismic isolator avail
able, illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 26.31. These in-
clude the conventional steel/rubber sandwich type of isolator
similarto those used to isolate vibrating machinery the conven-
tional steel/rubber sandwich type with an energy absorbing
lead core and the friction pendulum type. The latter two are pro-
prietary designs which are marketed by the companies which
own the various patent rights.
ANCHORAGE
INTO BASE A photograph of a friction pendulum isolator is shown in Figure
SLAB --__\ 2632. fhe relative merits of the different types of isolator is a
complex and contentious area involving such subjecb as:
. Cost
. Efficiency in reducing the horizonbl seismic loadings
. Resistiance to property changes due to ageing
. Virgin cycle problems
. Vertical load bearing ability (dichtes the number required)
lf it is decided that the isolators willnot require reDlacementdur-
ing their service life, the upper and lower base slabs may be
constructed with a small space between them. lf it is decided
Figlre 26.30 A proposed system ofseismic restraint using inclined anchors that the isolators should be capable of being inspected, and if

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 499


26 Seismic design of low temperature tanks

Figure 26.32 Afriction pendulum lsolator


Couiesv af Eanhquake Protecliot Systems /nc

The calculations involved surrounding the influence of a partic-


ular type of isolation system on the design horizontal seismic
design event (i.e. the reduction caused by the isolators to the
site design criteria to provide the tank design criteria) are com-
plex and should be left to specialists with the necessary
expenrse.

26.'14 The design Codes


^____l Much of what the tank design Codes have to say on the subject
of the seismic design of low temperature tanks has been in-
cluded in the relevant Sections eadier in this Chapter.
For LNG storage facilities in particular, a number of the basic
principles, in addition to the definition of the OBE and the SSE
(see Section 26.2) come from NFPA 59 A and these are per-
haps worth repeating as they relate to the tanks:
. The LNG container and its impounding system shall be de-
signedto remain operable during and afreran OBE. The de-
sign shall provide for no loss of containment capabilityofthe
(M.s.)
primary container, and it shall be possible to isolate and
maintain the LNG container during and after the SSE'

:
::

Lead Core
Steel Load Plates
Steel Reinforcing Plates
Internal Rubber Layers

Figure 26.31 Different types ofselsmic isolation units

required, replaced during theirservice life, then the space must


be large enough to allow personnel to enter and room for the
various activities to take place. This will require a gap ot some
2.0 m.

Two of the better known examples of seismic isolation of large


low temperature tanks are to be found in the numerous conven-
tional and membrane type of LNG tanks of 100'000 m3 capacity
constructed at Inchon and Pyeong Taek for KOGAS in South
Korea and the two 65,OOO m3 LNG tanks constructed for DEPA
in Greece. The former used conventional steel/rubber sand-
wich isolators and the latter the friction pendulum type'

The Greekexample is perhapsthe most sophisticated, and cer-


tainly the most expensive example. Each tank required some
216isolation units, each costing around $10,000 each There
is more to be found regarding the design and construction of
this facility in References 26.9 and 26.10. The layout of the a typical LNG tank
Flgure 26.33 Layout of seismic isolatorsfor
seismic isolators is shown in Figure 26.33

5OO STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


26 Seismic design of low temperaturc tanks

' ihe impounding system shall, as a minimum, be designed have evaluated the influence of the outer tank itself on the de-
:c withstand an SSE while empty and an OBE whilefull. Af- sign seismic criteria (usually a subsbntial enhancement).
:eran OBE oran SSE there shallbe no loss ofcontainment
:apability.
26.16 References
. An LNG contiainer shall be designed for an OBE, and a
stress-limit check shall be madeforthe SSE to ensure com- 26.1 Guidelines forthe sebmic design of oil and gas pipeline
cliance with above. OBE and SSE analyses shall include systems, Chapter 7 - Seismlc response and design of
Jre effect oi liquid pressure on buckling stability. Stresses liquid storage tanks. Committee on Gas, Liquid fuel life-
lines, American Society of Civil Engineers, November
ior the OBE shall be in accordance with the rules given in
1984, ISBN 087262428 s5.
API 620 and forthe SSE, tension shall not exceed the mate-
rial minimum yield strength, and for compression the critical 26.2 Above Ground Storage larks by Philip E. Myers,
buckling stress (this is forthe metallic components, different Mccraw Hill, ISBN 007 044272 X.
rules are Drovided for Dre-stressed and reinforced concrete 26.3 Seismlc des/gn of storage tanks, Recommendations of
oarts). a Study Group of the New Zealand National Society for
S"N:
: :-E -rind these rules lie two simple but slightly contradictory con- Earthquake Engineering, December 1 986.

=r- 26.4 USAEC Regulatory guide 1.60 - Revision 1, December


t5a-' . The impounding system is normally empty and must of 1973, Design Response Spectra for Seismic Design of
course be designed to resist the SSE in this condition. The Nuclear Power Plants, the U.S. Atomic Energy Com-
SSE may cause the innertank to leak, filling the impounding mtsston.
system. The aftershocks ofthe originalSSE are assumed to 26.5 Se,'smlc Des,gn Rules for Flat Boftom CylindricalLiquid
be at the OBE magnitude and the impounding system must Storage Tanks, N.J.l.Adams. The International Journal
:f*: resist these whilst full. of Pressure Vessels and Piping, lssue no. 49 (1992) pp
. 6'1-95.
The primary containment is designed to continue to operate
as normal during and following an OBE and to maintain its 26.6 API Standard 620 - Design and Construction of Large,
)5{ liquid containmentfunction during and following an SSE, al- Welded, Low-Pressure Storage lanks, Appendix L,
though this event may cause the primary containment dam- Tenth edition, February 2002.
:g- age which may require its subsequent repair or 26.7 Basls of selsmic design provisions for welded steel oil
reconstruction. storage tanks, R.S.Wozniak and W.W.Mitchell.
-:.le provisional European code prEN 14620 makes reference 26.8 Nippon Kokran technical repod Overseas No. 42,
:-- :tr other European codes as would be expected for the seismic 1984.
.:E
:esign of low temperature storage ianks. These are ENV
'998-1-1:1996 (Reference 26.11) and ENV 1998-4 :1999 (Ref- 26.9 Seismiciso/ation of LNG tanks,Bob Long, LNG Journal,
Jan/Feb 1997.
=rence 26.12\
26.10 Seismlc lso/ation of industrial tanks, Victor Zayas and
Stanley Low of Earthquake Protection Systems, pre-
26.15 Gonclusion sented to the American Society of Civil Engineers, Pro-
The foregoing outlines a calculation method of modest com- ceedings of the Structures conference, April 1996,
rlexityto justify the design ofa vertical cylindrical metallic liquid Chicago.
:ontaining inner tank. lt is clearly possible to carry out a much 26.11 ENV 1998-1-1: 1996. Eurocode I- Design provisions
'nore rigorous and sophisticated analysis of this component. for eafthquake resistance of structures - Part 1-1: Gen-
\othing has been said about the seismic design of the outer eral rules- Seismic action and generalrequirementsfor
usually pre-stressed concrete) outer tanks or impoundments. slrucrures.
This is again the province ofthose armed with the appropriate 26.12 ENV 1998-4:1999. Eurocode 8- Design provisions for
:ools and expertise. The design of roof-mounted equipment earthquake reslsfance of structures - Paft 4: Silos,
?nnot meaningfully commence until the outer tank designers tanks and pipelines.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 501


502 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
27 Miscellaneous storage systems
Miscellaneous storage systems such as gasholders, silos and elevated tanks, although
peripheral to the main thrust of Storage Tanks & Equipmenf, are of interest for a number of
reasons.
Gasholders have a long and interesting history and have been constructed in substantial
capacities for a surprisingly long time.
Silos face a variety of new problems arising from the properties of the products stored and
elevated tanks are very much a part of our landscape.

Contents:
27.1 Gasholders
27.1.1 Wet seal gasholders
27.1.2 Dry seal gasholders
27.2 Silos
27.2.'l Materials of constuction
27.2.2 Silo shapes
27.2.3 Product removal
27.2.4 Silo design
27.2.5 Codes and design guidance
27.3 Elevated tanks
27.4 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 503


27 Miscellaneous storage systems

27.1 Gasholders
Gasholders are probably the most visible large tanks, espe-
cially around the UK. Stemming in the main from the days when
most towns ofany size possessed theirown gas works, the spi-
ral-guided wet seal types are still a common site, often withjn
the built up areas of towns. The dry seal types of gasholder are
often associated with industrial plant such as steelworks and
are more often sited in industrial areas, but are highly visible
due to their height.
Although Sforage Tanks & Equipmenf is directed mainly to-
wards liquid storage systems, it is interesting to look at
gasholders which in many instances led the way in the design
and construction of large storage tanks.
Little seemsto have been written about gasholders bycompari-
son with their liquid storing companions. What is available is
somewhat dated, so that the brief descriptions which follow Figure 27.1 Askeich ofan exiernallyJramed wei seal gasholder
may not reflect current practices accurately, for which the au-
thor apolog ises. lt is interesting that in the introduction to Refer-
ence 27.1, the afihor l\,4r R.J.Milbourne observes "At the pres-
ent time (1923), when the attention of the gas industry the
Institution of Gas Engineers, and the Board of Education is be-
ing so wisely directed to the education and technical training of
young men forthe Gas Engineering profession, it is a matterfor
regret that the publications obtainable on Gasholder Design
and Construction are neither numerous nor exhaustive.".
There do not appear to be any Standards or codes of practice
covering the design and construction of gasholders.
There is a document published by the lnstitution of cas Engi-
neers (Reference 27.2) which covers the design of both wet
and dry seal gasholders in a very general manner. The main
thrust of this document seems to be the safe operation and
maintenance ofthese structures. NeveTtheless, it does contain
a lot of useful information, some of which is repeated below
A quite detailed description of the design of spirally-guided
gasholders by M.A.Thompson has also come to light (refer Figure 27.2 Asketch of a spiral-guided wet seal gasholder
ence 27.3), so ifthere is a resurgence ofinterest in this subject, or lifts are supported against lateral loads and guided by a sub-
then we will at least have something to refer to, albeit rather stantialframework. An example is shown schematically in Fig-
dated. ure 27.1. The first is where the external guide framing is equal
Thanks must go to Mr Peter Hutchinson who has also provided to the full height of the top of the top lift when the holder is fully
a lot of what follows. inflated. The second is where the guide framing is shorter al-
lowing the top lift to protrude above itwhen fully inflated, and the
27.1.1 Wet seal gasholders third type having no externalframing at all. This latter type is the
spiral-guided gas holder which is most familiar to us today. The
l\,4ost ofthis Section is abstracted from Reference 27 i .fhis pa-
spiraltype is shown schematically in Figure 27.2 and a photo-
graph of such a holder is shown in Figure 27.3.
per is a compilation of a series of articles which appeared in
1922, written by Mr R.J. lvlilbourne, managing director of C & W The reasons for such large capacities may lie in a combination
Walker Ltd, describing various aspects of the design and con-
struction of a 12.5 million cubic feet capacity gasholders in Syd-
ney, Australia.
Thjs type of gasholders seems to have been made in large ca-
pacities for a long time. In 1880 the world's largest holder was
recorded at 5.5 million cubic feet (155,700 m3). In 1887 two
holders of6.25 million cubicfeet (172,100 ms)were built in Bir-
mingham and in 1888 a holder of 8.5 million cubic feet (249,700
m3) capacity was constructed at East Greenwich. In 1892 a
six-lift holder of 12 million cubic feet (339,800 m3) was built. For
some years this was the world's b;ggest gasholder until it was
overtaken by two in the USA, each of 14 million cubic feet
(396,400 m3) capacity.
Bearing in mind the fact that we currently consider a crude oil
tank big at 100,000 m3 and large LNG tanks are being consid-
ered at 200.000 m3, these are massive structures and one can
only admire the nerve of the designers and erectors of such
holders.
Three types of wet seal gasholders are described. The first two
arethe externally-framed typeswhere the various moving parts Flgure 27.3 A spiral-guided wet sealgasholder

504 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


27 Miscellaneous storage sysfems

g
!H
-7
2,
l6
,2
.,
il
OE.TAILS OF CUF CARRIAGES PLAN Of. ]OP CARR1ACES
OIJ}ER LIFT

: !ure 27.4 Some detail ol ihe 12.5 million ft3 wet seal gasholder

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 505


27 Miscellaneous storage systems

of the economies of scale together with the presumption at the 27,1.2 Dry seal gasholders
time that to ensure economical working of the facility, the stor-
age capacity provjded should equal the daily output of the Dry seal gasholders are most usually associated with steel-
gas-making plant.
works where their function is to capture and contain the gases
The 12.5 million cubic foot capacity holder described in Refer- issuing from the blast furnaces for both economic (these gases
ence 27.1, was ordered in 1913 by the Australian Light Gas have usefulflammable portions) and the more obvious environ-
Company, of Sydney, NSW, from Messrs. C & W Walker Ltd, mentat reasons.
Nilidland lron Works of Donnington, near Newport, Shropshire, There are a number of proprietary designs for dry seaL
UK. All ofthe steelwork was fabricated in the Donnington works gasholders which are licensed to a small number of fabricators
with the first shipment leaving in September 1913 and the last in and constructors. Amongst these are the M.A.N., Klonne.
December 1915. Wiggins and Hammond types. Little has been written about th s
The excuse for this lengthy fabrication period is attributed to type of gasholder over the years.
problems associated with the enlistment of workmen, the diffi-
An exception to this trend was an article in The Gas Joumal.
culties of transport and the prior claims of the N4inistry of Niluni- dated August 1933, by lvlr W. Beswick, who was at that time the
tions and the Admiraltyfor the manufacture of munitions of war. managing director of Ashmore, Benson and Pease Ltd of
In March '1917, the holder was inflated, tested and put into com-
Stockton-on-Tees, who were licensed builders of the Kl<inne
mission. lt apparently gave every "satisfaction in service". The type of dry seal gasholders. This article describes a holder of
fixed lower shell was 300 feet (9'1 .44 m) in diameter, the guide
126' 0" (38.4 m) in diameter and 180' 6" (55.0 m) in heightto the
frame is 188 feet (57.30 m) high and the crown ofthe roof is 202
curb. This was of2.0 million cubic feet (56,600 m3) capacity and
feet (61.57 m) above the internalwater level. There are four lifls
was erected in the UK atYork. A generalelevation ofthis struc-
and some indication ofthe complexity ofthe watersealing sys-
ture is shown in Fioure 27.6.
tem and various details can be seen in Figure 27 .4.
The completed holder is shown in Figure 27.5.
The internal gas pressure varied as the holder filled due to the
changing weight supported, so that when:
. the inner lift only is inflated 5.6 ins watergauge
. the inner & second lifts are inflated 7.8 ins water gauge
. the inner, second & third lifts are inflated 9.8 ins watergauge
. allofthe lifts are raised 11 .6 ins watergauge
Distant memories of elderly relatives complaining that "the gas
pressure is down" whilst cooking Sunday lunch, may not only
have been due to the peaking of gas consumption, but also the
decreasing pressure in the system as the local holder was
emptied.
In several ways these gasholders were easier to design than
their liquid containing counterparts:
. The internal pressures were modest as described above
. There are no axial compressive loads applied to the lifts
apart from the self-weight of each lift
. The roof framing is always supported by internal gas pres-
sure when the inner lift is raised or by an internal wooden
framing when it is lowered Figure 27.6 A generalelevation of a 2.0 m llion ft3 capacity dry sealgasholder
The bulk of the vertical shells or lifts are carbon steel of either The complex arrangement of guide rollers, dry seals and oi
0.25" or No. 9 lmperial Standard Gauge (0.144") thickness. seals are shown in Figure 27. 7. The stability of the piston was
The majority of the roof plating is No. 8 lmperial Standard improved by arranging a concrete weight as low as possible as
Gauge (0.160") thickness. shown in Figure 27.8. As in ship design, this gave a centre oi
buoyancy above the centre of gravity. This could also be sized
to suit the desired gas storage pressure.
The shell was a true cylinder, (rather than the polygonal shape
adopted by some other gasholder types), and was of riveted
construction using counter sunk rivets to give a smooth internal
surface. The turret located at the centre of the dome roof con-
tains an electrically-powered liftwhich gives access to the top of
the piston. Such wasthe confidence in the efficiency ofthe seal-
ing arrangements that operators entered this space and wefe
lowered onto the top surface of the piston for inspection and
greasing operations whilst the holder was in service.
A list of gasholders of this type in service at the time of writing
the article is shown in Figurc 27.9. The 6.0 million ft3
(170,000 m3) gasholder for the Syracuse Lighting Company in
; :r*. the USA is a monster by any standards and perhaps the world's
biggest.
Figure 27.5 The completed 12.5 million ft3 wei seal gasholder Dry seal gas holders of this type were frequently fitted with an

506 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


27 Miscellaneous storage sysfems

Gs lilhr Codrlv, Dtu!'d


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lases Minn'.r S{.ir C.lli6, Doeuld
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c.*ii.h- ci' Li.hild w.# wcr.r .r . l
Uiiild Bleio Pdd Sd.io, Ud., CiFEla,
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Iiddvfldld s.clrm A.C. O.ehhrrir, Gr
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IIOLIAND_

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cg worlrr, B.yo,n.
Gs CoDBrr, Mon@lnr
sosi.d du Gs d.Pff,!, vUdt Glr worta -
soci.la d E.u .r d. rEohin{.. L. M!.!, ca
wor,c, k Mr4
Cir, dq BouLonnn! Gr wqlc, A
- SL Ch.dnd -
Urbntt ud q'qer SUDpD comDlB Glr work'

].bon & C.- AlaerL Hrdhq Al&c ' . -

:igurc 27.7 The sealing arangemenls for a dry seal gasholder Se- ToMid Azi.ndr, Gd Wrlc, Flar.M '
Snoq Lilhdnr Coopuy, sF
Phirrd.lDhh Gd wdkq Rddidt . -
Co.sD6' Pow* Cm@t, xrlh

Figure 27.9 A lisl of'Kl6nne-type" dry seal gasholders instalted up to 1933

:igure 27.8 The installation of concrete on the underside of the piston

external dial, operated by cables, which indicated the level of


'Jre piston, and hence the volume of gas stored. The Kliinne
3l holder illustrated in Figure 27.10 shows such a dial.
The N.4.A.N. gasholder also originated in Germany. This type of
=J holder uses a sealing arrangement using oil or tar which is
stored in tanks on the holder roofand is allowed to run down the
inside of the tank to form a liquid seal around the edge of the
piston. The liquid is contained in a trough sealed to the sides of
3ra the holder wall by a sailcloth membrane held in place by coun-
terweighb. This arrangement is shown in Figure 27.11. From
id this trough the liquid leaks and runs down to the bottom of the
tank where it is collected and pumped back to the tanks on the
Figure 27.10 An externalview of a typical Kldnne holder
t holder roof.
a- coarse granular products and damp or wet products. Typical
The Wiggins gasholder uses an internal piston in combination
materials to be found in silos include flour, wheat, sand, coal,
with a synthetic rubbercoated fabricseal. This is a trulydry sys-
T coke and cement. All possess very different properties which
tem and has been used to store gases as varied as ammonia, have an influence on the manner of their bulk storaoe and the
sulphurdloxide, LD convertergas, ethyleneand dimethyl ether.
coniainers used.
s
F
J 27.2 Silos The bulk handling industry has an extensive historyof failures.
These range from catastrophic collapses to shortfalls jn perfor-
Silos, bins and hoppers are the terms most commonly used for mance. Whilst the former events are infrequent, they attract the
structures whose function is to store particulate solids. The ma- attention of the media. The latter are more common and result
It terials stored rangefrom dryfine powdered products through to in inefficient performancewith its consequentcosts and delavs.

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 507

_)
27 Miscellaneous stonge syslems

Weights !o hold rubbing

Dspth ottar measursd


bydippin9

Steel rubbing

sii
9
m
e)
Figure 27.11 Atypicaltar sealarrangement for a M.A.N. type dry seal b(
a(

27.2.1 Materials of construction Figure 27.'13 A typical fat-bottohed silo T(


Cowiesy of Whessoe ti
The most commonly encountered materials are carbon steel
*
Flat-boftomed silos are not uncommon and relyon internalme- tn
and reinforced concrete. Wood was a widely used material in
the earlydays ofthe storage ofsolids, butwould not be a sensi- chanical handling equipment to ensure efiicient product re-
moval. One such silo is shown in Figure 27.13. This is a 35,000 fo
ble or economic choice these days.
tonne silo built some years ago, in Dubai for the storage of ri
Alumina. m
27.2.2 Silo shapes
F
The mostcommon shape is a vertical cylindrical shell fitted with 27.2.3 Product removal tr
a conical outlet. Rectangular section silos with symmetrical or
d
non-symmetrical, pyramidlike outlets, are also common. The reliable and consistent removal of Droduct ftom silos has
These are fequently supported at a suitable elevation so that bedevilled the solids storage and handling industry for many 2
theycan discharge theircontents into a truckor railcarbygrav- years. The behaviour of particulate solids is complex and the
ity alone. Silos are ofren built in groups, eitherwithin a building vagaries and range of flow possibilities is illustrated by the fol- T
or comprising a single composite structure. lowing possibilities for elevated conical outlet type silos: I
T
Atypicalsilo of the cylindricalshelland conicalbottom is shown No flow. This is when the material being stored remains in
equilibrium under the action of gravity and the internal t(
in Figure 27.'12. This is one of a number of PTA silos made for
d
lCl's Wilton Works. The materialwas stainless steelto ASTM A forces within the material itself. Commonly known as arch-
240 type 321and the silos were 11.5 m in diameter and 17.5 m ing, bridging or doming, it can result from poor design or co- rs
in cylindrical length. They were manufactured in an offshore rig hesion between the particles, often caused by dampness,
yard on one side ofthe RiverTees, transported across the river surface tension or electroshtic effects.
d
by heavy lift floating crane and taken toWilton Works by road on
Coreflow(also known as funnelflow). This is wherethere is s
low loaders.
no flow of that part of the product in contact, or close to the
T
vesselwalls. This means that onlythe materialthe middle of
U
the vessel is discharged so that the full capacity ofthe ves-
Y
sel in not realised.
I
Ratholing or piping. This is an extreme case of core flow t
where only a very smallfraction oi the vessel capacity is uti- !
lised. n
J
Mass flow. This is what is needed for efficient oDeration.
Arching, coring and ratholing are avoided and the whole
volume of the vessel is utilised. (
Erratic flow This is where the flow rate and bulk density of
the discharged product is highly variable. This is common (
with find powder materials. When a fine powderis placed in
a silo, it de-aerates and compresses under the pressure ap-
plicable at the particular location within the silo. When this (
powder tries to flow out of the silo outlet, the reduction in
I
pressure causes the powder to expand leaving voids that
must be filled with gas, and this requires an inflow of air t
through the outlet. This inflow of air obstrucb the outflow of
product and this phenomenon is known as slurping, and re-
duces the outflow to a small fraction of what was dntici-
pated.
Figure 27.12 A typical cylindrical silo with a conicaloutlet
Coulesy of lcl PlcMhessoe Uncontrolled flow. Ofren referred to as flushing or flooding,

508 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


27 Miscellaneous storage sysfems

this occurs with fine particle matedals in core flow situa-


tions. lt is the resultofa sudden instabilitywithin the product
resulting in very rapid and uncontrolled outflow of material.
. Pulsating flow. Often referred to as silo quaking, this is most
,::3: !Ec!q
common in poorly designed mass flow silos. The surface of ,rN.sEN loir&
iartafi |fnxsl
the stored product has regular periods of movement and
rest whilstthe materialcontinues to flowoutofthe silo. This
Eoo *-
--
- crl !02.!6 nu3!u,|'
I ------ ,^riEi ta$|.|!rl
can result in high shock loadings on the shell and support-
nrF Rlrtl/nEDrarfl
ing structures. This is the subject of a paperby Roberb and --
-r-':r- t$orri/,r $:xaEtru{l
Wiche in Reference 27 .4.
. Eccentric flow. Usually found in silos which have off centre
discharge connections. This can give rise to high transient
over pressures and variable material discharge rates.
Silos which do not perform as anticipated, in particular with re-
gard to the rate and uniformity of product outflow offen bearthe *" ""'""t
marks ofthe oDerators' efforts to persuade them to conform to Fisure 27.14 computed w",
expectations, These can be marks on the cone resulting from
beatingsor rodding holes drilled in the coneto overcome block-
"J"i*ffi"J
From Refercnce 27.9, figure ll-3

ages or inadequate flow rates. 27.12, is anothet wide ranging document containing a great
deal of useful intormation regarding steel silos.
To ensure that the outflow rates are suited to the plant produc-
tion or the vehicle loading requirements, it is common to utilise When discussing silo design, it would be unfair not to mention
devices for this purpose. These take a number of forms involv- Professor J.M.Rotter of the Universities of Sydney and Edin-
tE ing air injection, vibration and local modification of the dis- burgh, who over the years has published an enormous volume
ciarge connection. Many propriebry devices and details are of material on this subject.
)c{ found in this area of aclivtty. Reference 22.5 contains descrip-
)cf tions of a number of commonly adopted solutions with com-
27.3 Elevated tanks
ment on their various applications and advantages.
Most elevated tanks are for the storage ofwater and also serve
Flat-bottomed silos require specialised equipment to remove
to maintain the waterpressure in the locality. Some arethe rect-
their contents. This usually takes the form of screw type dis-
chargers, often fitted into suitable recesses in the silo base.
angular Braithwaite types, supported by brick or steel struc-
tures which are afeature ofairfields, factories and occasionally
]:ts
urban settings. The Braithwaite type of tank is rectangular in
Xr_l 27.2.4 Silo design form and made up of factory-fabricated panels, which are
r bolted together. The internal pressure from the contained liquid
b- The design of silos for the storage and handling of particulate is resisted by a system of internal rods stressed in tension.
solids is more difficult than the design of liquid storage tanks.
The cylindrical elevated watertianks, usually supported by rein-
ir The determination of the required properties ofthe stored ma-
forced concrete structures are also common.
la terialsandthe loading applied bythese materialsto the silo un-
>-- derstatic and dynamic conditions are complex. One ofthe ma- In the USA in particular, elevated water toweF made of steel
jor differences between liquid storage ianks and silos is thatthe and supported on either a steelframework orthe more elegant
ts solid product gives rise to longitudinal or axial loadings on the single central column are to be found. These are often made in
vessel shell in addition to the internal pressure loadings. lt is the form of a well-known local product or other interesting
hese loadings which tend to dictate the wall thickness of the
!5 silo.
ne
The early silos wereforthe storage ofwheatand were designed
d using methods derived from the field of soil mechanics. The
s-
work of Janssen (Reference 27.6) dating from 1895, is cited in
Milo S. Ketchum's book, (Reference 27.n as the method of de-
- termining the radialand verticalforces in silowalls (in the chap-
F ter on Steel Grain Elevators). This remained the method of de-
riving these forces until the 1970s when work of Jenike,
Johanson and Carson were published ( References 27.8, 27.9
n
and 2Z 70). These provided more sophisticated methodswhich
: took account of certain additional oressures which occurred
during product movement conditions, especially in the cylindri-
f cal-to-conical jointarea. Atoraround thistime there seemed to
f be an upsurge of interest in silo design and numerous papers
r were published. Atrawlthrough the bibliographies ofthe listed
references will provide the interested student with any amount
6 of reading on the subject. A plot ofthe internal pressures com-
,! puted using various different methods is included as Figure
I 27.14 where the pressure spike at the cylinder/cone junction is
f quite apparent.
t
27.2,5 Codes and design guidance

A useful guide to silo design is found in Reference 27.11. Figure 27.15 The steel "peach" water tower
A second publication, again produced jointly, see Reference cau'lesy ol Chicago Bridge & lron Conpany (CB & l)

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 509


I

-J
27 Miscellaneous stonge systems

design. The seismic design section is especially good. There


are companion Standards published by the same organisation
covering factory-coated bolted steel tanks (Reference 27.14),
wire and strand wound circular prestressed concrete water
tank lReference 27. t5) and circular prestressed concrete wa-
ter tanks with circumferential tendons (Reference 27.16\.

27.4 References
27.'l Design and construction of a 12.5 million ft3 gasholder,
R.J. l\.4ilbourne, Managing Director of C. & W. Walker
Ltd, Donnington,Shropshire, first published as a series
ofarticles bythe Gas Journal ('1922) and lateras a com-
pilation by Walter King Ltd (1923).
27.2 Low-pressure gasholders storing lighterthan air gases:
Safety recommendations: IGE/SR/4 Edition 2 Commu-
nication 1624, The lnstitution of Gas Engineers, Lon-
don, June 1996
27.3 Designing spira y-guided gas holders, M.A.Thompson,
reprintedfrom the Gas Times by Hallowsand Slaughter,
Grove Road, Leighton Buzzard, 1 940.
27.4 Bulk 2000 : Bulk materials handling towards the year
2000, International conference sponsored by the Bulk
Figure 27- 16 "The world" water tower Materials Handling Committee of the Process Indus-
CowTesy af Chicaga Bidge & lron Conpany (CB & l) tries Division of the L Mech.E., October 1991.
27.5 Solving problems in hopper and sl/o sysfems, from a
seminar organised bythe Bulk Materials Handling Com-
mittee of the Process Industries Division of the
l.Mech.E., June 1996.
27.6 Versuche Aber cetreidedruck in Silozellen,
H.A.Janssen, Zeitschrift des Vereins Deutscher
Ingenieure1895.
27.7 The Design of Walls, Binsand Eleyators, M.S.Ketchum,
Mccraw Hill 1909
27.8 Bin loads - Paft 2: Concepts, A.W. Jenike, J.R.
Johanson, J.W. Carson, ASME, Paper no. 72-lVlH-1
1972.
27.9 - Paft 3: Mass Flow Bins. A.W. Jenike. J.R.
Bin loads
Johanson, J.W. Carson, ASME, Paper no. 72-MH-2
1972.
27 .10 Bin loads * Pad
2: Funnel Flow Bins. A.W. Jenike. J.R.
Johanson, J.W. Carson, ASME, Paper no.72-MH-3
1972.
27.11 The Draft Code of Practice forthe Deslgn ofs,'7og B,ns,
Bunkers and Hoppers, The Institution of Mechanical
Engineers and the British Materials Handling Board.
27.12 Useful lnformation on the Design of Stee/ B/ns and S/-
Figure 27,17 An elevated watertoweron a concfete masonry column
/os, John R. Buzek, - The American lron and Steel Insti-
Coulesy of Chicago Bidge & lron Conpany (CB & I) tute and the Steel Plate Fabricators Association lnc..
1989.
shapes. Many of these water towers in the USA were con-
structed by Chicago Bridge & lron Company, indeed the com-
27.13 ANSI/AV|/WA D 10096: AVIWA Standard for Welded
Slee/ Slorage lanks for Water Storage , AW WA, Denve r
pany's in house magazine was called The Water Tower. Some
Colorado.
examples are shown in Figures 27.15, 27 .'16 and 27 l7 . fhe
design of such structures for seismic loadings is both interest- 27.14 ANSUAWWA D 103-97: AWWA Standard for Fac-
ing and challenging. Any failures would be very public evenb! tory-coated Bolted Steel Tanks for Water Storage.
AWWA, Denver. Colorado.
The design of steel water tanks in the USA is covered by the
American Water Works Association Code D 100, (Reference 27.15 ANSI/AWWA D 110:95: AIUWA Standard for Wire and
2Z 73). This is an interesting document in that it is not so tied to Strand Wound Circular Prestressed Concrete Water
the practices ofthe petrochemicalindustry as most ofthe other Ianks, AWWA, Denver. Colorado.
liquid storage codes. lt is written in a refreshingly different way 27.'16 ANSUAVVWA Standard for Circular Prestressed Con-
and has its own view of what is appropriate. lt is well worth crete Water Tanks with Circumferential Tendons.
spending a bit of time with for those interested in storage tank AWWA. Denver. Colorado.

510 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


IfsB
saE!!
7-11t
28 Glassification guide to
YiF
e*> manufacturers and suppliers
The classification guide summarises ambient and low temperature liquid storage tank,
classifying them according to tank type, maximum diameter or capacity, materials of
*. construction, products stored, materials of construction, containment type etc.
*s
efEs The guide has been categorised in a particular way to try to impose tight boundary limits on
ocn- product types and classifications, with the specific aim of simplifying the choice of supplierfrom
the useis point of view.
rsgs The guide also covers the essential components and ancillary equipment and services
ltal- associated with the industry. Trade names are comprehensively lisled as well.
ttF These sections are preceded bythe names and addresses and contactdetails ofall companies
appearing in the guide. These are listed alphabetically, by country of origin.
6atr The information in Section 28.3 is provided for guidance only. lt is strongly recommended that
l*r direct contact with all companies is made to ensure their details are clarified wherever
necessary-
la Contents:
&,r
i.6- 28.1 lntroduction

ma 28,2 Names and addresses


(tt*
ttE 28.3 Storage tanks
28.4 Ancillary equipment and services
en
ht 28.5 Trade names

.R
{-t

R-
t2

R
L3

It
a
F
F
l-

c
(

I
r

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 511


28 Classification guide to manufactuters and suppliers

28.1 Introduction The storage tanks section (Section 28.3) is preceded by the
names and addresses and contact details of all comoanies ao-
The guide classifies liquid storage tanks into main groups: pearing in the guide.
. Ambient temperature A
Names and addresses Section 28,2
. Low temperature -
The principal ambient liquid storage tank types are then classi-
This Section has been based on a questionnaire sent to manu- :
facturers and suppliers woddwide. Where possiblethe informa-
fied by:
tion supplied has been used. Full company and contact details a
. Vertical cylindrical above ground hnks are given. Companies are listed alphabetically, by country of
. Maximum diameter
origin. i
. l\y'aterials of construction Storage tank types
- Section 28.3.
. Other types of above ground tanks The data presented in this Section is based on the same ques-
tionnaire. Where possible all the information supplied has been
. In or below ground lanks
used. Discussions were held with many companies to ensure
Low temperature Iiquid storage bnk types are classified by: wherever possible, that their activities were correcfly inter-
preted. There will however inevjtably be some overlapping due
. Tank type
to limitations of descriptions and space, and the information
. Capacity given is for guidance only. Where there was doubt in interpret-
. Products stored
ing the data, some of it has been omitted. lt is strongly recom-
mended that direct contact with all companies be made to en-
. Containment type sure their details are clarified wherever necessary E.
. Materials for primary and secondary conbiners Ancillary equipment and services Section 28.4
The guide has been classified in this way to impose tight bound-
-
Also based on the same questionnaire, this Section lists com- s,
ary limits on categories with the specific aim of simplifying the
panies alphabetically underthe relevant productor service and
choice of supplier from the user's point of view.
with their country of origin. Ambient temperaiure tank ancillar-
Although these are not always strictly logical, it should be obvi- ies are listed first, followed by those for lowtemperature tanks.
ousto both userand manufacturer what is meantbya particular
group or ancillary equipmenVservice. Trade names Section 28.5 t
-
The guide also covers the essential ancillary equipment and This Section has been compiled similarly. lt lists companies al-
services usually available for both ambient and low tempera- phabetically under the relevant trade name and with country of
ture tanks. Trade names are comprehensively listed as well. oflqtn.
A
NI
R

E.

:_-

E.

t
ta

a-

Te
F.

512 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


28 Classification guide to nanufacturcrs and supplierc

the
28.2 Names and addresses
3p-

AUSTRALTA (AUS) E-mail: info@egemin.com E-mail: info@flir.be


Web: wwwegemin.com Web: wwwflir.com
Angus Fire Australia
lu- A'1 Janine Street FCX Truflo Rona SA wLs
ia- Scoresby Indust.ial Park Parc Industrial des Hauts Sarts Smederijstraat '16
)rls Scoresby 8-4040 Herctal B-2960 Brecht (St Job)
of Victoria 3179 Belgium Belgium
Australia Tel: 04 240 6886 Tel: 03 633 16 10
Tel: 03 9765 3800 Faxt 04 248 0246 Fax: 03 633 25 12
Fax: 03 9765 3801 E.mail: sales@fcx-truflo-rona.com E-mail: info@wls.be
)s- E-mail: info@angus.com.au Web: wwwfcx{ruflo-rona.com Web: wwwwls.be
en
Web: www.kiddeuk.com
Fernand Desplentere Zeppelin Belgium NV
tre Baillie Tank Equipment Ltd Oostendestraat 329 I\,4unsterenstraat I Genk-Zuid - Zone 7
10b/201 New Sooth Head Road B-8820 Torhout 8-3600 Genk
JE Edgecliff Belgium Belgium
cn New South Wales 2027 Tel: 050 22 06 36 Tel: 0Bg 62 94 00
Australia Fa* 050 22 02 08 Fax: 0Bg 61 18 31
felt 02 9327 5481 E"mail: desplentere@wanadoo.be E-mail: zeppelin.belgium@zeppelin.be
Faxt 02 9327 5488 Web: wwwdesplentere.be Web: wwwzeppelin.com
E-mail: sales@bailiietank.com
Web: wwwbaillietank.com G&G International NV
Molenweg 109 BRAZIL (BRA)
't- Syltone Australia Pty LU B-2830 Willebroek
Syltone do Brasil Ltda
Unit 1, 100 Station Street Belgium
:c Avenue Ricardo Bassol Cezati 1620
Nunawading Tel: 05673 2121
Campinas, SP
Victoria 3131 Fax:056 73 4040
cEP 13050-080
Australia E.mail:sales@geldof.be
Brazil
Tel: 03 9874 2900 Web: www.ggi.be Ieli 015 3269 4247
Faxi 03 9873 2422 Fax: 019 3269 5083
E-mail: melb@syltone.com.au Geldof Metaalconstructie NV
Broelstfaat 20 E.mail: sylbra@syltone.co.bf
Web: wwwsyltone.com Web: www-syltone.com
8-8530 Harelbeke
Belgium
AUSTRTA (A) felt 056 732121 CANADA (CAN)
Fax: 056 73 4040
NBN Elektronik cmbH l\,lix Bros. Tank Services
E-mail: sales@geldof.be
Riesstrasse 146 14707 - 17 Sireet NE
Web: www.ge dof.be
A-8010 Graz Edmonton
Austria Ortmans Inox SA Albe.ta
Tel: 0316 402805 Rue Fernand Houget 13 T5Y 6E2
Fax: 0316 40 25 06 B-4800 Verviers Canada
E-mail: nbn@nbn.at Belgium Tel: 780 471 1386
Web: www.nbn.at Telt OB7 322811 Fa* 780 474 0877
Fax: 087 31 59 98 E.mail: mixtank@connect.ab.ca
Sattler AG E-mail: info@ortmans.be Web: www. mixta n k- cjb. nei
Sattlerctrasse 45 Web: wwwortmans.be
4-8041 Graz Tanksate lnc
Austria Pommee SA 208 3112 -lfth St NE
reli 0316 41O 42A2 3idme Avenue Calgary
Fax: 0316 410 4354 15 Parc Industriel des Hauts-Sarts Albeda
E-mail: r.dietl@sattler-europe.com 8-4040 Herstal r2E 7 J1
Web: www.sattler-europe.com Belgium Canada
Tel: 04 256 90 00 Tel: 403 291 3937
Wolf Systembau cmbH Fax: 04 256 90 09 Fax'. 403 291 5125
Fischerbrlhel 1 E-mail: info@pommee.be E-mail: dualtank@tanksafe_com
A-4644 Scharnstein Web: www.pommee.be Web: wwwtanksafe.com
Aust.ia
Tel: 07615 3000 Recinco Oenso North America lnc
Fax: 07615 300313 Hoogveld 5 90 lronside Crescent
E-mail: email@wolfsystem.at B-9200 Dendermonde Unii 12
Belgium Toronto
Webi www.wolfsystem.at
Telt 052220127 Ontario
Faxt 052 22 61 13 M1X1M3
BELGIUM (B) E-mail: recinco@skynet.be Canada
Egemin NV
Tel: 416 291 3435
VBR Flir Systems AB Fax: 416 2910898
Baarbeek 1 Uitbreidingstraat 60-62
B-2070 Zwindrecht
Web: wwwdensona.com
B-2600 Berchem
Belgium Belgium UAS Canada lnc
relt 03 641 12 12 Tel: 03 287 87 10 2656 Deacon Street
Fax: 03 64'1 '13 13 Fax'. 03 287 87 29 Abbotsford

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 513


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29 Reference lndex
The refercnce jndex conlains a large n umber of key words used wiihin the industry. lt ists the page numbers on which the key
wofds are used. The list ofcontents al the siad ofeach chaDteralso Dfovides a usefutouide.

APt 520 418

Abovsground and in orbelowground stoEge systems 6


234
E
Above ground low temprature bnks 367 E

Acoess arrangements
As{onstructed foundation tolerances 250
365 E
APl650 requirements 25Q
307 E
BS 2654 Equiremenls 251
247 E
prEN 14015 requnernenis 251
Air Eising ot tank roofs 452 E
ASItE 8.96.'l 220
Double-Walled lank 453 t
asMEv t 216
Pre-Shessed concete ouier tank 452 I
13,438
Aluminium alloys 438, 351, 361,442
Austenitic stainless stesl
I
99,434,442
Ambient temphture lanks 't5 I
Automaied welding method6 461
Ancillary equipmenl and nliings 185 I
7,'t00
Design 15
22, 26, 319, 334, 335
Design ol tankrools lixed 113
Axial compression loadings 324
Design oftank roois - floating 153
Erectiorconsid-arations 235 B
249 Base heating sFtems 415
Fabr calion considerations 231 380,466
Layoul ol tank installalions 257 Baseinsulallonrnatrlals centalarea 384
Non-verlical cylindrcal tanks and other iypes 215 Base insu ation free oforganic maleriats 386
Nozle des gn and efiecl ofapplied oading 103
Base insuation materials- periphera area 387
Materia se eclon crileria 219
B asl iurnace sag 387
263
384
245
composit sysloirs . 387

Amedcan P.troleum hstitute (APl) Damp-proof course materia 386


8, 13
Ame can Unifom Building code (UBc) 264 386
American water works Association (AVVWA) 14 Lightweight concrete 387
291,394,507 Poyurelhanefoam 387
425 387
426 380
Inspection and repairof iqu d ammonlastorage systems 433 381
Ammonia storage - what mak* itspecial? 426 381
Elecl.i@l@nducl vty 427 381
426 Deia led design Code Equircments 384
427 BS 7777 requirements 344
Slress Coffosior ccklng (SCC) 427 EEMUA147 requirements 384
426
prEN 14620 384
Ancillary equ ipment for low tsmperature tank6 412
380
39,338
381
aNsr/Awwa 0103-97 214
367,424,461
aPt 12C 7,220
B.low-ground cavems 7
7
1,6
aPr 2000 ' 197,414
Bitumen storage tanks 201
aPt 2210 197
Bitumen.baed paint system 101
aPt 2517 281
181,279
a, 13, 30, 117 , 220, 277 , 295, 302, 314,
Bolted cylindrical hnks 218
338, 34,t, 347, 358, 361, 418 438, 466, 44,t, 490
APt650 8, 19,21, 30,75,90,93, t04, 106,
Bottom and annular d*ign 338
114, 154, 190,206,232, 251, 264, 277 APl620 Appendix O apprcach 341
APt653 252 Liquid containing meta lic lanks 341

542 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


Non LquLd conlaining meiallctanks 341 Cavern storage syslems 311

338 385
APl620 Append x R appDach
338 384,466
L quid @nlaining mela lic lanks
Cenira, crown rinq design calculation 133
Non lqud conlan ng metal clanks 340
charpyv-notch impact testing 22 t,225, 337 , 4X8, 444
341
chicago Bridge & hon Company 13
Llqu d conla n ng metallc tanks
Civil monitoring syslems 424
Non- iqLid contalning metallc tanks 341
column-supported roof s 115
prEN 14620 approach 341
Compression area forfixed roor tanks 80
Bottom boom of the truss 131
API lmitatons lor the length ol the rooi compresslon area 83
Boltom oorner protection systems 362
83
CalcLlating lhe compresslon zone area
Compression zones 81
4,2't6,509
BS and API Code difiernces oi allowab e
Brine-based heating sYsten 416 compressive svess 82
34 toAP a2
Compression zone area Code
British slandards Institution (BsD 13
Compresson zone area lo BS Code 81
220
cosl-effecl ve design 88
BS 150'l aea 8l
Derivation ofthe requned conpresson zone
BS 2454 I
Effecl of rooi slope on cross-sectrona area 81
BS 2654 19,20.27, 90, 114, ',t54, 190, ',|92, 193,
206, 221,222,225,232, 236, 246, 274,277 86

BS 2654 requirementsfor shell nozles 147 Economyoidesign 86

F lsh lype cear-oLt doofs 188 Rationa islng the calcu ation 86
188 Roof compresson area 86

Nozzes 80 mm outslde d ameter and above 1AT Shell compression area 86


Nozles lesslhan 80 mm outside diameler 190 Effeciof nterna presslre 80
BS 449 97,115 Eslab shing lhe compressiof area 83
BS 4741 9, 13,294,428, 450 M nlmuff c!rb ang!e requnemenls 83
BS 5387 9, 't3, 34, 295, 450 Angle sizes for lixed rooilarks 85
BS 5500 216
Cases where minimum curb angLe requ renents
BS 5950 337 85
BS 6072 433 Effect ol inlernal pressure and iank d ameter on
requ red compressDn afea 85
BS 7777 9,30, 294, 298, 300, 302, 334, 344,
345, 347 , 351 , 35A, 446, 490, 416, 444 Pos tiofi.g the centroid ol area 88
BS 8004 466 88
AP Code Appendix F
BS EN 10028 8a
BS EN 10029 232
88
8S4741 295
Praclical cons derations 83
492
Provlding the required compression area a2
E ephanfs loot buck lng 492
For the APlCode a2
236
For lhe BS Code a2
Ereclng the she by lhe lradiliona method 237
342
236
238 AP 620 appDach (Appeidices R and a) 342
BS 7777 appDach
Peaking and banding 238
prEN 14620 approach
Piate m sa ignment 239
238
Concrete raft foundations 42
283
345,459,479
206
291
Concrete wall construction
6,291,394,467
460
460
Calculation olthe design accelerations 489 460
calculations for slabilily and axial compressive toadings 491 460
Carbon manganese steel 220,361 concrele/concrte tanks 309

Carbon sleel contamination 232 Aumenlslorand against 310


19, 25, 35, 48, 6't, 232, 351 cryogen c concrele tanks 309

cathodic protecrion system 243 31,41,62

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPIVENT 543


364 prEN 14015 222
Construotion and erection of ambient temperature ranks 235 temperatures 221 E

Joints ir wind girders 241 'Vinimum E


APt 650 221
Other forms ot constructon 243 BS 2654 221 E

Anlifting a roof rlo position 243 p|EN 14015 222


I
Co umn-supporled rcois 243 D$isn ofa sing le{ecr floating roof 157
I
I
243 Design of ambied r6mp6rature storagelanks 15
I
Pejabrlcaled roof section 243 Compression area ior nxed rooftanks 80
20 I
236
Fransible roof joinl, or weak roottcshell joint 89
The roof shuclure 241
Semi-buied ianks for the storage oi aviai on fuel 100
Construction oftanks with reinforced condete roofs 459
94
459
36
459
Tanks produced in slain ess steel malerials 99
contenrs measudng syslms 194
26
High accuracy .adar lank gauge 196
'Variable desigr point method 56
F gh accuracy seryo lankgauge 195
43
Wind and vacuum stiffenlng
195
D6sign of fixed roofs for ambient tempeEture tanks 113
Automatic tank gauge 195
Differences behveen lixed and floaling rools
F oal, board and target syslem 195
194 Design of low tmperature tanks 317
Temperalue measuemenl 195 Bottom and annu ar design
Coniingency Design Eanhquake (CDEI 485 prEN 14620 approach u1
cra6k Openins Displacement (COD) tests 438 317
135
132 BS 7777 apprca.h 334
Cryogenic stonge
- history I 317

D 131

485 Diking 476


507
David Taylor Model Basin Fomula 76,329
DIN 't3
Dead-weighl vacuum rcli.f valve 420
't83 DtN 4119 t3
274
Design and construction regulations
Directional combinations 467
Amedcan slandards
243
3

Chicago Bridge Eng neerng Standards 13


Double containm.nt tanks 294, $2,454
13 BS 77TT 294
Company Standards
EN i473 299
EEMUASlardard 13
Euopean slardards I 2A1
Double stringer spiral stairca6e 't99
Euon basic Pcilces 13
olher Eurcpean nallonal Slanda.ds 13 423
13 179
13 507
standards for other prodLcls 13 Ductility ,l88
20 Dye peneirant tssting 247
21 E
Bs code 2654 20
269
Alternal ve lrformalion to be supp ied by ihe purchaser 2A
EEMUA 9,13,294
Inlormafon to be igrced behveen ihe plrchaser EEMUA147 13,336,384
and ihe manuiactur 21
7
Information ro bespecilied bythe purchaser 20
183
Eurcpean Code prEN 14015 -1 2000 21
Elaphant's foot buckllng 492
Annex A (normative) Techn ca agreemenls 21 467
Oesign metal temperature 221 509
Ma{mum temperaiures 222 509
API 650 222 509
BS 2654 222 181

544 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


274 F
EN 10025 225,226
Factory-manufaclured bnks made from
EN 10028 19'226 non-metallic materials 214
EN 10088 99 Fasl t6ck erhylone tank 454
EN 10113 226
EN't0210 226 Wire winding atrangenents 456
EN 13445 216 Fast track liqui<I orygen tank 456
EN 1473 295, 297 , 299,302, 414, 420 456
Engineering Equipment and lvlaterials 415
Users Association (EElllUA) 9,13,294 Fire protoction syslems 200,420
ENV't998 501 421
Deteciion sysiems
Epoxy-based p6inl system 101 240
Erecting theshell by thejacking method 242 200
451
202
Condete wall construcl on 460
R msea loam poureB 241
452
Top loam poure6 241
Tanks w th reiniorced concrete rools 459
421
292,334,426
Dry powder systems 422
292,334, 426, 454, 467 , 507
13
Fne waler systens 421
422
European Code requiremenls for sh.llnoz2les 190
Euf opean Fertiliser lManufacturcrs Association (EFMA) 433 Loca protecl on olvllneEble equ pffenl 422

EUropan Pressure Equrpme urecrve te/ruJrE!) '| 259


Fire.fiqhting 174,240
Amb enl temperalure 13
13
European Standard Committeo TC 265 I 43,206
226 114
European sieel Slandards
115
European tank desig. Codes 19
European Standard prEN 14015-1 : 2000 l9 115

Annexes 10 ihe Slandard 19 115


116
Fixed and noatng roofdesgn 19
t9
19
115
19
278
Primary and secondary w nd g.ders 19
Float type level indicators 278
Rool to sheilcompression zone
Floating roof designs t54
19
154
Temperature rating 19 Prncipal ollhe lloating roof 154
19 Types offloating roof 154
German sioragetank Code DIN 4119 2A 220
2A 36,43,142
2A 239
External f loating roof appurtenances 174 193

1Ta APl650 requ rcments 194


BS 2654 requiremenls 193
R n f re delect on 1Ta
Elropean Code prEN 14015 requiremenls 194
Exlernalfloating rooG 154
2TA
Floating roof design 156
183
Des sn of a sinsle-deck roof 156
241
Types oI erternal noal ng roof 155
384,387
Doube-decklype 155
Formwork low temerature tanks 460
Other types ofloallng rool 155 250
155 253
Concr ele slab fo0ndation 253
Snge deck pontoon type 155 25X
External pipework insulation 395 236
Externally.framed dome roof 140 Foundalron to erances 236

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 545


236
BS 2654 236 217
prEN 14015 236 Gas stomg. history 6
Foundations for ambietrt temperature ta.ks 250
-
1,504
255 Drysealgashodels 506
250 Wel sea gasholders 504
Foundalions in a horzontalplane 250 142
250 7
Foundations of low temperature tanks 465 Geodesic dome roofs 141,241
Code requnemenls and guidaice 466 GEvity.based systems (GBS) 312
APt620 466 42,254,467
BS 7777 466 175
prEN 14620 467 240
Examples and problem areas 467
H
Handrall construction 198
Fransible roof Joint, of weak roof-to-shorl joint 89,94
234
APl650 Code anchor EqliEments 93
- Hoat Afected Zone {HAZ) 7
Allowable stresses in anchoB u Heat leak calculation for a large LNG tank 400
lMinimum bo t d amelef 93
Heat leak calculations 396
Spacing olanchors Basic calculation methods 396
conflicl ol design inleresls 91 CalculaUon oI lhe hol face temperature 399
"Service' and "Emergency' desigr condilions 91 399
Difference between codes 91 The influence of diffeEnl interstitial gases 396
Examples oilrangible and non+angib e rcoljoinls 91 Thermal 6nduct viiy values 396

Tali desqled Io an opp."tr1g p5sure ofr0 rba' 91 400

Tankdesgnedforanoperatingp.esslreof 7.5mbar 91
Heated storage tanks 1,6,243
Hsavy or viscous products 283
Fomua as exprcssed n APL650 90
30
Addiliona requiremenrs to APl650 90
Historical background lo stobge tanks 3
Formula as expressed in BS 2654 90
History of the design and construction regulations 7
Addit onal requiremenis lo BS 2654 90
American standards
Frangib e rooliointtheory 89
8
Chicago Bridge Engineerrg Standards 13
EE]\4UA 94 13
Cornpany Slandards
89 EEMUASiandard 13
l',4arimum @mpression zone area a lowab e 89 Eubpean Standards I
Other iactors affecting lhe frangible roofconneclon 90 Euon basic PclL@s 13
90 Olher European nat onal Slandards 13

Sizeolwed atthe rooi pare to shel connection 90 13


13
Tank anchorage a means lo lrangibi ily 92
Slandards for other producls 13
Delermining anchof age.equirements 92
Holding-down anohoF 409
EnsLring a frangible roofcon.ection using anchoge 92
26,47,81, 318, 319, 331,334,338
Furtherdes gn check 93
217
Olher anchorage considerat ons 93
284
Worked example 92
241
274
Hydrocarbon pro.luels 242
Friction pandulum isolatoF 500
21, 30, 36, 39, 41, 56, 60
312,379,463 t36.334, 367
21, 18, 220, 252,
Frozen ground sysiems 311
244
Full containment LNG tank
I
Full coniainment sysiems 363,432,479
Full containment hnks 300 tL58
Bottom comer Proieclion syslem 301 226,228
BS TTTT 300 476
EN 1473 300 206
301 400
Fully-pre$u sed LPG storage 292 Inround hodzontal cylindrical storags tanks 217

546 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


368 295
In.ground membrane tanks 294,310 Joinas in wind girders 241
310
K
310
396
310
241
lnspection and tesling the tank 246
48,101
Fixed roof plate tolrt lesllng 247
Floaing roof lesllng 247 L
Floor p ale joint testing 246 Lafge in.ground LNG tanks 462
Hydroslatic tank testing 244 Laser measuring nethods 't96
Radiographic inspectlon 246 Layout of ambienr t.m perature bnk installations 257
246 Above ground tanks 254
BS 2654 246 264

prEN'14015 246 254


LocaUon and ayoul 254
SheLf lo-boltom joint tesiing 247
244 254
Testing ol sheLl nozzLes and aperlures
286 258
Inspection f requoncies
Institute of P.tfoleum llP) 13 254
422 Separal on d slan@s ior grcups ol sma lanks 259
423 Separalion dislances lor large tanks 259
423 separation from olher dangerous subslances 264
422 260
Leve neasurement
Level temperature density {LTD) rneasurcmenl 423 layoul ol refrigeraled liquid gas bnks 469

Pressure measurement 423 Regulaiions governlng LNG storage faciites


Temperalure measuremenl 423 Reguiations govern ng LPG
Insulation mat. als for refrigeraled storage 380 507

lnsulatiod of hear broaks andfiltings 393 285

Heai breaks lor roof conneciions 393 Leak detection and pfevention ofground conbmination 254
Heat breaks iortank botom connections 395 254
Heat breaks tortank sidewallcofnecl ons 394 EENIUA 255
400 Probabil iy oi botlom eakage 255

Base insulalion failure 400 Liqueried Natuhl Gas (LNG) 6, 29'1, 293, 30?, 310,
317.36A,393, 400, 426, 462
409
Liqueried Peholeum Gas (LPG) 7 , 216, 291, 292, 420.473, 426
Exlernal vapoLr sealing 409
467
409
Insulation syslems for tow temperature ianks 377
Liquid Natural Gas (LNG) I
456
Basic design and maleral requirements 379
217
Basic requ rements oi the insLlaiion sysiem 375
495
Design Code f equirements 380
ExlernaL pipework insu ation 395 2al
lnsla lalon cons derations 379 LNG 6,291,426
Insulation ctegones 379 6, 216, 2S3, 303, 308, 412

The inirared camera 400 412, 423, 463. 495


Wealher proleciion syslem 389 Loadinq on the foundations 250
ln-tant pumps and their handling equipment 400, 412, 427 , 432 Loadings in an insulation ringwall 342
LODMAT 222

Pump refiova system Low temperatu re ranks 289

Iniernal f loating roofs 156 Anc llary equipment and littings 411

Types of inlemaL I oal ng rooG 173 Ammon a slorage a sp-"c alcase 425
Double cortainment sysiems 294
Erectior considerallons
173
435
Pontoon and skin roof '173
Ful conla nmenl syslems 300
Internal pipework insulation 395
291
Interna! shuGoff valves 417
Historica background 292
LNG tank at Slaten sland 293
454 Qatar LPG term na 294
242 377

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPIIIENT 547


Layoui of refrlgerared lquid gas ranks 469 Malerials ior rhe ourer meraLlic ranks of s ng e @ntainmeni
Low lemperalue gases 291 438
lllale al selection cribna 437 Itaximum Considered Earthquake {iilCE) 483
441 57,63,76, 10't, 327
Single contairmeni systems 297 241
Membrane in foundation 42
308 302,463
302

308
BS 7777 302
Comparison ot above ground membranetanks
Storage of induslria gases in liquid lorm 249
and convenlionallanks 306
294
Tank slzjns considerations
DeveLopment history 303
30
EN 1473 302
LOX and LIN 365, 395 Land-based membranesysiem 304
LPG 7 , 216, 291, 426 lnsllation sysiem 306
476
lMeia lic membrane 304
291
Outeriank 306
M The knot 304
507 Lined mined rock cavem iniliative fof tuturc LNG slorage 307
Magnetic Panicla Flaw Detection {MPl) 433 LNG cariiers 303
285 NFPA 59A 342
295 prEN 14620 342
245 lrreial arc wlding 241
234 lrelhane 334
441 lrilf scale 234
234 Mineralwool 390
itaterial groups, 5lUni6 223 Minimum impact test rquifemenb 224
Itaterial quality control 221 Minimum spacing requirements 475
232 Miscellaneous storagesFtems 503

Material selection criteria for ambient tenperatufe Morton 46.80


220 itodulafconstructionandprefabricationtchniques 461
Requiremenis of the tank design Codes 222 Roof frame seclions 461
APl650 requnements 222 Roof plaiforms 461
BS 2654 requimenls 225 Sleelshel plates 461
prEN 14015 lequiremenls 226 Tower slaituays 461

Itaterial seclion critria for low tempeEturetanks 438 Wire wound lype 461

Example of a material selection meihod 450 Mounded storage 217,292


438 lvlouseholes 241

Reqlirements ofAPl 620 438 llulti-strand tendon typs 460

APl620 Appendix Q lllultl-layerinsulationcomponentcalculation 397

l\4ateria s for parts subjected to N


ambienttemperalues
National Board ofFire UndMritere {NFBU) 7
Maierials lor parts subjecled to
owlempetures 442 Natio.al Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 7
486
APl620 Appendix R 438
Ho.izonlal convecUve lrequency 486
Matehalsfof oarls sub ected to ambient lemDeraiures 438
Horizontal impulsive lEquency 447
l,laier]als for parts subjected lo low lenperatures
Veriical banelling irequency 488
Requirements of BS 7777:Part 2 443
489
Malerials lor pa.ts sublecled to ambieniiemperatures 443
NFBU 30 7
lv,laledals ior parts subjected to low tempeEtures 443
42r
Requnements of BS 7777:Pan 4 446 I
Parts subjeci to ambient iemperatures 446 291,421,470
Parts subjected lo iow lempelores 302, 421, 471 , 476
Requ rements of PD 7777:2000 421,500
Requ remeris of prEN 14620 277
Malerials fof parls slbjecl 1o amb ent lemperalures 442
Materials for pads subjecl to low temperatures 444 Nil Ductility lest Temperature {NDTr) 446
lvlaterlals ior primary ard secondary liquid-@ntaining pans 438 351,442,454

548 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


214 Pellini Dfop Weight Test 221,434
30 Penile 317, 387, 391, 393, 396,399,409
312 Personnel add equipnent requirem6nts 244
104 Petrochemical and other industrids 6
Nozzles and nozle design 102,344 Petrolstation forecolntanks 6
Assessment of nozle oadings 106 Pilot-operated pressure reliefvalve 419

APl650 approach 106 Piping loads 103


Plat6 fabrication 232
Determinatior ol a lowab e oads 108
Determ nation oi loads on lhe nozle 106 Pfate mills 233
110 Pfate thiokness tolerances 232
Loadirg on the nozze 30,105 Polyurethane foam (PUF) 306
Meihod of analysis example 108 Polyvinyl ch lorid. foam (PVC) 306
107 Pontoon manholes 183
Nozz e loading exampLe 109 Poslwold Heat-Treatment {PWHT) 234
"Preload" wire winding system 4, 299, 371, 429, 454, 460
She ldefeciion ard roiai on 106 prEN140rs 9, 19,30, 99, 114, 154, 193, 194,207,251,277
o prEN14620 9, 302, 341, 346, 350, 446, 419, 490, 50',1
Pressu re and vacuum .elief valve 206, 277 , 414
OBE
Pressure Equipmenl Regulations I

5
Pressurevesse,s 1,215
Pre-stressed concror.lanks 309, 460, 461
"One foot" method or rule 28, 60
Preshessing bultresses 370
Operating Basis Earthquake (OBE) 2f4,443
Probablo Design Earlhquake (PDE) 445
ODaraton and maintenance of ambient temDerature tanks 275
Product identification 277
2AT
Producl liquid pressuresacting on tank shells 489
Product identlicanon 277
2TT
APt620 490
B3T77T 490
277
prEN 14620 490
Wilh lnternaL i oat ng covers 277
Protessor A. S. Tooth 31 , 43, 56, 63, 'l04, 1'16
Floating rooi lanks 277 Propane 6,291,394
Op.raiion of fixed roof hnks 274 Propylene 291
F xed roof lanks with interna ioaiing coveB 279
R
Hazardous atmospheres 279
279 Radial raiter type cone roof '124

Operation of floaling roofhnks 279 472

Access lo the ioallng rool 279 216

Colecl on sump delais 242 6


Refrigerated liquefied gas storage history 6
Efiecls oi roof type on dra rage 242 -
2AA Refrigeraled stora9e of liquid ammonia 424
2AA a ternative storage system 430
lManaging eg suppots 284 Chemical Induslies Associaion gu dance 431
279 Convenl onal syslems 424
242
279 Inspecllon and ma ntenance 433
242 433
static electricily @nirol 240 Recenl developdents 432
279 Regulations governing LNG storage facilities 476
279 476
Operation ofbnks general 277 EN1473: 1997 rules 479
-
2TT 479
Preveniion oi overfi ing 278 lMin m!m spac ng requiremefts 480
Operational malfunclions 247 Scenaros to be considered 479
206 479
Outer hnk concrete wall and bottom liners 363 Themalradation 479
P 480
234 476
1

Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) 485

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 549


equirements
l4inimurn spacins 479 3,16

Odgin and Development 476 APl620 apprcach (Appendices R aid a) 347


Thermal radiation 47a 347
prEN 14620appmach
Vapourdilution considerations 478 350
392
Regulations goveming LPG storage facilities 470
Exiernal roof nsulation 392
hsltule ofPetroeum rules 471
Internal suspended deck insLrLalion 393
Bunding requnemenls 473
't93
GeneEl 472
APl650 requiremenls 193
LPG pssure siobge (Volume 1, Chapter 2) 472
BS 2654 requiments 193
Reirigeraied LPG stose (Vo ume 2, Chapler3) 473 Eurcpean Code prEN 14015 quiements 193
9orage tank spacing 473 192,441
Vapour tEvel requirements 473 APl650 requlemenls 193
APl2510 473 BS 2654 lquircmefts '192

Pessurised LPG storage 474 ELropean Code prEN 14015 requiremenls 193

Reffigerated storage 475 Roor plaforms ror plmp handling 415

NFPA58 47O
176
Compresslon p ale type sea s '177
Pressudsed LP-Gas siorage 470
177
Relrlgerated LP Gas storage 4TO
Seals incorporating foam dams 177
NFPA5g 471
177
Pressurised LP-Gas storage 471
Liqu d flled fabric sea 176
Refr seraled LP-Gas sioEge 471
176
Reinfofced and prestrcssed concrete component design 367
Resi inl foam-rlled seal '176
General 367
345
Tank bases 367
APl620approach (Appendices R and O) 345
Tank rools 374
345
Tankwals 368
prEN 14620 approach 346
Above groLnd tanks 368
234
Bonom corner delails 372 174
In-groundtanks 372 Roof water drench system 421
Preslressedconcretewal-intemaltendonlype 369 Roof5 wlth no supporting st.ucture 116
Prestressed corcrete wall
- wirc woundlype 371 Co umn-supported oofs 142
Reiniorced conc.ete wal wilh earlh embankment 372 cdumnseeclion 143
Top comerdetais 373 116
Rinfored base slab 468 selisuppodns cone (of membEne oo0 116
Reinrorced concrete 101 Thickness of roof plating 116
Reinfored concrete roofs 345, rt59 117
Refoase Prevention Barier(RPB) 254 116
Resetue capacily relief valve 420
Folded plate lype 118
Rim venb 174
122
Risk Based Inspection (RBl) 433 '122
Rivetted and weld.d structures f 122
45,101,133
122
279
122
'182,232
Roofs wilh supponing strLclures
174
179 Cenlral crown ring 127

180 123

Amoured nexible hose 179 123.128


Aniculaied piping syslem '179 136
DEin design Codes 180 Externallyjmed lype 139
180 Radia frertypo 136

BS Code ' 180 Extemal y{ramed roois 136


180 Design calcu ation ..137
Helicalflexible hose 179 141

Geodesic dome roois 142

550 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


She lslfien ng lor exlerna insLlation oadings
Trussed lrame type 127 Wind and vacuum slfiening

Rool-lo'shell 60mpression zone 82,92,243 AP 620 appendx R approach 3'18

26, 50, 52, 53, 55, 89 319

End (ie lop and boltom) stifferers 330


S
274,477,443
Hoopiension lqud conlaining meialictanks 319
Saie Shutdown Earthquake {SSE)
lntemediale shel stifieneE 329
Saltdomes T
Non'lqu d contain ng tanks 319
Saunde6 andwindenberg 45,101
324
sampte/dip hatch 183 Shelslllening for enernal insr ation loadlngs

sealing syste'ns 279 Wind and vacuLm slffenirg 324

Secondary bottons 362


Secondaryseals 241 Hoop tenson iq! d conlanlng metal c ia.ks
Seismicdesign of ambient temperature tanks 264 Addendumlo Bs 7777on parlialheight hydroslal c lesting 336
AP 650 approach 264 335
Alowabe longitLdna compressive slress 273 Nor Lqu d conlanng metalLlclanks 335
Basc sesmc data 264 Shelstifeningforexle.nalinsllation loadirgs 336
Behav our oflhe product lqud 269 Wind ard vacuum stffening 336
Othefconsideliors arising from seismic oadings 273 337
Overturningmoment 270 Hoop ters on lrquid 6ntaining mela lic lanks 338
Res siance lo overtlrning 271 Nonliquid @ntaining lanks 333
Shel compression 271 Shl stiffening ior external lnsu allon load ngs 338
Anchored lanks 2T2 Wind and vacLum stifien ng 338
Unanchored tanks 271 Shellfiltings 352
Slosh he ghl and lreeboard consideralons 273 192
BS 2654approach 274 APl650 fequ rements 192
lniroducllon 264 BS 2654 reqlnements 192
prEN 14015 approach 274 European Code prEN 14015 192

Seismic design of lowtemperature tanks 441 103


Basic seismic design dala 482 16, 44, 53,60, 334, 336, 336, 328
Behaviour olthe product liquid 485 Shell thickness formula 23,27,3A
Calculation ofihe des gn acceleraions 489 Shellwelding sequence 240
Danprg 485 sherl-roof compression a.eas 3,14
Design Codes 500 80. 89
Ducllily 488 40.342
General 442 l. 5!7
Liquid sloshng 495
Codes ard design guidance 409
Natural lrequencies 446 aa9
Productliquid presslres acting on tankshels 489
tvlale als ot consir!cliof ::?
seismc isolation 499
Tark siding 493 :::
Tankslablily under seism c load ngs 490
zar 291 !31
Single containnent tanks
Seismic Hazard Assessmenl (SHA) 251,442
!'.:
BS TTTT
Seismic isolalion 499
EN 1473 241
seismic loads 2a
251
Seismic zones worldwide 265
Self-supporting 6one roofs 1'16
BS 2654 aa,
Semi-bu.ied lanks forthe storage of aviation fuel 100
prEN 14015 .t1
semi-refrigeratdandfllly.refrigeratedethylenestorage 292
Separation distances forsmalllanks 259 252
S.trlement in seNice 252
Solids storage andh2.. ai 503
Shellbuckling 318 Spacing of welds a..--i ::-,-e-,-s 190
shetldesign 318
AP 650'::, _:-: = 192
APl620AppendixQ approach 331 BS 26ar -.:, _: : 190
=
Axlal compression 334 Eurcr.:_:r:- =: --: . 192
F rs_::e ::: -: :::-
Hoop tenson
- iquid cortaningianks 331 192

Non liquid @ntaining lanks 334 Spherssc'e1- =-rr 216, 302,308

S-:F-r- -+$.r: 4 :QUIPMENT 551


475 Parliclpaling rcoi and shellplate area 96
Spillage collection systems 96
283 97
457 Seciion size tof the secondary wind girder 95
457 Shellwird girder ca cuLalion 95
459
Shell-lGroof compression zone 95
Spihlly-9uid6d gasholders 504
wrd loading to APl650 99
417
Tank anchorage 6ystens 348
274, 477,443
Tank and bund drainage 283
220, 232, 304, 351,361
234
Staircases and slaiMays 234, 365
Tank bottom annular pate analysis 49
242
Tank capacity 317
Earihing and bonding 283
245
Precautons lo minirnise or avoid staiiccharges 282
248
Steel Tank lnstitute (STl) 7
Tank cool-down anangements 417
105, 109
421
Storage ol f lammable liquids 260
231
Storagesysteds and conhinment categories 295
234
Storage lank dab sheol 22
Stain ess steel naleria s 232
Stomge t nks
- delinition
Surfa@ protectior iof plates and secllons 234
Stnp and bolt ancho.age 93
Tank appurtenar@s 234
100

pN 14620approach 360
244
Requiremenis ofAPl 620 355
Surface proteotion fof plates and sections 234
APl620 Appendix R 358
360
APl620AppendixQ 358
prEN 14620 approach 362
APl620 secUon 5 355
Requ rcments oJAPl620 361
Design of heat breaks 358
Requ remenis oi BS 7777 361
180 ReqLirements of BS 7777 358
Innerlank and olterliquid @ntaining lank
Connecting pipework bendeen innef and
Tankaccess 198 oulerlank @nnect ons 359
Horizontal p adorms 199 Outer @niainer moLntings 358
Rada slancase 198 36
sp Elsla rcase 198
American Code requnernenls 39
Vertlladde6 199
Annular plates >12.5 mm thick
Tankanchorage 350
F oorairangementlor ianks requiring optmum drainage
BS 7777 requirehents ?51
F oors lormed from lap welded plates only 40
p|EN 14620 app@ach 352
Requiremenls ol API 620 Appendix Q 351
Ldpppd loor pates. oraniJldrpa,a' 12.5 rm ifi.k 40

tanks
Liquid conlaining
Shel tofloorplatewelds considebtion
351
for speciic maleria s 4A
Nor-Lquid @ntainng tanks 351
Tank foors wh ch requne specia @nsideralion
Requnenrenls ol API 620 Appendix R 350
Brtish Code rcquirenrenls 36
Liqlid conlaning metalictanks 350
Tanks above 12.5 m diamelef 37
TankanchoEge furthef considerations 94
Tanks up to and includng 12.5 m diameler 36
Anchorage attachmenl 94
Env ronmenial @nsideralions 42
Spacifg ofanchors 94
Floor p aie arngements 36
Wind loading and internalseryice pessurc 94
424
Worked example 94
246, 433
Anchorage ca cu alion 97
Tank ja6king {or jack buildins) 454
Check for iranqib lity 99
454
Comp eiion oiiank design 95
Welding and inspeclior 454
Design oflhe anchoge 98 454
Alax mum urstifiened height otlhe shell 95 284
Ovefturning momenl due io wind action only 9T Permii-lo-work syslems 244
Overturning moment due io wind acton while in sewice 97 Work on equipment n operation 244

552 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPI\,IENT


244 USAEC Regulatory Guide 485

147
493 246
Vacuum bor testing method
495 24,206
496 306
Tank stability under seismic loadings 490 19,56
"variable design point" method
196 5T
Botlom shel course
197 63
Conparison of the thickness resulls
197 lcllaion
Delaibd "vadable des gn point method 63
196 56
Method deveLopmeni
Prcssurc and vacuum (P &V)valves 197 60
Tanks produced in slainless steel materials 99 Shel siifiening gnde6 76
-wind
Technigd mmbEne 304 Comparison behveen Brilish and American
241 secondary wind girder requnmerts 78

242 Primary wind g rders lo APl650 76


242 secondary wind gkdeE to APl650 76
26 60

Alowab e compressNe srress 35 Ventilation - maintenance 285


Axial skess in the shell 31 v.nting of ambient tanks 205
Actual compress ve sress 34 Deslgn code rcqu rements 206

Allowable compressive slresses for she I colrses 34 APt 2000 209

Axialstress due io wnd loading on ihe shel 34 lr.4eans oi veniing 212


Pressure limitaUons 212
Dervallon and assessmeni oI dialstress ln
a cylindrielshel 31
Re iel valve nstalaiion 212
BS 2654 2T Venting requiremenls 209
Alowab e slee stresses 29 206
Ex@ption to"one iool' rnethod 2a BS 2654 206

l,laximu.n afd minimum operating tempeEtures 30 prEN 14015 2AT

Maximum and mlnimum shl thickness 29 Venling eqlirements 207

Praclical appl calion ofihickness iormu a ,a 206


Pressure in lhe roofvapouf space 30 206
206
Princjpalfaclorsdeterminngshellthickness 2a
212
Specilicgvily or relative densLtyolthe slored producl 30 Rliefvalve equiPment
414
Tank shelldesign ilustration 31
26
Design ofthe lank shel 26
131
Failure along the length oflhe cylinder 27
very Larye Crude cariers {VLCCS) 6
Fa lure around the crcumlerence ofihe cyinder 26
243
Thermal insulation 363,463
Timber 361

Top boom of the truss 130 Waltand base liners 461

Towns gas 1 388


389
Toric materiats 245 Design Code requiremenls
Insulal on for the wals ofsingle-wa ed meiallic tanks 388
Type I steel 444,444
Loose fil insllation systens 388
Type flsteel 444,444
Rigid lnsulaton lorlhe wals oidoub e-walled lanks 388
Typ. fll steel 444,444
Wa i nsulaiion nater a s 389
Type lV steel 444,444
389
Type V steel 444,444
Type Vl steel 444 Loose li I nsulallon 391
390
u Olher plasiic loam matera s 389
UL 142 7
Perlile loose lil nsulaUon systems 390
Umbrella type dome roof '123
389
PoLyurelhane loam
UndeMrite6 Labohtories Inc (UL) T
389
Unifomly Dist buted Loads (U.D.L.s) 129
Reslienlbankel 391
United Kingdom Pressure Equipment Regulations
Water cooling systems 203
Unrestrained shell deflection and rotation at
nozle centreline 109 Specialcase Floating rooflanks 203
thE -
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPII4ENT 553
Tank cooling methods 203 Equivlent shell method 45
Fixed and lraileFmountod water cannons 204 Numbor of gideB rcquted 45
Water spy and detuge sprinktr systems 203 worked example 46
Vertical bending of the shell

4a
Weld edge preparalion 233
Wells Wde Plat6 (wWP) tests 29, 221, $4, $O Ronon and stress analysis 4A
507
Shell-to-bottom connection
Wind and vacuum stiffonlng ambisnt temperature bnt(s 43
- lvind and vacuum stiftuning
51 low temperature lanks - 324, 334, 336, 338
Ch@sing BS or APt shelt thickness design methods 53 239
51 Saiety measurcs against wind damage 240
Shelldesign slresses 51 Wlndenburg and Tdlling 329
Shell plate lhicknesses 53 wlnd girder *ctions
Use of shell design fomuiae 53 318
Worked examples 56 30
P mary wind gideE 43 Wire wound .oncrele lank walls 372
Wlre wound concrele waGr tanks 1
43
Rfining the dsign technique 43 z
Secondary wind sidels 45 57,63,328

554 STOMGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


Acknowledgements
The publishers acknowledge ihe help and assistance ofthe following organisaiions in supplying dala,
photogEphs, illusttations and where apprcp ate, permissionto reproduce matefialfrom their own publications.

Advant ca
Alibert Buckhorn UK Ltd
Amadeus Pss Ltd
Anderson Greenwood
Angus Fie
Antuerp Gas Termina NV
API (Amedcan Pelrcleum Inslitute)
BSI
Cell U Foam CoQoralion
CEN (Eumpan Commifiee for Slandad zalion)
chi@so B dse& lrcn Company(CB&l)
DEPA S,A.
DOT (US Depadmeni of Transportalion)
Eadhquake Proleclion Syslems Inc
EEMUA
EFIVA
Enagas
Endrcss+Hausr Systems & GauginS Ltd
Energy (formedy the Institute ofPetrcLeum)
'nstiluie tci Plc
lnslitute of Petroleum
lntemalional Code Council (lCC)
JFE Engineering Corpoiion
LNG JoumEl
lM W Kellogg Lid
IMB Engineering Se ices Lid
McTay
Molhsrwel Conlrol Syslems Lld
N FPA (NaUonal Fire Poleclion Association)
Nikkiso Cryo ELrrop
Philips Pelrcleum Company
Pilt-Des Molnes lnc
Pittsburgh Corning Corpoalion
Prsload lnc
Recinco NV
Roya Aronautca Soc ely
Roya Vopak

Taylor Woodrow Construciion


The Mot Otrce
Ty6 Va ves & Conlrols
Universal Shipbuilding Corporation
Whessoe
Woodside Petoleum Ltd

Aspeclal acknowldgement to Protussor A. S. Tooth


Bob Gamer is greaily indebted to the late PrcfessofAlwyn Tooth,
Prcfessor of Mechan ical Engineering, at the lJnive|siiyof Srathclyde, Glasgoq
lor his huge contribulion to ihe undersbnding ofthe theory of siorage lank design.
Much ofthe explanation to the backgrcund ofthe theory included in
the ambient tank Section of this book is taken from work produced bv Professof Toolh.

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMEI{T 556


lndex to advertisers
AConsult xviii
Allibed Buckhom Uk Ltd 527
Bayham Ltd xxvi
Braby Ltd
Brimar Plastics Ltd
Bureau Veritas
ByggwikUK Ltd x)o(t,5zl
Cookson & Zinn (PTL) Ltd
CPV Ltd xxviii
Drayton Tank & Accesso es Lld 527
Ebara Intemalional Corporction
Emco Wheaton GmbH
Fod Vale Engineedng Ltd XXII
Franklin Hodge lndustries Inside Back Cover
H[,1T Rubbaglas Ltd XViii
HSB Inspection Quality xvi
Lloyd's Regisler
I\,1W Kellogg Ltd xxviii
IvlB Engineedng Services Ltd viii
MC Inieg Ltd XXXi
I\,,1cTay Inside Ffont Cover
I\,lixing Solulions Ltd xxiv
I\,lotherwell Control Systems Ld
Nikkiso Cryo Europe xiv
Nomanby Induslries LH
Prccolor Saies Ltd

Seetru Ltd
Sinclair Slainless Fab cations Ltcl
SN Technigaz
Sui Generis Intemational Ltd
xxviii
Taylor Woodrow Construction
TesTex NDT Ltd 527
Tmctebel Gas Engineering GmbH vi

Outside Back Cover

556 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


secriona ste assembd r,ru d sr
storaqe o. po1ar.

he srrts Fr.m 10m:lo nxcessof5000m'


L quia a ! reclangu ar v ualy aiy shape .pproved lo
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