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VOLUME 10 NUMBER 1 January 2015

Table of Contents
Improving the Quality of Learning Outcomes and Enhancing the Performance of Education Systems: A Case
Study in Kuwait ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Iman C. Chahine and Faryal Khan

The Treatment of Natural Events in Geography Curricula for Secondary Schools in Germany ............................... 22
Ann Thanaraj

Global Climate Change and the Need for Relevant Curriculum ................................................................................... 35
William H. Robertson, Ph.D. and Anna Carolina Barbosa

A Retrospective Analysis of STEM Career Interest among Mathematics and Science Academy Students ............. 45
Rhonda Christensen, Gerald Knezek and Tandra Tyler-Wood

The Influence of Academic Credit System on Interpersonal Relationship in Chinese Colleges ............................... 59
Tian Guang and Wang Hong and Liu Yu

A New Force to Push Universities in the U.S. to Go Online ........................................................................................... 73


Dr. Noah Kasraie and Dr. Ala Alahmad

Analysing the Effectiveness of EngagementPromoting Techniques in the EFL Classroom ...................................... 80


Joao Carlos Koch Junior

Beyond Subitizing: Symbolic Manipulations of Numbers .............................................................................................. 93


Sinan Olkun, Arif Altun and Sakine Ger ahin

Examining Generational Differences among Diverse Families Regarding Parental School Involvement ............. 104
Gustava Cooper-Baker and Barbara N. Martin

Building the process of transformation teaching and learning according to the constructivism with the help of
dynamic geometry software in Vietnam ......................................................................................................................... 120
Ngoc-Giang Nguyen and Anh-Tai Phan

Oral Assessment and Grade Integrity: A Case Study .................................................................................................... 142


Vidar Gynnild
Creativity within the Academy: A Subjective Academic Narrative ............................................................................. 157
Dr Josie Arnold

A Study on the Impact of ICT on Collaborative Learning Processes in Libyan Higher Education ........................ 172
Thuraya Kenan, Abdussalam Elzawi, Crinela Pislaru and Maysoun Restoum
1

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 1-21, January 2015

Improving the Quality of Learning Outcomes and


Enhancing the Performance of Education Systems:
A Case Study in Kuwait

Iman C. Chahine
UNESCO-Doha
Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, SA

Faryal Khan
UNESCO-Doha

Abstract. As part of Qatar National Research Fund project, Momentum for Education
Beyond 2015: Improving the Quality of Learning Outcomes and Enhancing the
Performance of Education Systems in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Countries,
we conducted a regional case study that aims to provide empirical evidence on the
quality of education in Kuwait by examining teacher self-efficacy beliefs regarding the
teaching and learning process. The study contributes to better empirical evidence
and knowledge about the quality of education specifically in grade 4 and grade 8,
as examined in a random sample of 22 girls and boys schools across six governorates
in Kuwait. The study gathered data using quantitative methods and examined
differences in efficacy levels across grades, gender, subject matter, and geographic
regions. We anticipate that the case study provides insights on the challenges and
constraints impeding improvement in the quality of education and system-
performance in Kuwait.

Keywords: self-efficacy; assessments; expectations; learning outcomes

Motivation and Background


Within the context of Education for All (EFA) initiative, national and local governments have
made improvements in education a key priority. However, despite advances achieved
towards realizing the six EFA goals across countries over the past decade, it is projected that
not a single goal will be achieved globally by 2015(UNESCO, 2013). Similarly, for the Gulf
Cooperative Council (GCC) countries in particular, despite the fact that some progress has
been made in several areas associated with the six EFA goals, none of the countries is expected to
achieve all of the EFA goals by 2015 (see Table 1). As per several indicators cited in Table 1,
Qatar is expected to reach five of the six goals, Oman to reach three of the six, Bahrain will
reach two of the six, UAE will reach one goal, Kuwait may reach one, and no sufficient data

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on the progress of Saudi Arabia except for Goal 4 where it is expected to be far from target
(UNESCO, 2013).

Table 1. Progress of GCC Countries on EFA Goals


EFA Goals Goal 1: Goal 2: Goal 3: Goal 4: Goal 5: Goal 6:
Early Universal Youth and Adult Gender Quality of education
Childhood Primary adult skills Literacy parity and
Education Education equality
Indicators Preprimar Primary Lower Adult Gender Survival Pupil/teacher
y enrolment secondary literacy parity in rate to last ratio in
enrollmen target of education target of at primary grade primary
t target of 95% enrolment of least 95% education (2010) education
at least at least 95%
70%
Target reached Qatar Oman, Oman, Qatar Bahrain, Oman, Qatar Bahrain, Kuwait (9)
or close ( 95%) Qatar, UAE Kuwait, Kuwait Qatar (11)
Qatar Saudi
Far from Oman, Arabia(11)
target (80-94%) Saudi UAE (17)
Arabia,
UAE
Very far UAE
from target ( <
80%)
Insufficient Data Bahrain, Bahrain, Bahrain, Bahrain, Oman, Bahrain
Kuwait, Kuwait, Kuwait, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman
Oman, Saudi Saudi Arabia, Saudi Arabia, Saudi
Saudi Arabia UAE UAE Arabia
Arabia,
UAE

Effectiveness, equity, and quality of education (Goal 6) remain the primary challenges
towards realizing EFA goals for 2015 in the GCC countries. Learning outcomes vary signifi-
cantly across countries in the GCC region for which data was analyzed but are particularly
alarming in Kuwait where between two-thirds of primary-age students are failing to learn,
particularly mathematics. In grade 4, the learning performance of children in Kuwait is
below expectations, considering the countrys rate of expenditure in education (Mullis et al.,
2012a).

Given that most GCC countries in general and Kuwait in particular may miss the
education targets of EFA goals, it is all the more important to recognize the importance
of capitalizing on learning as key to ensure good-quality education. Consequently, an in-
depth empirical assessment of teachers beliefs regarding their ability to teach and as well
as their expectations is essential, as a shift in emphasis is now discernible towards quality
and learning, which are likely to be more central to the post-2015 global framework
(Psacharopoulos, 2014). As the post-2015 global education goals are expected to be more
ambitious than the EFA goals, extending to lower secondary education, such a shift is vital to
enhance teacher effectiveness and improve education opportunities for all children in
Kuwait.

The purpose of Kuwait case study is to provide an empirical assessment of the quality
of education in Kuwait by examining teachers self-efficacy toward teaching particularly
mathematics, science and reading literacy. Specifically, the case study addresses the
following research question:
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What characterizes the differences in teachers self-efficacy measures across content


areas and geographic regions in male and female public schools in Kuwait?

Theoretical Framework
The study is principled by the Evaluative Inquiry Cycle model (EIC) (Chahine & Clarkson,
2010).The EIC model, which guided the overall project execution, involves five basic tasks
that delivered chronologically during the study implementation (see Figure1).

Explore Data and


Task 5: Research
Communicate Task 1:
Findings Position the
Inquiry

Task 4: Analyze Task 2:


and Plan the
Synthesize Data Inquiry

Task 3: Collect Data

Figure1: Evaluative Inquiry Cycle Model

Education in Kuwait: Learning Outcomes


Traditionally, education assessments in Kuwait were aimed at ensuring that expected
inputs meet anticipated students needs. Outcome measures such as a satisfactory number
of skilled teachers, high teacher to student ratio, relatively small class sizes, and accessible
monetary resources were considered not only sufficient, b u t also admirable. Previous
studies within Kuwait (Aldhafeeri, Almulla & Alraqas, 2006) describe education in Kuwait as
based on memorizing and recalling information, which is an outdated method in modern
education. Instead, these researchers argue that students need to be proactive within
learning.
More recently, Education For All (EFA) initiative has arguably shifted the emphasis on
assessment from inputs to outputs, specifically focusing on the output of competency-based
learning for guiding curriculum planning across grade levels. Focusing on direct and
indirect measures of student learning such as examining teacher perceptions of learning and
collecting teacher and principal feedback on performance (Mullis et al., 2012 a, 2012b),
provide a prospect for teachers to re-think their teaching practices and outcome expectations
and to pinpoint weaknesses and suggest improvements.

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Hand, ONeil, and Sanderson (1996) argued that teaching and assessment should be
inextricably linked. Hence, quality teaching can be enhanced by enacting a proficiency
model that integrates basic knowledge of learning objectives with approaches tailored
towards reinforcing the behavioral, cognitive and affective domains. For teachers in
Kuwait to develop these models require a comprehensive knowledge of these higher-level
proficiencies as well as rigorous instructional approaches to ensure that learning outcomes
are attained. Teacher effectiveness and learning outcomes are contemporary indicators of
quality in the field of education. Garavalia et al. (2003) argue that assessment methodologies
based on the outcomes desired for learning could effectively drive new curriculum and
engaging pedagogy. The authors adopt the European characterization and describe learning
outcomes as statements of what a learner knows, understands, and is able to do after
completion of learning (Bulgarelli et al., 2009). In terms of curriculum design and
development, Adam (2004) contends that learning outcomes are necessary tools to mobilize
educational reform. He further notes that they represent a shift towards emphasizing
learning than teaching. This change was exemplified by reinforcing a student-centered
approach rather than a teacher-centered standpoint. Learning in student-centered
environments strengthen the ties between teaching, learning, and assessment and reinforces
the relationship between the learning design, implementation and assessment. Learning
outcomes provide essential evidence regarding the acquisition of desired competencies
(UNESCO, 2013). They attest to the effectiveness of education systems at delivering good-
quality education and effective learning. Furthermore, there is strong evidence in the
literature that measuring teacher efficacy for teaching in accordance with student
achievement helps to improve the quality of teacher education programs (Gordon & Debus,
2002). In a similar vein, there is a widespread emphasis on the role of teacher beliefs and self-
efficacy measures in contributing to meaningful and retainable learning.

Over the past 50 years and despite the continuing challenges ensued by rapid population
growth, the state of Kuwait has achieved wide strides in expanding educational
opportunities and reinforcing equitable distribution of services and educational activities
across the various centers in all regions of the state. The state of Kuwait has supported
numerous reform initiatives to achieve EFA goals and to promote development projects in
education by increasing the rate of expenditure to 14.5% of GDP income and 4.3% of gross
national GNP income in 2011/2012. The expenditure supported projects that targeted the
construction of new schools for boys and girls in new residential areas and providing
training opportunities through community service programs and continuing education
programs for lifelong learning. Perhaps the fundamental advancement of the State was
decline in illiteracy rates from 48.3% in 1970, to 3.8% in 2013, a clear evidence of the States
efforts to achieve the goal of universal education (Kuwait Department of Education, 2014).

Nevertheless, e x a m i n i n g a few measures of comparative performance, again with a focus


on international assessment reports TIMSS, PISA, and PIRLS, 2011 (Mullis et al., 2012a,
2012b) regarding teacher effectiveness and student learning reveals a number of key
findings:

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Finding 1: Among the six GCC countries, students in Kuwait had the lowest achievement
scores in mathematics (See Figure 2).

Achievement in Mathematics Content (grade 4)


500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

Bahrain UAE Qatar SA Oman Kuwait

Figure 2: TIMSS mathematics scores in grade 4.

Finding 2: In terms of professional development, teachers in Kuwait had the highest


frequency of attending training particularly on mathematics curriculum compared to the rest
of GCC countries (see Figure 3).

Teacher participation in professional development


90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Bahrain Kuwait Oman Qatar SA UAE

Math content Math pedagogy /instruction Math curriculum


Integrating IT in math Math assessment

Figure 3: Teacher participation in professional Development in Kuwait.


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Finding 3: percentage of students whose teachers reported that they feel confident to teach
mathematics in Kuwait is the lowest compared to the rest of the GCC countries (see Figure
4).

Confidence in Teaching Math


100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
UAE Qatar Oman SA Bahrain Kuwait

Figure 4. Teacher confidence for teaching mathematics in GCC countries.

Overall, we found significant discrepancies between the performance and outputs of


education systems across the six GCC countries. This study sheds light on how teachers self
efficacy beliefs about the teaching vary across subject matters, gender, and geographic
locations. We argue that a closer look at teacher related constructs will help explore the
nature of major challenges facing teachers hereby facilitating focused efforts that transform
educational practices toward a robust post 2015 agenda.

Methodology
Design
This case study employs quantitative techniques. The rationale for using such a design is to
measure how different are teacher efficacy levels across gender, subject matter taught, gender,
and geographic locations. The study utilizes a nationally representative sample of schools
and relies on surveys collected in close collaboration between UNESCO Doha research
team and Kuwait National Commission.

Sampling strategy
The sample comprises 22 schools randomly selected from a population of 802 schools. To
ensure sample representativeness and using 2013-2014 school distribution data, we focused
recruitment efforts on elementary and middle school across the six governorates in Kuwait:
Al-Ahmadi, Al-Jahra, Hawalli, Al-Asema, Al-Farwaniya, and Mubarak Al-Kabeer (See
Figure 5 for the distribution of schools across the six governorates).

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Figure 5: Distribution of K-12 public schools across six school governorates in Kuwait.

Within each school governorate, we randomly selected one girls school and one boys school
at both the elementary and middle level. Using the RANDBETWEEN and INDEX functions
in Excel, we generated random lists of schools across the six governorates (See Table 2). In
this study, we report on data collected from grades 4 & 8.
Table 2: Distribution of sample across governorates and schools
Schools Total Teachers
schools Science/Math/Literacy
Governorate Elementary: Middle: (per (assuming different teachers)
Grade 4 Grade 8 governo
Girls Boys Girls Boys rate)
Al-Ahmadi 2 4 2 0 3 6 schoolsx3 teachers=18 teachers (G4)
2 schools x2 teachers=4 teachers(G8)
Total=22
Al-Jahra 2 2 0 2 3 4 schoolsx3teachers=12 teachers (G4)
, 2schoolsx2teachers=4 teachers (G8)
Total=16
Hawalli 2 2 3 1 4 4schoolsx3teachers=12 teachers(G4)
4schoolsx2teachers=8 teachers(G8)
Total=20
Al Farwaniya 2 2 2 1 4 4schoolsx3teachers=12teachers
3schoolsx2teachers=6teachers
Total=18
Mubarak Al 2 2 2 1 4 4schoolsx3teachers=12teachers
Kabeer 3schoolsx2teachers=6teachers
Total=18
Al Asema 3 2 2 1 4 5schoolsx3teachers=15teachers
3schoolsx2teachers=6teachers
Total=21
STUDY SAMPLE 22 115

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Based on the random selection of the school sample, we recruited 115 grade 4 & 8
teachers of mathematics, science, and reading literacy to participate in the study.

In this study, we argue that the selection of schools using random sampling strategies
potentially guards against sampling error by reducing under-representativeness bias.
Furthermore, the purposive sample of 22 schools provides in-depth descriptions of how
these schools operate which in turn can help identify relevant parameters for follow-up
studies.

Data Collection
Before conducting the questionnaires and interviews, permissions were sought and
participants were asked to sign off on consent forms declaring their intent to volunteer in the
study. We employed an Arabic version (AlKhateeb, 2004) of Mathematics Teaching Efficacy
Belief Instrument (MTEBI) developed by Enochs et al. (2000). The MTEBI is an instrument
specifically designed to measure teacher beliefs in their ability to teach mathematics
effectively. The instrument consists of 27 items comprising 13 items on the Personal
Mathematics Teaching Efficacy (PMTE) subscale, 8 items on the Mathematics Teaching
Outcome Expectancy (MTOE) subscale, and 6 items on Teacher Expectations (EX). Each item
is scored on a 5-point Likert scale response: 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (unsure), 4
(Agree), and 5 (strongly agree). The instrument was adapted to assess teaching efficacy of
science and Arabic reading literacy (See appendix A).

Data Analysis
The quantitative data analysis of all surveys and questionnaires were tested for internal
consistency and validity using Cronbachs alpha coefficient as measure. Additionally,
frequencies were run to examine the percentages of responses on efficacy questionnaires.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was employed to explore significant differences across
several independent variables including school governorates, grade levels, gender, and
school subjects.

Results
To verify the internal consistency for teaching mathematics, science, and reading literacy
efficacy questionnaires, a reliability analysis technique was run. Cronbachs alpha coefficient
was the statistic used to measure the internal consistency of a scale and was interpreted in
the same way as a correlation. A significantly high Cronbachs alpha of .729 for the 27 items
on the efficacy questionnaires indicates that all items are correlated with one another thereby
reliably measure the construct of efficacy (See Table 3 below).

Table 3: Reliability Statistics

Cronbach's Alpha Based on


Cronbach's Alpha Standardized Items N of Items
.729 .703 27

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We also report the response rate across schools and governorates as shown in Figure 6
below and we noted discrepancy in teacher response rate on the efficacy questionnaires
between girls and boys schools.

16
14
14
12 11
10
8
6 5
4 3
2
0
Boys Girls Boys Girls
GRADE 8(EFF) GRADE 4(EFF)
Math 3 5 11 14
Science 3 5 11 11
Literacy 5 8 7 9

Math Science Literacy

Figure 6: Teacher response rate across gender and grade level.


Furthermore, we used SPSS to run Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) method in an attempt to
explore differences in teachers responses on the efficacy questionnaires across the school
governorates, grade levels, and subject matter. Additionally, we tested ANOVA assumption
of normality for each question item by examining skewness and kurtosis measures, which
fell within acceptable range (between -1.5 and 1.5) for most of the items. Therefore, we
concluded that the 21 efficacy items and 6 expectation items have passed the normality test
(see Table 4 below).

Table 4. Testing for normality for the 27 items

Test Item Skewness Kurtosis


Q1 -.876 -.001
Q2 -.467 -.825
Q3 .127 -1.595
Q4 -.862 -.448
Q5 -.296 -.924
Q6 .463 -1.185
Q7 .180 -.796
Q8 .850 -.407
Q9 -.506 -1.082
Q10 -.387 -.640
Q11 -.630 -.541
Q12 -1.093 .763

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Q13 -.759 .490


Q14 -.629 .381
Q15 .399 -1.188
Q16 -.549 -1.123
Q17 -.669 -.671
Q18 .266 -1.229
Q19 .804 -.310
Q20 -.908 -.526
Q21 .274 -1.405
EX1 .101 -.324
EX2 -.127 -.619
EX3 -.571 .919
EX4 -.472 .241
EX5 -.601 -.110
EX6 -.002 -.719

Efficacy Results
A number of significant findings emerged as we analyzed teacher responses to the efficacy
questionnaires. The results were compared across the six school governorates, grade levels
(grades 4 & 8), gender, and subjects (math, science, and literacy).

Efficacy levels: Grade 4


At the elementary level, we found the following significant differences (<.05) in efficacy levels
(See ANOVA table in Figure 7 for related statistics):

ANOVA
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Q8 Between Groups 3.951 5 .790 2.479 .044
Within Groups 16.259 51 .319
Total 20.211 56
Q10 Between Groups 4.272 5 .854 3.151 .015
Within Groups 14.372 53 .271
Total 18.644 58
Q12 Between Groups 10.122 5 2.024 2.456 .045
Within Groups 42.861 52 .824
Total 52.983 57
Q13 Between Groups 7.539 5 1.508 2.743 .028
Within Groups 29.139 53 .550

Total 36.678 58
Q14 Between Groups 6.491 5 1.298 3.807 .005
Within Groups 17.733 52 .341

Total 24.224 57
Figure 7. ANOVA results using SPSS for Q8, Q10, Q12, Q13, and Q14.

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There were significant differences (p=.04 at <.05) among teachers responses on Q8 (I will
generally teach ineffectively), which reflected a discrepancy in the way teachers perceive
their ability to teach their subjects across the different governorates (See Figure 8).

Figure 8. Mean plot for teacher responses across the six school governorates in Kuwait

We argue that the differences in the way teachers perceive their effectiveness are perhaps
linked to existing policies within each governorate. Such policies play major roles in
promoting or hindering teachers from being active decision makers influencing the teaching
and learning in their classrooms. Despite the fact that the education system in Kuwait is
centralized and monitored by the Ministry of Education which institutes provisions covering
laws regulating the overall operations of public and private educational institutions
(UNESCO, 2011), discrepancies emerge across governorates regarding rules as to the day-to-
day execution of tasks and the opportunities and constraints afforded at the grass root level.
This, we argue, affect teachers perspectives and perceptions regarding their role as agents of
change in the classroom.

Furthermore, we noted significant variations across governorates in terms of how teachers


perceive the impact of their efforts on student achievement. For example, we found
significant differences in degrees of agreement on Q10 (When a low-achieving child
progresses it is usually due to extra attention given by the teacher) (p=.015 at <.05); on Q12
(The teacher is generally responsible for the achievement of students) (p=.045 at <.05); and
on Q13 (Students' achievement is directly related to teacher's effectiveness in teaching) (See
Figure 9: a,b,c) (p=0.28 at <.05). The differences were mostly prevalent between the
suburban (such as Al-Ahmadi and Jahraa, the two largest governorates in Kuwait) and the
urban districts, which comprise four suburban governorates.

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(b)
(a)

(c)

Figure 9. Mean plot of teacher responses on Q10 (a), Q12 (b), and Q13(c).

We attribute these differences to the level of training that teachers might have had
particularly in areas related to the psychology of teaching and learning, across the different
governorates. Despite the fact that education system in Kuwait is undergoing major reforms
in the area of teacher certification and training, there are seemingly noticeable disparities in
the quality of opportunities provided across geographic locations.

Moreover, significant differences in level of agreement were reported in the way parents in
different governorates perceive the role of the teacher (Q14: If parents comment that their
child is showing more interest in mathematics at school, it is probably due to the
performance of the child's teacher) (p=.015 at <.05) (See Figure 10). For the same reason, the
differences seem to arise between urban (Hawalli) and suburban (Jahraa) governorates.

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Figure 10. Mean plot of teacher responses on Q14 across governorates.

1. We noted significant differences between teachers responses across girls and boys
schools particularly in relation to teaching effectiveness and student learning (see ANOVA
table in Figure 11 below).
ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Q1 Between Groups 2.641 1 2.641 6.015 .017
Within Groups 27.219 62 .439
Total 29.859 63
Q4 Between Groups 2.378 1 2.378 5.435 .023
Within Groups 27.561 63 .437
Total 29.938 64
Q9 Between Groups 5.063 1 5.063 6.842 .011
Within Groups 45.875 62 .740
Total 50.937 63
Q10 Between Groups 1.373 1 1.373 4.629 .035
Within Groups 18.688 63 .297
Total 20.062 64
Q13 Between Groups 5.709 1 5.709 10.951 .002
Within Groups 32.845 63 .521
Total 38.554 64
Q14 Between Groups 3.516 1 3.516 8.954 .004
Within Groups 24.344 62 .393
Total 27.859 63
Q16 Between Groups 2.992 1 2.992 4.961 .030
Within Groups 36.185 60 .603
Total 39.177 61
Figure 11. SPSS ANOVA results for Q1, Q4, Q9, Q10, Q13, Q14, and Q16.

Of particular interest is the differential level of agreement between male and female
teachers regarding the correlation between student achievement and teacher effectiveness
(Q14) (p=.004 at <.05). For example, while female teachers strongly agree that student
achievement is directly related to teachers effectiveness, male teachers slightly agree (See
Figure 12).
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Figure 12. Differential level of agreement regarding the relationship of teacher effectiveness
and student achievement between male and female elementary teachers.

We interpret the above result as pertaining to the perspective that female teachers who teach
girls tend to view themselves as more nurturing and engaging hereby positively influencing
student learning (Carrington et al., 2008).

2. Across math, science and literacy teaching, we also noted significant


differences (p=.010 at <.05) only in teachers expectations regarding other teachers beliefs
in their students learning (see ANOVA table in Figure 13 below).

ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
EX3 Between Groups 5.928 2 2.964 5.019 .010
Within Groups 34.846 59 .591
Total 40.774 61
Figure 13. SPSS ANOVA results for EX3

Contrary to mathematics and literacy teachers who agreed that their fellow teachers expects
their students to master basic mathematics and reading skills, science teachers were not sure
(see Figure 14).

Figure 14. Differential level of agreement among math, science and literacy teachers regarding
other teachers belief in their students learning

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In conclusion, differences in several efficacy levels emerged as we examined the self-efficacy


beliefs of grade 4 teachers across subjects, gender and geographic locations in Kuwait. We
argue that a closer look at these differences could help shed some light on some of the
challenges facing education system in Kuwait in realizing the goals of Education for All
agenda, particularly goal 6 which pertains to quality of education.

Efficacy Levels: Grade 8


At the middle level, we found the following significant differences (<.05) in efficacy levels:
1. Across governorates, we noted differences in the way teachers perceive their
ability to improve their practices and their beliefs regarding how students are performing at
an average level (see ANOVA table in Figure 14).

ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Q2 Between Groups 3.643 5 .729 4.987 .003
Within Groups 3.214 22 .146
Total 6.857 27
EX4 Between Groups 9.675 4 2.419 4.292 .010
Within Groups 12.399 22 .564
Total 22.074 26
Figure 14. SPSS ANOVA results for Q2 and EX4

For example, there were significant differences (p=.003 at <.05) in agreement on Q2 (I will
continually find better ways to teach) within urban governorates (Asema and Mubkabir) and
between urban and suburban (Asema and Al-Ahmadi) (See Figure 15 below).

Figure 15.Differential level of agreement in teachers perception of their ability to improve their
practices across governorates

Furthermore, we noted differences (p=.010 at <.05) in teacher agreement levels on EX4 (I


expect that most students in my school will perform at about the national average in
academic achievement) across the six governorates (See Figure 16).

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Figure 16. Differential level of agreement in teachers expectations across governorates

Interestingly, while there were no differences noted in the level of agreement in teachers
expectations across urban governorates, we found significant differences between the two
suburban governorates (Al-Ahmadi and Jahraa). It is worth noting that according to 2014
Kuwait Population Census, Al-Ahmadi governorate has the highest Kuwaiti population
(265,423 Kuwaiti nationals) which constitutes 32.8% of the total population compared to
Jahraa that has the smallest Kuwaiti population (171,808 Kuwaiti nationals) with only 3.5% of
the overall population. This led us to believe that the discrepancy in expectations could be
due to the social composition of the population in each governorate where teachers come
from.
2. Across gender, there were significant differences (p=.002 at <.05) in teachers
expectations of their students (See ANOVA table in Figure 17 below).

ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
EX4 Between Groups 7.456 1 7.456 12.752 .001
Within Groups 14.618 25 .585
Total 22.074 26
Figure 17. SPSS ANOVA results for EX4

Differences between agreement levels on EX4 (I expect that most students in my school will
perform at about the national average in academic achievement) reported between male and
female teachers suggest that in general, teachers in girls schools have seemingly higher
expectations of their students than the boys schools (See Figure 18 below).

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Figure 18. Differential levels of agreement in female versus male teachers expectations

On the other hand, across subject areas, on Q1(When a student does better than usual it is
often because the teacher exerted a little extra effort) science teachers tended to agree more
than math and literacy teachers on efficacy related to teachers effectiveness and student
achievement. However, literacy teachers had higher expectations of their students than
teachers of mathematics and science (See table below in Figure 19). However, while math
and science teachers tend to disagree strongly on Q3 (Even if I try very hard, I will not teach
as well), literacy teachers were uncertain.

ANOVA

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.


Q1 Between Groups 2.601 2 1.300 6.512 .005
Within Groups 5.192 26 .200
Total 7.793 28
Q3 Between Groups 9.691 2 4.846 3.810 .035
Within Groups 33.067 26 1.272
Total 42.759 28
Q7 Between Groups 7.232 2 3.616 3.809 .036
Within Groups 23.732 25 .949
Total 30.964 27
Q10 Between Groups 1.929 2 .964 3.529 .044
Within Groups 7.106 26 .273
Total 9.034 28

Figure 19: SPSS ANOVA results for Q1,Q3,Q7,Q10

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18

Figure 19. Differential levels of agreement in across subject areas

Additionally, literacy teachers agree on Q7 (If students are underachieving, it is most likely
due to ineffective teaching) however, math and science teachers were uncertain. Finally,
while science and literacy teachers strongly agree that ineffective teaching is correlated with
student under achievement, math teacher only slightly agree.

Discussion
Over the past 50 years and despite the continuing challenges ensued by rapid population
growth, Kuwait achieved wide strides in expanding educational opportunities and
reinforcing equitable distribution of services and educational activities across the various
centers in all regions of the state. Recently, Kuwait began implementing the revised
curriculum in mathematics and science gradually in K-12 grades. It is proposed that the new
curricula represent a shift in the way teachers deliver and facilitate the instruction in the
classroom, with deeper emphasis on scientific explorations and critical thinking. Along with
this reform movement, the State of Kuwait has supported numerous reform initiatives to
promote development projects in education by increasing the rate of expenditure to 14.5% of
GDP income and 4.3% of gross national GNP income in 2011/ 2012 (Department of
Education, 2014). The expenditure supported projects that targeted the construction of new
schools for boys and girls in new residential areas and providing training opportunities

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19

through community service programs and continuing education programs for lifelong
learning.

However, and despite educational efforts and significant financial investments and
expenditures on development projects by the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Higher
Education, issues related to teacher effectiveness and ways to strengthen teachers beliefs in
their abilities to be major stakeholders in the education process are still questionable. Results
of international and national assessments showed that Kuwaiti students are not performing
up to international standards in mathematics, science, and reading particularly at the 4th
grade. As the results of this case study indicate, teacher motivation and efficacy are arguably
major challenges facing the educational system in Kuwait. Perhaps what is needed is to
provide a highly efficient system for supporting teachers by developing an infrastructure
that will enhance their teaching capabilities and strengthen their content and pedagogical
knowledge. Concomitantly, situated within this new system is a deliberate consideration of
teacher efficacy as a construct that draws heavily on cultural, gender, and subject matter
differences from one teacher to another.

This shift can be achieved by instituting a system for professional development for
teachers to keep them up-to-date vis--vis the latest development of curricula and teaching
methods as well as evaluation and leadership. Such reform initiatives is not limited to
funding, but extend to include adjustments to existing policies related to administrative
operations, school leadership and all administrative and technical regulations relating to
education and training in the State.

Acknowledgment
This publication was made possible by NPRP Grant No: NPRP 6 - 828 - 5 098 from the
Qatar National Research Fund (a member of Qatar Foundation). The statements made herein
are solely the responsibility of the authors.

References
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Alkhateeb, H.M. (2004). Internal consistency, reliability, and validity of the Arabic translation of the
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practices in Europe (Cedefop Reference Series 72). Office for Official Publications of the
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Enochs, L.G., Smith, P.L., Huinker, D. (2000). Establishing factorial validity of the mathematics
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Garavalia, L. S., Marken, P. A. & Sommi, R. W. (2003). Selecting appropriate assessment methods:
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UNESCO (2011). World data on Education. Paris, France: Author.

Appendix A
Mathematics/Science/Literacy Teaching Efficacy Beliefs Instrument (M/S/LTEBI)

Please indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with each statement below by circling the
appropriate letters to the right of each statement.

SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; UN = Uncertain D= Disagree; SD= Strongly Disagree


1. When a student does better than usual in SA A UN D SD
mathematics/science/literacy, it is often because the
teacher exerted a little extra effort
2. I will continually find better ways to teach SA A UN D SD
mathematics/science/literacy
3. Even if I try very hard, I will not teach SA A UN D SD
mathematics/science/literacy as well as I will most
subjects
4. When the mathematics/science/literacy grades of SA A UN D SD
students improve, it is often due to their teacher having
found a more effective teaching approach.
5. I know how to teach mathematics/science/literacy SA A UN D SD
concepts effectively
6. I will not be very effective in monitoring SA A UN D SD
mathematics/science/literacy activities.
7. If students are underachieving in mathematics, it is SA A UN D SD
most likely due to ineffective
mathematics/science/literacy teaching
8. I will generally teach mathematics/science/literacy SA A UN D SD
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21

ineffectively.
9. The inadequacy of a student's mathematics /science / SA A UN D SD
literacy background can be overcome by good teaching.
10. When a low-achieving child progresses in mathematics SA A UN D SD
/science/literacy, it is usually due to extra attention given
by the teacher.
11. I understand mathematics/science/literacy concepts SA A UN D SD
well enough to be effective in teaching
mathematics/science/literacy
12. The teacher is generally responsible for the achievement SA A UN D SD
of students in mathematics/science/literacy.
13. Students' achievement in mathematics/science/literacy SA A UN D SD
is directly related to their teacher's effectiveness in
mathematics/science/literacy teaching
14. If parents comment that their child is showing more SA A UN D SD
interest in mathematics/science/literacy at school, it is
probably due the performance of the child's teacher.
15. I will find it difficult to use resources to explain to SA A UN D SD
students why mathematics/science/literacy works.
16. I will typically be able to answer students' questions. SA A UN D SD
17. I wonder if I will have the necessary skills to teach SA A UN D SD
mathematics/science/literacy.
18. Given a choice, I will not invite the principal to SA A UN D SD
evaluate my mathematics/science/literacy teaching.
19. When a student has difficulty understanding a SA A UN D SD
mathematics/science/literacy concept, I will usually be at a
loss as to how to help the student understand it better.
20.When teaching mathematics/science/literacy, I will SA A UN D SD
usually welcome student questions
21. I do not know what to do to turn students on to SA A UN D SD
mathematics/science/literacy.
EX1. Most of the students in my school will be at about the SA A UN D SD
national average in academic achievement.
EX2. Most students in my school are capable of mastering SA A UN D SD
grade level academic objectives.
EX3. Teachers in my school generally believe most students SA A UN D SD
are able to master the basic reading/math skills.
EX4. I expect that most students in my school will perform SA A UN D SD
at about the national average in academic achievement.
EX5. Nearly all my students will be at or above grade level SA A UN D SD
by the end of this year.
EX6. I expect most students in my school will perform SA A UN D SD
below the national average in academic achievement.

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22

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 22-34, January 2015

The Treatment of Natural Events in Geography


Curricula for Secondary Schools in Germany

PD Dr. Stefanie Zecha and PD Dr. Martin Trappe


Katholische Universitt Eichsttt

Abstract. This article explores how the German school curricula for
geography in lower secondary schools deal with the term natural event,
including hazards, risks, and catastrophes. It relates the selection of
Germanys lower secondary curricula with the idea that geography is
only a scoring subject in these schools and that todays children should
be treated as the adults of tomorrow. The organization of German
education in 16 autonomy regions is briefly described. The authors use
the content analysis in combination with quantitative and qualitative
research methods. This study includes all secondary curricula published
by the regional educational ministries from 2014. After developing a
category system, this paper first conducts a quantitative analysis of the
terms natural risk and catastrophe, and then investigates the related
contents. The outcomes of such curriculum analysis are also presented
graphically. The results show that the terms as well as the contents
related to them are not implemented in the same manner. A look at the
terms will mostly provide the term natural catastrophe, followed by the
term natural event. A close look at the kind of natural catastrophes
mentioned in the curricula indicates that such catastrophes are not really
relevant in the context of Germany.

Keywords: natural catastrophe, secondary curricula, Germany, content


analysis

1. Introduction
Global statistics reveal a massive increase in the number of disasters and disaster
impacts within the last few decades. Natural disasters have caused more than 3.3
million deaths and $2.3 trillion is needed to mend the consequent economic damages in
the last four decades (WB, 2010, p. 10). Thus, the process of preventing and reducing
natural hazards has gained in importance (Stoltman et al. 2004, p. 6). In this context,
young people are educated on the basis of the idea that they would multiply the human
race and that they are the adults of tomorrow. Hazards education in schools can play a
vital role in increasing a communitys capacity of being ready, willing, and able to do
what is necessary to prepare for and respond to a disaster (Stoltman et al. 2004, p. 95).
Also, geography gives the possibility to study the complex relationships between human
beings and the environment. On the one side students learn to understand the physical
process and socio-cultural systems, as well as they broaden their perspectives about the
changing of the environment. For these reasons, geography is the perfect subject for
teaching natural hazards (Geipel, 1996).

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23

A close look to the history of geographical education in Germany shows us that natural
hazards have long been part of geography lessons. Natural hazards were mentioned
even in German school books published in 1926, and a lot of studies having interests in
geographical themes show that pupils are hugely interested in natural catastrophes and
they are the most chosen subject in geography lessons across all school types and classes
in Germany (Hemmer and Hemmer, 2006). An interesting question is: exactly, which
role do natural catastrophes play in the instructional system of the subject geography?
The design and spread of curriculum materials is one of the oldest strategies for
influencing classroom instructions (Dow, 1991). For this reason, the authors analyse in
this article the current situation of natural hazards in the school curricula of lower
secondary schools in Germany.

2. Theoretical base
In this chapter, the current stage of research regarding natural hazards is shown. Also,
the terms natural hazards, natural events, natural risks, and natural catastrophes are
defined, and a short insight into the German curricula situation is given.

2.1 Research review


Stoltman at al. (Stoltman, 1996) describes how natural hazards were treated in the
curricula of different nations, such as Australia and France, at the end of the 20th
century. In England, the topic of natural disasters has been focused in the national
curriculum on tectonic processes, geomorphologic processes, and weather and climate
issues which basically falls into the category of physical geography (Sinha et al., 2009, p.
11). In France, the topic of natural catastrophes forms a fixed part of the school
curriculum since 2001 with the title Les socits face aux risques.
In Germany, the topic of natural hazards has a long tradition in geography lessons and
they are mostly taught as a part of physical education. First publications on this topic in
German geography didactic papers were in the year 1968 (Bauer, 1969; Fick, 1970;
Brucker, 1976; Birkenfeld, 1982, Geipel 1982). It seems that interest in this theme
gradually faded in the 1990s. There are only a handful of articles on this topic in this
decade. Since 2000 there have been special issues that have been treating this theme from
the perspective of geography didactics (Geographie Heute [2000], Praxis Geographie
[2008]). The newest publications are from Hemmer et al. , 2011, and also from Otto, K. H
(2011).

The investigation gap in Germany implies that national hazards have not been
systematically investigated till now, which holds true for the kind represented in the
current curricula in German lower secondary schools.

2.2 Definitions: Natural event, natural hazard, natural risk, and natural catastrophe.

Cutter (2001, p. 3) says, The distinction between hazard, risk, and disaster is important
because it illustrates the diversity of perspectives on how we recognize and assess
environmental threats (risks), what we do about them (hazards), and how we respond to
them after they occur (disasters). For this reason the phenomena of natural event,
natural hazard, natural risk and natural catastrophe will be explained.

2.2.1 Natural event.


Dikau and Weichselgartner describe the appearance of natural processes like
inundations and volcanic eruption a natural event. If the natural event goes beyond a
certain limit, people see the natural event as a danger. This limit varies from one person

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to another and differs from one society to another; it also changes over time (Dikau &
Weichselgartner, 2005). The reasons for the appearances of such natural processes can be
meteorological, geological, or biological (Plate, 2001). Natural events have no human
danger (Dikau et al. , 2007). One example is inundations in and around Greenland, as
they do not bear damage to people and anything having material value (Dikau et al. ,
2007).

2.2.2 Natural hazards.


Dikau and Weichselgartner (2005) define natural hazard as a natural process that
contains a potential threat for the lives and the property of human beings. The frequency
and dimension of such natural processes exceed a certain level: which is related to
damage to people or the living ground. In a more strict definition natural hazards show
the possibility that in future a natural event will occur which causes damage (Dikau et
al. , 2005, p. 180). Normally authors concentrate on humans (which, we might note, is
anthropocentric). Natural hazard have to be distinguished from an extreme event and a
disaster. The definition of an extreme event is an unusual event; it does not necessarily
cause harm.
There are different categories of natural hazards: geological hazards, hydrological
hazards, meteorological hazards, and biological hazards (Dikau et al. , 2007).

2.2.3 Natural risk.


The term risk is closely related to natural hazard. It is described as a situation or event,
which overwhelms local capacity, necessitating a request to national or international
level for external assistance; an unforeseen and often sudden event that causes great
damage, destruction and human suffering. With reference to natural hazards, the
definition of risk very often is expressed as a product of two or more components.
Ansell and Wharton (1992) express it in the following way: risk = (likelihood of hazard
occurrence)x (consequence), where the likelihood is expressed as a probability (e.g., 20%)
or frequency (e.g., one in five years) of the occurrence of the disaster (Ansell et al, 1992).
The consequence means measuring the consequences of the hazard to people as well as
houses and natural environments (Ansell & Wharton, 1992). It can be regarded as a
mixture of three different aspects: people , who will die, people who will be injured and
the damage to the environment.. The definition was confirmed by Tobin & Montz (2007),
but they use instead of consequences the term vulnerability: risk= (hazard probability) x
(vulnerability). Vulnerability is defined as the potential for loss (human, physical,
economic, natural, or social) due to a hazardous event; it is the characteristics and
circumstances of a community, system or asset, which make it susceptible to the
damaging effects of a hazard (UNISDR, 2009, p. 30). The scale to measure it ranges from
zero to one. Risk elements are objects in an endangered area, and they are embraced as a
consequence of differently used monuments (e.g., places to live), infrastructure (e.g.,
streets), any kind of usable surface (e.g., industrial areas or agricultural fields), and
people living in these areas (Dikau et al., 2007, p. 1033).

2.2.4 Natural catastrophe.


The question is when a natural event becomes a natural catastrophe? The definitions of
both the terms are very general, and they only relate to the term catastrophe. For
example, Mechler (2004) defines natural catastrophe as an exceptional natural event
with heavy effects for the human being and the economy. Natural catastrophe presents
a large dimension; it comes suddenly and unexpectedly in a short period. It can claim
human sacrifices and cause widespread economic damage (Dikau & Weichselgartner,
2005). To measure these effects and compare it between different events, events have to

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25

be classified. Normal criteria are the number of deaths, injured people, the damage to the
economy, or the costs required for rescue and search action. Mechler (2004) says that a
natural catastrophe causes the attacked regions self-aid capacity to exceed and hence the
region needs supra-national or international aid. In general, this happens if the amount
of deaths exceed thousands and there are large numbers of homeless people, or if there
is extensive economic damage.

2.3 Curricula situation in Germany, especially for the subject geography.


Curricula are a very important element, to transmit information about natural events to
the children at school. They give the baseline for teaching, the content of teaching and
the objectives of teaching (Bhn, 1997). Case studies have become increasingly important
in curriculawhich follow the principles of exemplarity because it is no longer
possible to have encyclopedic knowledge due to the increasing amount of information
(Seneganik, 2005). There is a federal governmental system in Germany, and each of the
16 regions have their own curricula. Contents and aims can be understood in particular
historical and social backgrounds. Each region has its own curricula and they are
somehow different in certain details. Also, one can get information about the themes and
the contents of the topics. Besides this curricula give overviews about the didactic and
methodological use. Furthermore, the curricula contain introductions to the didactic and
methodological implementation. And finally, one can find suggestions relating to
teaching lessons. The curricula in Germany is supervised from the education ministry
and thus they are authorized instructions; teachers have to stick to these instructions. In
a lot of curricula the content is rather vague and hence the teacher has to decide how to
fill the content (Ikonen, 2009).

In nowadays each regional government installs a curriculum commission, which creates


a new curriculum in discussion with different social groups. It is not possible to present
the process for all 16 regions. For this reason, the authors now provide a deeper insight
into the process of curricula planning for Bavaria. The most important institution is the
Ministry of Education and the State Institute of School Education and Investigation for
Education (Staatsintitut fr Schulpdagogik). The Institute of School Education belongs
to the Ministry of Education and follows its orders. A curricula commission is
responsible for the precise development of specific school subjects., which chief is the
representive of the subject in the ISB. Ministry officials normally appoint five teachers
after the proposal of the Institute of Education; the teachers, while still working at their
schools, join the commission. Besides, can be included advisors like scientists from the
didactic part or the subject part of the university (Hopmann, 2010).

The contents of the curricula and standards form the base of schoolbooks and thus if the
theme does not appear there, there is scant chance that it would appear in the
schoolbooks (Ikonen, 2009).

The following questions emerge after going through the theoretical part:

Which terms of natural hazards are used in different curricula?


Which kind of natural hazards are presented in the curricula?
Which content is related to the theme natural hazards?
Which regions are related to the examples of natural hazards?
What are the similarities and differences between the different curricula of the
regions in terms of natural hazards?

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26

2. Methods and resources


To analyse the curricula of the different regions in more depth, a special method known
as content analysis has been chosen. Cohen et al. (2007) define content analysis simply as
the process of four Cs, namely coding, categorizing, comparing, and concluding. In
addition, categorizing refers to developing meaningful categories into which words,
phrases, sentences, among others, can be grouped as the units of analysis, while
comparing means establishing connections between the categories. Finally, concluding
stands for drawing theoretical considerations on the basis of the text and the results of
the analysis (Cohen et al., 2007).
The author has used a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods in the
method of content analysis (Mayring, 2002).

2.2 Quantitative and qualitative method.


2.2.1 Quantitative analysis.
Quantitative methods are used to measure different aspects, such as word places or
dates of the curricula, in terms of frequency. In this investigation the categories are
denoted by different terms like natural event, natural hazard, natural risk, natural
catastrophe as well as by different kinds of natural hazards (e.g. earthquake) and the
region related to them.

2.2.2 Qualitative analysis.


Zhang and Wildemuth (2009, p. 308) outline that the qualitative content analysis goes
beyond merely counting words or extracting objective content from texts to examine
meanings, themes and patterns that may be manifest or latent in a particular text. In this
article, the authors look at the content of the different natural hazards. According to
Flick (2010, p. 405) mixing of qualitative and quantitative methods as a possibility for
triangulation is used as a strategy of improving the quality of qualitative research.

2.2.3 Trustworthiness.
In the case of content analysis, reliability goes along with the notions of stability,
reproducibility, and accuracy (Weber, 1990, p. 120). To guarantee this, the categories
have to be clearly defined and have to possess the intercoder reliability, which means
that the same results of coding are obtained from two different coders. Such
intercoderbility has a value in this case 0.8 (Weber, 1990, p. 121).

2.2 Resources.
To fully capture the topic of natural hazard one has to start with the curriculum since it
is the foundation for any schoolbook. The study includes every German curriculum used
in lower secondary schools throughout 2014. Curricula always indicate developments in
the field of education and current discourses within society (Apel, 1991, p. 6). They also
provide answers to contemporary challenges. The topic of natural hazard is one example
of these challenges. The authors chose geography because recent studies have not
considered it in this form. The 16 federal states of Germany have cultural sovereignty,
which leads to different curricula for geography across the nation. This diversity
complicates a study for the entire federal territory. In total, the authors has analysed 60
curriculaall of them were represented in a digital manner so that an electronically
keyword research was possible.

3. Results: Investigation of the secondary geography school curricula


In this section, the findings of the comparison between the different secondary curricula
are given.

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27

3.1 Some important results in relation to the terms natural event, natural hazard,
natural risk, natural catastrophe.

3.1.1 Quantitative perspective.


First the results to the frequency of the categories natural event, natural hazard, natural
risk, and natural catastrophe in the secondary curriculum are shown.

Table 1: Terms in the current curricula of geography in lower secondary schools in


different regions of Germany

(R: Realschule; G: Gymnasium;


BW: Baden-Wrttemberg; BY Bayern; BE: Berlin; BB: Brandenburg; HB: Bremen; HH:
Hamburg; HE: Hessen; MV: Mecklenburg-Vorpommern; NI: Niedersachsen; NW:
Nordrhein-Westfalen; RP: Rheinland-Pfalz; SL: Saarland; SN: Sachsen; ST: Sachsen-
Anhalt; SH: Schleswig-Holstein; TH: Thringen)

Table 1 shows that there is no term used in the curricula in Bremen (HB). The term used
by different commissions is natural catastrophe, followed by natural event, which is
used in seven regions, and then natural risk, which is used in four regions, and finally,
the term natural hazard, which is used in three regions. In the regions Niedersachsen
(NI), Nordrhein-Westfalen (NW) and Thringen (TH), the term natural catastrophe
simply does not appear. Only two terms appear in most cases. Only in Sachsen (SN)
three terms can be found: hazard, risk, and catastrophe.

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28

A qualitative interview investigation with the people of the commission can show the
reasons behind the absence of terms in the curricula of Bremen (HB). One significant
result is that the term natural catastrophe appears very oftenthis is because German
schools usually start teaching natural events by showing the effect of a catastrophe to the
children (Haubrich, 2006, p. 285). As there are schoolteachers in the commission, the
term natural catastrophe plays an important role for them. Another possibility could be
that people in general do not really distinguish between these different terms (Pohl et al.
, 2002, p. 55). If the different terms do not appear in the same curricula, cannot really be
expected that schoolbook authors would emphasize the different meanings of these
terms (Lichtenstein-Rother, 1970, p. 75).

Regarding the term column, it will be apparent that natural hazards are not a continuous
theme that appears every school year; in most cases, it is fixed to one or two classes.
Only in Sachsen (SN) and Sachsen-Anhalt (ST), the theme goes through the whole school
life of the children.

4.1.2 Qualitative perspective.


In the qualitative perspective the authors will provide examples as to how the terms
natural hazard, natural event etc. are described in the curricula. In many cases, the terms
are only mentioned without any comment. For example, in the curricula of Hessen, one
will find the term natural catastrophe or calculable natural hazard. In the curricula of
Baden-Wrttemberg Realschule, one can read, for example, that the natural hazards and
their effects are continuous threat for humanity. This sentence emphasizes the negative
effects. In the curricula of Sachsen, the planners used a more neutral formulation to live
with natural hazards. In some curricula, however, the terms are not only mentioned, the
people of the commission sometimes put them in relation with a special natural hazard.
In the curricula of Baden Wrttemberg, Berlin, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and
Saarland, the natural hazards come along with natural hazards out of the
geomorphological direction. In the curricula of Sachsen und Mecklenburg-Vorpommern,
the people of the commission use the terms in connection with climate change. No
curriculum was found which define the terms as well as no difference between the terms
natural event, natural risk, natural hazard, and natural catastrophes were made.

In no curriculum you can find a wide definition of the terms and that there is indeed a
difference between. An interesting question is how this situation has actually evolved.
The main reason is that the curricula in Germany are very vague and thus there are not
much information about the theme to ascertain the direction in which it should be taught
(Ikonen, 2009).

Figure 1: Section of the 5th grade natural event Ministry of Education (2014)

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29

(Translation to live with natural events)

4.2 Kinds of natural hazards in the German curricula of secondary schools in


Germany.

It is not only interesting to look at how the different terms are presented but also at the
different kinds of natural hazards which are represented.

4.2.1 Quantitative aspects.


Table 2: Natural hazards in the current curriculum of secondary schools in Germany
(R: Realschule; G: Gymnasium)

The most treated natural hazards in the curricula are erathquake and volcanism,
followed by tsunamis. Inudation, taifun, monsoon, flooding, tornado, hurricane,
avalanche, storm, stormflood reach between four and one references. The number of
natural hazards mentioned in each region is also different: in Bremen (HB), they do not
mention any natural hazards; in Sachsen-Anhalt (SN), the commission uses two different
types; in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (MV), Nordrhein-Westfalen (NRW), Berlin (BE),
BadenWrttemberg (BB) and Hamburg (HH), the commission uses four different kinds
of natural hazards. In Rheinland-Pfalz, one will find a variety of natural hazards.

These results are not easy to explain. The example of tsunami is one example that society
had influenced the curricula. This natural hazard appeared after the tsunami catastrophe
of 2004 (Blankertz, 1986, p. 124) Volcanic eruption and earthquake are in the first place.
The answer could be that these are traditional hazards, and they are in the curricula for
long, and that it is a kind of tradition to include them. Another aspect could be that these
hazards are also very relevant in the context of national standards (DGFG, 2014). Also,
the subject of tectonic plates plays a role in every curriculum, and, as a consequence, you
also look at the natural hazards that emerge out of it, such as volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes.

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30

4.2.2 Qualitative aspects.


While conducting the qualitative analysis, the authors will have a closer look to the
context in which the natural hazards are used. In most of the curricula, the authors only
mention natural hazards without any commentary. In some curricula, such as the Berlin
Gymnasium, the commission, when they talk about natural hazards to Germany, refers
to German rivers like Rheine and Elbe. In fact, the curricula of Hamburg use the rivers
Rhein, Mosel, and Elbe. However, these mentions are exceptions to the rule.

Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are mostly mentioned. In the curricula of Hessen,
Berlin and Hamburg, they refer this subject to south Europe. Hence, one can read in the
curricula: South Europe, for example, [subjects you can choose for this region] are
characterized by volcanic eruptions, earthquake, and irrigated cultivation (Ministry of
Education, Hessen, 2014). Berlin (BB) and Hessen (HE) also extend the commissions
focus to Asia; while Hessen (HE), Sachsen-Anhalt (SH) and Sachsen (SN) provide the
example of the San Andreas Fault Zone, and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (MV) focuses
on Ozeanien. The ministries issue guidelines regarding such example for the teachers
and the commission decides which example they would take for classroom teaching.

In the Hessen curricula, the commission also talks about earthquake protection and
volcanic eruption safety, and also mention the different types of volcanic eruptions. The
curricula do not very often provide the kinds of natural hazard which are typical for
Germany.

Figure 1 shows a visual representation of the results of the quantitative and qualitative
analyses of natural hazards, risk, event and catastrophe, as well as of the kinds of natural
hazards.

2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.


31

Figure 1: Natural catastrophes in the current school curricula in Germany (Designer of


the map: Stefanie Zecha)

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32

3. RESUME
This study provides a useful perspective regarding the manner in which the curriculum
commission has implemented the subject of natural hazards in German curricula. It can
be observed that the presentation of natural hazards differs from one region to another.
A look at the terms will mostly provide the term natural catastrophe, followed by the
term natural event. There are no discussions in the curricula about the different
meanings of the different terms.

A close look at the kind of natural catastrophes mentioned in the curricula indicates that
such catastrophes are not really relevant in the context of Germany. If the idea of natural
hazards is taken from the respective regions, the curricula would do more than passing
knowledge, it may encourage the learners to take an active part by examining the
environment of their school buildingsthey can go beyond the confines of the school
yard to map their neighboring communities and meet consult their elders to gather
knowledge about the extreme natural catastrophes that had taken place in the area. As a
consequence, they will acquire a better understanding of the concept of disaster
prevention (Petal, 2008, p. 25)

In future it would now be interesting to see, how are the natural catastrophes presented
in school books and what presentation of natural catastrophes teachers have in their
mind, because they teach it to the pupils.

Education in the field of natural hazards is actually all about increasing the capacities of
the public to address natural disasters. The other way around: social capacity building is
a key feature of education. The most important issue in this regard is the necessity to
train children in new knowledge and skills related to natural hazards. Increasing
knowledge and skills raise their awareness, and also change their perception regarding
risk and personal responsibility, and consequently, their impact on behaviour (Riad et
al., 1999).

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35

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 35-44, January 2015

Global Climate Change and the Need for


Relevant Curriculum

William H. Robertson, Ph.D. and Anna Carolina Barbosa


The University of Texas at El Paso
El Paso, Texas, USA

Abstract. With the rising importance of preparing students in the fields


of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), the
establishment of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) is
critical to the development of disciplinary core ideas in the study of
Weather and Climate. With the recent debate over the issue of global
climate change, mostly instigated by the media, and its implications on
human activities, economy and international policies, the insertion of
this matter as a disciplinary core idea, both for middle and high school,
is of great importance. Another factor contributing to the integration of
this need is related to research findings about students misconceptions
about climate change and its direct correlation with media influences
(Rajeev Gowda et al., 1997) and the lack of information about climate
change inside curricular materials such as current science textbooks
(Choi et al., 2010).

Keywords: global climate change; curriculum; educational standards;


science education

Introduction
In the 21st century, several reports demonstrate evidence regarding the
intensification of climate change and poverty due to the inadequate and increasing
capitalist tendencies of natural resources manipulation, especially associated with
globalization processes. For example, negative predictions associated with
unsustainable economic growth in China have been reported associated with new
coal power plants that have been built, leading experts to predict increased carbon
dioxide emissions that could double by the year 2030 Jones, LaFleur and Purvis
(2009). In this case, there seems to be a correlation between what some authors
designate as Empire (Korten, 2006) and its hegemonic values of competition,
power control and economic greed with an increase of disproportionate levels of
global poverty and overexploitation of natural resources. The main economic
sectors that are potentially most affected by unsustainable economic and political

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36

practices have been identified as agriculture, water resources, natural ecosystems,


biodiversity, coastal areas, and human health (Nyong (2009, p.47-55). Additionally,
another prediction that relates to the negative outcomes of anthropogenic-induced
climate change is the increase of people displacement (Piguet, Pcoud, & De
Guchteneire, 2011), usually affecting inhabitants of areas of the highest levels of
poverty, social inequalities and vulnerability, such as the recent example of
Hurricane Katrina (Leichenko, Thomas & Barnes, 2010).

In this regard, it seems evident that, even though capitalism and the technological
advances are fostering what we call globalization by providing the possibility of
connecting diverse groups from across the globe and by facilitating access to
knowledge. There is still a significant portion of individuals who are not only being
denied the same opportunities to participate in this technological revolution, but
also are suffering the negative consequences of unsustainable forms of natural
resources management. This scenario may indicate that what is termed global
citizenship may not only be restricted for those who are able to consume the
technological products but this concept may also have its meaning limited to
interactivity in a global scale without integrating a sense of belonging to an Earth
Community. For educators and researchers, the efforts should focus on trying to
expand the idea of global citizenship as a condition that can only be defined
through digital democracy and environmental responsibility and participation. In
this sense, there is an urgency for more research in the education field that aims at
discussing how to overcome the digital divide between students from different
socio-economic (SES) conditions while also promoting a broadening of the construct
global citizenship to also include environmental and technological knowledge,
skills and ecological responsibility. To this extent, this paper presents arguments
that demonstrate how the use of technology inside climate change related
curriculum may contribute not only to reducing the digital divide that exists
between rich and poor students. Additionally, it will also explore topics aimed to
reduce students misconceptions about climate change, increase low-income
students interest in STEM related areas, promote student agency and community
empowerment, and help students develop a sense of belonging to an Earth
Community, an essential requirement for global citizenship.

This paper is put forth as a structured argument in order to primarily present a


position that educational curriculum efforts towards expanding the notion of global
citizenship should have as one of its goals the dissemination of the idea of social
alliance, which should be based on two main values: the principle of universal
justice and empathy towards others. Additionally, such educational efforts should
be based on the following constructs: 1) consciousness awareness (Korten, 2006);
and, 2) the development of cross-cultural competencies (Banks, 2006). Second, the
use of technology in presenting climate change related curriculum may help
facilitate students development of scientific knowledge (such as biological,
ecological, physical) about this matter and also aid their development of empathy
towards others and concern about social justice through discussions that focus on

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37

the social repercussions of climate change. In this regard, the need for modern
curriculum that integrates the use of technology inside climate change studies could
contribute to improving students consciousness and global awareness, in other
words, the ecological and sociological responsibility that define their role as active
global citizens.

The Need for Expanding the Notion of Global Citizenship


The idea of a world or global citizen can be defined either through nationalist or
cosmopolitan lenses, and it certainly implies the need to have concern for climate
issues that impact cultures worldwide (Gibson, Rimmington and Landwehr-Brown,
2008). Another perspective on this issue can be seen by contrasting the ideas of
Empire and Earth Community, which puts forward a diametrically opposed set of
actors that permeates all levels of society and hierarchies of power, which in turn
leads to conflict and compromise (Korten (2006). The counterpoint to the idea of
Empire is described as the notion of Earth Community (Korten, 2006). In this sense,
an Earth Community should be characterized by the following values: mutual trust,
respect, accountability, compassion, cooperation, and environmental stewardship
(Korten, 2006, p.37). In this case, a definition of global citizenship that embraces
values such as respect and honor for other cultures, and a concern for global
issues (Gibson, Rimmington and Landwehr-Brown, 2008, p.12) would be closer to
the development of an Earth Community, than the nationalistic perspective. In the
same way, Kortens (2006) idea of Earth Community would correlate with Cortinas
(2008) understanding of social alliance, as the idea of Empire could also imply the
existence of an unfair contract between those who are oppressed and their
oppressors. Pursuing this further, Cortina (2008) not only identifies mutual
recognition and compassion as basic core values associated with the notion of an
alliance, but also differentiates between the ideas of contract, which is seen as
something for economic gain, and alliance, which has social awareness as a core
property. Therefore, educational curriculum efforts towards a broader notion of
global citizenship should have as one of its goals the internalization of the notion of
social alliance, which should be based on two main values: the principle of
universal justice and empathy towards others (Thompson & Bendik-Keymer, 2012).
However, while the principle of social justice may be perceived as an essential pre-
requisite for the establishment of mutual cooperation among individuals in a
complex society, our present modern and liberal paradigm stresses power and
privilege, in that those with the power often compromise the well being of the
masses of society (Korten, 2006, p.34).

Furthermore, such educational learning opportunities that seek to contest and to


modify the core values of the Empire will have to be based on the idea that by
helping individuals, societies transcend from a lower to a higher stage of
consciousness or global awareness by providing individuals with the necessary
knowledge and skills in order to reduce the digital divide between hegemonic and
economically privileged individuals and socio-economic marginalized groups, this
may facilitate the internalization of essential moral values such as empathy,

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38

tolerance and universal justice. In this sense, the concept of global awareness can be
viewed as ways in which all the world in interconnected and interdependent, where
problems and issues have an impact of the lives of individuals worldwide (Gibson,
Rimmington and Landwehr-Brown, 2008). Hence, once these variables are in place
this can contribute to the development of an individuals sense of belonging to a
plural global community, which is necessary for his/her choice of adhering and
actively participating in that community (Cortina, 2005). Following this further,
another important component of educational efforts towards a broader concept of
global citizenship should be the development of cross-cultural competencies (Banks
(2006). As such, there is a need for a literate citizenry that have commitments of
global equity, which reflect the skills, attitudes, and knowledge of settings of
diversity (Banks, 2006). While other types of knowledge and skills may fall into the
category of cross-cultural competencies (such as linguistics and ethics), for the
purpose of this paper, the focus will center on the importance of ecological,
technological and sociological types of knowledge and skills associated with climate
change as essential cross-cultural competencies for the development of scientific
literacy and a broaden concept of global citizenship.

Technology, ESD and the Digital Divide


According to Ahmed (2010), the articulation between actions against global poverty
and environmental responsibility might significantly increase the chances of
educators to reduce the performance gap that exists between high- and low-income
students. In this regard, the author considers education for sustainable development
(ESD) as the key educational mediator that may fight poverty at the same time that
it might develop lifelong learning among students. Ahmed (2010) describes three
key elements in the attempt to integrate marginalized groups with sustainable
development measures:

the empowerment of people at the local level in designing and achieving


poverty reduction; access to productive assets, capital and technology for the
poor, microfinance being a widely used instrument; and extending a social
safety net economic support to the ultra-poor, those who are ineligible even
for microfinance, in order to enhance their capabilities to access capital and
technology. (p. 241).

Technological Inequalities and Low-Income Students


Since the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, several
generations of students have had the opportunity to engage in scientifically related
activities inside the classroom through virtual laboratories and simulation software.
In fact, recent studies suggest that the use of such pedagogical tools in science
education can be beneficial for student learning in grades 6-12 (Scalise et al., 2011);
for the development of new learning strategies among students and teachers, in
secondary schools (Jimenez, Gyette, Platteaux, 2007; Edelson, 2001; Goyette,
Platteaux, and Jimenez, 2007), at university levels (Williams, Lansey & Washburne,

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39

2009; Winn et a., 2006), as well as in the improvement of overall student technology
skills.

Other variables, such as reduced budgets and decreased funding sources in schools,
may also act as significant factors in favor of the use of virtual labs and simulations
for science lessons. However, the use of technology-rich science inquiry differs
between high- and low-income areas, since the former seemed to focus on high-
order thinking and problem solving while the latter are prone to lower-order
activities (Scalise et al., 2011). In this case, it seems urgent that both scholars and
policy makers take into consideration the need for the development of curriculum
and pedagogical materials that not only focus on reducing the digital divide by
providing students with real-life skills and competence but also aim at improving
their sense of responsibility towards Earth Community, particularly regarding the
use of natural resources that contribute to technological improvements and
globalization processes (Dodds, Strauss & Strong, 2012).

Students Misconceptions about Climate Change


The identification of students misconceptions about climate change processes is of
significant importance in order for educators and scientists to develop pedagogical
materials as well as teacher education programs that aim at addressing this
scientific illiteracy (Rajeev Gowda et al., 1997) The authors conducted a survey with
high school students and were able to identify five recurrent misconceptions about
climate change: 1) Inflated estimates of temperature change; 2) Confusion between
CFCs, the ozone hole, and climate change; 3) Perceived evidence warmer weather
focus; 4) All environmental harms cause climate change; and, 5) Confusing weather
and climate (Rajeev Gowda et al., 1997, pp.2233-2235). Also, the students who
believed in the existence of evidence associated with climate changes identified
news and television as their main source of information.

In this sense, the same authors identified four possible sources that might contribute
to this idea of scientific illiteracy: 1) Information availability; 2) News media as a
source of information; 3) Judgmental heuristics; and, 4) Fuzzy environmentalism
(Rajeev Gowda et al., 1997, pp. 2236-2237). Interestingly, the authors point out the
fact that students identified teachers as informational sources about climate change
much less frequently than news media. The authors then attribute this to the fact
that traditional school curriculum may act against the in depth coverage of climate
change related issues, especially because of its lack of multidisciplinary
organization.

Other researchers have developed positions about the influence that science
textbooks may have on students misconceptions about climate change and verified
that some of the scientific concepts related to the students misconceptions about
climate change were not even mentioned in most of the analyzed books. The main
scientific concepts that were not approached or inefficiently approached by the
analyzed books were: 1) Distinction between pollution and greenhouse effects or

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40

climate change; 2) Distribution of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere; 3) Solar


irradiation change and its possible impacts on current climate change; 4) Projections
of future climate changes according to emission scenarios; 5) Climate change is
already under way; and, 6) The dependency of human society on fossil fuel and
barriers to reducing emission of greenhouse gases (Choi et al., 2010, p.893).
Additionally, it might be unpractical to believe that books could be updated as fast
as new knowledge becomes available which means that educators should try to rely
more on Internet resources, digital materials and increased training opportunities
for teachers (Choi et al. 2010). Finally, the authors argue in favor of scientists and
science educators to collaborate in the development of pedagogical materials related
to climate change that take into consideration students common misconceptions
about this matter.

Sociological Aspects of Climate Change


It is important that educators take into consideration some essential aspects
associated with sociological aspects of climate change that justify the need for an
urgent integration inside the educational field. For example, the use of
environmental arguments to justify the displacement of people can be viewed as a
mechanism of better understanding human migration patterns (Piguet, Pecoud and
De Guchteneire, 2011). Accordingly, there are some theories that may explain this
absence: that the notion of environmental-related migration may be perceived as a
primitive form of migration (Piguet, Pecoud and De Guchteneire, 2011, p.3).

Another argument that might serve to justify the incorporation of environmental


related issues inside environmental education field is the fact that the impact of
major climate change phenomenon, such as drought, floods, and sea level rise (is
likely to differ between regions with different levels of vulnerability (Piguet, Pcoud
and De Guchteneire, 2011). Moreover, if a society is greatly dependent on its
environment for its economics, there may be an increased level of vulnerably as
compared to other more industrialized communities. In this case, an understanding
climate change is unlikely to affect all humans the same way, since its impact may
also depend upon the individuals access to resources (financial, political,
infrastructure) that might be required in order to facilitate an effective response to
environmental changes (Piguet, Pcoud and De Guchteneire, 2011). Therefore,
discussions about the sociological aspects of climate change should also include a
collective reflection upon the correlation between socio-economic class and
resources accessibility by the population affected. A particular case that can
exemplify this issue is the illegal migration that happens between Mexico and the
U.S. While it is widely accepted the influence that violence influences the political
and economic instability inside Mexico, which in turn has displaced people across
the border, little has been discussed about the influence that economics may have
on this matter (Brochin, 2012). The effects of climate change can already be
perceived inside Mexico, where overpopulation has negatively impacted land
traditionally used for agriculture, rendering it unfit to support crop development
and cultivation Johnson (2011). In this regard, the author points out that this

@2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.


41

problem may be aggravated by the reduction of annual precipitation, which is


expected to drop in 12% in central Mexico by 2020. In some ways, this need for
survival tied to the environment can be seen as contributing to Mexican citizens
migrating to the United States (Johnson, 2011).

Another recent demonstration of the correlation between sociological and climate


change related analysis was the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina in 2005.
Furthermore, Leichenko, Thomas and Barnes (2010) describe poverty, limited
resources, poor education, high levels of unemployment and racism as the main
variables that have contributed to increase New Orleans degree of vulnerability. In
the same way, groups of African-American and the elderly were more greatly
impacted by the conditions brought on by Hurricane Katrina. Researchers cited the
inability of these groups to evacuate tied primarily to issues of health and
economics left these marginalized populations most affected (Leichenko, Thomas
and Barnes, 2010).

Climate Simulation Software as a Way for Reducing Scientific Illiteracy


Researchers such as Scalise et al. (2011) have pointed out that virtual laboraoty
experiences and simulations in science are just beginning to be disseminated as
curriculum. At the same time, other researchers have demonstrated that the use of
simulation software can be used as an efficient methodology in ESD (Shapka, Law
and VanWynsberghe, 2008) and in science education (Luo and Kemp, 2008) for
elementary (Lim, Nonis and Hedberg, 2006), middle school (Shin, 2002) and
undergraduate students (Williams, Lansey and Washburne, 2009; Winn et. al.,
2006).

In addition, the use of computer simulations that focus on issues of global climate
change, including models of the interactions of the atmosphere, land masses, and
oceans can most help students understand the ways in which human behaviors
impact global populations Sheppard, 2005). Moreover, the author identifies topics
and methods that can provide students with methods for demonstrating and
understanding both positive and negative outcomes associated with global or local
impacts through the use of climate change simulation software in order for the
landscape visualization to be able to positively affect and motivate individuals to
engage in sustainable actions.

Some of the main reasons associated with the uneven access by poor students to
STEM resources results from the costs of assistive technology, the lack of training
for faculty and the problems associated with wide scale distribution of such
resources, and as such these inequities can be tied to the socioeconomic status (SES)
of the local community and the schools which serve these students (Hagedorn and
Purnamasari, 2012). As such, the ideas of a digital divide tied to economics in real,
especially where topics and concepts of global climate change are tied to access and
usage of computer technology (Bruno, Esposito and Genovese, 2011). This idea can
be expanded to equate educational inequalities associated with the level of access to

@2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.


42

quality education and technological tools as another main reason for lower
socioeconomic status students to be excluded from STEM related areas.

Conclusion
This paper intended to contribute to the discussion in favor of a broader concept of
global citizenship, which takes into consideration the notion of social alliance and
the importance of digital democracy towards both social and environmental justice.
In this regard, it was related that an educational effort towards this direction may be
the integration of technology tools inside the teaching about climate change, both its
ecological and sociological aspects. To this extent, the use of technology in
presenting climate change related information is critical, as it is associated with an
emphasis about the importance of social alliance and sustainable values, such as
cooperation and respect, for the development of an Earth Community, may
contribute to the following factors: 1) to facilitate students development of scientific
knowledge about this matter; 2) to help students develop empathy towards others
and concern about social justice through discussions that focus on both the
ecological and the social repercussions of climate change; and, 3) to contribute to the
reduction of the digital divide between different SES groups. This paper, however,
did not intend to exhaust the discussion about the ecological, sociological and
educational aspects associated with climate change. In this sense, while there are
also issues concerning the social-political causes of environmental disasters, this
paper intended to highlight a few arguments about some of the variables that may
potentiate the impact of climate change in a global scale, such as global poverty and
resources accessibility.

In this case, the purpose of this discussion is to highlight the role that poverty may
have both as a variable that inflate negative outcomes associated with climate
change, due to vulnerability and lack of resources, and as a barrier against the
dissemination of knowledge and skills about climate change phenomenon and its
repercussions around the globe, particularly though digital divide. Finally, more
research is needed about the educational efforts that aim at articulating the need for
digital democracy with an emphasis on the development of an Earth Community
should be conducted in order to help educators and police-makers define what
cross-cultural competencies should be a part of the 21st century global citizenship
curriculum.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 45-58, January 2015

A Retrospective Analysis of STEM Career Interest


among Mathematics and Science Academy
Students

Rhonda Christensen, Gerald Knezek and Tandra Tyler-Wood


University of North Texas
Denton, Texas

Abstract. Data reflecting Science, Technology, Engineering and


Mathematics (STEM) dispositions and reported reasons for interest in STEM
were gathered from 342 high school students participating in a residential
mathematics and science academy on a university campus in April 2013.
Student participants were enrolled in a program in which they complete
their last two years of high school in conjunction with their first two years of
college. Analysis of these data indicated that factors influencing student
interest in STEM and STEM careers include the students own self-
motivation, support from a parent or family member, science and
mathematics coursework offered in school, and exposure to a high quality,
motivating teacher. STEM career interest can be reasonably well predicted
from a linear combination of four measures of STEM dispositions, but
weightings of predictors and total variance accounted for differ for females
when compared to males.

Keywords: STEM career interest; math and science; high school students;
gender distinctions; retrospective study

Introduction
Although it is often difficult for youth to predict what field they will study in the future,
students who are already on a Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) path
may be able to reflect back on what influenced their interest in following a STEM path intended
to culminate in a STEM career. For this study, attitudinal data were gathered from U.S. high
school students participating in a residential mathematics and science academy on a university
campus in which they finish their last two years of high school in conjunction with their first
two years of college. The students also were asked to indicate what influenced their interest in
STEM. Researchers sought to find possible causes of students decisions to pursue a STEM
career in order to report to a broader educational audience promising ways to encourage more
students to pursue a career in STEM. This unique group of high school students was provided

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46

the opportunity to retrospectively look back on indicators that may have influenced their
interest in STEM. The research questions that guided this study were:

(1) STEM Interest Attribution: What do high school science and mathematics academy students
report as their primary reasons for interest in STEM?
(2) Retrospective Versus Current Interest Alignment: How well do retrospective STEM interest
influences align with current interest in STEM as a career?
(3) Determinants of Current STEM Interest: How well can STEM career interest be predicted
from STEM dispositions for disaggregated groups?

Literature Review
Like many nations in the world, the United States is increasingly reliant on the STEM workforce
to maintain leadership in the world economy (Banning & Folkestad, 2012). As the world
becomes increasingly technological, the value of these national assets will be determined in no
small measure by the effectiveness of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
(STEM) education (p. v.) (Holdren, Lander, & Varmus, 2010). International studies such as the
2012 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) have ranked the U.S. 21st in science
and 26th in mathematics for high school students (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD), 2013). These lower performing academic areas impact the number of
students completing higher education degrees in STEM areas. Fewer than half (40%) of students
entering college intending to earn a STEM degree complete it accounting for only 300,000
STEM graduates per year when the projection of those needed for the U.S. workforce is closer to
one million (Holdren & Lander, 2012). Not only are fewer students choosing to pursue a degree
in a STEM area, but a large proportion of the nations science talent leaves that area of interest
while in college, often switching to a major in which they find more success and reward in the
courses. Often students find the first two years of college coursework mostly theoretical and
fairly abstract in the engineering and pre-med major courses. Students often change to majors
where they encounter more relevance and less theory (Drew, 2011).

Along with the educational environment, teachers (Sjaastad, 2012), peers (Olitsky, Loman,
Gardner, & Billup, 2010) and parents (Breakwell & Robertson, 2001) play important roles in
students motivation for learning science. One longitudinal study that followed participants
career choices in addition to their career aspirations found that learning characteristics, such as
perceived ability in mathematics and science, as well as friends interest in science had the
greatest impact on students motivation for learning science (Lee & Shute, 2010) and on
students actual career choice (Garg, Kauppi, Urajnik, & Lewko, 2007). Research on factors
affecting the decision to choose a STEM career is still emerging (Banning & Folkestad, 2012).

STEM courses are often viewed as difficult and sometimes unrelated to reality. Students need to
be involved in hands-on STEM activities to make the connection between education and future
careers (McCrea, 2010). This attitude appears prevalent and seems to permeate science
achievement for many students in the U.S. Some researchers have found that students often
begin school with a strong interest in science yet decline in interest due to the way science is
taught (Krajcik, Czerniak, & Berger, 2003). An examination of contributing factors is needed to
understand why students choose STEM majors and continue to pursue a career in STEM
(Heilbronner, 2011). Researchers are beginning to more closely study this science identity gap
(Tan, Barton, Kang, & ONeill, 2013).

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47

Gender differences in the selection of STEM careers have been the focus of research for many
years (Archer, DeWitt, & Willis, 2014; Beghetto 2007; Tan et al., 2013; Zeldin, Britner, & Pajares,
2008). While girls are reportedly performing equal to or higher than males on math and science
assessments in both middle school and high school (National Center for Educational Statistics,
2010) there is a disconnect in how many females compared to males pursue a STEM-related
career (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2007; Smith, 2011). Despite girls having a
positive disposition toward science (if not higher than boys), girls aged 10-13 are much less
likely to aspire to careers in science (Archer et al., 2012). A study of 6,000 students completed in
2012 indicated that by the end of high school, the odds of being interested in a STEM career are
2.9 times higher for males than for females (Sadler, Sonnert, Hazari & Tai, 2012). Young women
believe that science and technology are not relevant to their future career goals (Lent et al.,
2005). Girls tend to prefer to learn in a more social context and need to see connections between
school assignments and the real world. Formal role models are also an important factor that is
often missing for girls in STEM areas (McCrea, 2010).

While there are many reasons students choose not to enter STEM careers, this paper identifies
some of the attributes of secondary students who have chosen a path toward a STEM career.
Students in this study responded retrospectively, selecting the one factor that most influenced
their interest in pursuing study in a STEM field.

Research Methods
Subjects
Attitudinal data were gathered from 342 high school students participating in a residential
mathematics and science academy on a university campus in which students complete their last
two years of high school in conjunction with their first two years of college. Surveys were
completed by 186 first-year students (11th grade) and 156 second-year students (12th grade).
Surveys were completed via paper and pencil forms during a seminar at the end of the 2012-
2013 academic school year. The gender distribution of the students was approximately 54%
male and 46% female. While there was some ethnic diversity, the majority of students (68%)
were of Asian descent. Approximately 21% of the students were Caucasian, 4% African
American, 4% Hispanic, 1% American Indian and 1% reported other. These students were
selected for the retrospective study because they were high school students who had already
chosen a STEM-related path.

Instrumentation
The two attitude/disposition instruments utilized in this research were the STEM Semantics
Survey and the Career Interest Questionnaire. These instruments had been used to obtain
meaningful data on several recent studies on STEM dispositions where the ages of subjects
ranged from middle school level students to STEM career professionals (Knezek, Christensen &
Tyler-Wood, 2011; Ducamp & DeJaegher, 2013). The STEM Semantics Survey was adapted from
Knezek and Christensen's (1998) Teacher's Attitudes Toward Information Technology
Questionnaire (TAT) derived from earlier Semantic Differential research by Zaichkowsky
(1985). The five most consistent adjective pairs of the ten used on the TAT were incorporated as
descriptors for target statements reflecting perceptions of Science, Math, Engineering and
Technology. A fifth scale representing interest in a career in STEM was also created.

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48

Internal consistency reliabilities for the five scales of the STEM Semantics Survey for this group
of students ranged from Alpha = .89 to Alpha = .93, consistent with other studies using these
instruments (Tyler-Wood, Knezek, & Christensen, 2010). These reliability estimates fall in the
range of very good to excellent according to guidelines provided by DeVellis (1991).

The Career Interest Questionnaire (CIQ) is a Likert-type (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly


agree) instrument composed of 12 items on three scales. This instrument was adapted from a
longer instrument developed for a Native Hawaiian Studies project promoting STEM interest in
Hawaii. Adaptations of the instrument were based on a comprehensive analysis completed by
Bowdich (2009). Cronbachs Alpha for the three subscales of the CIQ ranged from .70 to .93
among the group of students in the current study. These values fall in the range of respectable
to excellent according to guidelines by DeVellis (1991).

Additionally, students were asked to choose from a list, the one factor that had most influenced
their interest in science, mathematics, engineering and technology (STEM). The list from which
students selected was compiled from analysis of previously obtained open-responses regarding
the same question. More details about the analysis of the open-ended responses can be found in
another publication (Christensen & Knezek, 2013).

Data Analysis and Results

Research Question 1: What do high school science and mathematics academy students report as
their primary reasons for interest in STEM?

This section addresses research question one, regarding the reported reasons students who
chose to attend an academy of mathematics and science developed an interest in STEM prior to
their academy attendance. Respondents were asked to select the most important factor that has
influenced their interest in STEM, from a list of seven common reasons previously compiled
through analysis of open-ended responses obtained from the same group of students at the
beginning of the school year. The list was created based on prior data collection using an open-
ended response to the question of factors influencing the students interest in STEM
(Christensen & Knezek, 2013). The four most frequently reported reasons for interest in STEM
were: 1) self-motivation/naturally inclined (reported by 48%), 2) parent/family member
(reported by 30%), 3) science and mathematics classes offered in school (reported by 9%) and 4)
a high quality/motivating teacher (reported by 8%). These and other reasons are listed in Table
1.

Table 1
STEM Interest Primary Factor
Primary Influential Factor Frequency Percent
Parent/family member 101 29.6
High quality/motivating teacher 26 7.6
Friend/peer 3 .9
Self-motivated/naturally inclined 165 48.4
Science and mathematics classes offered in 30 8.8

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49

school
Science and mathematics clubs 4 1.2
Science fair/competitions 6 1.8
Other 6 1.8
Total 341 100.0

Analyses were completed to compare the differences in the responses for males and females.
Fifty-five percent (55%) of the males attributed their interest to being self-motivated and
naturally inclined toward STEM, while only 41% of the females attributed interest in STEM to
their self-motivation. Conversely, females (34%) were more likely than males (26%) to attribute
their interest in STEM to a parent or family member.

Research Question 2: How well do retrospective STEM interest influences align with current
interest in STEM as a career?

One-way analysis of variance was conducted to examine differences in the STEM Career
Interest as measured by the STEM Semantics Survey, based on the primary (retrospective)
reason reported by students for interest in STEM. The analysis revealed significant (p <.0005)
differences existed in level of STEM Career Interest based on reported reasons. As shown in
Table 2, science and mathematics classes offered in school and self-motivated were aligned with the
highest STEM Career Interest means. A post hoc analysis (Scheffe) revealed the significant pair-
wise differences were between self-motivated and science fair/competitions (p = .027) as well as
between science and mathematics classes offered in school and science fair/competitions (p = .046). As
shown in Figure 1, whenever science fair/competitions was the category selected by a student as
his or her primary reason for an interest in STEM, the actual level of STEM Career Interest was
noticeably lower. Conversely, there were at least four reported reasons for interest in STEM that
resulted in group mean averages that were notably high.

Table 2
One-Way ANOVA for Career Average by Reason for Interest in STEM
N Mean Std.
Dev.
Parent/family member 101 5.84 1.14
High quality/motivating teacher 26 5.94 1.22
Friend/peer 3 5.67 1.27
Self-motivated/naturally inclined 165 6.12 1.10
Science and mathematics classes offered in school 30 6.17 1.17
Science and mathematics clubs 4 5.85 .82
Science fair/competitions 6 4.17 2.46
Other 6 4.53 1.92
Total 341 5.96 1.21
Note: Sig. p < .0005.

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50

Current Disposition by Reason for Interest in STEM

Science fair/competitions

Other

Friend/peer

Parent/family member

Science and mathematics clubs

High quality/motivating teacher

Self motivated/naturally inclined

Science and mathematics classes offered


in school

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Figure 1. Group mean averages for STEM Career Interest based on retrospectively reported primary
reason for interest in STEM.

Regression analysis was used to determine whether selection of one of the four top reasons
students attributed their interest in STEM could be used to predict STEM Career Interest. The
four reasons used for the regression analysis were parent/family member, quality teacher, self-
motivated and science/mathematics classes offered in school. The measure used for the dependent
variable was the STEM Semantics Career Interest mean for the group. While only 6% of the
career interest measure could be predicted (RSQ = .06, p <.0005) from a combination of having
reported one of the four reasons as primary, the beta coefficients were significant and especially
strong for the self-motivated reason ( = .517, see Table 3). Beta coefficients, as standardized
regression coefficients, represent the strength of the contribution of an individual predictor,
given that the other predictors are held constant.

This analysis indicates that reporting self-motivated as the primary reason (in retrospect) for
establishing an interest in STEM was most strongly aligned with having a measurably high
degree of STEM Career Interest at the time of the survey. An influential parent or family member as
the primary reason for an interest in STEM (in retrospect) was also strongly aligned with
positive STEM Career Interest as measured on the survey. In fact, each of the four reasons
listed in Table 3, if viewed as a kind of discrimination index for primary reason (coded as 1)
versus not primary reason (coded as zero), are shown to serve well in the sense that students
who reported any of these four reasons as their primary reason for interest in STEM (coded = 1)
have more positive dispositions toward STEM as a career (p < .003) than students who did not
report the four top variables as his or her top choice (coded zero).

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51

Table 3
Regression Analysis of STEM Career Interest as Function of Primary Reported Reason for Interest in
STEM
Model Unstandardized Standardize t Sig.
Coefficients d
Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
1 (Constan 4.874 .271 18.006 .000
t)
Parent .964 .295 .364 3.267 .001
Self 1.250 .286 .517 4.373 .000
Teacher 1.065 .356 .234 2.990 .003
SciClass 1.293 .346 .303 3.738 .000
Note: Dependent Variable: CARAVG (STEM Career Interest)

(3) How well can STEM career interest be predicted from STEM dispositions for these
disaggregated groups?

Retrospective Reasons in Context of Current Interests


A hierarchical cluster analysis (interval scale, average linkage between groups) was run using
the five scales from the STEM Semantic Survey, three scales from the CIQ, the top four
categories for reasons for interest in STEM, and the demographic variables of gender and school
size (UIL) classification. This cluster analysis was used as a form of data mining (Berkhin, 2006)
in order to focus on relationships for further examination. As shown in Figure 2, three clusters
emerged illustrating: a) gender is related to the reasons for reported interest in STEM, b) school
size is related to the three career interest questionnaire scales, and c) career interest is related to
the four measures of STEM dispositions on the STEM Semantics Survey. The relationships
within each of these three clusters will be explored further.

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52

Figure 2: Dendogram showing clusters of relationships.

Gender Differences in Interest in STEM


Four chi-squared tests were conducted to determine whether the proportion of males versus
females reporting each of the four primary reasons for interest in STEM differed by gender. A
two-tailed significance criterion (p < .05) was used. As shown in Table 4, 100 out of 183 (60%) of
the male respondents listed self-motivation as their primary reason, while only 64 of 157 (41%) of
the female respondents listed self-motivation as their primary reason. This difference in
frequency count by gender would rarely occur by chance (Fishers Exact Test, p = .012). Males
more frequently chose self-motivation as their main reason for an interest in STEM.

Table 4
Chi-Squared Test for Self-Motivation
Gender Total
Male Female
Self No 83 93 176
Yes 100 64 164
Total 183 157 340

As shown in Table 5, 53 of 157 (34%) females selected parent or family member as their primary
reason for their interest in STEM, while only 48 of 183 (26%) males selected a parent or family

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53

member as their main reason for interest in STEM. Although females reported this reason more
frequently, the difference was not large enough to be considered significant (Fishers Exact Test,
p = .153).

Table 5
Chi-squared Test for Parent/Family
Gender Total
Male Female
Parent No 135 104 239
Yes 48 53 101
Total 183 157 340

As shown in Table 6, 20 of 157 (13%) females selected science and mathematics classes in school as
their primary influence for their interest in STEM, while only 10 of 183 (5%) males selected this
reason. Although the total numbers were small, twice as many females as males selected this
reason and the difference was significant (Fishers Exact Test, p = .021). Females were more
likely to attribute science and mathematics classes as their primary influence on their interest in
STEM.

Table 6
Chi-squared Test for Science and Mathematics Courses
Gender Total
Male Female
Courses No 173 137 310
Yes 10 20 30
Total 183 157 340

As shown in Table 7, 13 females and 13 males selected a high quality/motivating teacher as their
primary influence on their interest in STEM. Although females had a slightly higher percentage,
these small differences in proportion were likely due to chance (Fishers Exact Test, p = .689).

Table 7
Chi-squared Test for Motivating Teacher as Reason for STEM Interest
Gender Total
Male Female
Teacher No 170 144 314
Yes 13 13 26
Total 183 157 340

School Size and Career Interest in STEM


Partial correlation analysis was used to examine in detail the relationships between the Career
Interest Questionnaire (CIQ) Part 1, Part 2, Part 3 scores and school size as indicated by
University Interscholastic League (UIL) school size classification. UIL rating was used as a
school size indicator because it was well known to the students in this study, whereas more

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54

precise enrollment figures might not be known. UIL classifications form a monotonically
increasing variable of the form: 1 = 199 or fewer students school enrollment, 2 = 200 to 429, 3 =
430 to 989, 4 = 990 to 2064, and 5 = more than 2065 students while CIQ scale scores ranged from
1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree.
Overall, CIQ scale scores were not found to be strongly related to UIL school size, but for males
there was a significant (p < .05, r = .197) relationship of larger schools being associated with
stronger agreement on Part 2 of the CIQ. Since CIQ Part 2 focuses on the desire to enter into a
STEM major and career, the authors conjecture that larger schools may have greater resources to
support counseling in many career options, and therefore may tend to offer greater opportunity
awareness regarding STEM careers. For females, the relationship between school size and CIQ
measures was not evident (p = .408, NS) in the data. None of the individual predictors
approached the p < .05 level of significance for females. Further research is needed in this area.

Career Interest and STEM Dispositions


Regression analysis was conducted with four STEM disposition measures predicting STEM
career interest. A previous study using the same instruments with middle school students
showed females had greater predictability for STEM career interest (RSQ = .46) than for males
(RSQ = .40) (Mills, 2013). Findings were consistent with previous research in the current study
of academy high school students which found that for females, 47% of STEM career interest
could be predicted from the four STEM disposition measures (RSQ = .47, p <.0005), while for
males 42% of STEM career interest could be predicted from the four measures (RSQ = .42, p
<.0005). As shown in Table 8, for females the significant individual predictors were semantic
perception of science ( = .594, p <.0005) and semantic perception of technology ( = .146, p
=.036). As shown in Table 9, for males the significant individual predictors were semantic
perception of science ( = .448, p <.0005) and semantic perception of math ( = .261, p <.0005).
The general conclusion from this analysis is that academy students interest in STEM career can
be predicted in the same manner as for middle school students who were participating in a
National Science Foundation funded project to foster middle school students interest in STEM
careers. However, the strength of the relationships for the academy students is stronger. This
may be due to a higher level of maturity closer to entry into a STEM career.

Table 8
Beta Coefficients for STEM Career Interest as a Function of STEM Dispositions (Female Subjects)
Model Standardized Sig.
Coefficients
Beta
1 (Constant) .048
Science Scale .594 .000
Math Scale .076 .283
Engineering Scale -.031 .654
Technology Scale .146 .036

Note: Dependent Variable: CARAVG (STEM Career Interest)

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Table 9
Beta Coefficients for STEM Career Interest as a Function of STEM Dispositions (Male Subjects)
Model Standardized Sig.
Coefficients
Beta
1 (Constant) .026
Science Scale .448 .000
Math Scale .261 .000
Engineering Scale .042 .551
Technology Scale .090 .194

Note: Dependent Variable: CARAVG (STEM Career Interest)

Discussion
Data in Table 3 indicate that retrospectively reported reasons for STEM interest are significantly
(p <.01) related to current STEM career interests for academy students but the relationship is not
overly strong. Only 6% of the variance (RSQ = .06) in STEM Career Interest was found to be
attributable to primary reported reason for an interest in STEM. This can be contrasted with
47% of current STEM Career Interest being explained if current level of positive or negative
dispositions toward the individual content areas of science, technology, engineering and
mathematics are used in the predictive equation. One limitation may be that the retrospective
reason reported by students is about STEM interest in general while the primary measure in this
study focuses specifically on STEM as a career. An additional limitation on better predictive
ability may be due in part to the dichotomous nature (0 or 1 choice) of each retrospective reason
reported, versus a continuous rating scale (1 to 10) that would allow students to report level of
strength of influence. It is also possible that current dispositions are better predictors than
retrospective reasons because one is current while the other is past. Future research is planned
to include a continuous rating scale in order to further address this issue as well as asking
students additional questions regarding their interest in STEM as a career.

The current study did not directly address the area of content proficiency, which is also known
to be important for sustaining interest in STEM as a career (Bouvier, 2011). From one
perspective, the rigorous selection method used for academy students assures the study
participants are in the top tier of high school students across the state regarding mathematics
and science proficiency, upon entry. However, this does not mean all students perform well in
the self-regulation environment of typical university courses. Undoubtedly content proficiency
accounts for a major proportion of the 53% of unexplained variance in STEM Career Interest in
this study. Future studies that include measures of STEM content proficiency as well as career
interest would have a better foundation from which to address this type of question.

Conclusions and Implications of Findings


This study revealed that factors influencing student interest in STEM and STEM careers
included a students own self-motivation, a parent or family member, science and mathematics
courses offered in school and a high quality, motivating teacher. Differences emerged by gender
in the strength of the influential factors that were related to the STEM disposition and career
interest indicators. Males more frequently attributed their own self-motivation as their primary

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56

reason for interest in STEM and STEM careers, while females were more likely to attribute
science and mathematics courses in school as their reason for their interest in STEM. Findings
from this study are consistent with prior research (Zeldin, Britner, & Pajares, 2008) in which
self-confidence in females was found to be nurtured by family members, teachers and peers,
being provided mostly in terms of encouragement or direct experiences. Females frequently
attributed their beliefs and confidence to specific influential persons who helped them in
specific instances. Findings for males were quite different in that men attributed their mastery
experiences and personal abilities to their science and mathematic-related achievements.

In this study, school size was strongly related to the STEM and CIQ indicators. However, for
males, higher dispositions on the CIQ Part 2 were aligned with coming from a larger school.
Part 2 of the CIQ measures dispositions toward preparing for and succeeding in a STEM career,
including college level coursework.

In general, the researchers concluded that STEM Career Interest can be predicted from the four
STEM semantic scales measuring current dispositions toward science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics, for both males and females. However for females the strongest predictors
were related to science and technology. For the males the strongest predictors were related to
science and mathematics. These findings for academy high school students are consistent with
prior research on middle school students (Mills, 2013), using the same instruments.

Implications of these findings are potentially far-reaching. With approximately 25% of STEM
Career Interest attributable to semantic perception of science, the importance of positive
experiences with science at an early age begins to emerge. Also, as shown in Tables 8 and 9,
dispositions toward technology and mathematics also contribute to STEM Career Interest,
although the relative importance differs for male and female students. Because the females
dispositions that predict STEM career interest are not that different from the males in this study,
although females attribution of their interest in STEM is more strongly tied to the influence of
other people such as parents and teachers, there is an implied need to have parents and teachers
encourage females who exhibit an early interest in STEM to persist in their focus in a STEM-
related career.

Acknowledgement
This research was supported in part by National Science Foundation ITEST Grants #0833706
and #1312168.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 59-72, January 2015

The Influence of Academic Credit System on


Interpersonal Relationship in Chinese Colleges

Tian Guang and Wang Hong


Shantou University, Shantou, China

Liu Yu
Corresponding Author, Shantou University, Shantou, China

Abstract. Academic credit system has dominated higher educational


administrations in Chinese colleges after decades of exploration and
development. Credit system has brought some problems, such as less
friendly relationship among students as well as between students and
their professors, albeit it has made some progress in terms enhancing
the quality of education. Moreover, it even made the relationship
pattern between students and teachers changed from that of traditional
one. The study takes Shantou University as a case, the students in
Shantou University as the objects to investigate interpersonal
relationship at colleges in China by using anthropological approach. The
findings indicate that academic credit system adopted by the Chinese
colleges had generated certain influences on interpersonal relations that
in turn had impacts on the quality of higher education in China.

Keywords: Credit system; Business Anthropology; Classmate


Relationship; Teacher-student relationship

Introduction
The academic credit system reforms initiated in China since the end of the 20th
century have played a significant role in higher education administration reform
(Lv 2013). The academic credit system is an educational management system
that allows students to self determine certain electives to take and how many
credit hours to take in a semester. Due to distinctive features of teaching and
learning, most scholars focus on its influence on the academic learning of college
students but ignore the changes to interpersonal relationships under the
academic credit system (Bai 2013). This research primarily explores the new
trends of interpersonal relationships in Chinese colleges under the academic
credit system, and finds out influences of the academic credit system on
interpersonal relationships in colleges so that more positive solutions can be
assumed in the construction of harmonious campuses.

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Interpersonal relationships in colleges not only affect student minds throughout


school life, but also play an important role in their state of learning. In addition,
since college students are in a significant period of development, it is crucial to
maintain good interpersonal relationships. Furthermore, good relationships
between teachers and students are an important guarantee to promote teaching
quality in higher education as well as the basis to train highly-competent
personnel (Emery, Kramer and Tian 2003). Previous researches showed that the
academic credit system in colleges play a significant role in strengthening
teacher-student relationship (Xu 2011).

As a teaching management system, the academic credit system should be


explored with regard to its nature as well as its educational theory and
implementation principles from different perspectives (Bie 2013). For reference,
the academic credit systems in European countries are the result of external
force stressing learning load and final results, and its dynamic mechanisms are
policy documents with certain legal effect. The academic credit system in the
United States on the other hand is driven by internal force stressing teacher-
student contact and teaching input, namely its dynamic mechanisms toward the
educational needs of the American public (Haskell 1997, Qin and Chen 2013).
Therefore, according to the actual situation in China, the academic credit system
should serve to coordinate between internal management restriction force of
higher education system and external demand reform force of the market
economy for positive interaction so as to construct generation logic of the
academic credit system in domestic colleges (Qin and Chen 2013). In addition,
the characteristics of different colleges should be taken into sufficient
consideration in the design and measurement of specific GPA (Xia and Fan 2014).
For particular colleges such as higher vocational colleges, student employment
status should be taken into full account for a rational arrangement of the
academic credit system (Wang 2012). Some scholars also reach similar
conclusions through research on independent colleges (Lv 2013).

Research Design and Method


Taking Shantou University as an example, the research explores the influence of
the academic credit system on interpersonal relationships in colleges based on
qualitative research methods of business anthropology including participant
observation and in-depth interview as well as quantitative research methods
such as questionnaire survey (Tian and Zhou 2012), investigating the teacher-
student relationship and classmate relationship. The primary data needed for
the research are collected through the above methods and analyzed qualitatively
and quantitatively. In addition, constructive suggestions are made for further
improvement and development of the academic credit system. The details of the
academic credit system adopted by Shantou University: independent course
selection as mechanism, credit and GPA as units of account to measure the
quantity and quality of student performance, certain credits and GPA as the
standard for graduation and obtaining a degree; for the convenience of course
selection, in principle, 16 weeks are scheduled for theory courses, experimental
courses and dispersed practice courses, and another 2 weeks for examination
during each fall and spring semester.

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61

Participant observation Participant observation is a major research method for


anthropologists, which allows the researchers to collect observational data from
the research subjects in their everyday life in a nature way. In this case the
participant observers are students and teachers at the university; the period of
the participant observation is about 15 weeks. During the 15-week observation
period we observed the behaviours and expressions of students and teachers in
class and after class, noting subtle actions, taking instant record, summarizing,
and analyzing data upon observation.

In addition, because the data collectors were college students who could directly
obtain reliable internal observation data without fitting in with the respondents
through a long period of time, there were favourable advantages for participant
observation. At the same time, as the dormitories of Shantou University gather
students of different grades from different schools, we have much easier access
to diverse observation data. Furthermore, the observations are not confined to
classroom and campus life, but also include various emerging online virtual
communities.

In-depth interview In-depth interview is a critical step of the research, which


aims to look into the influence of the academic credit system on student
interpersonal relationships. In order to obtain the most authentic and valid
information, the questions are designed and determined by business
anthropological experts after discussion according to research topic and contents.
Approximately 100 undergraduates in Shantou University were selected for in-
depth interview with questions of different dimensionalities illustrated in the
tables below, which were primarily open-ended.

Questionnaire survey Questionnaire survey is a research approach which


intentionally collects relevant realistic conditions regarding research subjects is
capable of effectively obtaining a large quantity of authentic data in a planned
and systematic approach. Based on acquired information and references as well
as our own observation, we designed a targeted questionnaire, which covers
teacher-student relationship and classmate relationship, as well as students
attitudes toward the academic credit system and toward course selection as
those attitudes may influence their behaviours at the school. Undergraduates in
Shantou University are taken as research subjects, and the questionnaire
contains 25 questions and variables included student information such as gender,
school, place of origin, and financial condition. A total of 380 questionnaires
were distributed with 348 returned, and the response rate is over 90%. It was
therefore an effective questionnaire.

Results and Analysis


Based on the literature review (such as Bai 2013, Jiang 2008, Lv 2013,
Wang 2010, Xia & Fan 2014), as well as our field work experience, we
determined that three aspects should be analyzed to evaluate the new
trends of interpersonal relationship in colleges under the academic credit
system. These three aspects are the relationships between teachers and
students in specific contexts, the influence of curriculum evaluation on

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62

teacher-student relationship, and the classmate relationships under the


academic credit system.

1) Manifestation and analysis of teacher-student relationships in specific


contexts

Traditional morality and higher education management systems used to


function together to maintain the development of such an educational tradition.
With the profound development of structural reform of higher education based
on a market-oriented economy, and in particular the implementation of the
academic credit system, under such new contexts, teacher-student relationships
in colleges are transforming. An urgent question for management personnel in
colleges is how to construct a harmonious teacher-student relationship based on
actual situations in the larger environment of a harmonious society. Although
there are various aspects that should comply with certain rules in terms of
teacher-student interaction in colleges, and the positioning of teacher and
student under different contexts, we can nonetheless always uncover
phenomena that violate standards.

The phenomenon described in Circumstance 1 is not uncommon on this campus


according to our observation and research. Compared with teacher-student
relationship under the traditional system, the communications between teachers
and students under the academic credit system incline to be diversified and
approaches to improve relationships are not confined to the classroom and
teaching. Sometimes dining together is the norm.

The phenomenon described in Circumstance 2 is also quite common on campus.


Under the academic credit system, some students intend to get high scores by
fawning on their teachers so that their scores might not tally with the facts,
which might lead to speculation and mental inclination to gain without any
labor.

Circumstance 1: time: 9:00-10:00 p.m. May 8, 2012; location: corridor of


Dormitory #E.
Interviewer: Ive heard that you had night snacks with teachers that evening!
Interviewee (girl): Yes! We had a good time with them (male teachers)! J and
I drank a lot of beer!
Recorder: Wow, youre so lucky! How many teachers?
Interviewee: Three, and theyre all very nice and talkative.

Figure 1: Circumstance 1

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63

Circumstance 2: time: 8:00-9:00 p.m. May 9, 2012; location: campus road of


Shantou University
Interviewer: Actually, I think many teachers in our school are very nice.
Interviewee: Yeah! For example, W is quite talented and teaches well. S is
also very nice and kind to students. She also gives us high scores!
Interviewer: Well, only D and I have much to talk about, and I usually chat
with him. He is very humorous. I find that American teachers are all full of
enthusiasm!
Interviewee: For me, I only get close to J, and he is easy to interact with.
Interviewer: Is the teacher bound to help you? The teacher cant help you if
you do a bad job on your homework and team reports.
Interviewee: The teacher is very nice, and he will surely give me a high score!

Figure 2: Circumstance 2

Based on the above phenomenon, in-depth interviews are conducted to answer


relevant questions. The question is designed as: Compared with other
traditional educational approaches, what do you think are the differences in
terms of teacher-student relationships under the current credit system? with
follow-up questions such as: Could you explain this phenomenon according to
your own experience? What is the influence of such changes? What should be
improved? The typical answers are:

(1) I think the relationship between teachers and students in colleges is more
alienated than that in high schools. After all, teachers leave once the class is over.
It is very difficult for them to remember every student unless they are major
teachers.
(2) There is little exchange between teachers and students. Generally teachers
leave once the class is over. And we cannot find teachers after class.
(3) Take general-knowledge courses as an example. There is little exchange
with teachers. We neither answer questions in class nor ask questions after class,
and only meet with teachers in class. We therefore have basically no exchange
with them.

From the above responses, we can get the main ideas as follows: the relationship
between teachers and students is relatively distant; since there is little exchange
between them in class and after class, their relationship is not in harmony;
students know little about teachers when choosing courses and ask for more
detailed introduction of teachers under the academic credit system; it seems that
teachers must cater to students so that more students might choose their courses,
which is akin to the relationship between customer and commodity; teacher
character and teaching style will also affect the teacher-student relationship.

Table 1 Teacher-student relationship


Question Option Number Percent
The academic credit system agree, strongly agree 62 19%
helps improve the teacher-
no idea 120 35%

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64

student relationship. disagree, strongly disagree 161 46%


If a teacher once offended agree, strongly agree 85 25%
students, students might
37%
retaliate during teacher no idea 127
evaluation. disagree, strongly disagree 132 38%
The teacher evaluation system agree, strongly agree 145 42%
makes some teachers loosen
32%
management and requirements no idea 110
of students in class. disagree, strongly disagree 89 25%
*Only valid data are selected.

As previously mentioned, a total of 100 undergraduates in Shantou University


were selected for in-depth interview with questions of different perspectives,
which are primarily open-ended. The first five most representative interview
records from each individual are selected as the most influential issues for
further analysis. Based on the interviews, it is clear that most students think the
teacher-student relationship is not good under the academic credit system.
Compared with traditional teaching patterns, the academic credit system leads
to weakened teacher-student relationships. Through in-depth interview, we find
that teacher character, teaching attitude, teaching method, teaching quality and
instruction would also impact the relationship between teachers and students.

Table 2 Familiarity of teachers and students


Question Option Number Percent
Which can A. Quite familiar with a small portion of
7%
best reflect teachers, also have contact after class 19
your own B. Mediocre, but would ask teachers if there
15%
familiarity are questions about study 43
with your C. Not familiar with most teachers, seldom
teachers? have contact after class, only greet them when 41%
meeting 120
D. Basically entirelyunfamiliar with all of
37%
them, and do not greet them when meeting 108
*Only valid data are selected.

Therefore, through in-depth interview, we have found that the academic credit
system definitely influences teacher-student relationships, which is inclined
toward more negative effects. In order to more deeply explore the influence of
the academic credit system on teacher-student relationships, quantitative
research methods such as questionnaire survey are also employed as a
supplement to participant observation and in-depth interview.

Table 1 and Table 2 reveal that approximately 80% of students are not familiar
with their teachers, most students and teachers are not familiar with each other,
even feeling strange and do not greet when meeting under the academic credit
system. In addition, only 18% students hold that the academic credit system
helps improve the teacher-student relationship, 35% claim they have no idea,
and 46% disagree with the statement that the academic credit system

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65

contributes to interaction between teachers and students and improves the


teacher-student relationship. This indicates that most students believe the
academic credit system does not substantially help promote the teacher-student
relationship.

From Table 1, we can learn that over 40% of students believe the teacher
evaluation system results in some teachers loosening management and
requirements of students in class. Only 25% disagree with the opinion. Thus it
can be seen that course evaluation under the academic credit system has a great
impact on classroom discipline, which is also an important manifestation of the
teacher-student relationship. Therefore, classroom discipline under the academic
credit system has certain impacts on the teacher-student relationship.

2) Analysis of influence of curriculum evaluation on the teacher-student


relationship
Apparently, the academic credit system has great impacts on the teacher-student
relationship, and most students disagree with the viewpoint that the academic
credit system helps improve teacher-student relationships and feel
unacquainted or even unfamiliar with their teachers. Under the academic credit
system, students are required to conduct teacher evaluations. Some students
would evaluate according to their relationship with teachers and even retaliate.
How do students view the teacher-student relationship under course evaluation,
and what are its impacts on the teacher-student relationship?

Circumstance 3 along with widely discussed articles indicates that Public


compulsory courses are different from specialized ones, as the same course is
taught by different teachers. Therefore, everyone scrambles for kind teachers at
the beginning of each semester (Liu and Ran 2011, Wang 2010), the author uses
an Internet buzzword RP (which means personal character) to describe the
battle of course selection. So-called good character means that the teacher is kind,
gives high scores, and little homework.

The above record is from Sina Weibo, a platform for public social comments,
through which teachers and students of this university are able to voice their
opinions. From the above information, students have a bad opinion of the
teacher, and at least some students disagree with his teaching and evaluation
forms. It is hard to imagine that the teacher can get excellent comments during
course evaluation.

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66

Circumstance 3: time: 8:00 p.m. May 24, 2012; location: students Dormitory
#E, tree hole in Shantou University
Participant: XX from School of Business, you are so inhumane! Its not just
that you read PPT in class, you should even require us to debate in 14th week
and take exam in 15th and 16th weeks. Whats worse, the content is not from
the book but from a qualification test. Are there any differences with taking
examination twice in a row?
It is learned that many students evaluate the teacher as nice, giving high
scores, but always repeating what the book says, straying far away from the
subject without much knowledge related to the textbook after a lesson.

Figure 3: Circumstance 3

According to the above observation, we conduct in-depth interview to related


students with questions: Do you think the current teacher evaluation system in
Shantou University is rational? If not, what need to be improved? as well as
follow-up questions: Could you talk about your standards and attitude during
evaluation of teaching quality based on your experience? What do you think are
the influences that student evaluations have on teachers? According to the
interview, summary and conclusion can be made as follows:

(1) The teacher evaluation system is obviously irrational. Students pay little
attention to it and do not want to fill it in later in the year. In addition, even if
they do fill it in, teachers do not make improvement. Students generally fill in
according to their preference of the teacher.
(2) Evaluation of teacher performance is too casual. We dont know whether
teachers have seen their evaluation and comments and whether they have
improvement measures. I think something like a hearing should be held so that
students can offer on-site evaluation to teachers.
(3) I remember that a teacher for English was fired due to overly strict
evaluation. Although supervisory personnel would come to observe the class
and teachers would become especially enthusiastic, it is of little effect and cannot
essentially change their teaching approach.

From the answers received, key words can be extracted to include: irrational, too
casual, no teacher improvement; overly subjective evaluation and difficult to
reflect reality; students are not informed about whether their opinions are
accepted; the role of supervisory personnel is not obvious; evaluation itself
might become a means of retaliation by students.

Based on in-depth interview, it appears that teacher evaluations do not play


their intended role. For the preciseness and accuracy of research, we distributed
questionnaires on credit systems and teacher evaluation to students so as to
explore the relationship between course evaluation and teacher-student
relationship through quantitative method.

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67

Circumstance 4: time: 10:10 a.m. April 24, 2012; location: PE class.


Teacher: Everyone please handin your theory homework.
Just then, students began to whisper.
Student A: What?
Student B: Is there such a thing?
Student C: What? Is there any homework?
Student A: Definitely there is, as you see other students have handed it in.
Student D: You left last class early, didnt you? The teacher assigned the
homework before finishing class. Student A, B, C (suddenly understand):
Oh~~
Circumstance 5: After warm-up exercises, students exercise separately and in
slight disorder. Student B furtively took out a blank test paper and a finished
one from the teacher folder when he was not paying attention, and then
pretended to go to the washroom. Student A and C also followed suit.
Fifteen minutes later, Student B calmly replaced two finished test paper and
later Student A and C also did the same.

Figure 4: Circumstance 4

Table 3 Credit system & teacher evaluation


Question Option Number Percent
I pay little attention to final agree, strongly agree 150 44%
teacher evaluation and dont no idea 83 24%
think the evaluation has great disagree, strongly
113 32%
influence on the teacher. disagree
Under the academic credit agree, strongly agree 88 26%
system, teacher evaluation no idea 104 30%
system weakens teacher disagree, strongly
153 44%
authority. disagree
*Only valid data are selected.

From table 3, it is clear that nearly half (44%) of students believe course
evaluation has little impact on teachers, and only 32% of students disagree with
it. It can be seen that students are not serious about course evaluation.

In addition, most students disagree with the statement that under the academic
credit system, teacher evaluation system weakens teacher authority, and only
26% of students agree with it, thus suggesting that most students believe that
their evaluation will not affect teacher authority. Thus it can be concluded that
most students believe course evaluation has little impact on teachers and they
therefore give teachers favourable or unfavourable comments at will, which is
likely to dampen teacher enthusiasm and impair teacher-student relationship.

3) Analysis of classmate relationships under the academic credit system


Under the academic credit system, however, although the class system is
retained, the free elective system gives more freedom to students and it is quite
common to take courses of different departments, majors, and campuses, which
leads to class discretization. In addition, inconsistent course arrangement, class

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68

time, and location result in weakened relationships between students as well as


less class cohesiveness, which ultimately affects classmate relationships. We
delve deep into the real situation to explore the influence of the academic credit
system on classmate relationship.

The above phenomenon not only happens at PE class, and such behaviors as
leaving early and plagiarism are quite common in colleges. The author holds
that the academic credit system is a major cause. Under the academic credit
system, students can choose a course they like freely, which means that students
of each class have courses together out of interest rather than major and grade.
Therefore, mutual supervision between students is quite impossible, which
exerts further impact on student learning efficiency and quality.

Circumstance 6: time: 7:309:00p.m. May 25, 2012; location: D504, committee


election of Class 9.
It is the last term of committee election, when only over 40 out of 120 students
came one after the next. This was much lower as compared with before the
implementation of the credit system. Several class committee members
attempted to keep the atmosphere. Several candidates for the monitor
position did not show much enthusiasm, and some positions were vacant,
which made the atmosphere extremely embarrassing. In fact, election results
from only one third of the total number were invalid.

Figure 5: Circumstance 5

Under the academic credit system, class status declines and classes cannot play
their normal roles. As students are required to attend class as in day school
under the academic credit system and they do not form such strong class
consciousness as in high school, middle school or even primary school, the sense
of belonging declines and class cohesiveness is gravely insufficient. It can be
learned that the credit system leads to weak collective concepts and lack of class
cohesiveness.

Under the academic credit system, every student can choose their own schedule
and teachers, which grants students greater freedom and alternatives. However,
this system directly leads to different timetables and schedules of each student
so that gathering becomes more difficult. This indirectly affects communication
between students. In addition to participant observation, we also further
explored the influence of the academic credit system on classmate relationships
through questionnaire survey.

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69

Circumstance 7: time: morning on April 16, 2012; location: in a students


dormitory.
A: Girls, Ive got a VIP card forMusic Online and its hard-earned. Lets go
to the KTV one day! (A shows the gold VIP card to her roommates joyfully)
B took a look at the card and said: Great, we have never gone to the KTV
together and Ive thought about it for a long time.
C: Wow, its really quite cheap. When shall we go?....
B: I have many courses on Thursday. Im afraid it cannot be Thursday.
C: Thursday is OK. But Im occupied on Friday.
B: I cant be sure whether I have time at weekend, as I always have some
unexpected work to do.
A: Well, it seems that we cant go out together again. Why does our free time
never coincide?!

Figure 6: Circumstance 6

45.5% of students voted against the statement that the academic credit system
promotes classmate relationship, among whom 31.88% of students disagree
and 13.62% strongly disagree. Compared with 25.64% on the supportive side,
it may be said that the disagreeing side achieved overwhelming advantage. It
can be concluded that the academic credit system hinders communication
between students to some extent.

Table 5 also proves the above conclusion as it is found that only 24.55% of
students are familiar with most classmates; 22.46% of students have some
impression of classmates, but are not familiar with them; 34.43% of students
have close contact with a portion of classmates; and 16.17% of students only
know a small part of classmates with little communication.

Table 4 Credit system & classmate relationships


Options Number Percent
The academic credit system agree, strongly agree 85 25.64%
promotes classmate interaction no idea 103 29.86%
and improves relationships. disagree, strongly disagree 157 45.5%
*Only valid data are selected.

Table 5 Familiarity among classmates


Question Options Number Percent
How well A. I am quite familiar with most classmates and 82 24.55%
do you we know each other
know B. I am familiar with most classmates, but dont 75 22.46%
your know their names and have little communication
classmate C. I know some classmates, communicate 115 34.43%
s? frequently and maintain good relationship with
them
D. I know some classmates, but with little 54 16.17%
communication
E. We basically do not know each other 8 2.39%

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70

*Only valid data are selected.

Conclusions and Recommendations


With regard to the teacher-student relationship, the changed teacher evaluation
system leads to changed status of teachers and students (Liu and Li 2010), and
thus teachers lower their requirements for students, which leads to poor
classroom discipline (Jiang 2008). Under the academic credit system, students
primarily learn by themselves, which results in less exchange between teachers
and students and poorer teacher-student relationships (Jiang 2008). Moreover,
under the academic credit system, some students take course evaluation as
means of retaliation, and some students pay little attention to it so that the
evaluation program becomes arbitrary. The negative effect on teacher-student
relationships caused by the academic credit system should therefore be paid
sufficient attention. As such, we suggest:

1) Change the mode of course evaluation. The current course evaluation system
lacks normalization and student evaluation tends to be subjective, which hinders
normal development of the teacher-student relationship. Process evaluation and
face-to-face evaluation can be adopted to further promote exchange between
teachers and students.

2) Establish a feedback system. After course evaluation, students can witness


teacher improvement and offer suggestions through such a feedback system. As
another important approach for exchange between teachers and students, a
feedback system can provide greater opportunities for communication.

3) Change dimensionality of course evaluation. As most students find it difficult


to understand, making the dimensionality of course evaluation easier would
help reflect student opinions more accurately and promote mutual progress of
teachers and students as well as the harmonious development of teacher-student
relationships.

Due to free and dispersed courses and mixed dormitories, students have fewer
opportunities to communicate with each other, leading to a reduced sense of
class belonging and inadequate class cohesiveness. From a sociological
perspective, there would be some impact on their relationships if they are unable
to remain in the same class for a long time (Chen 2004). Such impacts primarily
include: (1) the academic credit system reducing exchange between classmates
so that they are alienated; (2) the academic credit system weakens mutual
supervision from students taking the same courses and thus impacts classroom
discipline and learning quality (Xiao and Zheng 2013).As such, we make the
following suggestions:

1) Students should become more proactive in making friends and class


committee members should regularly hold class activities. Under present social
contexts, interpersonal relationships are indispensable for success in career. In
addition, class committee members should hold class activities regularly, and try
to get all students involved so as to increase opportunities for their
communication and promote friendship.

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71

2) Under the academic credit system, student schedules and timetables are
different, which is an ineradicable phenomenon. Therefore, the only thing we
can do is to promote the advantages of the academic credit system. For example,
the mixed-dormitory system enables students to learn more about knowledge of
other majors, which provides a wider range of ideas and perspectives to view
the same problems and have more room to find solutions.

3) Add major elective courses to enable classmates to have more opportunities to


meet each other at the same time they have more alternatives. In addition to
daily class affairs, class committee members should play a greater role in
enhancing communication between classmates and organizing activities to
promote friendship.

4) Supervision of students should be strengthened with more inspection of study


styles. As the teacher-student relationship and classmate relationship are not
close under the academic credit system, it is difficult to form effective mutual
supervision. The credit system weakens classmate relationships, reduces
encouragement and supervision between classmates, and leads to declined
learning quality, which is inconsistent with the objectives of colleges to train
excellent personnel. Therefore, it is recommended to (1) increase the frequency
of inspection of study style; (2) step up efforts to check attendance rates and
strictly enforce relevant punishment measures.

References
Bie Dunrong. (2013). Educational Theory and Implementation Principles of the
academic credit system. China Higher Education Research. (3), 6-15.
Chen, Zhenzhong. (2004). Sociality, Interaction and AuthorityInterpretation of
Classroom Life from Sociological Perspective. Journal of Educational
Science of Hunan Normal University. (4), 20-24.
Emery, Charles R., Kramer, Tracy R. and Tian, Robert G. (2003). Return to
Academic Standards: A Critique of Student Evaluations of Teaching
Effectiveness. Quality Assurance in Education, Vol. 11(1), 3746.
Haskell, R.E. (1997). Academic freedom, tenure, and student evaluation of
faculty: galloping pulls in the 21 century. Education Policy Analysis
Archives, 5(6), 6-9.
Jiang, Ying. (2008). Research on Students Participation in Teaching Process
under Credit System. Education and Vocation, (26), 53-54.
Liu, Yeyun & Li, Xue. (2010). Establishment of Competency Evaluation Index
System for Domestic College Teachers. Journal of Educational Science of
Hunan Normal University, (2), 89-94.
Liu, Zhicheng & Ran, Qian. (2011). On Cultivation of Collective Consciousness
of College Students under Credit System, Research on Non-
Governmental Higher Education, (3), 47-49.
Lv Jingyi. (2013). Path, Mechanism and Condition Analysis of Implementing
Credit System in Independent Colleges. Higher Education Exploration.
(5), 106-109.

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72

Qin Lijun & Chen Shijian. (2013). Comparison of the academic credit system
between European and American Universities for Reference.Research in
Educational Development, (22), 69-73.
Tian, Guang & Zhou, Daming. (2012). Business Anthropology, Yinchuan:
Peoples Press of Ningxia, 293-313.
Wang, Junsheng. (2010). Factor Analysis and Model Building of Course Selection
under Credit System. Higher Education Exploration, (5), 80-83.
Xia Chunming & Fan Shengfa. (2014). Comparison and Study of GPA-measured
Credit System in Domestic Colleges. Jiangsu Higher Education, (2), 84-89.
Xiao, Yun & Zheng, Youfei (2013). Practical Exploration and Reflection on Credit
System Reform in Professional Colleges. Journal of Higher Education
Management, (1), 86-90.
Xu, Fenghua. (2011). Establishment of Teacher-Student Relationship under
Credit System. Jiangsu Higher Education, (1), 126-128.
Wang Zhi. (2012). Systematic Reflection on Implementing Credit System in
Vocational Colleges. China Higher Education Research, (2), 93-96.

Acknowledgement: The undergraduate students who enrolled in Business


Anthropology course in spring of 2013 partially helped collect the data.

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73

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 73-79, January 2015

A New Force to Push Universities in the U.S. to


Go Online

Dr. Noah Kasraie


University of the Incarnate Word
San Antonio, TX, USA

Dr. Ala Alahmad


ELS Educational Services
San Antonio, TX, USA

Abstract. Online education and e-learning continue to be a trend in the


future of higher education. However, some colleges and universities in
the U.S. are still resisting this change. One factor that may force these
institutions of higher education to change is the new rating system
initiated by the current Government of the United States of America.
This new rating system will affect the allocation of financial aid to
universities which in turn affect the revenue and overall enrolment in
various universities. The purpose of this paper is to first review the
current literature and then provide an analysis on the effects of this new
rating system on the future of online education in institutions of higher
education. This paper suggests that the new College Scorecard rating
system initiated by the Obama Administration will force college and
universities to offer more online courses and programs.

Keywords: Online Education, eLearning, Higher Education, Colleges


and Universities, College Scorecard.

1. Introduction
The rapid advancements in technology have revolutionized the life of human
beings in the 21st century. It has impacted the business processes and models,
communication strategies between members in organizations, the expectations
of consumers and ultimately the overall operations of businesses. Many
products and services that believed to be impossible just a few decades ago are
now taken as granted. It has created new challenges, problems, threats and
opportunities in the business world.

However, not all industries have embraced advancements in technology as the


corporate world has. The higher-education model of lecturing, cramming and
examination has not changed much for the past few decades. It is commonly
observed that some faculty, administrators and universities resist changing the

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74

models and practices used in higher education for many years. Now, with the
introduction of College Scorecard things may change.

In August 2013, President Obama proposed a new college ratings system. This
proposal aimed to identify and rank universities that offer the best value in an
effort to help students and parents make more informed decisions about their
choice of college. This proposal is called the College Scorecard and it is
scheduled to launch by the 2015 academic year. It will rate universities based on
accessibility, affordability and outcomes to measure overall value. What makes
this system so important to universities is the fact that by 2018 the Department
of Education will tie it to the way federal financial aid is distributed to
universities. High-performing will receive larger amounts of Pell Grants and
student loans.

Since this is a new initiative, there is a gap in the literature about how this
program will impact the likelihood of universities going online in the U.S. In
addition, since the program has not started yet, collection of quantitative or
qualitative data was not very meaningful at this stage. Therefore, an analytical
review of the literature and position paper seemed to make the most
contribution to the body of the literature. The purpose of this position paper is to
analyze the possible effects of the introduction of the new College Scoreboard
system by the Obama Administration on the decision of U.S. universities
offering more online courses and programs.

2. Review of the Literature


a. Online Education
Online education is growing and becoming more popular among students as
time progresses. Students, as well as institutions, are becoming more dependent
on online learning as the years pass (Allen & Seaman, 2010). According to
Mayadas, Bourne and Bacsich (2009) people want the comfort of college
education at their convenience. Online education is affecting many who
normally would not have been able to go to college. Todays students have more
opportunity than their past generations and education online is providing those
opportunities. Some students may not have a certain class offered though their
current college, but online learning is beneficial to them because they may be
able to take that class online through a different institution (Sive & Sarma, 2013).
Lewin (2012) explains that some students who may not be able to make it to
campus, due to life in general, will also benefit from online learning. Students all
over the world are becoming more and more intrigued and attracted to these
online opportunities, and institutions are changing to accommodate this
demand. But are these new opportunities really beneficial to the online learner?
Do online course provide equal, less or better education for students?

Many people are certain that traditional learning is better than online classes.
Many, who do not understand how effective technology can be, believe that
there is no way that an online virtual class can even compare to the traditional
classroom education (Angiello, 2010). Contrary to these beliefs, this may not
always be true. Studies have found that online learners have performed

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75

somewhat better than those students in traditional classroom settings (Toyama,


Murphy, Bakia, Jones, & Karla, 2010).

There is a whole community and culture in online learning classes, just as youd
see in traditional classrooms. There are several ways to insure that students are
learning properly. Juwah (2006) suggested that interaction within an online
classroom is one of the most important things to ensure a student has in order to
promote success. Social presence, though it may not seem so, is very important
in online classrooms. Students intellectual attendance can be determined by the
amount of community based learning a student feels they have in an online class
(Shea & Bidjerano, 2009). The teacher also needs to be present to insure an
increase in success rate of their online students. A professors presence in an
online classroom increases the social participation in the class and therefore
promotes success in an online learning course. (Garrisona, Cleveland-Innesb, &
Fungc, 2010). Online education has a role in opening new door for students as
well as providing greater opportunities for instructors and institutions alike
(Moore, 2013).

Overall, though many may believe that online education is not providing
todays students with a solid educational background and great learning
experience, this is not what research shows. Todays learners are thriving within
the online community and technology is providing great opportunities for
students. Technology is very effective, along with student socialization and
motivation in the online classroom, at giving a good foundation for new
learners. Online education provides a sufficient, if not, superior learning
experience and education for modern students.

b. College Scorecard
The U.S. Education Department has compiled statistics for around 4000 colleges
and universities in the nation. College Scorecard, as this new rating system is
called, will rate colleges and universities based on accessibility, affordability and
outcomes to measure overall value. The goal of the Department of Education is
to base the way federal financial aid is distributed to universities on this rating
system.

The Department of Education uses multiple variables to rate colleges and


universities. The first variable is the enrollment of universities. Secondly, cost
and net price is used and defined as the average yearly price actually charged to
first-time full-time undergraduates not including student aid. Graduation and
transfer-out rates for first-time full-time undergraduates are some other
variables used by the system. Loan default rate is defined as the percentage of an
institution's borrowers who entered repayment on certain Federal student loans
in federal fiscal year 2009 and who defaulted before September 30, 2011. Finally,
employment is considered in the rating system as what kind of jobs do students
have when they graduate (White House, 2014).

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76

3. Discussion
An analytical review of the literature reveals three disruptive waves are going to
force universities to offer online education. The first disruptive wave is the
financial crisis in higher education. It is forecasted that more than thirty to forty
percent of private universities in the U.S. will file bankruptcy within two
decades. Institutional costs are rising while the Federal student aid is decreasing.
The government can no longer subsidize higher education as generously as it
used to.

Accessibility is going to become a major factor for financial aid allocation based
on the new system. According to the College Scorecard, the total enrolment of a
university will have an impact on this new rating system. Many universities
have serious space limitations and simply cannot offer more classes to ensure
undergraduate students have the classes they need every semester to graduate
in 4 years. One major solution to tackle this issue is to offer online courses. For
profit universities have done a great job in implementing this strategy. Not only
the issue of classroom space limitation was resolved for them but overall
enrolment at for-profit colleges and universities increased 225 percent in the past
twenty years (NCSL, 2013).

Many universities face high competition over traditional face-to-face students


were several institutions of higher education are only a few miles away. If the
goal is to increase total enrolment numbers, maybe the only viable solution is to
reach out to students virtually and look for students beyond the local or regional
areas the universities are physically located. This is a solution that has been
tested successfully many times. For example, Drexel University plans to increase
its enrolment by capitalizing on the University's strong market position in
online education (Drexel, 2014).

The cost of higher education has steadily increased in the U.S. In year 2014, the
price for a 4-year university degree for a residential student at an American
university is up to $240,000 (Economist, 2014). A report by the National Center
for Education Statistics stated that the prices for undergraduate tuition, room,
and board at public institutions rose 40 percent in the past ten years (NCES,
2015). It has been proven that in the long-term Online courses can be provided
more cheaply than traditional ones (Economist, 2014). Advancements in
technology will sooner or later force most colleges and universities to offer
online courses and programs in the near future.

The technological revolution will challenge the traditional business models used
in higher education. This is the second disruptive wave that will affect the
decision of universities to offer more online courses and programs. The current
business models will not help universities decrease the net price of higher
education for universities. Colleges and universities in the U.S. have passed
most of the rising costs on to students. Fees increased by 28% in American
private universities and 27% in Public in the five years to 2012. American
student debt adds up to $1.2 trillion and more than 7 million individuals have
defaulted on their loans. Students are now thinking about the return on

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77

investment especially when they are not able to find employment in their fields
of study after graduation.

Many business processes and operations hinder the 4-year graduation on


undergraduate students. Students often experience challenging situations at
various offices such Financial Aid, Admissions or the Registrars that will
decrease their satisfaction level and sometimes influence them to consider other
universities or ultimately leave a college or university. In addition, spacing
limitations and classroom availability are becoming major challenges for
students to graduate on time. Many times some classes are not offered in a
semester due to lack of classroom availability or other spacing issues on
campuses. Offering online classes is one good solution to help with this problem.
The third disruptive wave affecting universities in the U.S. is more theoretical in
nature. In the past a higher education was more geared towards a small group of
elites. This has slowly changed with various industries requiring a higher
education as a requirement for employment and consequently universities
offering more professional degrees. Universities and institutions of higher
education in the U.S. are now responsible for training and retraining workers
throughout their careers.

Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) and Open Courseware initiatives such
as the one offered by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) have
made what had been traditionally locked behind firewalls and secure servers
freely available to users all around the world (Haggard, 2013). An independent
learner no longer needs to enrol in a paid course in a traditional class in a brick
and mortar university to learn about many subjects (Hilton, Wiley, Stein, &
Johnson, 2010). These courses are now being made available online free of
charge to the users. This will definitely impact enrolments in higher education.
Many universities are reaching out to new and diverse markets online through
online certificate programs (Richter & McPherson, 2012). It is interesting to note
that for example currently there are more online certificates in program
evaluation that graduate programs offering such a degree. Can universities
survive the above challenges without utilizing online education?

4. Conclusions
Over 6.7 million students were taking online courses in the fall 2011 term. This
shows an amazing increase of 570,000 students over the fall 2010 term (Allen &
Seaman, 2013). This is a current trend in higher education in the U.S. A review of
the current literature and analysis of the possible impacts of the new College
Scorecard rating system initiated by the Obama Administration clearly suggests
that the current trend of offering more online courses and programs in colleges
and universities in the U.S. will continue. In addition to all of the above review
and analysis, it is important to note that the true digital natives that are currently
still enrolled in the k-12 system in the U.S. will eventually enter the institutions
of higher education in the next few years. Offering online courses will become
an expectation for this new population of students and universities that initially
resist changing will not be able to complete or even survive (Watson &
Pecchioni, 2011).

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78

Future qualitative research is recommended to understand the barriers college


administrators face to implement online education in their universities. In
addition, more in-depth research is needed to identify expectations of digital
natives from their college classroom experience. After the College Scorecard
initiative is up and running, a quantitative survey research is recommended to
see what statistically significant differences this new rating system has made on
the online course offering of colleges and universities in the U.S. At this time,
there is an excellent foundation for further research, but it is recommended that
future research could benefit from a more theoretically informed basis. Future
research is recommended to explore new ways of conceptualizing these research
issues drawing on theories. In addition, utilizing change theories to serve as
theoretical frameworks for such studies is highly recommended. Since this is a
new initiative, there is a need for quantitative longitudinal studies to keep track
of the changes and effects of the College Score rating system on online offerings
of colleges and universities. Finally, a survey of college administrators about the
possible impacts of this new initiative on the business processes and models on
institutions of higher education in the U.S. is recommended.

Online education is here and will continue to stay in the higher education
industry for many more years to come. What learning technologies will be
available to college faculty and administrators ten years from now? That is a
question that needs to be answered with an open mind. Considering the
advancements of learning technologies in the past ten years, one could easily
expect that the learning technologies ten years from now will be completely
different than what is being used today. This calls for more ongoing change for
faculty and administrators in institutions of higher education. One could
embrace these new changes and use them as a competitive advantage or decide
to resist the change and lose ground to the fierce competition in the industry.
The real question is when are we going to change?

5. References

Allen, I., & Seaman, J. (2013). Changing Course: Ten Years of Tracking Online Education in
the United States, 2013. Online Learning Consortium.
Allen, I., Seaman, J., & Sloan, C. (2010). Class Differences: Online Education in the United
States, 2010. Online Learning Consortium.
Angiello, R. (2010). Study Looks at Online Learning vs. Traditional instruction. Education
Digest: Essential Readings Condensed For Quick Review, 76(2), 56-59.
Drexel University. (2014). Continue to Grow Drexels Enrolment. Retrieved from
http://www.drexel.edu/strategicPlan/initiatives/enrollment/
Economist. (2014). Making College Cost Less. Retrieved from
http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21600120-many-american-
universities-offer-lousy-value-money-government-can-help-change
Garrison, D. R., Cleveland-Innes, M., & Fung, T. (2010). Exploring Causal Relationships
among Teaching, Cognitive and Social Presence: Student Perceptions of the
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80

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 80-92, January 2015

Analysing the Effectiveness of Engagement-


Promoting Techniques in the EFL Classroom

Joao Carlos Koch Junior


Sapporo Gakuin University
Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan

Abstract. One of the priorities of language teachers is to ensure classes are


interesting and engaging. Learners different backgrounds and individual
preferences, however, make each class unique. Choice of materials and
topics work differently in different classes, and the same is true with
teacher behaviour. Through a series of classroom observations, which were
conducted through an observation instrument in different settings and with
different teachers and students, this research attempted to investigate and
list a number of teacher techniques and their effectiveness in promoting
and maintaining learner engagement. These techniques were evaluated
according to students responses and perceived levels of engagement. The
observation instrument was then evaluated. Analysis of findings resulted in
a list of categorised techniques and behaviours that were deemed engaging
or otherwise beneficial and desirable in class.

Keywords: classroom observation, learner engagement, teacher behaviour,


teaching techniques, motivation

1. Rationale
1.1. Background

As teachers, we all hope to keep our lessons interesting and our learners
engaged. We also know that no two classes are alike. This is mostly due to
learners individual backgrounds, which teachers commonly keep in mind when
they plan and deliver their lessons. For instance, in a class with a high number of
South American learners, teachers are more likely to engage students with more
communicative/group activities than they would in a class where learners are
predominantly South-Eastern Asians. However, the opposite may also be true
for example, if the teacher is aiming at using/developing other abilities and
learning strategies and/or preferences other than the ones preferred by learners.

In my setting, for instance, even though most teachers would claim they
consistently consider learners backgrounds when choosing materials and
activities and making decisions when planning an engaging lesson, this
behaviour is often limited. A great many teachers are in situations where careful

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81

consideration of students backgrounds is not an option, usually due to time


constraints but often also due to lack of awareness.

1.2. Summary of literature

Knowledge of what works best to engage a particular group of learners can


enable teachers to tailor lessons that focus on their learners most prominent
characteristics while placing less focus on aspects that are not strongly preferred
among the class. However, this could also deny the positive impact that
challenges have on learner motivation and avoid the development of learner
confidence. According to Bandura (1977), positive experiences enhance learner
beliefs in their own ability, and these beliefs are necessary for dealing with
challenging situations. Corno (1983) highlights this by saying that the effort
needed in challenging tasks derives primarily from a learners belief in their own
ability, and the effect of such beliefs override learner actual ability. It is
important to note that tasks that aim to enhance learner beliefs in their own
ability should be kept achievable (Dornyei, 1994).

One of the most popular models of categorising learners characteristics is the


Theory of Multiple Intelligences
[en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences], proposed by
Howard Gardner. There have been attempts that take theories and put them to
practical use (such as the Project Zero [pz.gse.harvard.edu/mi_schools.php],
created by Gardner to research ways to develop multiple intelligences schools
based on his theory). Gardner himself, however, warns that intelligences are
not the same as styles, and that the MI theory is in no way an educational
prescription, and that has been developed without specific educational goals
(Gardner, 1995). As an example, the author describes the fact that the
interpersonal intelligence has to do with understanding other people, but it is
often used as a rationale for learning programmes for introverted students
which, according to Gardner, is not at all derived from his theory. Gardner also
warns that, while most topics can be approached in a variety of ways, it is
flawed to assume all topics can be taught using all intelligences.

Nevertheless, his studies are helpful for teachers in establishing ways to make
their repertoire of techniques broader, and looking for activities that will add
variety to the classroom, especially when the teacher is flexible to select key
topics and approach them in a variety of ways, which allows the teacher to
reach more learners, and learners to understand concepts in more than one way
(Gardner, 1995).

It should also be noted that teachers must be flexible even when being
constrained to a narrow syllabus. According to Ehrman et al (2003b), these
teachers should be able to systematically cater for the individual differences of
their learners. The authors explain that teachers should understand that their
desire to help, by choosing what they believe to be the most efficient way, can
become interference for a learner whose approach to learning differs from the
teachers preference. Different kinds of teacher behaviour also affect the class;
for instance, according to Clunies-Ross et al (2008), proactive behaviours such as

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82

active listening result in better outcomes than lecturing or disapproving


students.

1.3. Reflective teaching and shaping the observation instrument

1.3.1. From a personal perspective: in my current teaching situation, it is


especially important that the teacher possesses an ability to be spontaneous and
improvise; being able to make informed decisions throughout the lesson plays
an important role in the choice and implementation of appropriate stimuli. One
way for teachers to learn these skills is through discussion with and observation
of their peers, but one major problem is that opportunities for these to occur are
rare in my current teaching scenario. Moreover, teachers often do not engage in
these activities due to the lack of clear guidance or instructions on how to
proceed.

To address these two particularities of my environment (i.e. the lack of formal


guidance for peer-based development, and the importance of informed decision-
making to generate stimuli in class) I chose to design a method that will allow
teachers to conduct observations and collect data on a variety of teacher-
generated stimuli in the language classroom. It also should allow the observer to
analyse the different stimuli and to enable both teacher and observer to reflect
on these stimuli and analyses, and ideally, this new information will help
teachers to raise their awareness about different ways to stimulate learning, as
well as expand their repertoire of techniques that work in their particular
settings.

1.3.2. From the literature perspective: the various points described in the
literature review above defend the idea that employing a variety of achievable
activities and techniques in classroom is beneficial for learners. Variety,
however, implies an escape from routine, from tradition, which are sometimes
difficult to change. Dewey (1933, in Farrell, 2007), states that teachers who
cannot reflect on their work are unable to make informed decisions. According
to Ferrell, one type of reflection is the one that focuses on classroom actions.
Cruickshank and Applegate (1981, in Ferrell, 2007) defined this as a process that
help[s] teachers to think about what happened, why it happened, and what else
could have been done to reach their goals (my italics).

Through considering this suggestion of what else could have been done, the
idea of a peer observation scheme that analyses the activity of the teacher in the
classroom comes to mind. One major benefit of peer observation is that not only
does it enable less experienced teachers to learn from their more experienced
colleagues, but also the experienced teachers can reflect on their own teaching
(as noted by Richards and Farrell, 2005). The peer observation scheme,
therefore, aims to promote reflective teaching through the observance of
teaching techniques in practice, which comprise varied activities and behaviours
such as classroom management, correction techniques, choice of materials and
exercises/activities, among others.

The observation will be done through a classroom observation instrument. This


instrument aims to provide teachers with an opportunity to assess their use of

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83

techniques in classroom, by allowing observers (through the instrument) and


teachers (through feedback and discussion with observers) to reflect on their
practice and raise their awareness about variety of techniques, i.e. different ways
to achieve the same goals, and how they can use this knowledge in their practice
for the benefit of their learners.

The present instrument has a scaffolding approach. It will chart the different
forms of teacher-generated stimuli observed, together with the learner response
to each stimulus, followed by a description and analysis of the perceived
strengths and weaknesses of each stimulus. This data will allow the observer to
suggest variations or alternative ways to counter the limitation as well as to
promote variety within the classroom while maintaining the same goals. It is
important to note that, in this research, the term stimulus is used in the sense of
both what the teacher does to engage students interest and which resources and
aids are employed.

Through the use of this observation instrument to collect data on teaching


techniques employed in the language classroom, this research aims to:

a. build a list of findings drawn from these teaching techniques;


b. analyse these findings with focus on learner engagement levels, reaction
and response to the stimuli;
c. use this analysis to evaluate the instrument.

2. The observation instrument


The version of the instrument used in this research contains two sections, A and
B. A was built to collect key information about the class, namely the number of
students and their linguistic background (in this case, L1), age range, the type of
class, and class level, as well as summary information about the lesson (i.e.
teaching aims, topic).

Section B the lesson is comprised of a table. For each lesson stage, the
observer made notes of the resources used for language input, teacher stimulus
and learners response(s) to the stimulus, a scale with levels of perceived
learner engagement, strengths and limitations of (i.e. shortcomings of the
activity/exercise or the choice of materials/resources), and suggested
alternatives, to counter the limitations observed. The result is a table with six
columns, one for each of the categories here described.

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84

Observation instrument: Engagement-promoting


techniques
Venue Date/time Teacher

A. The class

Students backgrounds (L1): Type of class:

________________________ General English


________________________ Business English
________________________ Academic English
________________________ ESP
________________________ Exam (IELTS/TOEIC/CAE/etc)
________________________ Other specify:
________________________ _______________________

Topic:
Total: ________ students
___________________________________________
Age range: ________ to ________ __
Level: _________________________
Teaching aims:

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85

B. The lesson (instructions on how to fill in this section)


Lesson stage Activity/ Exercise
(write lesson stage here, e.g. Presentation/Lead- (briefly describe the activity/activities in this stage, e.g. teacher
in) eliciting items of the presentation and writing them on the board)

Resources used Teacher Learner Learner Strengths of Limitations Suggested


for language stimulus response Engagement stimulus of stimulus Alternatives
input (e.g. (e.g. (mark the (how the (where the (to counter
(check those that teacher learners level that stimulus stimulus fell the
apply, add to the activity or activity or applies) was short) limitation
list where techniques) behaviour) beneficial) and account
necessary) for variety)
Non-linguistic: Teacher Learners Engaging, Some -Print a
drew the laughed and visual (in learners picture
Flashcards face of the most High contrast were not beforehand
Worksheets prime immediately with other familiar with -Ask a
Projector/display minister to recognised Medium things on it (possibly learner to
Video use in the the face the WB due to draw, or for
CD player next step Low which were differences a volunteer
Computer written) in their to draw
Internet culture)
Realia Teacher Some -Colour -Teacher- -do it in
Pictures/posters elicited students coded centred smaller
Audio facts about gave words, -Only groups
Board the prime answers to highlighting oral/written instead of
Other(s): minister the the parts of language, whole class
A hand-drawn High
through questions speech without -make it
face questions and used -Asking variety more
Medium
the target Are you -whole class, student-
Linguistic:
language sure? made not all centred
students students
Audio Low
think could
Video beyond engage,
Written text yes or no some
Body language parallel
Oral language conversation
Other(s):
High

Medium

Low

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86

B. The lesson
Lesson stage Activity/ Exercise

Resources used Teacher Learner Learner Strengths Limitations of Suggested


for language stimulus response Engagement of stimulus stimulus Alternatives
input

Non-linguistic: High

Flashcards Medium
Worksheets
Projector/display Low
Video
CD player
Computer High
Internet
Realia Medium
Pictures/posters
Audio Low
Board
Other(s):

Linguistic:
High
Audio
Video Medium
Written text
Body language Low
Oral language
Other(s):

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87

3. Further refinement of the instrument layout

Strengths Weaknesses
Proposed remedies
Learner response is an Textbook and Dictionary are missing in the
efficient and meaningful Resources column, in spite of being items commonly
way to collect information found in the language classroom
about the ways learners Add these terms to the column, under linguistic
respond to each stimulus. (input)
This is more accurate and
detailed than simply a The items in Resources used for language input,
gauge with learners while important to be made note of, do not enable the
engagement levels user to make a direct, explicit connection between
resources and teacher stimulus (there are several
The changes in stimuli in one lesson stage, but the resources field
terminology (technique collects data about an entire lesson stage instead of per
becoming stimulus and stimulus). Establishing what resources were used in
enthusiasm becoming what moment in the lesson is left up to the user, and
engagement) also otherwise resources will be ticked per lesson stage
provoked a shift in focus, instead of teacher stimulus
from actual techniques to Offer a list of resources for user guidance only, and
different ways teachers users of the instrument are still required to write down
behave in class. Likewise, what resources were used and in what moment in the
engagement represents lesson, and who used them (i.e. teacher or student(s)).
better what the instrument This should be explained in the instructions sheet
is trying to achieve
(analyzing different Learner engagement places little emphasis on
stimuli and their effects in changes in levels of engagement, perceived or not
the language classroom, A system with arrows is to be included in the
beyond making learners learner engagement column, where an up arrow
enthused) would indicate a rise in learner engagement, and a
down arrow would be used to mark reduced levels of
The instruction sheet is an learner engagement compared with the previous
important addition to this stimulus
instrument, mostly due to
its open-ended nature Filling in the suggested alternatives column often
involves thinking outside the lesson, and the user has
to come up with suggestions while the lesson is taking
place. This creates a compromise between the attention
the user is paying to their thoughts and the attention to
the actual lesson
This is not a limitation of the instrument per se; the
suggested alternatives should be discussed as soon as
possible after the lesson is finished, and the respective
column should preferably be filled out then, unless
said discussion is not possible, then the suggestions can
be included during the lesson or after the lesson is
finished

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88

4. Analysis of Findings and Evaluation of the Effectiveness of


Instrument
Findings

The instruments collected data in three main, interrelated categories: teacher


technique (also referred to as stimulus), student response, and an analysis of
strengths and weaknesses of each stimulus. The data gathered from the
instrument helped me to extract findings, which were then analysed. This
analysis allowed me to draw some conclusions about the instruments success in
achieving the aims of the research.

Finding 1 Physicality: Keeping learners physically engaged encourages more


extensive use of language.

Clear techniques that keep learners physically engaged, such as adapting an


existing game for language-learning purposes, or having them sing along,
seemed to promote positively-perceived behaviours, such as body language and
extensive use of language. This leads me to believe that more physical activities
can promote student engagement as well as minimise opportunities for off-topic
talk and other kinds of behaviour unrelated to the lesson, by increasing focus,
concentration and involvement.

Finding 2 Generating and sustaining flow: Introducing new elements or


adapting elements already present in the lesson, without breaking the pace,
prevents learners from losing or shifting their focus.

Techniques that allow teachers to transition between different stages in the


lesson in a seamless manner, without interrupting the lesson flow (for instance,
not stopping everything to erase the board or dispense handouts) seem to have a
significant effect on keeping learners attention levels high.

Finding 3 Use of surprise elements: Using the element of surprise holds


the learners focus on the topic, especially in lengthy lessons.

By timing the delivery of information to learners and gradually revealing


previously-concealed information, the teacher is able to maintain the element of
surprise, thus keeping learners focused and engaged; while it is not clear
whether these particular uses of the surprise element were employed
consciously, it had a seemingly positive effect and it appeared to help learners
stay focused and interested.

Finding 4 Capitalising on awareness-raising: Using new language in a


controlled manner in a main activity, without drawing attention to it, is a
potentially powerful way to motivate learners when addressing the same point in
the future.

In this technique, the teacher introduces new content (such as new grammar, or
a pronunciation-related point) in tandem with a primary, main activity during
the lesson, in an attempt to make students notice and raise their awareness of it.
The teacher does not make any explicit reference to this new language at this

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89

time. The premise is that, when this content is addressed in a future lesson,
learners will recognise the new and benefit from the feeling of being familiar
with it, which is a potentially strong means of raising their curiosity and
eagerness to learn.

Finding 5 Pronunciation work: Embedding a pronunciation-related exercise


into another exercise adds variety to the lesson and potentially sustains the
attention of learners.

There are a number of ways in which pronunciation practice can be approached


(for example, through song lyrics, the use of homophones in jokes or puns,
making poems, or dictations). Pronunciation work employs different types of
drilling and activities, including physical activities (which, as seen in Finding 1
above, can be highly motivating); with a rich repertoire, the possibilities are
many for a teacher to turn a more controlled exercise into something more
engaging.

Finding 6 Recycling language: Recycling of language through


personalisation activities increases confidence and therefore engagement.

Aided by the teacher, learners use their experience and individual interests to
create opportunities for authentic and meaningful interactions (for instance,
interviewing the observer or a member of the schools staff, or for getting to
know their peers better), which can shift their focus from the limited language
being practised to the use of a wider linguistic range. This has a positive impact
on their use of language, the communicative aspects of the lesson, and especially
on their engagement levels. However, some students were seen struggling with
this freer use of language, which could have been because of language
limitation, or simply lack of interest in the activity.

Finding 7 Drawing on the board: Drawing on the board has a strong


visual impact, and it is a relevant, meaningful and engaging form of teacher-
generated stimulus.

Drawing can be used in a variety of ways such eliciting vocabulary as well as


short narratives from learners. Sketching has seemingly more benefits than
choosing a picture and sticking it on the board: it motivates students to watch
what is happening, especially since they do not know what is being drawn.
Another benefit is that it is dynamic and responsive the lesson flow can
determine the teachers next drawing. Moreover, even a bad drawing is
potentially engaging, i.e. students laugh at the teachers lack of skill.

Finding 8 Colour-coding boardwork: Colour-coding information on the


board results in a neat-looking board, with information easier to process if
compared with a single-colour board.

While it is more challenging to determine the actual impact of the technique on


learners through observation (their reactions are subtler and more passive than
in other cases), it is clear to the observer that colour-coded information on the
whiteboard is a more effective way to display information, especially for
students with visual learning preferences. Information is easy to retrieve,

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90

including for the teacher, and copying information is also made easier (students
can look from their notes and refocus on the board faster).

Instrument

One major shortcoming of working with teacher techniques and their effect on
learner motivation is that analysing techniques and assessing learners level of
engagement is sometimes a very challenging undertaking, especially for novice
teachers who are unable to evaluate the technique effectively from their own
standpoints.

There were instances in which the instrument clearly allowed the observer to
chart teacher techniques that were clearly observable, with a clear purpose, and
whose benefits and limitations were evident based on the observed response
from learners to the stimulus and their levels of engagement. In other cases, the
techniques effects on learners were not evident, and establishing benefits,
strengths or limitations was done in a more subjective way, almost solely from
the observers point of view. In these instances, the use of the instrument as a
base for post-lesson reflection should be considered.

To counter these limitations, one suggestion is that the instrument should


employ clearer, more specific fields to record (and perhaps analyse) students
responses: eye contact, facial expressions, checking a dictionary or a mobile
phone, interactions with the teacher and their peers (and their tone when they
speak: are they chatting, complaining, or asking for clarification ?), body
language, etc. These insights would be useful not only in aiding the observer
with establishing the effect of a stimulus, but also if used during a post-lesson
discussion with the teacher observed.

It is important to note, however, that positive and negative reactions and learner
engagement levels that were observed (as well as the teachers skill in delivering
and managing the stimulus) are highly connected to this particular situation. In
other words, while the quality of this qualitative data is satisfactory in this
context, the difficulty in generalising from this data makes the usefulness of
findings like the one described here, highly limited to the setting in which the
observation takes place.

Furthermore, it is important to note that the instrument does not, in itself, offer a
direct way to make comparisons between different techniques according to their
effectiveness; instead, it enables the user to compile a list of observed techniques
with comments regarding their strong and weak points in that particular setting,
and allows users to consider alternatives for the use of stimuli in their particular
setting. In other words, one benefit of the use of this instrument is that users
build a collection of ideas that will enhance their own repertoire. These ideas
come from the teachers experience, their own reading, or other observations.

Another characteristic of this qualitative type of research is that there are a


number of variables that could change the findings analysed here: teacher skill,
or learner background/age/level. For example, pronunciation drilling well

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91

conducted is likely to bring hilarity and memorability to learning, whereas the


same undertaken arhytmically and half-heartedly can actually reduce
motivation. Physical activities are likely to be used several times in a Young
Learners class but might be unproductive in a group of learners taking the
IELTS exam the next day. Likewise, making meaningful observations and
drawing conclusions from them depend on the skills of the observer.

5. Conclusion
This analysis of findings serves to show that the evaluated instrument worked in
these particular settings, and therefore I believe this instrument is potentially
useful in different situations.

This research can be useful in developing ways to research or assess other,


unmentioned forms of stimuli/resources, such as mobile-learning, blended-
learning classrooms, bring-your-own-device (BYOD-)- learning, and the impact
of these forms of learning on a particular group of learners.

The inductive-learning nature of the instrument (i.e. the users are guided to
draw new information from their own findings) enables teachers to build
knowledge from their own experience. This is especially useful and helpful in
my current setting, where teachers often lack the skills or time to find out where
to look for to discover new, meaningful information on their own.

I especially believe the level of reflection found through the use of this
instrument not only makes ones repertoire richer, but also serves as a
springboard for the formation of new beliefs. These new beliefs, in turn, work as
a base for informed decision-making. In addition, it is more meaningful to
experience a teaching technique than to read or hear about it.

Finally, in my particular setting, this research proved to be useful in addressing

a. a problem (the lack of formal training by a great many teachers);


b. a necessity (the need for informed decision-making in conducting a
lesson); while considering
c. one major limitation (the limited time/skills/resources teachers have
available to do research).

In summary, I consider direct research of this kind to be an invaluable way for


individuals to take responsibility for their development as language teachers.

6. References
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.
Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
Corno, L., and Mandinach, E. B. (1983). The role of cognitive engagement in classroom
learning and motivation. Educational Psychologist, 18, 2, 88-108.
Clunies-Ross, P., Little, E., and Kienhuis, M. (2008). Self-reported and actual use of
proactive and reactive classroom management strategies and their relationship with

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92

teacher stress and student behaviour. Educational Psychology: An International Journal


of Experimental Educational Psychology, 28, 6, 693-710.
Dornyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and Motivating in the Foreign Language Classroom. The
Modern Language Journal, 78, 3, 273-284
Ehrman, M., and Leaver, B. L. (2003a). Cognitive styles in the service of language
learning. System, 31, 393-415.
Ehrman, M., Leaver, B. L., and Oxford, R. L. (2003b). A brief overview of individual
differences in second language learning. System, 31, 313-330.
Farrell, T. S. C. (2007). Chapter 1: Reflective Language Teaching. Reflective Language
Teaching From Research to Practice. London: Continuum.
Gardner, H. (1995). Reflections on Multiple Intelligences: Myths and Messages. The Phi
Delta Kappan, 77, 3, 200-203, 206-209.
Richards, J. C., and Farrell, T. S. C. (2005). Chapter 6: Peer Observation. Professional
Development for Language Teachers Strategies for Teacher Learning. Cambridge:
Cambridge Language Education
Walsh, S. (2002). Construction or obstruction: teacher talk and learner involvement in the
EFL classroom. Language Teaching Research, 6, 1, 3-23.
Wrag, E. C. (2012). An Introduction to Classroom Observation. Routledge.

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93

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 93-103, January 2015

Beyond Subitizing: Symbolic Manipulations of


Numbers1

Sinan Olkun
TED University, Department of Elementary Education,
Ziya Gokalp Cad. No. 48 Ankara 06420 Turkey.

Arif Altun
Hacettepe University,
Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technologies,
Ankara, Turkey

Sakine Ger ahin


Hacettepe University, Department of Educationan Sciences,
Ankara, Turkey

This study has been supported by a grant from the Scientific and Technological
Research Council of Turkey (TUBTAK) under the grant number 111K545.

Abstract. This study tested the hypothesis that subitizing ability may
cause achievement differences in mathematics especially for students with
mathematics learning disabilities. Students from 1st through 4th grade
were applied to curriculum based math achievement tests (MAT). Based
on MAT scores, they were divided into four groups as Mathematics
Learning Disorder (MLD) risks, low achievers (LA), typical achievers
(TA), and high achievers (HA). All students were asked randomly and
canonically arranged dot enumeration tasks with 3 through 9 dots.
Median response times (MRT) were calculated for each task and plotted
for each grade level and task types. There were virtually no differences in
MRTs for number 3 and 4. On the other hand, the MLD risk group spent
relatively more time on enumerating canonically arranged dots from 5
through 9. Results provided more support for the claim that rather than
subitizing, numerosity coding mechanisms or the type of symbolic
quantity manipulations is different in children with different
mathematical achievements especially the lower group, the MLD risk
group.

Keywords: subitizing, numerosity coding, math achievement, symbolic


manipulations of quantities

1 An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 2014 Meeting of the Special Interest Group (SIG) 22
"Neuroscience and Education" organized by the European Association for Research on Learning and
Instruction (EARLI) on 12th to 14th June 2014 in Gttingen, Germany.

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94

1. Introduction
Many researchers (Desoete, Ceulemans, Roeyers, & Huylebroeck, 2009; Landerl,
Bevan, & Butterworth, 2004; Landerl & Kolle, 2009) claimed that deficits in
subitizing mechanism, responsible for quickly enumerating small number of
objects at a glance, may cause severe learning disabilities in mathematics.
Butterworth (2010) on the other hand proposed an alternative hypothesis in that
he claimed the deficit lies in an inherited system for sets of objects and
operations on them (numerosity coding) on which arithmetic is built. However,
there is a few empirical evidence to support both of the claims strongly. They are
either single case studies or position papers. The purpose of this study was to
test the hypothesis that subitizing may cause achievement differences in
mathematics especially for students with mathematics learning disabilities.

1.1 Theoretical background


Human cognition has at least 5 core systems for the foundations of human
knowledge, one of which deals with numbers (Spelke & Kinzler, 2007). Human
number system and possibly some other species are thought to have two
separate sub systems to deal with different aspects of number (Feigenson,
Dehaene, & Spelke, 2004). For example Lemer, Dehaene, Spelke, and Cohen
(2003) suggested that numerical abilities rest on the integration of two distinct
systems, a verbal system and a non-symbolic system. Verbal system represents
the numerical magnitude as exact quantities while the non-symbolic or analog
system represents approximate quantities.

The approximate number system (ANS) deals with large numbers (>4) in an
approximate fashion. As small as 6 months old infants can discriminate 8 from
16 represented in visual (Xue & Spelke, 2000) or auditory sequences (Lipton &
Spelke, 2003) but not 8 from 12. On the other hand 9-month-old infants can
discriminate both but not 8 from 10 (Lipton & Spelke, 2003). There is also
evidence that 9-month-old infants successfully add and subtract over numbers
of items that exceed object-tracking limits (McCrink & Wynn, 2004), that is out of
subitizing range (>4). However, in both numerosity comparison, and addition
and subtraction situations, there is a set size signature, called Weber fraction,
which develops from infancy through adulthood. This basic capacity seems to
develop prior to language and symbolic counting and still to be in use in
adulthood.

The other subsystem is called exact (or small) number system (ENS). This basic
number processing ability is also intact starting from infancy. Even 5-days-old
infants can discriminate 2 dots from 3 dots by means of subitizing but not 4 dots
from 6 dots (Antell & Keating, 1983). Six-month-olds can control small numbers
of objects even under addition and subtraction operations (Wynn, 1992). Adults
can also use this system to quickly enumerate small numbers of objects up to
four. If the number of objects is more than four and if there is time available then
counting or calculation operations are used within this system. However, a
different system is engaged to enumerate the objects under limited time
constraints.

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95

Some researchers (Butterworth, 2003; S. Dehaene, 1997) believe that any disorder
or malfunction in either of these systems can cause specific learning disabilities
in mathematics. In fact, there are several hypothesis about the root causes of
very low achievement in math or dyscalculia. One posits that the deficit in
approximate number system (ANS) causes mathematics learning difficulties.
Others claim that dyscalculia stems largely from the deficit in exact number
system (ENS) or subitizing, quickly enumerating small numbers of objects
usually less then 5. Still others state that dyscalculia is caused by the deficit in
accessing magnitudes from symbols or vice versa, called access deficit
hypothesis (ADH). Rousselle and Noel (2007) for instance claimed that children
with mathematics learning disabilities have difficulty in accessing numerical
magnitude from symbols rather than in processing numerosity per se.
Butterworth (2010) on the other hand claimed that a deficit in numerosity
coding, not in the approximate number system or the small number system, is
responsible for dyscalculia. In contrast to this claim Landerl and Kolle (2009) did
not find much evidence that dyscalculic children process numbers qualitatively
differently from children with typical arithmetic development.

Available evidence indicates that a fine grained research is needed to further


clarify these issues. The purpose of this study was then to test the hypothesis
that either subitizing or numerosity coding mechanisms is different in children
with different mathematical achievements by using dot counting paradigms.

2. Methods

2.1 Participants

Participants were randomly selected from 12 elementary schools, located four


different SES locations with an intention to draw a representative sample of
students from 1st to 4th grade within a metropolitan area in a mid-Anatolian
city. Initially, data were collected from 487 students. Six students were excluded
from the sample since they were diagnosed with some sort of general learning
disorders and/or mainstreamed in regular classrooms. The final sample consist
of 125, 126, 121, and 109 participants (481 in total) from 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th
grade respectively. There are approximately equal numbers of boys and girls in
each grade level and in total. We did not control for IQ for the practical
difficulties, so this is a limitation.

2.2 Data collection tools

There were mainly three tests for data collection. First, all participants were
administered a math achievement test (MAT) developed by Fidan (2013) based
on the number domain of the Turkish State Curriculum (MEB, 2004). There were
different achievement tests for each grade level. The tests contained 13, 15, 16,
and 24 items for the first, second, third, and fourth grade respectively. The math
achievement test is an untimed test but the administration took one class hour
(approximately 40 minutes) for the students.

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96

The second test contained dot counting tasks (RDC). The dots were randomly
arranged in each task from the numerosity 3 to 9 (see Figure 1 for details). The
test contained 14 tasks representing each numerosity twice.

Figure 1. Random dot counting tasks

The third test was, in many respects similar to the second test except that the
dots were arranged canonically or domino like patterns (CDC) (see Figure 2 for
details). Canonic dot patterns are considered to be symbolically manipulated
(Piazza, Mechelli, Butterworth, & Price, 2002). So we expected that randomly
arranged dots are enumerated differently from canonically arranged dots by
students with different achievement levels.

Figure 2. Canonic dot counting tasks

2.3 Procedure and Analysis

Raw scores were gathered from the math achievement tests. Students were
placed in four achievement groups based on their math achievement scores, in
each grade level. Earlier research (Barbaresi, Katusic, Colligan, Weaver, &
Jacobsen, 2005; Shalev, Manor, & Gross-Tsur, 2005) reported the prevalence of
dyscalculia or MLD roughly from 5% to 14%. In average we placed the lowest
10% of the students in MLD risk group, 11-25% in low achievement, 26-95% in
typical achievement and >95% in high achievement group. Finally, we consulted
teachers for their opinions about the students to make sure that students math
scores reflected their general situations in mathematics. Students with some

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97

other learning difficulties were also excluded. Defining the MLD risk group was
loose in this study so this was another limitation of the current study.

We calculated groups median response times (MRT) for CDC and RDC tests.
Based on these scores and achievement groupings we plotted the data to see the
changes in response times from the number 3 to 9. RDC and CDC data were
plotted separately for each grade level. Each achievement group has a separate
line in the graphs.

3. Results
As seen in Figure1, first graders had a steadly increasing median response times
(MRT) for enumarating the numbers from 3 to 9. Students in all achievement
groups had the similar patterns of MRTs except that the lower groups had
relatively higher MRTs.

Figure 1. Median response times of 1st graders to RDC tasks

7000
6000
5000
MLD
4000
Low Achiever
3000
Typcial Achiever
2000
High Achiever
1000
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Second graders had also a gradually and steadly increasing median response
times for enumerating the numbers from 3 to 9. As seen in Figure 2, the MLD
group had relatively higher median response times than the other groups. The
three other groups have almost similar median response times. The discrepancy
in MLD groups MRTs is getting more and more while the number of dots
increases from 3 to 8 except nine.

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98

Figure 2. Median response times of 2nd graders to RDC tasks

7000

6000

5000

4000 MLD
Low Achiever
3000
Typcial Achiever

2000 High Achiever

1000

0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Third graderspatterns of MRT is also similar to the first and second graders in
terms of steady increase. This time however, the achievement groups especially
the lower groups are closer to each other.

Figure 3. Median response times of 3rd graders to RDC tasks

6000

5000

4000
MLD
3000 Low Achiever
Typcial Achiever
2000
High Achiever

1000

0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Fourth graders data showed a suprizing and unexpected pattern in terms of


high achievers MRT. Except the number 6, high achievers got higher MRTs
from other groups. However, all other patterns are similar to the first, second,
and third graders.

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99

Figure 4. Median response times of 4th graders to RDC tasks

5000
4500
4000
3500
3000 MLD
2500 Low Achiever
2000 Typcial Achiever
1500 High Achiever
1000
500
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9

The graphs obtained from the canonic dot counting (CDC) test are more
illustrative than RCD tests in that CDC tasks seem to be more discriminative
than RDC tasks. As seen in Figure 5, 6, 7 and 8, except for third graders, in all
other grades MLD group showed an MRT pattern visibly different from other
achievement groups especially for higher numbers.

Figure 5. Median response times of 1st graders to CDC tasks

8000

7000

6000

5000
MLD
4000 Low Achiever
Typcial Achiever
3000
High Achiever
2000

1000

0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Additionally, except for the first graders MRTs for the number 4, there is
virtually no difference between the achievement groups in terms of MRTs for

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100

the number in the subitizing range (number 3 and 4). In other words, the MRTs
are very close to each other both for achievement groups and numbers (ie. 3 and
4). That means the tasks of enumerating canonically arranged 3 and 4 is the same
for all students including very low achievers. This is the most striking finding of
this study.

From first to fourth grade, on the other hand while the other achievement
groups are getting closer to each other in terms of MRTs the MLD risk group is
getting hiher and higher MRTs from the number 5 though 9. This is the second
most important finding of this study.

Figure 6. Median response times of 2nd graders to CDC tasks

8000

7000

6000

5000
MLD
4000 Low Achiever

3000 Typcial Achiever


High Achiever
2000

1000

0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Figure 7. Median response times of 3rd graders to CDC tasks

7000

6000

5000

4000 MLD
Low Achiever
3000
Typcial Achiever
2000 High Achiever

1000

0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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101

Figure 8. Median response times of 4th graders to CDC tasks

6000

5000

4000
MLD
3000 Low Achiever
Typcial Achiever
2000 High Achiever

1000

0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4. Discussion
The findings of this study showed that there might be differences among the
achievement groups in terms of subitizing ability. This seems less likely
however. Except for the first graders, there were virtually no differences among
achievement groups in terms of enumerating the numbers in the subitizing
range (3 and 4) if the dots were arranged canonically. Only the MLD risk group
in the firs grade spent longer time for enumerating 4 than they did for 3 dots.
They all spent almost equal amount of time to determine the number of dots
shown. If the dots were randomly arranged all groups behaved again similarly.
However, they spent relatively longer time to enumerate 4 dots than they did for
3 dots. That is they all used similar inferior strategies.

When the dots were arranged in canonic, domino like patterns students treated 3
dots and 4 dots as if they are almost the same. They all spent virtually the same
time for enumerating each number of dots. After 4 dots however, the MLD
group spent relatively more time for enumerating the number of dots. It seemed
that, they used still inferior strategies like counting on after subitizing one of the
groups while normally achieving students were applying simple calculations on
the separately subitized groups of dots. Imposing groupings onto randomly
arranged dot sets seemed not possible for all groups. Therefore, we obtained
virtually no differences among the groups in terms of MRTs for all numbers.

Taken together, it seems that the students have almost similar subitizing systems
for small numbers but while normal and high achieving students were making
further symbolic manipulations on subitized groups of dots very low achievers
were still using inferior strategies. We believe with Butterworth (2010) that a
deficit in numerosity coding is responsible for mathematics disorder. Further

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102

research are needed, however to strongly claim that numerosity coding rather
than subitizing mechanisms are different in MLD and normally achieving
students. Carefully designed behavioral and brain imaging research can
highlight this problematic issue. Experimental studies with instructional
interventions may also help clarify. For example, instructing students to make
groupings might differentiate students with MLD more precisely from normally
achieving peers. Similarly Iuculano, Tang, Hall, and Butterworth (2008) claimed
that low numeracy has not to do with a poor grasp of exact numerosities (ie.
subitizing), but more related to inefficient use of symbolic numerals.

In a brain imaging study, Piazza et al. (2002) gave adults enumeration task on
visual arrays of dots that varied in numerosity (14 and 69 dots) and spatial
arrangement (canonical and random) to directly compare subitizing and
counting. They showed that counting, relative to subitizing, was correlated with
increased activity in the occipitoparietal network, while subitizing did not show
areas of increased activation with respect to counting. Surprisingly, they
concluded that results speak against the idea of the two processes being
implemented in separable neural systems.

This research showed that subitizing is necessary but not sufficient for doing
further arithmetic beyond simple counting. Further numerical manipulations are
needed to do faster arithmetic. In fact many animal spicies can subitize but
cannot do arithmetic beyond a simpler form (Stanislas Dehaene, Dehaene-
Lambertz, & Cohen, 1998). This research also clarified that these further
manipulations were actualized via symbolic manipulations since we know that
canonicly arranged dot patterns are thought to be symbolically manipulated
(Piazza et al., 2002). Group differences were more pronounced in enumerating
canonic dot patterns. An educational intervantional study will shed more light
in this issue. Abstracting and symbolizing are two important processes in the
course of arithmetic development.

References

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Feigenson, L., Dehaene, S., & Spelke, E. (2004). Core systems of number. Trends in
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104

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 104-119, January 2015

Examining Generational Differences


among Diverse Families Regarding
Parental School Involvement

Gustava Cooper-Baker
Facilitator, Leadership Academy
Kansas City, MO

Barbara N. Martin
University of Central Missouri
Warrensburg, MO

Abstract. The purpose of this study was to examine parental involvement by


viewing generational differences among diverse families through the lens of the
overlapping spheres of influence for school-family-community partnerships. The
studys population consisted of one African American family, one Hispanic
family and one Caucasian family. A grandparent, children, and a grandchild
represented each family. Findings suggest that while parental involvement is
still as important today as it was decades ago, based on the familys culture it
was viewed differently. Another finding was the need for developing
partnerships with the home, school, and community to enhance opportunities
for all parents regardless of race, culture, or ethnicity to become involve in their
childrens education. The implications for teacher and principal training are
significant.

Keywords: diversity; parental involvement; school-family community


partnerships

1.0 Introduction
For years, educational research has demonstrated the importance of parental
involvement, but most contacts of parents with the school have been superficial
(Henderson, Mapp, Johnson & Davies, 2007; Peterson, 2000; McPhee et al., 2013).
Parental involvement in schools has become one of the dominant paradigms of
family-school relations in the United States (McPhee et al., 2013). This movement
toward the call for more parental involvement in school acknowledges a
distance between family and school and the need to enhance the relationship
(Goodall & Montgomery, 2013; De Carvalho, 2001).

Researchers (Hale, 2001; Moles, 2003) have explored parental involvement from
the perspective of how racial, ethnic, and cultural characteristics might impact
the school/home relationship. They found that the least involved in their

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105

childrens education are the parents from culturally diverse backgrounds (Hale,
2001; Moles, 2003). There are a myriad of reasons why this has occurred such as
cultural differences between home and school, poverty concentration, and
minority enrollment in the school (Hale, 2001). Since nearly 40% of children in
the United States public schools are members of a racial ethnic minority or of
multiple racial minorities (Lopez, Kreider, & Coffman, 2005), the challenges of
American educators to understand how culturally diverse families engage in
parental involvement is essential. Baker and Soden (1998) suggested that the
amount of parental involvement to affect a positive impact on children is yet to
be determined, but even small amounts of such involvement are needed to
ensure all children have academic success. Therefore, examined in this inquiry
was parental involvement through the lens of Epsteins (2001) theory of
overlapping spheres of influence, while examining the parental involvement
of three generations of an African American family, a Latino family, and a
Caucasian family. The following questions were addressed within the context of
the study: 1) What is parental involvement, as viewed through the lens of
overlapping spheres of influence? 2) How does race culture and ethnicity affect
how parents are involved in their childrens education generationally?

2.0 Conceptual Underpinnings

2.1 Overlapping Sphere of Influence Theory


According to Epstein, (2002, p. 32), There is no topic in education on which
there is greater agreement than the need for parental involvement. Everyone
wants it, but most educators do not know how to develop productive
partnerships (Family Literacy Center, 2006, p.1). This theoretical framework
suggests multiple contexts, internal and external that confronts the family,
school, and community (Garcia, 2004). The theory of OSI recognizes that three
major areas in which students learn and grow include the family, the school, and
the community (Epstein Sanders, Simon, Salinas, Jansorn, & Voorhis, 2002).
Constantino (2003) and Epstein (1995) both recognized that for parental
involvement to take place and for children to learn and grow certain influences
must be present. Epstein advocated that with frequent interactions among
families and the school, the three spheres in a childs life, the school, family and
the community, are influenced. Epstein, et al., (2002) agreed that various
practices in the spheres of influence may draw the school, family, and
community together or push them further apart in their influence on childrens
learning and development. These spheres overlap by putting the child at the
center of the relationship. When the spheres of the school, family, and the
community overlap, a true meaning to learning communities or caring
communities is born (Epstein, 2001 p.24).

Ultimately, Epsteins (2001) theory of the overlapping spheres of influence is


represented by three forces: (a) time; (b) experiences in families; and (c)
experiences in schools. Time refers to the childs historical time; the age, grade
level, and social conditions during the time span the children are in school.
Experience in the family represents the impact the family has on its children to
prepare them for school. These forces are pulled together to produce more of an

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106

overlap when parents maintain an increased interest and involvement in their


childrens education. Experiences in the school occur when teachers make
parents a part of regular teaching practices. By involving parents, the
overlapping is greater and parent involvement is much stronger. Since this
inquiry examined generational parental involvement the use of Epsteins (2001)
theory of the overlapping spheres of influence was deem most appropriate.

2.2 Parental Involvement


Parental involvement requires parents to participate as partners with the school
and to function as advocates for all children (Goodall & Montgomery, 2013;
Epstein, 1995; Moore, 1991). Three major factors that have had an impact on
parental involvement are 1) parents beliefs about what is significant, required,
and acceptable for them to do on behalf of their children; 2) the extent to which
parents believe that they can be optimistic about their childrens education; and
3) parents understanding that their children and the school want them to be
involved (Bissinger, 2001, p. 12). Machen et al. (2005) noted that collaboration
between parents and schools is important in educating children because of the
demands of society and the difficult times. Positively engaging parents and
other family members in the education of their children has the effect of being
more transformational than any other type of educational reform (Goodall &
Montgomery, 2013; Kyle, McIntyre, Miller & Moore, 2002).

While recognizing that parental involvement is an important factor for student


success, effective parental participation is not easily accomplished and has many
barriers (Muldrow, Cano, & Kimmel, 1999). Several researchers (Epstein, 2001;
Hale, 2001; Moles, 2003) have explored the strengths of parental involvement
with various racial, ethnic, and cultural characteristics. Moles (2003) argued
parents from culturally diverse backgrounds are at risk for becoming the least
involved in their childrens education due to cultural differences between home
and school, poverty concentration, and minority enrollment in the school.
Boethel (2003) and Hale (2001) agreed that there is a disparity in parental
involvement in children of diverse families but differs on the reasons why. Hale
postulated that the reality is the energy that is needed to become involved in
their childrens education is often lacking because of the demand of work,
pressure within the family, and low levels of education often keep minority
families from conforming to traditional models of parental involvement.

2.3 Barriers for African American Parents


According to Koonce and Harper (2005), some educators are of the opinion that
African American parents have a tendency to be uninvolved in their childrens
education. Hale (2001) further indicated that many African American children
come from homes of single-parent households and feel it is the responsibility of
the school to educate the child. Another factor that faces many African American
parents is the notion that parent involvement programs are mainly for white-
middle class families (Koonce & Harper). Moreover, problems or concerns that
cause conflicts between teachers and parents often increase these barriers.
Koonce and Harper (2005) further suggested that schools have not made the

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107

most of the assets of engaging African American parents in developing


partnerships.

2.4 Barriers for Hispanic Parents


Lee, et al. (2005) postulated several barriers with Hispanic parents: structural
racism, school funding, disciplinary actions, language attitudes, and the lack of
resources. Golan and Petersen (2002) noted that Hispanic parents find the school
system to be unfriendly, insensitive to their needs and situations. In order to
increase Hispanic parental involvement, Lee, et al. argued schools need to
change how they look at the educational system through the structuring of
programs, eliminating racism, and transforming attitudes. Taking into
consideration the scheduling of parents to better engage them in school is a need
for Hispanic parents as well as other parents (Golan & Petersen, 2002). Chavkin
(2005) suggested that educators should design programs for parental
involvement that brings diverse families into the classroom to discuss their
experiences, thus building educators understanding regarding Latino parents
and their expectations. Similarly, Closson, Wilkins, Sandler, and Hoover-
Dempsey (2004) studied parents of upper elementary students and identified
teacher invitations were particularly strong predictors of involvement among
the Latino families in their sample.

2.5 Barriers for Caucasian Parents


Even though research (Batey, 1996) investigating barriers for parental
involvement has focused primarily on minorities, low income Caucasian parents
have similar barriers that affect the depth of their involvement in their childrens
education. According to Henderson, et al., (2007) barriers for Caucasian parents
might surface when they worry about losing control of their influence in the
schools day to day operation to minority families, or are called racist or
insensitive to minority parents. Still other barriers that affect involvement for
Caucasian parents are teachers who are not always receptive to parents
volunteering and who sometimes feel negative attitudes and feelings from the
school staff because of labels such as those parents (Batey, 1996). Batey further
argued teachers often felt that Caucasian parents wanted to control the
curriculum and instruction in the classroom.

In order to decrease barriers to parental involvement, all parents have to be


understood and included in school practices. Effective schools are the schools
that accommodate the diversity of families that it serves (Epstein, 2001). Using a
qualitative approach, the purpose of this study was to give voice to three
generations of diverse families on what is parental involvement as viewed
through the lens of the Overlapping Spheres of Influence in an urban
metropolitan area in Missouri.

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108

3.0 Methodology

3.1 Participants
The researchers purposefully selected (Creswell, 2003) three generations of
family members in one urban setting. Selection of the participants was based on
two criterions. First, each generation of a family was determined to be successful
as defined by all three generations of family members having completed either a
2-year associate degree, or earned a bachelors degree. Second, all family
members were well established in their neighborhoods by being actively
engaged in social, civic, or religious organizations. The participants were
comprised of grandparents, children, and grandchildren from various
ethnicities: The African American family consisted of a grandparent, daughter,
and grandson; the Hispanic family consisted of a grandparent, daughter, and
granddaughter; and the Caucasian family consisted of a grandparent, daughter,
and granddaughter (n=9). The ages of the grandparents ranged from 79 to 85
and all were females. The childrens ages ranged from 45 to 60 and were all
female, and the grandchildrens ages ranged from 21-30 with one male and two
females.

3.2 Data Collection and Instrumentation


Using a qualitative approach was necessary since defined research goals
included the involvement of parents in the lives of their children and the
overlapping partnership of the home, school, and community that centers on the
child. Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding the meaning
people have constructed, that is, how they make sense of their world and the
experiences they have in the world (Merriam, 1998, p.6). The researchers used
multiple methods of data collection such as interviews, focus groups, and a short
questionnaire (Creswell, 2003) to triangulate the data. The participants were
interviewed using a semi-structure protocol. The researchers developed the
interview questions and protocol using the literature on the Overlapping Sphere of
Influence (OSI) theory and cultural differences as a framework. Next, the
researchers facilitated three focus groups (grandparents, children,
grandchildren) to gather generational data on parental involvement and cultural
differences. Finally, the researchers distributed a Likert style questionnaire to all
nine participants. The questionnaire asked participants to select the response
that best indicated the degree they felt they were involved in their childrens
lives in school, at home, and in the community. The emphasis given to the
voice of the participants is important because it provided actual experiences,
beliefs, and values, and became a united voice for reform and change (Creswell,
2003). Since the ultimate goal in qualitative research is to effect change, the voice
of the participants raises their consciousness about parental involvement and
prepares an agenda for change to improve their lives concerning their children.

3.3 Data Analysis


The right approach to analysis of data for a qualitative study according to
Merriam (1998) is to do it simultaneously with data collection. Therefore,
the researchers gathered and analyzed data concurrently, breaking often
to fill in gaps, in order to get the most holistic picture possible. Member

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109

checking was conducted to verify the accuracy of the transcripts and


confirmed for each participant that the story was told as intended
(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). Using the constant comparative method, the
transcripts were analyzed and coded for emergent themes. Analysis was
ongoing throughout each stage of the data collection process and
saturation was determined by the level of redundancy in participants
responses. Findings were organized around the three overlapping
spheres-home, school, and community.

4.0 Findings
The parental involvement data from the questionnaire indicated that in reference
to Sphere One, the home, African American and Hispanic grandparents needed
some learning in helping their children with homework, but had the
perception that they needed no learning for encouraging their children to do
well in school. The three sets of grandparents selected some learning to
indicate their level of understanding how to prepare for their children for school.
All of the children indicated that very little learning was needed as a result of
their involvement with their children and that they knew how to help their
children with homework and had known how to prepare their children for
school. These findings were also reflected in the interviews and focus groups,
when the grandparents mentioned that they felt the school had the
responsibility to get children ready for school if they were not already prepared.
However, the parents gave examples of how they helped their children to be
ready for school. One parent mentioned that being a teacher helped her prepare
her children; she knew what her children needed to know the first day of
kindergarten. While not all of the grandchildren had children of their own, they
all noted that they intended to be highly engaged with their childrens school
experiences.

In reference to Sphere Two, the school, the interview, focus groups, and
questionnaire data revealed that the minority grandparents thought very little
learning had taken place in connection to the principals at the school or in
assuming leadership roles in the school. Nor did they receive assistance on how
to work with school staff to support their children. One minority grandparent
said, No one ever asked me to help in school and I didnt ask [for help] either.
The Caucasian grandparent noted that she felt she understood how to get help
from the principal and the faculty and was an officer in the parent association. In
fact, the Caucasian grandparent stressed, While there were Black children in
the school I dont ever remember any parents being involved in PTA except for
attending. The minority parents applied some learning to knowledge about
leadership roles and how to become a more effective parent while their children
were in school. As one parent said, I could have been anything I wanted in the
Parent/Teacher Association (PTA) but I was just too busy working. Neither
minority grandparents, nor their children took on many leadership roles in the
school, mainly because the grandparents volunteered other places and their
children were working full time jobs. In fact, the minority parents said they did
not put as much pressure on their children (grandchildren in study) as their
parents (grandparents in study) had done to them, but allowed them to be

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110

children and to make some choices for themselves. One Hispanic parent even
said, I knew my children would be successful in life and I didnt pressure or
force them into making choices or doing things I want them to do. But that
wasnt the case with my parents. They were on me for every decision I made or
didnt make. However, the Caucasian parent emphasized, I waited to see
whats happening in school and then make sure my kid is doing her best. I want
to help her make the very best decisions.

Regarding the lens of Sphere three, the community, revealed both minority
grandparents and minority children indicated that very little learning was
needed as the home, school, and community interacted frequently. The minority
grandparents, parents and the grandchildren understood that the home, school,
and community must be a partnership. The minority grandparents and parents
stressed that they expected their children, and were expected by their parents, to
be actively involved in the community especially the church. As one minority
parent noted, What happened at school often was discussed at church and
support was suggested to get parents involved and to provide opportunities for
their children. The Caucasian grandparent noted The neighborhood was
always involved in everyones child, what they were doing and who they were
doing it with. The Caucasian parent did not mention neighborhood nor
community groups. However, all of the children mentioned a sense of
community whether it was from civic or religious organizations or from talking
to their friends on Facebook about their children. As one grandchild said, Yeah
I am involved in church activities and we talk about school and stuff. Another
grandchild noted, I share a lot about my kids behavior on Facebook, pictures,
and things.

The two emergent themes from the data were: 1) Rallying the Community (or
Whole Village) with the subthemes of a) Building Successful Partnerships, and
b) Collaborating with the Community; 2) Consciousness Raising of Self Assurance
with the subthemes of a) Parental Involvement, b) Giving Voice, and c) Culture
Differences. The two themes reflect the actions of grandparents, parents, and
grandchildren regarding how they were involved in the education of their
children. Each generation viewed parental involvement as building a strong
relationship between the home, school, and community. Moreover, each
generation had something to share that afforded the opportunities to learn about
each other and a respect of different cultures. Depicted in Figure 1 are the
themes that emerged from the findings.

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111

Actions of Generational
Parents [How they were
involved in the education
of their children]

Consciousness: Raising of Self


Rallying the Community Assurance

Building Successful Parental Involvement


Partnerships/Collaborating
Giving Voice
with the Community
Culture Differences

Figure 1: Emergence of Two Main Themes: Impact of parent involvement for


generations of diverse backgrounds

4.1 Rallying the Whole Village


The data supported the concept that next to the family, the school has the most
significant impact on childrens growth and development. This finding
supported what Comer, Hayes, Joyner, and Ben-Avie (1996) had identified over
a decade ago when they identified that the notion of the African Proverb, It
takes a whole village or Community to raise a child allows parents, school staff,
and individuals within the community to work together and understand the role
of parental involvement. Two of the parents noted how the whole community
helped in raising the neighborhood children. When noting:
There was someone in the neighborhood that knew all of the children
and kept the families informed of any wrong doing by any child in the
neighborhood. All parents in the neighborhood were considered to be
the parents of all of the children.
And another parent said, The families in the neighborhood always looked out
for all of the children in the neighborhood. Moreover, a grandchild noted,
All my mothers friends were teachers and they took care of each others
children, you could not get away with anything; if you did anything
wrong, my mothers friends would take care of the problem and then call
my mother, and of course, I had to suffer the consequences from my
mother too.

Another grandchild supported this, We felt comfortable visiting each others


houses and getting together for neighborhood gatherings, and we knew our
parents would get a report on how well we behaved. Thus, the extended family
played a major part in all communities and in the involvement of all children.
This data set further noted that building a nurturing environment at the school
level, while tapping the energy of the community resources helped involve
parents. However, the village that was once small, simple, and nurturing is now

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112

very large, complex and sometimes insensitive to the needs of the families.
Agencies that supported parents and served families have evolved and changed
becoming fragmented and often unable to address the needs of how children
learn and perform in school. As one grandparent noted:
It was very difficult dealing with a child with a hearing problem because
the school did not have the resources to help with the problem. The
community resources were limited to income and whether or not you
were receiving welfare. I did not think it was fair, but what could you do.
That is when we had to make the decision to take my oldest son out of
Catholic school, and put him into a public school because of resources
and we needed the help.

Ultimately, neither schools nor parents can provide all sustenance, such as
services and support, which children need to thrive and develop well in this
increasingly complex society. The entire community of significant others and
services must work together to strengthen and prepare children for the present
and future. As highlighted by one minority parent:
We have many outstanding resources in the community and people to
help families, but sometimes families dont know all the places to look
for the resources. If community groups would help the schools, they too
would benefit. When my son was old enough to work in our community,
he sacked groceries at the neighborhood store. The grocery store
manager would often check to see how well he was doing in school. This
type of networking provided a service and a support of his learning and
to help me as a parent.

4.2 Building Successful Partnerships


In developing a partnership, parents, teachers, and community members will
have to create more family-like schools, and more schools that serve the needs of
all families (Epstein, 2001). This data set noted that the focus of partnerships
should be on the children because the children are influenced by all three
contexts- the home, school, and community. Within the theme of partnership, all
generations shared that the partnership is vitally important to the childrens
education and parental involvement. Noted were the needs for partnerships
such as after school programs and community based social centers. All
generations pointed out that after school, children need places to go for family
friendly programs. In speaking on partnerships of the church and school, the
Hispanic grandmother said:
Because my children attended Catholic Schools, the families had to have
a partnership with the church and school. My family had a very close
bond with church and school. We supported the church through fund
raisers, being a cub scouts mother and, cooking for the children at times.
The family was involved in all aspects of the church. My husband and
sons cleaned the church and the school on many occasions. Therefore,
they were known around the church as well as the school. By attending a
Catholic School, my children attended Mass every day also. It was
without a doubt, because we choose this educational system for our
children we knew we would have a close and committed partnership

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113

with the school and church. I am sure by us having an interest in the


school it helped my children to do better in school.

The Black grandparent noted:

I recalled there was some partnership with the home and school, but very
little within the community. As a parent, I attended all of the PTA
meetings at school and other events. The school knew if they needed me
for anything, all that they had to do was call. The church was the largest
community service that we use when my children were in school. If my
children were not in school, they were in church. The church was the
place where they got the second dose of parenting. The church members
provided other activities that involved reading, writing, speaking,
leadership skills, and helping people in the community.

A Black grandchild said:


Growing up I was expected to be in church as much as school it seemed.
And every night after school I went to the Big Brothers and Sisters
community center until I was picked up. I guess I learned a lot at the
center and church just like at school. Playing games at the center helped
me learn to like everyone; I guess and made me stronger in a lot of ways.

4.3 Collaborating with the Community


One grandparent had spent a life time in one location and has seen many
changes in the city. The changes were mainly in the school and the communities
demographics. The grandparents noted that in the past, the neighborhoods had
more stores, schools and churches in them and certain people lived in a
neighborhood and were not allowed to live in other neighborhoods. As noted by
the Hispanic grandparent:
My parents lived in the neighborhood I live in now. The neighborhood
was during the riots in the 1960s, [but]we were never afraid, because the
rioters would come and knock on our door before anything happen and
let us know what was going on in the neighborhood. Today, things are a
little different; my children often worry about us. The neighborhood has
changed, but I dont plan on moving anywhere. My husband and I try to
be very careful in the way we live. We are not as friendly and concern
about children and people in the neighborhood as when our children
were in school.

Other participants discussed how important it was for the community to help in
providing services to parents for the benefit of raising their children. All
generations noted that the community should be working and planning with
community businesses, cultural, civic and religious organizations, senior citizen
groups, and colleges and universities, in order to strengthen schools and to keep
the grandchildren off of the streets. As one Grandparent said:
In my community, the mayor and the city council members are trying to
close the one community center because of budget cuts. It is the only
place where adults and children can go to have fun. There is a town

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meeting soon and I plan to attend to voice my opinion. The people in the
community need a place for relaxing and to have fun. Just last week they
had the neighborhood lit up for some big game, it was nice to see the
lights and stop signs to welcome the basketball teams and people into the
neighborhood and to show them where the games were played. I feel
that the community belongs to the children and the adults that live in the
community.

The children and grandchildren alluded that the school should be working and
planning with community businesses when a parent highlighted:
I had to learn what resources would help my children while they were in
school. My children spent a lot of time at church, going to Sunday school
and other youth activities. Back then, things were a little safer. I also
recall taking car loads of children to school functions with my children. I
would pick the children up from their house and then drop them off
when the game was over, many times their own parents would be at
home, and two or three cars would be sitting in their driveways. Why
they were not involved in their childrens education, I did not
understand. Maybe it is the issue of safety.

4.4 Consciousness Rising to Self-Assurance


This consciousness rising to self- assurance had developed over the years as
noted by the participants through parents being involved with their childrens
education and providing them opportunities to develop their own voice. The
evidence of consistently being positive and have high self confidence had an
influence on the families in this study. All of the participants believed that
because of their involvement in the school their children were successful in life.
The grandparents noted that they worked together to support the schools, by
volunteering when they could and by encouraging their children. The
grandchildren noted that they were joining forces with the schools to build
better partnerships for all children. The parents and the children both noted that
collaborating with the schools was a necessity in todays world.

4.5 Parental Involvement


Epstein (2001) noted that when parents are involved in their childrens
education, children go farther in school, and they go to better schools (p. 314).
Within the theme of parental involvement, the grandparents, children, and
grandchildren recalled what parental involvement is and how it is different
now. As one grandparent said:
Parental involvement is when parents support their children in school
by helping them to make the right decisions in life. It is having an
understanding that schools are different now than when we were in
school. I didnt go to work until my last child was in 5th grade, and I
worked at the school they attended, so I was able to attend all of the
meetings and be involved in all events at their school. I hear stories of
parents today taking the side of their children instead of believing the
teachers. I hear of parents not having time to go to the school to see about
their children. I think a lot of this is because parents today are not as

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involved as I was. I took care of my children and other people children in


the neighborhood as well. I recall when I would walk my children to
school I would end up with all the girls walking with us to school. Many
parents today are raising their children by themselves today and do not
have the communities we had when my children were in school. Many of
them have to work, and some work just to have stuff. (I have a niece with
three children, who should be attending PTA and helping at school) but
instead I think she works just to buy stuff. I worry about the parental
involved my great grandchildren will received, will their parents have to
work two or three jobs just to survive? I worry about the education
system. Will my great grandchildren be able to compete in this global
world? I wonder how involved their parents will be.

4.6 Giving Voice

The children and grandchildren extended their voices on parental involvement.


As one said:

Parental involvement is when you show your children you care about
what they do at school as well as when they are away from school. It is
letting your children know that no matter what the problem or situation
is parents are there for you. I trusted my children to make the right
decisions in life. Of course, they stumbled alone the way, but they had to
make do with whatever decisions they made in life.

Another noted:

Parental involvement is the caring, love, freedom you give your children.
That support helps them find their voice. Since I was the baby of the
family, I couldnt go anywhere by myself. Things have certainly changed
now for children.

As a grandson pointed out:

Parent involvement is when you know that your parents really care
about you. It is the support and trust parents give their children in
talking to them about everyday life situations. I know my mother is here
for me, she is my hero and I am there for her. I am a mothers boy. When
parents are involved in the lives of their children there is a partnership
that is shared between the home, school and opportunity for each family
to explore and connect.

4.7 Culture Differences


While all generations of participants, no matter what their culture or ethnicity,
thought parental involvement was very important, there were some differences
based on generation. All of the grandparents, regardless of race, felt that their
children were in the best of hands when they were in school. However, the

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parents and grandchildren did worry about what was happening at school.
Within the theme of cultural differences, one minority grandparent said:
My children went to their neighborhood schools, and the majority of the
children were Black and there were no problems or differences at
school; the school Tadd, was once only for Caucasian children. When
more Blacks moved further south, the school became a school for the
Black children. I saw no change in parental involvement as the school
changed or any change in the school.

The Caucasian grandparent followed with:

My children went to Catholic Schools and the Nuns were so strict, that
differences were not shown within the school. There were more
Caucasian children that attended the Catholic School then Hispanic
children or African Americans. The same requirements were made for all
families. I didnt see families doing any more than we did. Even though
we didnt have much we wanted the best for our children. I didnt notice
any cultural differences.

However, the parents of the children felt some cultural differences as they were
involved in the education of their children. As noted by one minority parent:
If I hadnt had high self-esteem about myself and not paid a lot attention
to the stares from teachers when I entered my childrens school I would
have noticed more of a difference. Being in the field of education offered
some support to understanding the school and the environment of the
school. Because of the roles of school practices in trying to encourage
parent involvement, I felt that the parents and home must work together
as partners.

Consequently, for the grandchildren, it was also very different because all
schools were integrated by the time they entered school. As one stressed:
Joy said I saw some cultural differences in that the Caucasian parents
attended more school events than the African American or Hispanic
parents did. I had friends of both races at the Catholic School so I was
able to learn about various people. I enjoyed learning about all cultures
and differences in my friends.

In addition, the Caucasian grandchild pointed out, While the kids didnt seem
to have many issues in school, the parents at ballgames and other places sat in
separate places and didnt seem to talk to each other much. As the Black
grandchild noted, I saw some cultural differences in that the Caucasian parents
attended more school events than the African American or Hispanic parents.
Perhaps they felt more welcomed The Hispanic grandchild noted, When we
had volunteers they seem to always be White, maybe because the teachers were
mostly White, I dont know.

The participants, regardless of ethnicity or culture, all thought parental


involvement was very important. While all the minority grandparents and

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117

children felt that their children were in the best of hands when they were in
school, the minority grandchildren did not perceived that they were always
valued at school, some noting perhaps because all schools were integrated by
the time they entered school.

5.0 Conclusions

5.1 It takes a village


This study revealed that parents, regardless of generation, viewed parental
involvement not only as necessity but vital for children to be successful in
school. Each generation valued the strength that came from a neighborhood,
civic organizations and religious organizations working together to help raise
the children. Regardless of ethnicity or race, the participants tended to default to
the status quo of churches and community resources when it came to changing
schools and neighborhoods. While the type of parental involvement might have
altered over time, due to the complexities of society such as both parents
needing to work, etc., the need for being involving all spheres of influence
(Epstein, 2001) to create an effective parental involvement program is essential
in schools today. The building of partnerships that emphasized collaboration
between the spheres of influence is indispensable when creating a program for
parental involvement in schools.

5.2 Consciousness Rising to Self-Assurance


Repeatedly, the theme of parental involvement making a difference not only in
the childrens school work but also in how successful they were in life was
present in this data set. From each generation, regardless of ethnicity or culture,
the voices of the parents noted that being involved with their childrens
education was a valued endeavor that made a difference in their lives and the
lives of their children. This engagement in their childrens education gave rise to
the children finding themselves and their voice not only in school but also in the
community at large. The findings of this inquiry articulated the importance of
educators being deliberate and purposeful in understanding the impact that
ethnicity and diversity have on parental involvement. These findings also
supported Epsteins (2001) spheres of influence that directly affect student
learning and development. The model of school, family, and community
partnerships places the student at the center, and clearly argues that when
families are involved, students achievement increases, attendance and attitude
toward school increases, classroom behavior improves, and levels of aspiration
increase.

6.0 Implications for Practice


Creating school, family and community partnerships are essential if families,
regardless of race and ethnicity, are to actively participate in the education of
their children. As leadership and teacher, preparatory programs work with
aspiring teachers and principals, it is essential that they have a deeper
understanding of community partnerships with schools. It is imperative that
leadership and teacher preparatory programs provide hands on experience for
aspiring principals and teachers in how to mobilize the community resources

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118

and how to work effectively with diverse student populations. Educators should
focus on consciously awakening parents to a higher level of self-assurance by
having a keen understanding of the needs of parents, building inclusive
partnerships, and creating significant collaborating experiences for all parents.
Those types of activities that focused on in-depth leadership roles that parents
can assume might prove to be particularly positive in association with
meaningful parental involvement. Furthermore, since the parents perceived they
could not raise the children by themselves, leaders should have the
understanding that the home, school, and community working together are
needed to provide the social, emotional, and academic growth and success of all
children. Rallying the village is particularly essential for families from diverse
backgrounds and changing neighborhoods. The educator who can involve the
entire community will give the family voice, thus providing a bridge to
successful and effective school-home partnerships.

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17-20.
Muldrow, D., Cano, R. & Kimmel, H. (1999). Where have all the parents gone? Retrieved
from http://www.csun.edu/cod/conf/1999/proceedings/sessions0233html
Peterson, D. (2000). Parent involvement in the educational process. Washington, DC. Office
of Educational Research and Improvement.

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120

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 120-141, January 2015

Building the process of transformation teaching and


learning according to the constructivism with the help
of dynamic geometry software in Vietnam

Ngoc-Giang Nguyen
Doctors degree student of The Vietnam Institute of Educational Sciences,
101 Tran Hung Dao, Hanoi, Vietnam

Anh-Tai Phan
Doctor of Sai Gon University
273 An Duong Vuong Street, Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam

Abstract. The theory of constructivism is generally attributed to by Jean


Piaget. Two important conceptions of Piaget in the constructivism are
assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the process in which we
get new knowledge similar to the existing knowledge, and then this new
knowledge can be directly incorporated in an already existing
framework. In other words, students can deal with the new situation
based on the existing knowledge. Accommodation is the process in which
we get new knowledge which is different from an existing framework,
and then this framework can be changed to fit the new knowledge.
Applying dynamic geometry software is a new researched way with
many good results. Dynamic geometry software helps us learn
mathematical concepts, theorems and solve problems. In addition,
dynamic geometry software also provides some informatics skills for the
user.

Keywords: Constructivism, dynamic geometry software, process.

1. Introduction
Applying dynamic geometry software makes the learning process better and
more effective. Learners use the software in predicting, verifying as well as
developing their knowledge. The expansion of applying this software to various
levels and forms depends on specific conditions of the problem.

Constructivism is now being mentioned in a lot of articles (e.g. [2], [5], [6], [7]).
In this paper, we research the applying of constructivism to transformation
learning with the help of dynamic geometry software in Vietnam. The paper
gives processes as well as examples of learning concepts, theorems and solves
problems according to constructivism with the help of dynamic geometry
software. The strong point of constructivist learning is that it helps to develop

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121

dependent thoughts, creative thoughts and scientific passion. Students can learn
lessons deeply and remember them for a long time. However, its weak point is
that it takes teachers a lot of time and effort to write lessons according to
constructivism. This article also performs the survey of applying informatics to
constructivist learning at upper secondary schools in Vietnam.

2. Learning transformations with the help of dynamic geometry


software according to constructivism
2.1. The process of using dynamic geometry software in learning transformation
according to constructivism

In learning mathematics at upper secondary schools in Vietnam, the


understanding of mathematical concepts is an important factor. Mathematical
conceptions are only formed deeply if students join in the process of building
them actively and initiatively. We give the process of using dynamic geometry
software in learning conceptions according to constructivism as follows :

Use dynamic geometry Use dynamic geometry To define conceptions


software to form software to verify
conceptional symbols conceptions

To consolidate
conceptions

Figure 1. Learning transformation according to constructivism with the help of


dynamic geometry software

2.2. An example illustrating the transformation concept according to constructivism


with the help of dynamic geometry software

In order to form transformation concept, we use dynamic geometry software


such as Cabri, GeoGebra, Sketchpad, to draw dynamic figures. After students
observe examples, ask questions and give remarks, they themselves conclude
the definition of the conception.

The following are some tools in the Cabri and GeoGebra software:

a) Some tools in the Cabri software

1. Point

Use the tool Point to draw a point A.

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2. Line

Use the tool Line to draw a line a.

3. Segment

Use the tool Segment to draw a segment AB.

4. Ray

Use the tool Ray to draw a ray from A to B.

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5. Vector

Use the tool Vector to draw a vector from A to B.

6. Polygon

Use the tool Polygon to draw a polygon.

7. Perpendicular line

Use the tool Perpendicular Line to draw a perpendicular line d to a.

8. Parallel Line

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Given a line AB. Draw a line b passing through a given point C , which is
parallel to AB : Parallel Line C AB.

9. Circle

Use the tool Circle to draw a circle with center O and radius r.

10. Locus

Use the tool Locus to find the locus of a movable object.

11. Trace

Use the tool Trace On/Off to make (cancel) the trace of an object.

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12. Animation

Use the tool Animation to move an object.

b) Some tools in the GeoGebra software

1. Point

Use the tool Point to draw a point A .

2. Line

Use the tool Line to draw a line a .

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3. Segment

Use the tool Segment to draw a segment AB.

4. Ray

Use the tool Ray to draw a ray from A to B .

5. Vector

Use the tool Vector to draw a vector from A to B.

6. Perpendicular Line

Use the tool Perpendicular Line to draw a perpendicular line d to a .

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7. Parallel Line

Given a line AB . Draw a line b passing through a given point C , which is


parallel to AB : Parallel Line C AB.

8. Circle with Center Through Point

Use the tool Circle with Center Through Point to draw a circle with center O
and radius r .

9. Locus

Use the tool Locus to find the locus of a movable object.

Example 1
Observe the two entrance doors of a supermarket, and give remarks on two
positional points M, M' compared with the midline of the entrance.
Using dynamic geometry software to draw :
a) b)

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Figures 2a, b
Remarks
Two points M, M' are symmetric with respect to the midline of entrance door.

Example 2
Two given lines a and d satisfying that they intersect at A . With each of points
M on d , draw point M' symmetric to the point M with respect to a . When M
moves on d , give remarks on the positional points M' .
Using dynamic geometry software to draw :
- Draw line a .
- Draw line d meeting a at A .
- Draw point M on d .
- Draw point M' symmetric to point M with respect to a .
- Dragging point M on d gives us point M' such that it makes traces forming
line d' .

Figure 3
Remarks
M' moves on d through A such that d' and d take a as a bisector line of a
pair of vertically opposite angles formed by d' and d .
Example 3
Having two given parallel lines a and d . With each of points M on d , draw
point M' symmetric to point M with respect to a . When M moves on d , give
remarks on the positional points M' .
Using dynamic geometry software to draw :
- Draw line a .
- Draw line d // a .
- Let point M be on d .
- Draw point M' symmetric to point M with respect to a .
- Dragging point M on d gives us point M' so that it makes traces forming
line d' // a .

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129

Figure 4

Remarks
M' moves on line d' such that d' and d are parallel and equidistant from a .

Example 4
Given line a and circle ( O ). With each of points M on ( O ), draw point M'
symmetric to point M with respect to a . When M moves on ( O ), give remarks
on the positional points M' .
Use dynamic geometry software:
- Draw circle ( O ).
- Draw line a and circle ( O ).
- Let M be a point on ( O ).
- Draw point M' symmetric to point M with respect to a .
- Dragging point M on ( O ) gives us point M' such that it makes traces
forming circle ( O' ).

Figure 5
Remarks
M' moves on circle ( O' ) being equal to ( O ).
Example 5
Given line a and a figure ( H ) (for example, the figure of pine tree). With each of
points M on ( H ), draw point M' symmetric to point M with respect to a .
When M moves on ( H ), give remarks on the positional points M' .
Using dynamic geometry software to draw :
- Draw line a .
- Draw figure ( H ).
- Let M be a point on ( H ).
- Draw point M' symmetric to point M with respect to a .
- Dragging point M on ( H ) gives us point M' such that it makes traces
forming figure ( H ).

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130

Figure 6
Remarks
We see that when M moves on ( H ), M' makes traces forming figure ( H' ) so
that ( H' ) is similar to ( H ). We also realize that if we fold the plane containing
the paper based on line a such that two parts of this paper are close, ( H ) is
coincident with ( H' ).
From the given examples, and observing the above figures, we realize that they
have a common characteristic: from the given line a , with each of points M , we
always define an only point M' symmetrical to point M through a . We define
the conception as follows:

The symmetry with axis a , called Sa , is a transformation that maps each of points M
onto point M' as follow : If M a then M' M ; if M a then M' is symmetric to
the point M with respect to a . Line a is called the axis of symmetry or symmetric axis.

3. Leaning theorems according to constructivism with the help of


dynamic geometry software
Using dynamic geometry software we can move figures, verify and
predict the results of problems. Therefore, it gives us a lot of advantages in
leaning theorems. Similar to learning concepts, the process of leaning theorems
on transformations according to constructivism is as follows:

To predict a To verify the To state the


theorem theorem theorem

To consolidate
and apply the
theorem
Figure 7. Learning theorems on transformations according to constructivism

3.1. To predict a theorem

At this step, teachers use dynamic geometry software to move reflexes, define
corresponding images or set up the equation of the images and the qualitative
and quantitative relation between images and reflexes.

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131

Example 6

Given line a and two distinct points M, N . Let M', N' be images of M, N in
the symmetry Sa . When M, N move on the plane, compare MN with M'N' .

The manipulations of theorem prediction on dynamic geometry software are as


follows:

- Draw line a .

- Draw two points M, N .

- Draw two images M', N' of M, N in the symmetry S a .

- When we move M, N , we see that M', N' move and MN M'N' .

Figure 8

3.2. To verify the theorem

Different from other learning methods, the verifiable step of the theorem aims at
proving a given statement or a statement that learners believe true. This step of
learning based on constructivism is to verify the predictions of learners that
learners do not assert. In this step, teachers use the following methods:

- Method 1: have students draw figures, discuss them and choose the symbols on
figures; motivate students to write the hypothesis and conclusion of the
theorem.

- Method 2: motivate students to exchange their points of view for the predictions
of proof methods by:

+ discussing in order to find out the similarity between the required proof and
the given proof, from which we can find out the sub-lines, or predict the
solutions.

+ Having students practise the converse reasoning since this is an effective way
of proving the theorem and it helps learners to develop thoughts.

+ Having students draw figures, discuss them and choose symbols on figures, as
well as motivate students to write the hypothesis and conclusion of the theorem.
Teachers should be interested in the predictions of learners visually.

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132

- Method 3: give students opportunities to see the problem by using different


methods.

Example 7

Given line a and two distinct points M, N . Let M', N' be the images of M, N
in Sa . Prove that MN M'N'.

Solution 1

Figure 9

Take the system of coordinates such that the x-axis is a . The transformation SOx
maps M(x1 ; y1 ) onto M'(x1 ; y1 ) ; N(x2 ; y2 ) onto N'(x2 ; y2 ) , and we
have:

2 2
MN x2 x1 y2 y1

2 2
M'N' x2 x1
2
y2 y1
2
= x2 x1 y2 y1 .

Thus M' N' MN.

Solution 2

Figure 10

2 2
MN 2 MN MH HK KN

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133

Since MH is direction with KN , so MH mKN or


2 2
MN 2
MN HK mKN KN

2
HK m 1 KN

2 2 2 2 2 2
HK 2 m 1 HK.KN m 1 KN HK m 1 KN (1)
0

2 2
M/N /2 M/N / M/H / HK KN / ( M/ H MH , KN / KN )

2 2
HK MH HK HK m 1 KN

2 2 2
KH 2 m 1 HK.KN m 1 KN
0

2 2 2
KH m 1 KN (2)

Since (1) and (2): M/ N /2 MN 2 M/ N / MN .

3.3. To state the theorem

The symmetry preserves the distance between two arbitrary points.

3.4. To practise and apply the theorem

After proving the theorem, we apply it to proving the following corollary.

The symmetry maps three points A, B, C colinear with B , between A and C onto
three points A', B', C ' colinear with B ' , between A ' and C ' .

Solution 1

Figure 11

Three given collinear points A, B, C ; B is between A and C .

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134

A/ Sa A
Let B /
Sa B
C/ Sa C

According to the above theorem:

A / B/ AB
BC / /
BC (1)
A/ C / AC

Since A, B, C are collinear, B is between A and C , so :

AB BC AC (2). From (1) and (2), we follow that: A/ B/ B/C / A/C / (3)

The equality (3) proves that A', B', C ' are collinear and B ' is between A ' and
C' .

Solution 2

Take the system of coordinates Oxy so that Ox is coincident with a . Suppose


that A(xA ; y A ), B(xB ; yB ), C (xC ; yC ) .

Figure 12

We have:

A xA ; y A A / x A/ ; y A/
Sa : B xB ; y B B/ xB/ ; y B/
C xC ; yC C / xC/ ; yC/

x A/ xA xB/ xB
So /
A/ x A ; y A ; /
B/ x B ; y B
y A yA y B yB

xC/ xC
/
C / xC ; yC .
y C yC

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135

Since A, B, C are collinear, with B between A and C , AB kAC with


0 k 1 (1).

xB xA k xC xA
(2)
yB yA k yC yA

We have: A/ B/ xB x A ; yB yA xB xA ; yB yA

A/ C / xC x A ; yC yA xC xA ; yC yA (3)

From (2): A/ B/ k xC x A ; k yC yA k xC xA ; yC yA (4)

From (3) and (4): A/ B/ kA/ C / with 0 k 1 A ', B ', C ' are collinear,
with B ' between A ' and C ' .

4. Learning to solve a problem using constructivism with the help of


dynamic geometry software
The knowledge and skills of students at upper secondary school are formed and
developed mainly by solving problems. However, when students solve a
problem, they get primary difficulty finding the way to deal with it? How to
predict the result of the problem? In traditional learning, teachers usually
instruct students to think by imagining in mind, with high abstract, so students
learn the knowledge with difficulty. Thus, finding an effective way of learning
mathematics is always necessary. Using dynamic geometry software opens a
new approach in learning to solve problems. Dynamic geometry software helps
to build the process of solving problem. The process of solving transformation
problem according to the constructivism with the help of dynamic geometry
software (see [13]):

To predict and find out To verify the To develop the


the result of a problem problem problem
with the help of
dynamic geometry
software

Figure 13. The process of solving problem according to constructivism

4.1. Finding out and predicting the result of a problem with the help of dynamic
geometry software

Example 8

Let A1 be a fixed point, C1D1 slides on line d and its length is constant. Find out
the position of C1D1 so that the perimeter of triangle A1C1D1 is minimal.

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136

We use dynamic geometry software to find out the position of C1D1 so that the
perimeter of triangle A1C1D1 is maximal, as follows:

Step 1: Construction

. Draw point A1 .

. Draw line d .

. Draw point C1 .

. Draw C1D1 on d so that the length of C1D1 is constant.

. Draw triangle A1C1D1 by the tool Polygon.

. Measure the perimeter of triangle A1C1D1 .

. Draw the system of coordinates Oxy so that the x-axis Ox ( Ox containing d )


and the y-axis Oy are perpendicular.

. Draw N on Oy so that ON equals to the perimeter of triangle A1C1D1 .

. Draw a straight line passing through point N and perpendicular to Oy ,


cutting the straight line passing through point C1 and perpendicular to Ox at
E.

Step 2: Making trace

. Making trace to point E , moving point C1 , we obtain the trace of point E that
needs to be found.

Figure 14

Moving point C1 to the position so that the ordinate of point E is minimal, we


see that triangle A1C1D is an isosceles triangle at A1 .

4.2. Verifying a problem

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137

Figure 15

In order to prove the perimeter of triangle A1C1D1 is minimal, we need to prove


that A1C1 + A1D1 is minimal.

Using the translation D1C1 , we have A1 A2 .

Let K be a point symmetric to the point A2 with respect to the line d . Connect
KA1 , it meets line d at C1' .

Use the translation A2 A1 , we have C1' D1' .

We have C1 A1 + A1D1 C1 A1 + C1 A2 = C1 A1 + C1K A1K = A1C1' + C1' A2 =


C1' A1 + D1' A1.

The equality occurs if C1 is coincident with C1' .

4.3. Develop the problem

We develop the above problem into the following one:

Example 9

Let A, B be two fixed points and they lie on the same side of the line d . CD
slides on d so that its length is constant. Find the position of CD so that the
perimeter of quadrilateral ABCD is minimal.

Figure 16

Use the translation TCD : B B' .

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138

The perimeter of quadrilateral ABCD is minimal if BC AD is minimal. It


means that B' D AD is minimal.

Similar to problem 1, this sum is minimal if point D is coincident with D ' being
the point of intersection of EA and d ( E is the point symmetric to point B ' with
respect to d ).

Use the translation TDC : D' C ' , we have BC AD = B' D AD = DE AD


AE BC AD B' D' AD' BC ' AD' .

The equality occurs if CD is coincident with C ' D '.

5. Results and discussion


We delivered survey forms to 43 teachers of upper secondary schools in Ho Chi
Minh city, Viet Nam in order to check the applying informatics in learning
mathematics. The result is as follows:

Chart 1.1. The software that teachers may apply in learning


mathematics

40
35
30
25 Good
20 Neutral
15 Not use
10
5
0
er
ld

nt

et
le

h
e
l
ce

av
ar

as
or

ap
oi

ol
Ex

ftw

Vi
rP

we
W

Fl
M
we

so

m
ea
Po

ry

Dr
et
om
ge
ic
m
na
Dy

From the above chart, we see that the number of teachers knowing dynamic
geometry software is high. The number of teachers who are proficient in
understanding and using dynamic geometry software is also rather high.
We also delivered survey forms to teachers on the necessity of using
constructivism in learning mathematics. The result is as follows:
Chart 1.2. The ideas of teachers on constructivist leanring

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139

50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Constructivist learning Constructivist learning Constructivist learning It is necessary to use
develops students' takes a lot of time takes a lot of effort informatics in
creative thoughts constructivist learning

From the chart, we see the necessity of applying constructivism in learning


mathematics to develop students thought. However, the weak point of this
method is that it takes a lot of time and effort of teachers.
We also delivered survey forms to 243 students at upper secondary schools in
Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam in order to check the applying dynamic geometry
software in learning mathematics. The result is as follows:

Chart 1.3. The ideas of students on applying dynamic geometry software in


constructivist learning

200
180
160
140
120 Frequently
100 Sometime
80 Never
60
40
20
0
Like teachers Like teachers Like to Like teachers
to use to use explore to use
dynamic constructivist dynamic dynamic
geometry learning geometry geometry
software in software software to
teaching themselves discover
concepts, students'
theorem, errors
solving
problem

Chart 1.3 shows that students like teachers to use dynamic geometry software in
teaching as well as learning using constructivism. Students are interested in
dynamic geometry software as well as wanting teachers to point out the
mistakes in solving problems. The number of students using dynamic geometry
software in self study is high. From this, we can assert that using dynamic

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140

geometry software in teaching according to constructivism makes students


interested in learning. Constructivist method is better than traditional method.

6. Conclusion
We can say that, the process of constructivism of new knowledge is the process
in which we gain new knowlege from acquired knowledge. It is the process
connecting two poles known with will-know of the awareness. Thus, when
teachers use constructivism, they should know how to divide knowledge and
skills into small units so that students can solve a problem by themselves.
Teachers should know how to organize, instruct students to survey, find out,
and solve each part of knowledge and new skills. The process of constructivism
of new knowledge motivates independent and creative thoughts of students.
The applying of dynamic geometry software in learning plane geometry is also
a new way of helping students to understand lessons and to develop skills in
informatics. Students can use dynamic geometry software to find out the
solution, the incorrectness of a problem. In addtion, the software also helps
student seff-learn. Students like to have a passion for learning with the help of
informatics.

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constructivism, Vietnamese Educational Journal, 35-37.

Cakir, M. (2008). Constructivist approaches to learning in science and their implications


for science pedagogy: A literature review, International journal of
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Cao, T. H. (2007). Learning concepts for students at upper secondary school according to
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Cao, T. H, (2008). Learning mathematical theorem at upper secondary schook according


to constrcutivism, Vietnamese Educational Journal, 33-36.

Gordon, M. (2009). Toward a pragmatic discourse of constructivism: Reflections on


lessons from practice, Educational studies, 39-58.

Karagiorgi, Y., & Symeou, L. (2005). Translating constructivism into instructional design
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Liu, C. H., & Matthews. R (2005). Vygotskys philosophy: Constructivism and its
criticism examined, International Educational journal, 386-399.

Doan, Q., Van, H, C., Pham, K, B., & Ta, M. (2007). Geometry 11 (Advanced), Education
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Do, T. T. (2009), Building and organizing some learning situations according to


constructivism, Vietnamese Educational Journal, 43-44.

Do, T. D., & Vu, V. D. (2005). Applying constructivism in learning mathematics at


primary school, Vietnamese Educational Journal, 26 27.

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Nguyen H. C., & Cao, T. H (2003). Teaching at upper secondary school according to
constructivism, Vietnames Educational Journal, 28-29.

Nguyen, Q. L. (2007). Applying constructivsim in the inovation of physical leanring


method, Vietnamese Educational Journal, 32-34.

Pham, S. N (2008). Improving the effectiveness of learning analysis for students at upper
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Phi, T. T. V (2009). The approach of constructivism in learning solving problem at


secondary school, Vietnamese Educational Journal, 42-43.

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142

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 142-156, January 2015

Oral Assessment and Grade Integrity:


A Case Study

Vidar Gynnild
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU)
Trondheim, Norway

Abstract. The construct of "grade integrity" refers to the degree to which


awarded grades accurately represent the breadth and depth of academic
achievement (Sadler, 2009b). This case study examines issues of grade
integrity at university level by studying a class of 26 students in science
and engineering. While the use of two sets of oral examinations, a mid-
term and a final examination, appears to be well justified, grade
integrity is challenged by the allocation of scores acquired at the two
assessment points, and by issues associated with assigning scores at the
mid-term exam. The introduction of an assessment rubric increased
consistency and inter-rater reliability at the final examination, but
challenges still remain in enabling greater transparency in assessment
practices. A key task is to incorporate institutional policies and
assessment frameworks in grading, thereby empowering students by
making them familiar with standards and criteria.

Keywords: oral assessment; grade integrity

Introduction
Written end-of-term examinations are still by far the most widespread mode of
assessment at the subject university, yet oral assessments are also part of the
assessment repertoire, notably in re-sit examinations and in courses with few
students. In many instances, oral assessments are combined with traditional
written examinations, portfolios and take-home examinations. These changes
have largely taken place over the last decade and the major driving force has
been the quest for improved learning and more authentic assessment practices.
The efficacy of frequent examinations has been assumed, and such practices
have been encouraged without examining potential, inherent flaws. Less effort
has been invested in ensuring that practices are rooted in sound assessment
principles, and that the representation of achievement is valid and reliable.
While new assessment practices may have marginalised instances of selective
negligence made by students, other concerns have emerged in particular
related to the link between student achievement and symbolic expressions as
seen in grade transcripts. In this study, an apparent concern is related to the
provision of a robust assessment framework. It seems vital to ensure whether or
not such guidelines exist as well as to examine the nature and cognitive depth of

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143

such guidelines when they do exist. We will examine potential use of such
guidelines and explore in further depth existing grading practices.

This article draws on data collected from a case study of a science/engineering


course at a research intensive institution, here called the subject university. Our
study was conducted during a period of reform when professors were urged to
adopt a broader range of assessment formats to promote learning and to solidify
the evidence base of grades. In our course, the final examination had been
replaced by two oral exams, a mid-term and a final, both counting towards the
final grade. The underlying concern that informed our study did not pertain
specifically to the quest for improved learning, but to the extent to which grades
actually represented individual achievement, and not something else.

This study draws extensively on work of Royce Sadler (1989; 2005; 2009a; 2009b;
2010). Sadler was the first researcher to introduce the construct of grade integrity
stipulating that each grade awarded should be strictly commensurate with
the quality, breadth and depth of a students performance (Sadler, 2009b, p.
807). Sadlers contribution has been to address the value of grades from a
conceptual perspective, which also motivated this study. In addressing some of
those issues, we first draw a distinction between the intrinsic value of a grade,
and the grading practice. The intrinsic value, or merit, is what grade integrity is
about. In essence, this implies that a students work should be graded according
to its value without a view to the candidates previous achievements, other
students performances or issues such as gender, age or ethnicity. Grade
integrity is concerned with implications of criterion-based assessment,
consistency and fairness as well as maintaining same value of grades within and
across educational programs and institutions (Sadler, 2005).

Theoretical background
The centrality of assessment in education is well documented (Brown & Knight,
1994; Gynnild, 2001; Rust, 2002). Whilst historically the quality of teaching
attracted the bulk of interest at the subject university, this has changed over the
last two decades. In particular, different assessment formats and types of tasks
have attracted increased interest as vehicles for improving student learning. The
new slogan around the turn of the century was that of formative assessment, or
assessment for learning as opposed to summative assessment. This linguistic
distinction and the call for improved learning stimulated the introduction of a
range of innovative assessment formats. Typical examples are continuous
assessment formats which exclusively, or in combination with an end-of-term
examination, counted towards the final grade. This wave of reform was justified
by the quest for improved learning, while potentially troubled areas were
ignored. The scholarship of assessment later made significant steps forward and
helps us elucidate the remaining problematic. The provision of new concepts
represents a valuable contribution to the scholarship of assessment as does the
literature addressing the links between assessment theory and practice.

Three requirements are proposed for the aspiration of grade integrity to be


realised: assessment evidence [should be] of a logically legitimate type;

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144

evidence [should be] of sufficient scope and soundness to allow for a strong
inference to be drawn; and a grading principle [should be used] that is
theoretically appropriate for coding the level of a students performance (Sadler,
2009b, p. 807). Whilst there are convincing arguments for these propositions,
demands for improved learning may overshadow issues such as the application
of appropriate reference frameworks, and the need for sufficient sampling of
tasks to make strong inferences about students achievements.

Oral assessment is used in a variety of settings; however, relatively little research


has been conducted on this format (Pearce & Lee, 2009). Most of what we know
about oral assessment is from the examiners perspective, and apart from
anxiety studies, little is known about students experiences (Joughin, 1998).
Generally, oral assessment represents a flexible assessment format with a
reputation for authenticity and content validity that may be hard to achieve in
written assessments, particularly when communication or problem-solving skills
are deficient (Joughin, 1998). Although interactivity generally carries positive
connotations, it is not unproblematic in oral assessment. Some degree of
unpredictability is always inherent in such sessions because of the potential
interaction range between the presentation pole and the dialogue pole (Joughin,
1998, p. 371). The former resembles written examinations in that students
respond largely uninterrupted, to set tasks. In the latter case, interactivity is
pervasive, at the potential cost to the student of being able to address only a
fraction of the pre-scheduled items. The uneven distribution of power between
the student and the examiner may harm the progression of the questioning
schedule and negatively affect the assigned grade. In our case, questions varied
at both sets of exams. Exercises 1-3 had been assigned to the mid-term
examination and exercises 4-10 had been assigned to the final examination.
Believers in this format still argue that the pros far outweigh the cons: If we
want to truly know what students know about, what they can do in and how
they are disposed towards their chosen field, at some point we must get them to
talk to us! (Joughin, 2011, p. 3).

Context and research questions


Oceanography is an elective in the third/fourth year of the Master of Science
programme, with an estimated weighing of 7.5 credits from a total of 60 credits
annually. The aim of the course was to help students understand the physical
phenomena involved in the interaction between the earths atmosphere and
oceans. Learning objectives were created for the mid-term and the final
examination, but the 20 minute sessions addressed only a selection of those
objectives. Unlike written examinations, questions varied according to selections
of content area, based on a draw made on entering the examination room, one
taken from exercises 1-3 at the mid-term and one taken from exercises 4-10 at the
final examination. Assigned scores accounted for 30 (mid-term) and 70 per cent
(final) respectively towards the overall course grade. The syllabus was divided
into three parts: wind, waves, and currents, each of which was fully covered in
the textbook, as well as in lectures and three hours of weekly exercises. Students
in engineering programmes typically have to complete such weekly tasks but in
this course, approval of submitted work was not mandatory. The 26 persons on

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145

the course included Norwegian and international students. The latter group was
questioned in English, whilst all native students were allowed to use their first
language at both sets of examinations.

Letter grades (A, B, C, D, E and F) were used to represent achievement. The


introduction of alphabetic grades was originally intended to allow translation
from one set of grading symbols to another. However, the Ministry decided to
adopt this grading scale for all higher education. An official memorandum from
2004 stated that grading should be based on descriptors, and that additional
guidance would be provided for the application of this framework. There should
be no predefined distribution of grades (Johansson & Kjellemo, 2004, p. 1),
thus indicating the adoption of a criterion based grading principle. Although the
application of grade descriptors is a mandatory requirement, it was never used
during the course of this study. Letter grades are purely nominal, but were
converted into numerals for research purposes (A=5; B=4; C=3; D=2; E=1; F=0).
Students grades were allocated by assigning all aggregates according to
institutionally predefined numerical ranges, as illustrated in Table 1:

Table 1: Aggregate score ranges used at the Subject University

A B C D E F
100 - 90 89 - 80 79 - 60 59 - 50 49 - 40 39 - 0

The adoption of aggregate score ranges simplifies data management, giving the
impression of openness, objectivity and comparability across courses (Sadler,
2009b, p. 815). However, the uneven score ranges still raise concerns related to
the construct of grade integrity that will be discussed later in this article. The
following research questions are explored: Is the grading principle appropriate
for coding the level of a students performance? (1) To what extent are
assessment and grading practices compatible with grade integrity? (2) How
could grade integrity possibly be improved in the course under scrutiny?(3)

Methodology and scoring procedures


The application of a case study is not a methodological choice, but a choice
about what is to be studied (Smith Macklin, 2007, p. 211). This approach is
claimed to be appropriate for asking how and why questions (Yin, 1994) in
the systematic examination of one or more events. The purpose of our study is to
gain a deeper understanding of appraisal and grading in the selected course,
and to identify issues of grade integrity to be addressed in the future. The focus
is therefore on one particular element of the case being investigated. Hence, the
choice of methodology is determined by our research questions, which also
called for an intervention to promote grade integrity. We found principles of
action research appropriate for our work as it involves learning about learning
with a view to improved practice (Zuber-Skerritt, 2002).

Observational evidence of achievement was obtained through two sets of oral


examinations, in which each candidate was assigned scores ranging from 0-100
by an external examiner and the professor teaching the course. The latter

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146

conducted the interrogation of all candidates while the external examiner


observed and took notes, and only occasionally asked questions of clarification.
Slightly different procedures were used for the allocation of scores at the two
assessment points. Prior to the mid-term examination, no deliberations took
place on the selection of potential themes and questions. The professor had
assumed this responsibility for years and so could draw on his experience,
without any explicit and shared assessment framework having been elaborated.
First, both examiners assigned scores individually for each candidate, followed
by a brief discussion between the two. Calibration of standards took place
progressively. First, both graders assigned scores based on experience and tacit
knowledge. Second, candidates performances were compared, especially those
who received near-identical scores. The professor set the standard for the
allocation of scores, while the external examiner routinely adjusted his scores in
events of a disparity of 10 percentage points or more. On completion of the
examination, an average score was assigned based on the previously adjusted
scores assigned by the external examiner and the professor.

Due to conflicting commitments, the external examiner serving at the mid-term


exam was replaced by a younger post doc candidate at the final examination.
This time the author served as an external consultant to assist with the
implementation of a criterion-based grading framework, which in this course
was an innovation. With the mid-term examination in mind, the purpose was
now to introduce assessment rubrics, focused in content areas and transparent in
terms of academic requirements. In theory, this would promote greater fairness
in grading, and serve as a frame of reference for those who might later seek an
explanation of their score. Content areas and weightings were negotiated before,
rather than during, the examination. Scores were assigned out of a maximum
potential score for each selected topic. Total scores were allocated as an average
of assigned raw scores with no scope for progressive moderation.

Content areas addressed in the weekly exercises (4-10) served as the guiding
principle for the rubrics. Selected content areas were covered in the textbook as
well as in the set of exercises; however, the oral examinations featured larger
emphasis on conceptual understanding and less weight on doing calculations.
Table 2 portrays the rubric related to one of the selected content areas (waves).
Similar, but not identical rubrics guided the questioning of candidates based on
their individual draw of content area on entering the examination room.

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Table 2: Excerpt of assessment rubric used at the final examination

To be Assessed Expected Knowledge Scores and


(The What) (The How Well) Comments on
Performance
Max Assigned
Score Score
Topic 1 A ~ a cos(kx t ) ~ a 2 cos 2 kx t 60
Stokes waves, 2nd linear
order Free surface elevation; make a sketch
2 gk tanh kh
Properties
From 3rd order: also depends on a
compared
Higher crest, lower trough
with linear
- crest increases as h
waves
decreases
- trough decreases as h
decreases
water particle motion; not closed
particles as for linear waves

Topic 2 phase velocity cw g ( A h) 15


Solitary waves
sketch - high and narrow crest
versus linear
- low and wide crest
waves
Topic 3 k A nonlinearity 10
Ur
Ursell number (kh) 3
dispersivity

Topic 4 crest angle at max steepness 120o 15


Breaking u cw
criteria vertical acceleration downwards =
g/2
wave steepness s H / 1/ 7
Strictly properties of highest and steepest
Stokes wave
Total 100

The quest for grade integrity has comprehensive implications, such as the
application of an appropriate reference framework and the selection of grading
standards and criteria. Attention has to be paid to the selection of content, ways
of assigning scores, weighting of assessment items and allocation of grades.
While institutional guidelines provided some basic information, such as an
outline of the grading scale and suggested grade descriptors, the assessment
panel enjoyed great freedom in adopting operational procedures for the oral.
This format offers challenges due to the dialogic nature of the questioning, the
uneven power distribution between the parties and the non-identical tasks to be
addressed for the various candidates.

Analysis
Given the current procedure for determining mid-term scores, we examine how
assigned scores depend on scores suggested by the professor and the external

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148

examiner. At the mid-term examination scores were assigned progressively by


comparing and negotiating suggested scores suggested by the external examiner
and the professor. The more experienced professor assumed a hegemonic role
over the external examiner in deliberations taking place in the aftermath of each
candidates performance. In effect, this meant that the assessors contributed
unequally to the agreed mid-term score. A regression analysis is used to explore
the relationship between the independent variables (individually assigned
scores) and the dependent variable (final mid-term score). This was estimated by
a regression equation in which M is the final mid-term score; M1 is the
professors mid-score and M2 is the score of the external examiner: M = 0.675M1
+ 0.328M2. The professors score accounts for 67.5 % of the final mid-term score,
while the external examiner accounts for 32.8 %. On average, the external
examiner assigned higher scores than the professor, meaning that the average
score at the mid-term would have been higher only if the average of the two sets
of scores had been used. The same score pattern emerged at the final exam as the
professors average score was 72.88, with standard deviation (Sd) 31.75 while
that of the external examiners was 74.96 (Sd31.36). This time both examiners
contributed almost equally towards each individual score.

As indicated, the sets of exams contributed unequally towards the final score, as
indicated by the following equation (R = final total score; M = score at the mid-
term; E = score at the final exam): R = 0.3M + 0.7E. Our goal is now to examine
how final scores depend on initially suggested scores, at the mid-term as well as
the final examination. This is achieved by conducting a regression analysis based
on our data, and the regression equation is: R = 0.201M1 + 0.0979M2 + 0.339E1 +
0.365E2. R is the final score based on the mid-term and final examinations; M1
and M2 denote assigned scores by the professor and the external examiner at the
mid-term examination, while E1 and E2 are scores assigned by the professor and
the new external examiner respectively at the final examination.

It appears that the professors scores account for about 54% towards the final
scores, while the external examiners score accounts for about 46%. The
introduction of a grading rubric enabled a more consistent allocation of scores
than those allocated at the mid-term examination. The rubric featured a set of
agreed themes to be addressed, including specified questions and their
respective weightings towards a composite score. This time, the assessors shared
their interpretations of expectations and reached consensus before, rather than
during, the examination. This resulted in increased inter-rater reliability and
higher correlation of scores at the final exam compared with the mid-term; (E1,
E2) = 0.99; (M1, M2) = 0.95.

Finally, we compare correlations of scores for three selected samples of students


at the mid-term and the final exam respectively: Minimum score range [0-40],
medium score range [40-80] and maximum score range [80-100]. Table 3 features
average scores for the three samples at the mid-term (M1, M2) and the final
examination (E1, E2) and final result (R).

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149

Table 3: Means and correlations for three groups of students

Minimum Medium Maximum


Mean (M) 27.00 57.56 92.83
Correlation (M1, M2) 0.53 0,59 0,82
Mean (E) 38.40 71.56 90.75
Correlation (E1, E2) 0.99 0.98 0.97
Mean (R) 35.20 67.49 91.41

While correlations of scores assigned at the final exam correlate well for the
three categories of students, this is not the case at the mid-term. This time, the
correlation is high for the sample of academically successful students (0.82)
while the two remaining categories exhibit much poorer correlations (0.53 and
0.59) indicating that the negotiated criteria utilized at the final exam provided a
more robust framework compared to the mid-term scoring system. On average,
students scores were poorer at mid-term compared with the final, implying that
grades would have been better without the mid-term scores included.

The mid-term exam had been introduced to comply with requirements


announced by the Ministry (KUF, 2001, p. 31-32) suggesting that teaching,
assessment and grading should be combined to avoid cramming and facilitate
progression. Later, the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) gave rise to
concern over cumulative assessment practices by requiring time-framed learning
objectives. Knowledge acquisition was to be demonstrated at the end of, not
during the course. In this study, the formula for final scores marginalised the
effects of the mid-term, which accounted for only 30% of the final grade. The
impact of cumulative assessment may still affect the final grade. The sketch in
Figure 1 illustrates issues of three hypothetical students in the same course.

Figure 1: Attainment paths and impacts caused by the mid-term examination

Student A entered with higher qualifications than B and C, who had identical
entrance qualifications, but pursued different learning paths. A, B and C
achieved identical scores at the final examination, but due to scores assigned at

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150

the mid-term may not get the same grade. Differences in scores at the mid-term
exam are marked as 1, 2 and 3. The final grade is of course affected by the
weighting of any assessment point introduced throughout the semester.

We then explored effects of different weightings of the mid-term examination of


the course. Table 4 illustrates the impact caused by differential weightings of the
mid-term examination. As expected, the greater the weighting of the mid-term
examination, the greater the distribution of the spectrum of grades. Two
students lose A grades, and two others lose B grades due to the mid-term score,
contradicting the popular notion that, as a rule, mid-term examinations benefit
students by allowing them to focus on smaller areas of content at a time.

Table 4: Grade distributions as a function of differential weightings


of mid-term scores

A B C D E F
Mid-term accounting for 0 % of final grade 11 5 6 0 0 4
Mid-term accounting for 15 % of final grade 10 5 7 0 0 4
Mid-term accounting for 30 % of final grade 9 3 10 0 0 4
Mid-term accounting for 50 % of final grade 9 3 8 2 0 4
Mid-term accounting for 100 % of final grade 10 2 3 4 3 4

Often, however, learning does not adhere to a linear path, but occurs in stages,
sometimes towards the end of the course, as seen in recent research on threshold
concepts (Land, Cousin, Meyer, & Davies, 2005). Deep learning takes time and
normally requires a greater thematic focus and contextual overview than can be
attained in a few weeks, during which there are time constraints due to other
courses, part time jobs and other commitments.

Examination without tight adherence to set items compromises the rigour of oral
assessment. In this study, examination questions as well as the order of topics
were constructed in advance along with weightings of each assessment point
(see Table 2). This added rigour to the examination in the sense that students
were asked the same questions and assigned scores according to agreed criteria
and standards. If students were unable to respond adequately, the professor
intervened by posing scaffolding questions to help them back on track again.
Students could neither select items, nor their order as seen in this quote:

Obviously, I need to know the premises of the exam, e. g. that the duration is 20
minutes and that there are four questions to be posed. By comparison, you dont
get access to questions one at a time in any written exam There should be no
other surprises other than the exam questions themselves. This runs counter
to the interests of the candidate unless the questions to be answered are
exhibited to the student at the outset of the oral exam, or when there are
questions that remain unanswered during the interrogation (Student NN).

The chart in Table 5 exhibits the weighting of assessment items associated with
exercises 410. The different thematic areas feature three or four tasks, but the

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151

weighting of items is not transparent to the student. While the order of tasks was
decided by contextual logic, as seen in Table 4, task 1 in Ex4 and Ex5 carries a lot
of weight, while this is different in Ex6 Ex10.

Table 5: Weighting of tasks associated with content areas at the final exam

Ex 4 Ex 5 Ex 6 Ex 7 Ex 8 Ex 9 Ex 10
Task 1 60 60 20 40 30 20 40
Task 2 15 15 10 30 40 60 40
Task 3 10 10 30 30 30 20 10
Task 4 15 15 40 10

General access to the entire set of questions to be posed at the exam, including
their relative weighting, would empower students and increase reliability in
grading by enabling them to respond to the entire spectrum of themes, rather
than having decisions made on their behalf by the examiner. In this study, the
problem is not only the inconsistency of questions asked to each student, but the
examiners assumed authority in deciding the order of questions, timing and
progression. One argument in favour of the current practice is that the order of
questions may be set by factors inherent in their subject matter. In such instances
it could potentially add to the students confusion and increase problems.

The algorithm for combining scores is also of interest to this study: Aggregation
is the process of combining a series of module scores, or degree classifications
derived from such scores, into a final unique degree classification (Morrison,
Cowan, & Harte, 1997). Methods belong to one of two broad groupings,
namely, 'grade combination' or 'mark aggregation' methods, where the former
involves a summation of grades, and the latter a summation of marks
(Morrison et al., 1997). Because the former method takes no account of students
raw marks, grade combination algorithms may be uninformative. This was not
an issue in this study because global scores incorporated raw scores from both
exams. However, the inclusion of scores assigned at the mid-term examination
compromises the integrity of the grade, and final grades would have been more
accurate without the inclusion of the mid-term scores.

Unlike random error, bias is systematic and is present in all forms of assessment,
probably more so in oral assessments than in written work, which can be further
checked at a later date. Although we have no evidence of any bias caused by
ethnic, language or gender partiality, our data indicate that the external
examiners were slightly more lenient in their grading than the professor (see
Figure 2). This runs counter to one of the assumed responsibilities of the external
examiner, namely to ensure academic standards and avoid grade inflation.

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Figure 2: Professors and examiners scores at the mid-term and the final, including
best fit. Professors scores on the horizontal line & Examiners scores on the vertical
line

However, this cannot be deemed as bias because there was no official rating of
performance. The use of a scoring rubric at the final examination reduced the
need for an external examiner compared with the holistic assessment at the mid-
term examination. In the latter case, the calibration of scoring practices evolved
progressively through reference to prior performances, while at the final this
process was largely settled before the examination. This contributed to greater
consistency in scoring and thereby to the integrity of the grade. While rubrics do
not by themselves guarantee high levels of reliability in grading, they may be
helpful in identifying and making explicit standards and criteria to be applied.

Yet another issue is to secure a match between individual achievements with


accurate representation of these achievements. Misrepresentations can occur in a
number of ways, e.g. in methods used to collect raw scores (norm-based or
standards-based assessment), or in the conversion of scores into grades. In this
study, grades were assigned according to score ranges laid out in institutional
policies. In our study, the cut-off ranges have been adjusted to show a normal
distribution curve. The wide score range for C (79-60) increases the likelihood
of a bell-shaped curve, but compromises grade integrity. Students therefore
appear to be graded unfairly at policy level. If the university were to retain its
principle of standards-based grading, the implementation of equal score ranges
for all categories of grades would increase grade integrity. In Table 6, this
scenario is explored based on scores assigned in our course:

Table 6: Grade distributions according to two different scenarios of cut-off scores

Letter grades A B C D E F
Score ranges, scenario 1 100 - 90 89 - 80 79 - 60 59 - 50 49 - 40 39 - 0
Grade distribution 1 9 3 10 0 0 4
Score ranges, scenario 2 100 - 88 87 - 75 74 - 62 61- 49 48 - 36 35 - 0
Grade distribution 2 11 4 7 0 0 4

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At first glance the application of score ranges gives the impression of accuracy
and objectivity. However, these are not standardised units, and distributions
ranging from 1-100 percentage points therefore do not tell anything about
achievement in an absolute sense. The source of error is with selected score
ranges as well as in judgments made by examiners. In this study, identical score
ranges for all passing grades would have yielded more students receiving better
grades. The use of cut-off scores facilitates the management of initially scores as
the conversion into other grade distributions is purely a technical operation.

Discussion
With what certainty can we claim that the current assessment and grading
design constitutes a sound and legitimate way to judge achievement? Some
strengths are obvious, especially that the oral format enables comprehensive
interactivity in the examination room. Oral examinations also effectively prevent
common issues of academic integrity, such as plagiarism and unintended peer
collaboration. Knowledge and reasoning may also be probed in greater depth
than would have otherwise been possible. The setting allows the examiner to
gauge skills and competencies progressively; however, the random selection of
items of varying levels of difficulty may raise concerns. While assessment items
in written exams are identical for all examinees, the asynchronous nature of oral
assessment requires non-identical assessment items. This does not represent an
issue by necessity as tasks may vary, yet still be of the same academic standard.

The brevity of the interrogation sessions may be more of as serious matter. With
what certainty can we argue that our assessment evidence is of sufficient scope
and soundness to allow for strong inferences to be drawn in terms of scores and
grades? (Sadler, 2009a, p. 2). Given the theoretical emphasis of the curriculum,
oral assessment offers opportunities that are non-existing in written formats.
Candidates were allowed to reason and make drawings and calculations on the
blackboard, and the professor helped clarifying potential misinterpretation of
questions posed. A mixed design combining diverse assessment formats would
have extended the evidence base grades, but would have been more resource
intensive for the assessment panel, and for the students.

Examinations provoke anxiety and disadvantage students to varying degrees,


but the rarity of oral examinations and the short time span in an unpredictable
setting may have added to tensions before and during the interrogation session
that may have misrepresented achievement. The same applies to language
proficiency. English was the spoken language for international students, though
not their first language, whereas Norwegian students were examined in their
native tongue. It requires integrity of the examiners to differentiate between the
the student's command of the medium itself, i.e. the student's oral
communication skills in general or language skills in particular; and the
student's command of content as demonstrated through the oral medium
(Joughin, 1998, p. 367). The purpose of examinations is not to measure oral
ability, but to test cognitive knowledge, understanding, thinking processes, and
capacity to communicate in relation to these (Joughin, 1998, p. 368).

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154

At the final examination, the assessors were largely in agreement for the entire
range of the scale (0-100), while inter-rater agreement increased towards the
upper end (70-100) at the mid-term examination This may be evidence of the
effects of the shared interpretations of the rubric, enabling more accurate
judgments of performance levels for the entire scale, not only towards the
positive end. While in theory deficient language skills may impact graders (and
grades), there is no evidence of such potential flaws in this study. An indicator
of the robustness of assigned grades (and the integrity of the graders) is shown
in Table 6. While policy decisions on score ranges by implication impact grade
distributions (Table 5), data presented in Table 7 shows a relatively high degree
of consistency in score allocation. The underlying attainment appears to be well
represented in the assigned grades; however, as seen in Table 6, differences in
grading still occur because assessment is not and can never be an exact science.
Table 7 indicates that the professor contributes to upholding academic standards
by consistently assigning poorer grades as compared with the external examiner.

Table 4: Grade distributions if assigned either by the professor or external examiner

Letter grades A B C D E F
Score ranges 100 - 90 89 - 80 79 - 60 59 - 50 49 - 40 39 - 0
Only professor 7 4 10 1 0 4
Only external examiner 8 5 9 0 1 3

How may grade integrity be improved in the selected course? Assessment and
grading are socially constructed activities with a long history of discourse and
collaborative inquiry. Grading panels share authentic challenges contributing to
skills development and shared understandings within a community of practice
(Wenger, 2000). While shared knowledge generally remain implicit in the act of
completing tasks, they become operational in recognition of similar, if not
identical tasks (Polanyi, 1958). The shared repertoire in a community of practice
refers to a pool of resources that members not only share but also to which they
contribute on an ongoing basis (Smith Macklin, 2007, p. 206). An apparent risk
is that communities develop cultures featuring weak ties to institutional policies
and the repertoire of theoretically based reference frameworks. Who knows if
the integrity of grades is well taken care of across the range of such communities
of practice? Neither students nor employers can be sure of the meaning of
grades since so little is known about their theoretical underpinnings and the
locally grown cultures that maintain and solidify established practices.

The beliefs, skills and knowledge acquired in appraisal of student achievement


may be viewed as a social and cultural capital formed out of comprehensive
experience and peer socialisation. This is the collective habitus of a community
of practice (Jawitz, 2009, p. 604) which is the shared repertoire of beliefs, skills
and knowledge associated with appraisal of work. The situation for a newcomer
into the community has been described as a process of harmonisation arising
out of the interaction between the agency of new academics and these key
contextual aspects within the workplace (Jawitz, 2009, p. 605). It has been

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155

assumed that newcomers to communities of practice initially adopt a peripheral


participation after which they progressively adopt shared beliefs and practices
from the collective habitus. The uneven power distribution between a newcomer
and the community of practice typically sets the direction of the harmonisation
process, but this was reversed in this case.

The new external examiner was a post-doctoral student and completely new to
the assessment and grading community. He assisted in the implementation of
the scoring rubric, and negotiated interpretations of questions and weightings
towards the final score. The increased consistency in scoring was clearly a
contribution to the integrity of the grades. In this case; however, the construct of
the harmonisation between the newcomers individual agency and collective
habitus does not quite fit in. The absence of the long-standing external examiner
altered the conditions of the grading panel by making it more susceptible to new
practices. The new examiners cultural capital greatly supported the intervention
because it was aligned with practices with which the new examiner was already
familiar. The change was enabled by the abandonment of the existing collective
habitus and guidelines suggested by Smith Macklin (2007, p. 212), which may
also be helpful to other scholars in similar, if not identical, educational settings:

Creating situations where the group needs to develop interpretations of their


experiences (1); Structuring interactions so that these interpretations can be
tested, assessed, extended, refined, rejected, or revised for a specific purpose (2);
Providing tools (artefacts, symbols, and language) to facilitate the construction
of ideas and models (3); Using formative feedback and consensus-building to
develop and improve thinking (4) (Smith Macklin, 2007, p. 212).

Undertaking this clearly presupposes professional external support, mutual


trust and respect to degrees that cannot be expected to happen overnight. In the
fortunate event that these qualities do exist, successful interventions may set
examples for the dissemination of new practices.

Concluding remarks
Practices associated with assessment for learning have been widely embraced in
higher education while issues of concern related to this approach are often left
unattended. While administrative rules and regulations are provided by the
university centrally, in practical settings examiners are often left alone to deal
with issues of theoretical as well as practical nature in this area. Dealing with the
quest for grade integrity is just but one example. This study has demonstrated
some benefits of sharing own practices with and external expert, and the value
of structuring interactions in order for new practices to be tested and revised. In
this study, the impact of the external examiners was minimal, which supports
the notion of the teaching professor as the prime carrier of assessment criteria
and academic standards. The application of a rubric served as a useful frame of
reference for the graders to ensure shared understandings of selected content
areas, to harmonise expectations and reduce the risk of bias an error in assigning
grades. Such efforts are likely to be of great significance to new assessors, and
would help experienced examiners to become more reflective in their practice.

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156

Acknowledgements
Thanks to Professor Dag Myrhaug, NTNU, for letting the author reproduce
parts of his assessment rubric, as seen in Table 2.
Thanks also to Eirin Tangen Ostgaard for helping with the statistical analysis.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 157-171, January 2015

Creativity within the Academy:


A Subjective Academic Narrative
Dr Josie Arnold
Professor of Writing, Writing Discipline.
Swinburne University of Technology
Australia

Abstract. This paper practises a subjective academic narrative to tell my


scholarly story of creativity within the academy. In doing so, it considers
the self as data and refers to ego histoire as well as narrative discourse.
In considering the role of storytelling as creativity within the academy, I
also develop a sense of the importance of scholar-practitioners and of
practice as academic scholarship, identifying Enlightenment practices as
eurowestern. I survey the Cartesian binary and argue for laterality. As
the academy grows more at ease with including creative practicum
within its knowledge domain, many more PhD candidates are
undertaking their studies in the artefact and exegesis model. This paper
utilises my experience in founding and supervising this model within
Swinburne University of Technology to make a narrative that explores
how practicum- and theoretical reflections upon it- together bring
breadth and dynamism into scholarly discourse.

Keywords: Self as data; Ego Histoire; The subjective academic narrative;


Creativity within the academy; Scholarship as/and practicum

Introduction
Gregory Ulmer in his discussions of electracy or e-media literacy discusses a
scholarly methodology that he calls a mystory. Ulmer (1989) describe this as
producing a mystorical approach to thinking and research. Ulmers mystory
challenges and even erases claims to fact, empirical certainty and even
authenticity in writing. He claims that all writing is personal and also quite
mysterious (my story and mystery). Much scholarly work claims to be both
authentic and yet depersonalised. Ulmers work challenges this and shows all
academic texts to involve a more complex knitting together of the academic, the
personal narrative and the cultural positioning. Thus it both questions and
opens up new possibilities by such questioning of the academys Enlightenment
analytico-referential model of knowledge. In doing so, it is in accord with much
postmodernist discourse about oneself, ones culture and also the world itself as
a constructured text able to be deconstructed, read, critiqued and even read
against (Derrida 1978-1984; Barthes 1977).

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This is mystory of thinking about the opportunities presented by the creativity


and research nexus as potentially transformative for scholarship. This nexus
provides scholars with academic prisms that enable looking at the world in
novel ways, looking through different theoretical lenses and through other
narratives so as to develop new knowledge (Liu & Lazlo 2006). Ulmers personal
and mysterious model of academic writing opens up opportunities for
scholarship. Academics can speak gives in many models of voices that
illuminate knowledge as both personal and professional experiences. Such open
discourse models act not only to challenge the expectations of the
establishment/academy, but also to bring into knowledge structures a richer
understanding of the academic discussion and its relevance to the lived
experience. It also acts to bridge the negative aspects of the
qualitative/quantitative binary (Mello 2002). It may then be seen that when
empirical knowledge structures are revealed as creative non-fictional
constructions, new possibilities may emerge both of knowledge and contributing
more fully to knowledge models and discourses. Elsewhere, I have called this
fictional truth (Arnold 1994) and the subjective academic narrative (Arnold
1994-2012).

Through their creativity, practitioner-academics make strong research


contributions. Relatively new qualitative methodologies based on personal
narrativity and practice led research (PLR) express a movement towards a
resolution of the tension between the academy and such knowledge construction
as occurs in the art world, creative industries, and through arts practitioners
(Makela 2007).

These practitioner academics come from such areas as film, multimedia, dance,
architecture, design, drama and writing. Yet clarifying practice is intellectual
knowledge is a challenge in an academic environment that finds it difficult to
align has not always seen practice and knowledge (Rinne & Sivenius 2007). In
PLR we reject the idea that only traditional models of scholarly discourse are
scholarly, and that the exegesis provides an academic element that acts to
legitimise creativity. Bringing creativity into the academy acts itself to legitimise
creative works and provides an acknowledgement of creativity as knowledge
and not just the object of study.

Creative industry itself is as an area of artistic exploration, and bringing it into


traditional research is challenging. In PLR, such challenges include the struggle
against reducing the artefact or the creative work by becoming over- explanatory
when analysing such a non-traditionally academic practicum from a traditional
scholarly position, and the setting up of academic priorities for creative works.
Today there are numerous models for undertaking PLR. One resolution of this
tension between theory and practice is PLR, a form of scholarship that honours
practicum within the academy. The most prevalent example of this is the artefact
and exegesis PhD model. For example, in writing today there are 26 Australian
Universities that offer a PhD in writing by artefact and exegesis As a result there
is an increasing pressure to understand such illustrate non-traditional
methodologies within a traditional framework (Maarit 2007).

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159

The subjective academic narrative


There is a growing sense of the subjective self as a singular aspect of knowledge
production. This has become known as the ego histoire in the study of history,
and this is a useful term within PLR methodology and in my own subjective
academic narrative. This term indicates that the scholar inevitably inserts her or
himself into the academic discourse. In exploring the application of the
qualitative methodology of the ego-histoire within the academy, this paper
relates it to the subjective academic narrative. In doing so it recognises the
contributions that life stories make to scholarly knowledge, and shows the
importance of recognising the academic work as coming from the
autobiographical status of the subjective self (Spry 2001; Holt 2003). Thus the
disinterested critical and analytical model that has grown from the
Enlightenment is challenged not to defeat it, but to expand it from its narrow
traditional and quite dominant trajectory within the academy (Arnold 2010-
2012).

This paper explores how the personal elements of autobiography are extended-
as within ego-histoire- to place the individual scholar within an academic
context and how such work facilitates the scholarly exploration of practicum. In
doing so it develops further insights into the importance and contribution of the
integration of hitherto peripheral or under-recognised forms of knowledge into
the academy.

Revealing, describing and using as data the relationship of self within scholarly
discourse has become more and more acceptable, and even sought-after, as
qualitative methodologies have entered the academy. This is so not only of the
humanities and the social sciences, but also of the traditional hard sciences,
even within the Enlightenment templates that many quantitative studies follow.

PLR within the artefact and exegesis PhD

The PhD process is made more complex for both candidates and supervisors
when PLR challenges Enlightenment empiricist research models (Denholm &
Evans 2007). In my experience, such PLR supervision has its own particular
trajectory that calls for particular interactions over the course of the PhD project.
There is an upward curve over the first year of candidacy when the supervisor
acts as a helper. Such an interaction between supervisor, candidate and the
project draws on a working diary, to result in the first rough draft of the artefact.
At this time the guidelines for the exegesis drawing are been developed and a
working bibliography established. Readings for this come from the writers own
insights into and reflections about the creative work, other exemplars from
writers work and reflections and, most importantly, from current academic
discussions about issues raised.

As the candidate takes more and more responsibility for researching the
academic dimensions of the exegesis and their relationship to their practice, this
trajectory flattens. This is both a difficult time for the supervisor who must
become more hands-off whilst still interacting with the project and candidate.
The supervisor enables the student to begin to find their scholarly voice and to

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160

utilise their reflections upon their creative process to enter into academic
discourse (Nelson 2004).

After writing the artefact and reflecting upon it in a working journal, working on
the exegesis itself becomes appropriate and possible. By following threads
revealed through reflection upon the artefact, the exegesis can be developed by
the practitioner. The exegesis, then, becomes a more scholarly voice that still
has strong elements of creativity and re-invention through narrativity. It is
complementary to the artefact and lies alongside it as together the PLR dialogue
offers new ways of clarifying the project and situating it more clearly within
current academic discourse, showing how such creativity is both new and
significant as a contribution to scholarship. By drawing together these 2
complementary elements of PLR, methodology is developed about the artefact
and the theoretical aspects of the project in the exegesis. It is, then, a space in
which the candidates practices are shown as seeking definition and
understanding rather than being constrained by a given model. PLR enriches the
academy through experimentation within a given genre of work and through
learning from this practice what theoretical models are appropriate for the
development of the scholarly observational and reflective voice. Thus, PLR
brings to the academy creativity in both elements of the artefact and exegesis
PhD.

Addressing the examiners is the final high-point of supervision and follows the
period in which we as supervisors become quasi-examiners. The Indian cultural
theorist Gayatri Spivak words provide guidance here: leaders read the world in
terms of rationality and averages, as if it were a textbook. The world actually writes itself
with the many-leveled, unfixable intricacy and openness of a work of literature
(Spivak,1988)

University Practices and Qualitative Research.

A foundational aspect of the challenge to Ethics Committees for artefact and


exegesis PhDs is expressed by considering Barbara Myerhoffs statement:
thinking with my viscera, feeling with my brain (1992). A number of
exegetical PhDs act to develop artefacts that are personal insights, and narratives
that bring forward scholarly opinions. Such artefacts are the data for the
exegetical component of the PhD (Arnold 2005.) These often include identifiable
photographs and refer to lived experiences that contribute to the richness of
stories and to the new and significant contribution to knowledge of the PhD by
exegesis. (Bochner & Ellis 2003). This storytelling must inevitably involve
references to other people involved in the storytellers lives. Where these are
direct quotations it is appropriate that clearances should be sought and/or
pseudonyms used. In other cases, for example observed family histories from a
personal perspective, pseudonyms are inappropriate and/or unsustainable. In
most cases, however, the stories involve PhD candidates retelling their own
perspectives of people involved in their lives. These are personal opinions, yet
still need a clearance, as there are significant ethical questions inherent in
writing ones own story as qualitative research.

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161

An intrinsic question has arisen in the postmodernist moment about the


ownership and the telling of ones own story. This is embedded in the proposal
that all discourse is a created narrative that is personal and subjective. Yet a gap
still exists between real methodology and other. In this mystorical paper, I am
proposing that important qualitative research methodology is situated within
postmodernist theories of discourse that show it to be fragmented, personal and
non-replicable (Smythe & Maurray 2004).

My interest in such alternative research methodologies arose initially in my own


PhD where I discuss postmodernist textuality (Arnold 1994). From this arose my
work of entering into such academic discussion of the personal in the scholarly
through reading and responding to significant academic works and
commentaries (e.g Barthes 1977, Derrida 1978, 80, 82,84; Cixous 1991; Eagleton
1989; Norris1985). I became (and remain) engaged in revealing in scholarly
discourse in all areas of knowledge production the acknowledgement of the
personal being an inevitable and even central part of research. This enables an
enrichment, a deepening and a broadening of the dominant Enlightenment
model of analysis of a given research question that dominates the scholarly
mileau on which much university research is modelled. It demonstrated that all
research can be seen to be a narrative or a story told by particular researchers
within a particular research culture and hence following or promulgating a
particular Enlightenment based research methodology.

Such a model of academic discourse as Gregory Ulmers (1989) mystorical


approach involves a recognition that there is no singular reading available for
any text up the text: there is no one way to understand its content. This
challenge to an authoritative reading and/or discourse shows the frail nature of
knowledge itself. This brings forward many possibilities for scholars. Academic
writing can be undertaken as being dynamic and ever-shifting. It is quite
galvanising to be involved in academic debate that is explorative rather than
aiming to be definitive. Like all forms of written discourse, scholarly writing is
aware of its own frailty as an expression of ideas, opinion and data arising from
the self as well as from the project. Thus it respects multiple ways of knowing,
and brings the persona of the scholar forward as an integral aspect of data
production.

Rather than espousing a form of mere relativism, postmodernist theories and


practices of scholarly textuality and discourse show us that Enlightenment
models of linear and analytico-referential knowledge need no longer dominate
scholarship. They are able to be embedded in a more lateral postmodernist
discourse model that acknowledges the frailty of the author as god. This is
discussed by John Caputo (1987) as a dispersal of certainties and by Ulmer as a
mystory; others call it a pastiche. This debate flourishes as it addresses the
limitations of the Cartesian binary when its applied to the Arts and Social
Sciences.

The established the quantitative model espoused by the natural sciences has
arisen based upon the Cartesian binary of Cogito ergo sum: I think, therefore I

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162

am, and it has produced many wonderful advances in the natural sciences.
Unfortunately, this influential and productive scientific model has become the
qualitative vs. quantitative debate. In many areas of scholarship, then, the
quantitative has been valued over the qualitative. Nevertheless, there has been
an increasing use and acceptance, following the postmodernist dispersal of
paradigms, of alternative ways of knowing. These bring together many ways of
thinking, enquiring, researching, theorising and practicing scholarship (Midgely
2004; Gallop 2002; Deleuze and Guattari 1981).

Cartesian-based norms become a dominant methodological modality in the


academy. Mary Midgely ascribes this to our being seduced in our research
models through the seeming simplicity of Enlightenment models (2004:5). She
asserts, however, that: science, which has its own magnificent work to do, does
not need to rush in and take over extraneous kinds of questions (historical,
logical, ethical, linguistic or the like) (2004:6). Ulmer is far more critical as he
sees such knowledge models as producing for the academy a collective
blindness. The Enlightenment paradigms and norms have dominated
scholarship and, moreover, have not solved the dilemmas of being human in this
world. He asks: How do we account for the persistence of error in our lifeworld
even after centuries of adopting scientific method as the dominant mode of
collective reason? (1999-2000:15). Ulmer playfully expresses ideas through
producing neologisms so that he can express himself more freely and more
freshly. One that challenges traditional is the emplyrical. Such a new
knowledge model combines the empirical with the lyrical so that data
production is both personal and poetic and scholarly and orderly. This will
enable us to to grasp holistically the true condition of our problematic world.
(1999-2000:19).

This can be seen in the work of anthropologist Barbara Myerhoff who realised
that the scientist inevitably inserted themselves personally in any project:
I felt more of my reactions being used, wholistically, the way we are taught to
study societies. I was thinking with my viscera, feeling with my brain, learning
from all my history and hunches and senses..I could never imagine trusting
my own or anyone else's work as fully again without some signposts as to how
the interpretations were arrived at and how the anthropologist felt while doing
so (1992:294-5). Acknowledging both the visceral and intellectual aspects of her
knowledge production. Myerhoffs work accords with Ulmers mystory and the
subjective nature of academic knowledge that I espouse.

It has been a significant achievement in the academy to accept into PhD


credentialing the artefact and exegesis model of creative and academic research.
Bringing together what has been separated as a binary opposition has many
advantages such as acknowledging and utilising theory and practice as
complementary ways of knowing within the academy; encouraging the self-
reflexive nature of all research and drawing practice into academic and
intellectual preserves for academics and artists. In doing so, it challenges the
insular eurowestern ways of knowing that underpin traditional academic
knowledge models, thus enabling a new dynamism to enter the academy

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163

through the scholarly realisation that all research is a narrative based upon the
self as data (Riley & Hawe 2004).

There continues to be a lively discussion about practice led/based research or


studio research or any practicum that enters the research domain. I utilise PLR
as an umbrella term to describe/hold this qualitative methodology that I call a
dynamic way to knowledge (2007). Yet such subjective academic narratives
appear to have to continually defend themselves from critics within as well as
from a broader academic research community that has a great deal of difficulty
in acknowledging the place of practicum within the academy. The Australian
Association of Writing Programs (AAWP) provides a good example of this
tension. On the one hand, it has been a fundamental supporter of PLR in its
various iterations and modes. On the other, it appears to be as unsure of this in
its 2012 special edition on PLR as it was with its germinal publication in 2002
(Brooke & Magee 2012).

One of the tensions that is central to the artefact and exegesis model of the PhD
is the freedom from a regulatory form that enables not only the artefact but also
the exegesis to display knowledge in modes other than the traditional
Enlightenment based PhD model. Each artefact is by its own genre quite
singular: there is no central research question being addressed. What is being
addressed is increasing scholarship through reflections upon ones practice,
creative input, choice of genre etc. Supervising such a project is exciting as there
is always a dynamic activity being undertaken by the candidate in developing
the artefact (Arnold 2012).

As each artefact differs from any given formulae or research question, so each
reflective working journal identifies the contribution to academic knowledge
that self as data can contribute. Elsewhere, I have shown how the journal entries
provide issues for the exegesis and illuminate the process of PLR (Arnold 2005).
Thus each exegesis develops a sense of the authorial voice that complements the
practicum artefact by recording the intellectual journey made and by placing it
within current academic discourse.

So it is that there is great difficulty in making pronouncements about how the


exegesis might be written. No one research methodology should be brought to
bear as a model: there is space within the academy for variation. Underpinning
this assertion sits my belief that all knowledge production is personal and
subject to the cultural impacts upon the researcher even as it enters into the
privileged academic discourse about the matter, it makes a story albeit one told
within that scholarly/creative discourse. Discussing PLR lends itself readily to
comparisons and the use of metaphors, for they provide new ways of thinking
through new connections and analogies. In doing so, they provide an
important way of using language to explain abstract ideas or to find indirect but
powerful ways of conveying feelings (Cameron & Maslen 2010. Intro).

As always, a metaphorical example clarified for me the challenge to linear


academic discourse dominated by Enlightenment and Eurowestern (Achebe

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164

2009; Spivak 2004) values that exemplifies much academic discussion and
debate. My own subjective academic narrative is founded in postmodernism and
feminism (Arnold 1995 ) two words often used to describe a binary but that I
show as having complementary elements. In this paper, my chosen metaphor
refers to architecture, where one may well have thought that building was
within strict parameters. This drawing together of different structural elements
is today practised in the post-postmodernist architecture of parametrics. Enabled
by electronic programs and new apps that permit architectural patterns to be
challenged, parametrics shows that even the solid buildings are a narrative
expression of the subjective self of the designing and supervising architect. I
would compare this to poetics, especially feminist poetics that give me deeper
personal and academic insights into non-linear thinking and practice that lie
within my appellation the subjective academic narrative. Such performative
architecture in the words of Salisu Abubakar and Mukhtar Mahommed Halilu
is giving the architect new controls over his designs and restoring the
architect back to his pedestal as master builder. In other words, they are
drawing together theory and practice into parametric worlds that offer new
and dynamic ways of enacting space and time in buildings. Mahesh Senegala
describes how everything in the universe is mobile and now in architecture the
static building is able to be replaced by a kinetic one: He calls upon the
rhizomatic in the work of Gilles Deleuze to demonstrate that instead of working
within a dualistic and outmoded framework of space and time (or timeless
space), the new architectures altogether dump that framework this is because
the world is now a colloidal network that can be experienced with
simultaneity (45). Particularly appealing to me in this context is his assertion
that time-like architectures now present time as a non-linear, fragmented, non-
geographical tapestry of spatially distant but temporarily adjacent spaces,
surfaces, information and global connections (45).

The poetic, the rhizomatic, the narrative discourse, are affecting knowledge
debates and research activities in a manner that invites theory and practice to
enact itself as a singular, personal story that interfaces with the academic in the
carefree yet dynamic growth patterns of rhizomatic grass that in architecture
Senegala describes as a colloidal network. These I describe in textuality and
discourse as a subjective academic narrative such as this paper displays. One
purpose of such academic discussions as this is to continue developing insights
into the ways in which practice and theory can be drawn together within the
academy by such research activities as PB/LR.

Theory and practice as complementary ways of knowing within the academy.

There has long been an uneasy relationship between these 2 aspects of human
endeavour within an academy formed and informed by the Enlightenment.
Theory has gained precedence over practice as it is seen as not subject to the
vagaries of the individual but as meeting scientific requirements of proof. The
scientific model is simple and has been very successful: there is a proposition;
this is studied under strict guidelines that make it able to be evaluated by peers
& then replicated. In Cartesian terms, the doubt has been followed until it is
resolved. This empiricist view of knowledge is positivist and leads to an

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165

unfounded belief in a natural order of things. It thus leads to a


knowledge/power regime that does not recognise the dynamism offered to
knowledge constructs by destabilisation brought about by transgression and
diversity and leading to transformation.

Yet the broader acceptance of multiplicity means that speculative guidelines are
appropriate for all research activities. As I have shown, today, even architecture
faces a radical reshuffling of a number of its principal underpinnings such as
context, place, orientation, boundary, space, adjacency, contiguity, connectivity
and materiality (Senegaal 48). This strikes me as relevant to what Shane Strange
(2012) discusses as the radical gesture provided by creative research. Such
research is put forward by Strange (2012) as having multiple positive attributes
for the academy. These include not only meeting the demands of knowledge
production in new and dynamic ways that invigorate the academy, but also both
contributing to creative industries and at the same time acting potentially as a
means of the transcendence of capitalist social relations. Rather than discussing
creative research, then, as a means of introducing multiple ways of knowing into
often rather hidebound empirically based and/or judged academic structures,
Strange discusses PLR as offering new research opportunities that challenge
(and overcome?) orthodox research paradigms. As he argues, the theory that is
in the exegetical material does not justify the practice: the 2 are 1. A metaphor
for this is one-ness such as in the egg with its white and yoke, or, as Donald
Winnicott (1989) asserts, as is mother and baby. Investigating this one-ness,
Strange points out that research is not hampered by creativity: it is itself in all its
modes, a creative activity. This is an important point, as it takes practicum from
an exteriorised position within the academy to a central one in which an
inefficient binary ceases to exist. This position enables other cultural ways of
expressing knowledge and research to extend the eurowestern domination of
knowledge production within the academy.

The self-reflexive nature of all research challenges eurowestern knowledge


paradigms. It is possible to discuss all research as being a subjective narrative
within the academy rather than an objective search for proof of givens. Strange
has an interesting take on this: that science is based upon the objectivising
process of fracturing subject from object and of reifying human activity (Strange
2012:7). That is, creativity is not a separate human activity but a central human
practice, of purposeful activity (8). Thus research and creativity are brought
together and the artist-academic (Webb 2012: 2) appellation is true of all
research scholars.

In PLR, a creative practice leads to and relates closely to the exegesis. The
practice explores the practicum and in reflecting upon it enables issues to come
forward that lead to an intellectual and scholarly journey that continues it rather
than validating it for the academy. Exploring self as data in an autoethnographic
study of the creative project applies a qualitative research method that relates
autobiographical personal experiences, analysing and interpreting the self as
data. Whilst its beginnings can be trace to anthropologists who immersed
themselves in their own data, it is now a metaphor for much self-reflexive

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166

scholarship. Stemming from the field of anthropology, autoethnography shares


the storytelling feature with other genres of self-narrative, but transcends mere
narration of self to engage in cultural analysis and interpretation (Chang 2008:
43).

Drawing practice into academic and intellectual preserves for academics and
artists and other practitioners

Praxis is a central aspect of bringing together the practicum itself with well-
established academic ways of knowing. Such praxis honours both the academic
credentialing structure and the practice itself and draws the 2 together as having
equal measures of importance within the academy. In doing so it adds
dynamism to the academy (Arnold 2007) and enriches practice with self-
reflexive observations that review the literature and add to the current
privileged academic discourse about ways of knowing. It also acts to challenge
the insular eurowestern ways of knowing that underpin traditional academic
knowledge models.

In addressing the idea that the academy is an Enlightenment utopia, Gayatri


Chakravorty Spivak agrees that a white mythology of reason makes for a
subordinate culture whilst arguing that this involves all rural poor as
subaltern or removed from lines of social mobility (2004:531). In education,
she recommends reading literature because a training in literary reading is a
training to learn from the singular and the unverifiable (532). Spivak describes
the non-western modes of knowing and even of being as subaltern and alienated
by, as well as distanced from, the postmodernist discourse that underpins the
dominant western social and cultural landscape that informs the academy. She
states that: It is impossible for contemporary French intellectuals to imagine the
kind of Power and Desire that would inhabit the unnamed subject of the Other
of Europe (Spivak 2002:265). This exclusion of non-Europeans is exacerbated by
the assumptions underpinning such colonialism that continue to exist both
within the colonised and colonising society and that are shown too often and too
certainly as norms within the privileged discourse of the academy.

In his reflections upon his Igbo boyhood lived less as a Nigerian than as a
British-protected child, Chinua Achebe reveals the depth of the million
differences-some little, others quite big-between the Nigerian culture into which
I was born, and the domineering Western-style that infiltrated and then invaded
it (2009:68); nor is this over. He describes in details his discovery that his 4 year
old daughter is being taught reading from a book that valorises a white boy and
shows the problems of a black boy dominated by superstition. Achebe describes
these books as poison (2009:71). Achebe is very aware of eurowestern
influences that linger still in the postcolonial era: this, he sees, as having given
Africa a tarnished name in which Africa has come to occupy in the
European psychological disposition the farthest point of otherness from
Europe. Much of this he ascribes to sensationalist literature that in its own way
supported the commercialisation of Africans as export materials in the slave
trade. However, even more confronting is his assertion that Joseph Conrad in a
serious and permanent piece of literature in The Heart of Darkness has

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167

delivered a coup de grace to the African: Were these creatures really human?
(81). Achebe says there is a strong belief from this (and preceding narratives)
that has developed a tradition that has invented an Africa where nothing good
happens or ever happened, an Africa that waits for Europeans to come and to
straighten it up (85). Arising from this is the concept that Africans always have
a heart of darkness as well as dwelling within it so that a highly educated
African might be shown sloughing off his veneer of civilisation along with his
Oxford blazer when the tom-tom begins to beat (88). Africa then is always the
other of Europe and always holds a subordinate and suspect position vis a vis its
culture.

The eurowestern enculturisation of Achebe (and his daughter) is recorded


throughout his reflections upon his life as well as in his fictional narratives. They
indicate that the ways of knowing that are available in African culture are
unaccepted and unacceptable in the academy. Nor is this confined to academic
practices: Africa has been riddled with opposing ideologies generated from the
cold war in Europe which encouraged the emergence of all kind of evil rulers
able to count on limitless supplies of military hardware form their overseas
patrons, no matter how atrociously they ruled their peoples (2009:93). The
collapse of the cold war, says Achebe, has resulted in war, genocide, military
and civilian dictatorships, corruption, collapsed economies, poverty, disease and
every ill attendant upon political and social chaos!...evil thrives best in quiet,
untidy corners (93). Underneath this is Achebes insight that Race is no longer a
visible presence in the boardroom. But may lie, unseen, in our subconscious
(95). If Western imperialism is to be addressed about this cultural bondage then
the academy has an important part to play.

Showing the encultured and narrow nature of eurowestern academic patterns


of knowing

The quantitative ways of knowing that came to the academy from the
Enlightenment reasoning and subsequently dominated academic methodologies
are very successful in their application within science. Mary Midgley says that
their success should be acknowledged and respected but not built into a singular
model for the social sciences against which other ways of knowing are evaluated
within the academy. The academy is flexible enough to be enriched by multiple
ways of knowing that come to it from non eurowestern academic patterns of
knowing.

This is currently an on-going struggle as eurowestern cultural colonialism has


not been able to be fully rejected in the struggle for independence of ex-colonies.
The challenge for postcolonial knowledge structures to develop and expand
within the academy is on-going. Too often multi-perspectivism is derided as
mere relativism yet many perspectives exist beyond eurowestern certainties. As
Achebe indicates precolonial nations did not exist. He takes us into his Igbo
peoples postcolonial nation of Nigeria to show that:

...in precolonial times was not quite like any nation most people
are familiar with. It did not have the apparatus of centralised

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168

government but a conglomeration of hundreds of independent


towns and villages each of which shared the running of its affairs
among its menfolk according to title, age, occupation, etc; and its
womenfolk who had domestic responsibilities, as well as the
management of four-day and eight-day markets that bound the
entire region and its neighbours in a network of daily exchange of
goods and news, from far and near (2000:6).

The colonisers absolute narrative (2000:24) changed that, and Africa as the
heart of darkness, a place that harboured the grotesque imagery of the African
mind (Achebe 2000: 68) began. The subaltern is the Wests constructed culture
of other (Abuker & Halilu 2009:3). The language of Western discourse is seen as
gendered by Luce Irigary (1985), but for non-europeans, it is also a way of
reproducing knowledge patterns that are in sympathy with such eurowestern
models. This indicates the encultured nature of knowledge within the
eurowestern based academy that focusses upon a linear discourse based on
scientific modes or evaluated against them and too often found wanting.

Creative Industries: Creative scholarship

Enabling a new dynamism to enter the academy through stories bridges


multiple gaps. For example, Donald Winnicott notes that: for the purpose of
statistical inquiry simplifications have to be made (Winnicott 1989:424). His
reflections are based upon the consideration that something new and valuable
always turns up when old things are stated in a new way (Winnicott 1989:427).
This adds scholarly and practicum knowledge to the realisation that all research
is a narrative based upon the self as data.

Creativity as scholarship provides a great deal to the academy. Another example


arises from a study by Ann Markusen et al (2008) that emphasises the economic
importance of what they call the creative economy in developing creative cities
and cultural industries (2008:24). They note that in the USA as elsewhere, many
artists and creative workers are self-employed (33). This makes it difficult to
categorize creative industry members and furthermore, all efforts to operationalize
the cultural economy are forced to work with industrial and occupational categories
that have been many decades in the making (36). Today the term creative
industries has become commonplace within the academy as well as more generally
within society. This has led to the establishment of what is broadly called Creative
Industries Groups in many universities. Their goal is to show how many of our
graduates from a variety of courses, but most particularly from practice-based
courses, are employed in areas that are not always seen as business oriented. This
group might contain design, visual arts, new media, creative writing, dance, theatre
arts, circus arts and general writing undergraduate and postgraduate courses that
lead to graduate employment in many areas.

Throughout our Eurowestern economic, cultural and social fabric, creativity can
be shown to be an important contributor to both the economy and the personal
and cultural well-being. Indeed, as in the USA, Creative Industries contribute

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169

significantly to Australias economy. For example, The Department of State and


Regional development report NSW Creative Industry: Economic Fundamentals
2008 defines creative industries rather traditionally as:
advertising; architecture; design; visual arts; music; performing arts; publishing;
film; television; radio electronic games by their own scope rather than including
downstream stagessuch as manufacturing, wholesale, distribution, retailing
and second hand sales (2008:7).

The report goes on to state that:


The creative industry is a significant component of NSWs economy, employing
over 5 per cent of the workforce (of 150,000) Further, over the 10 years to 2006,
employment in the creative industry increased by 28 per cent, against 13.5 per
cent for all industries (2008:8).

It adds a further note that : creative industry employment growth across


Australia was marginally higher than for NSW (2008:10). So, creative
industries employ large sections of the Australian community quite directly.
The above report quotes the OECD estimates of cultural/creative contributions
in Australia as 3.1% of the GDP, comparable with Canada at 3.5%; France at
2.8%; and the U.S .A. at 3.3% but outflanked by the UK at 5.8%. (2008:8). Such
industries also engage informally and more indirectly many creative artists.

Conclusion

The strong narrative that is central to much eurowestern knowledge


construction began with Rene Descartes. The Cartesian emphasis upon reason
and the proposition that thinking leads us to identify reality is basic to Rene
Descartes main and most influential principle: that intellect is separate from the
imagination, the senses and memory. This Cartesian binary has dominated
knowledge in the academy as it proposes that all knowledge should arise from
the mind: cogito ergo sum. I think, therefore I am. Such critical, intellectual and
scholarly thinking leads us to doubt and resolving such doubts takes our
rational thinking to a point where the doubt is replaced by absolute certainty.
This thinking was ratified by Enlightenment influences, and still underpins
much of how we think of scholarship and knowledge. This narrative has come
under strong challenges from the mid 20th century with its development of
feminism, postmodernism and narrative discourses.

As she discusses of the need to rethink and then redress the Cartesian binary,
Midgely contends that all reasoning is powered by feeling and all feeling has
some reasoning as its skeleton. Thought and reasoning are not opponents, any
more than shape and size ( 2004:9). In accepting that co-existence, scholars can
practise outside the givens and norms that traditional research structures have
declared as logical and reasonable frameworks.

This has led increasingly to the insertion of life stories into academic narratives
and autobiographical and cultural references. Like the self, history is evanescent
and subject to cultural and personal interpretations. Ego histoire is a concept
clarified by Pierre Noris in the 1980s of the academic inserting themselves into

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170

historical data indicates the movement of boundaries between the public and the
private within scholarship itself (Popkins 2007). The ego histoire approach to
the autobiographical act links our notions about processes of self-inscription to
our understanding of the ways historical and cultural knowledge and discourse
are produced (Davis 2001). As history claims to verify a lived cultural reality,
the acceptance of the subjective self within the study indicates a willingness to
develop different ways of viewing scholarly research. The Enlightenment
developed the eurowestern view of the rational as the basis of scholarship. In
challenging this template, scholarship tolerates ambiguity rather than acts to
resolve it. These involve the recognition of a certain singular scholarly narrative
as being creative non-fiction. Rather than align itself within the concept of
perspectivity, then, such research demonstrates its own style of productivity
through singular scholarly subjective academic narratives.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 172-190, January 2015

A Study on the Impact of ICT on Collaborative


Learning Processes in Libyan Higher Education

Thuraya Kenan, Abdussalam Elzawi, Crinela Pislaru and Maysoun Restoum


School of Computing & Engineering, University of Huddersfield
Huddersfield, England

Abstract. This paper presents the conclusions of a study on the impact


of ICT on collaborative learning processes in Libyan Higher Education
(LHE). The quantitative analysis of the answers to a questionnaire
(completed by Libyan full-time lecturers at the universities of Tripoli,
Garyounis, Gharian and Ezawia) shows the necessity to design and
develop more classroom activities and interactive online applications,
enabling the development of team-building skills required by
employers. The influence of limited Internet bandwidths in Libya on
collaborative learning processes in HE is then presented. It is obvious
that HE institutions need to develop proactive strategies that envisage
and anticipate learners future learning needs and requirements in this
transition period of moving towards an increasingly digitalized,
networked and knowledge-based society. The paper also contains the
analysis of a SWOT model considering the factors that must be
considered in relation to collaborative learning within the university
teaching process, such as intelligent multimedia, Internet technologies,
and knowledge management. The employment of modern technology
will enable the development of innovative and inspiring collaborative
learning environments where lecturers are expert designers of
intellectual experiences for students, who become active participants to
the learning processes.

Keywords: ICT; Internet Bandwidth Constraints; Collaborative


Learning; E-learning; SWOT analysis.

Introduction:
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is now considered an
integral part of peoples whole lifestyle. It has been adopted in the field of
Higher Education Institutes (HEIs). Initially, a number of key challenges have
faced educational organisers; decision makers and management teams as a
result of adopting ICT and computer networks in the educational environment.
These challenges are related to the ability to identify a suitable long-term
strategic visualisation. The identification of a strategic visualisation can be
effectively delivered by embracing better strategic management techniques,

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173

which can assist the HEIs in balancing the stresses of change, continuousness,
stability and resources. Libyan higher education institutions (LHEIs) need to
make more efforts to increase the use of ICT in teaching and learning processes.

With an increase in the number of students enrolling in colleges, compared with


a decline in the number of qualified teachers, and their ICT experiences and the
increasing demand for accountability, and anxieties about the social and
economic position of higher education, LHEIs have forced employment for
successful, self-sustaining client oriented providers of education in a rapidly
changing borderless education world (Till, 2003). The rapid progression of ICT
has also reacted to different approaches to knowledge creation, management,
and delivery methods. LHEIs have remained behind other areas in embracing
improvement and ICT. On the other hand, they do not have clear ideas about
ICTs role in improving the learning process to involve all stakeholders and
organizational structures. Rhema& Miliszewska (2012).

Limited connections have been found between the provision of ICT and the
higher education improvement process in Libya. ICT tools were separate from
the improvement process, except for departments such as electrical engineering
and computer science that facilitate additional technological tools. Interestingly,
in the mid-1990s LHEIs started implementing the improvement process; this
proceeded without changes in academic work practices. Recently, it has become
apparent that higher education improvement cannot take place without paying
attention to ICT, specifically those applications that affect education
management and administration, and support of teaching and learning. (Kenan
et al., 2013). The future of LHEIs and universities in Libya should not only be
imagined or perceived; it should be executed and implemented. Therefore, there
is a need to adopt a suitable strategic architecture or a planning design to
perceive the future of these HEIs, as well as to increase competitive advantage in
the changed educational situation. This trend is dependent on the presence of
larger leadership, complex communications, and teamwork. Thus, those HEIs
which acquire and use new technical knowledge can increase and improve
competitiveness and formulate an effective strategy. Critically, the LHEIs seek to
follow the international standard and compete with other countries HEIs. This
goal is an important mission by the LHEIs in moving toward a knowledge
society in which ICT is considered a prerequisite.

E-learning implementation in LHEIs:


LHEIs are still facing a critical absence of skilled specialists who recognize basic
and progressive programming for planning, designing, and implementing
branched information systems and managing huge scale e-learning projects. The

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174

high turnover rate of skilled technical staff is another problem in the LHEIs,
which have seen continuous deterioration in their ability to recompense salaries,
which were previously competitive with the private companies (Artemi & Aji,
2009). The LHEIs have found it difficult to motivate the technicians to assist
them in expanding and building wide networks, and developing and managing
administrative systems, research, the curriculums of the courses and the
applications. A number of LHEIs have worked hard to solve this problem by
launching wide-ranging and continuing professional development programmes
for their staff and utilizing their computer science and electrical, network, and
computer engineering departments.
There are also a number of challenges affecting Libyan students in the learning
process, which can be improved through using ICT and intelligent multimedia,
which includes text, sound, animations, colourful and moving images. This can
increase the educational benefits for students, as well as developing their skills
(Rhema& Miliszewska, 2013). The teaching load in Libyan universities is notably
heavy; on average, the number of teaching hours for academic staff is 24
hours/week and sometimes more. Libyan universities have not yet established a
scientific research tradition (Artemi & Ajit, 2009); (Lishan, 2003). Hence, even
Professors deem that it is difficult to find time for research activity and
educational development. (Porter & Yegin, 2006). Interestingly, a number of
academic staff do undertake extra activities such as writing and publishing, for
example: textbooks, to increase their income (Kenan et al., 2011); Elzawi et Al.,
(2012) and Rhema& Miliszewska (2010).
Kenan wrote in 2011, the LHEIs have taken collaborative learning into
consideration as a valid mode for educational processes. As a result, the Libyan
Business Executive Survey/ Global Competitiveness Report (LBES/GCR) has
ranked Libya to be 97th out of 111 countries in university/industry research
collaboration. The majority of the LHEIs have not appointed a staff member with
formal qualifications in either distance learning or E-learning (Twatti, 2006).

In fact, the Ministry of Libyan Higher Education, which is the legislative body
responsible for endorsing degrees from foreign universities, does not endorse a
degree obtained through either distance learning or E-learning. Without the
approval of the Ministry, students cannot gain any advantage in the workplace
from their degrees (Elzawi & Wade; 2012). This is of great significance and could
be developed.

Investigation of the technological contexts for e-learning


implementation:
Teaching and learning are the cornerstones of most LHEIs. However,
maintaining the quality of such processes is a continuous challenge Kenan et al.,

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175

(2011). The main teaching methods used by LHEIs are traditional for three main
reasons:
- The annual increase in the number of students enrolled.
- Restrictions on financial resources and staff training.
- The administration system.
In spite of the known weaknesses of such an approach, traditional teaching has
provided teachers with the means to deliver the required course materials to an
ever-increasing number of students and provide those students with a clear-cut
minimum of materials such that they can easily memorise them (Sarayrah, 2003).
Therefore, generally HE students do not contribute to the learning process in the
classrooms. They are only listening and taking notes. Furthermore, the use of
new technology in LHEIs (such as computers and multimedia in general) is way
behind international best practice. But to involve students effectively in the
learning processes, the HEI should adopt an "active learning" approach
whereby the students use resources outside classrooms, in libraries, the Internet,
interviews or focus groups, to obtain information approach (Bhatti, et al., (2005).
There are relationships between students, academics, administrators and
technical staff, which are confirmed through observations, experiences; many
survey results and other studies. These have represented many attempts to
analyse IT implementation by using the SWOT model in different LHEIs since
2003 (Othman et al., 2013).
Also, Kenan et al., in 2013 have presented the Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) as a model for a new IT strategy; other
factors that must also be considered in relation to collaborative learning within
the university teaching process. The SWOT analysis model shows that the
strategy is useful for determining methods to achieve successful implementation
of IT in the LHEIs by including intelligent multimedia and Internet technologies.
(Artemi & Ajit; 2009).
This strategy aims to help decision-makers at departmental level to decide on
opportunities with respect to the experience as well as the perceptions of
instructors, students, administrators and technical staff about using web-based
instruction with the institution Kenan et al., 2013. Collaborative learning and IT
strategy can offer a framework for assessing the impact of all implementation
stages. The strategy should be appropriately flexible to accommodate changes
and developments in online learning products, services and technology. The
implementation stages in an official setting also need to include strategic
planning. (Keats, 2002).

The methodology:
This research was conducted using both a quantitative and a qualitative
approaches. The quantitative approach in order to collect statistical data for a
large group of participants that reflects their perspectives (Creswell, 2009); while
the qualitative approach in order to result about the duration of Internet usage;

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176

frequency of Internet usage and the place of Internet usage thought three
interviews and answering many questions. This paper will present the relevant
responses from participants of Department of Engineering School of Tripoli
University. A questionnaire was used to collect the quantitative data. It is
considered to be the most common instrument used in academic research
(Bryman, 1989).
The questionnaire was designed using an online package (Smart survey) to
avoid missing answers. This confirms that the Internet technologies work is
parallel with all education applications. Thus, the classroom activities and
interactive online applications enable the development of the team-building
skills required by employers.

The questions of the interview:


The responses from participants indicated that Internet usage was not common
among academics at Department of Engineering School of Tripoli University
(ES/TU). In other words, most of the participants mentioned that they did not
use the Internet as a communicational means to exchange information or
opinions with their students. Only two participants had previous experience in
using this technology, and that was only a short-term. For instance, one
mentioned that he had started using the Internet only one year previously, with
the purpose of communicating with his students when they were away from the
university. Specifically, he said that: I started using the Internet for contacting
students only two year back. The aim was mainly to contact students who studied away
from the university campus (ES/TU1).
Some academics realized the importance of online communications with
students and intended to use this means of contact in the future. I look forward to
being in touch with my undergraduate students in the virtual environment. However, I
havent implemented it yet (ES/TU2). On the other hand, some academics did not
seem to be very interested in using these tools for interacting online with their
students. Nevertheless, it turned out that they used the Internet as a
communicational means only, in order to contact colleagues, educational
institutions and other organizations for official communication. Actually, I am
not in contact with my students through the Internet. I use the Internet only to contact
my friends, colleagues (ES/TU3).
Finally, it seems that some participants did not want to start interacting online
with their students, as one of them stated: I do not use the Internet to communicate
with my students (ES/TU1).
However, Academics at DEL generally used the Internet in different places, such
as their own offices, the faculty computer laboratories and their homes. For
instance, one of the academics said: Sometimes, I use the Internet in the computer
lab at the Faculty of Engineering. However, some other times, I also use it at my home
(ES/TU1).

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About the frequency of Internet usage, the participants showed that academic
staff members at ES/TU used the Internet on a daily basis. And they did not
specify the frequency or length of Internet use for communicating with their
students. Their answers in this regard were general and vague. This indicated
the nature of their use fluctuated that based on their attitudes and needs.
Usually I spend around one- two hours daily on the Internet but in terms of searching
time I spend much longer (ES/TU3).

Sample and questionnaire:


This article aims to present the results of a questionnaire distributed to a sample
of 41 Libyan lecturers (17 Libyan lecturers work as full-time in different LHEIs,
plus 24 Libyan lecturers study in the UK to get their higher degree) who were
also full-time lecturers at the universities of Tripoli, Garyounis, Gharian and
Ezawia.

The results (Participants Profile):


These were taken into consideration as important aspects of data collection that
identify the characteristics of participants. Table 1 outlines the profiles of the
participants under investigation

Statistic Data Categories UK (%) Libya (%)


Age - 30 year 8.33% 5.88%
31 -35 16.67% 0.00%
36-45 29.17% 64.71%
46- 55 41.67% 23.53%
+ 55 year 4.17% 5.88%
Gender Male 37.50% 52.94%
Female 62.50% 47.06%
Qualification Higher National 0.00% 5.88%
Baccalaureate 10.53% 5.88%
Diploma 0.00% 5.88%
Master 42.11% 64.71%
M.Phil. 21.05% 5.88%
PhD 26.32% 11.76%
Teaching - 2 years 20.83% 17.65%
experience 2-5 45.83% 17.65%
6-8 4.17% 35.29%
9-11 4.17% 11.76%
12-15 4.17% 5.88%
16-20 8.33% 11.76%
+ 20 years 12.50% 0.00%
Faculties Science 12.50% 47.06%
Medicine 8.33% 5.88%
Arts 0.00% 0.00%
Engineering 25.00% 76.47%
Education 20.83% 11.76%
Languages 12.50% 5.88%
Business 29.17% 11.76%
Info. Tech. 25.00% 17.65%
Other 8.33% 5.88%

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Table 1: Participants Profile


Table 1 summarises participants profiles, comparing between Libyan lecturers
who studied in the UK, and others who worked full-time in Libyan universities.
The majority of the participants who studied in the UK (more than 40%)
belonged to a group aged (46-55), while the majority of those who worked in
Libya (approximately 65%) belonged to a group aged (36-45). Furthermore, the
majority of the participants based in the UK were female (more than 60%),
whereas there was no significant difference in gender between the participants
involved in Libyan universities. Furthermore, approximately (47%) of the
participants in the UK had M.Phil. and PhDs, while less than (20%) had the same
qualification in Libya? In addition, more than (45%) of the participants based in
the UK had (2-5) years of experience, while approximately (35%) of the
participants in Libya had 6-11 years experience. Finally, for the faculties, the
majority of the participants in the UK studied in the Business faculty, while the
majority of those in Libya worked in the Engineering faculty.

Teaching time:
The participants were asked to determine how many hours they spent weekly in
terms of teaching. See Figure 1.

45.00% UK Libya
40.00%
35.00%
30.00%
25.00%
20.00%
15.00%
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%
Less than 5 hours 5-10 hours 11-15 hours 16-20 hours more than 20 hours

Figure. Hours of teaching time per week

Figure 1 shows that Libyan tutors who worked in Libya spent more time
teaching than the Libyan tutors in the UK; approximately 40% of the participants
working in Libya spent between (11-15) hours per week in teaching, while the
percentage was less than 5% of the participants studied in the UK. In contrast,
more than (20%) of the participants studied in the UK spent between (16-20)
hours, while it was approximately (6%) for those who worked in Libya. That
reflects that the lecturers spent a long time teaching. The overloading of teaching
might affect the quality of teaching or might affect time available for research or
developing skills. This result confirms the findings of (Artemi & Ajit; 2009) and
(Porter & Yegin; 2006), which addressed how teaching overloading and long

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179

teaching hours in Libyan universities influences tutors in terms of decreasing


research activities and educational development.
Time spent on the Internet:
The participants were asked to determine the amount of time spent using the
Internet in general per day. See Figure 2.

80.00%
70.00%
UK Libya
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
Less than 2 hours 2-5 hours 6-9 hours More than 9 hours
[

Figure 2. Time spent using Internet per day

According to Figure 2, the time spent by the participants who worked in the UK
was more than the time spent by those participants who worked in Libyan
universities. The majority of the participants spent (2-5) hours daily using the
Internet. More than 70% of the participants working in Libya spent (2-5) hours
per day using the Internet, while more than 45% of the participants based in the
UK spent (6-9) hours per day. These results assert the findings of many studies
as Till in 2003; Bhatti, et al., (2005) and Elzawi & Wade (2012). The style of
education system in Libya, based on traditional ways of teaching, might affect
the participants usage of the Internet. That reveals that the quality and the
accessibility of Internet technology in the UK might be better that the Internet in
Libya, or that there might be a lack of skills.

The value of using Internet technologies and intelligent multimedia:


The participants were asked if they believed that using Internet technologies and
intelligent multimedia could add value to their lectures. See Figure 3.

70.00%
60.00% UK Libya

50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
Yes Maybe I don't know No

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180

Figure 3. Rating the value of using Internet technologies

As seen in Figure 3, the participants working in the UK were aware of the value
of the internet and intelligent multimedia more than those who worked in
Libyan universities; however, more than 50% of the participants in the UK and
Libya found that it was useful to adopt IT to enhance their lectures and support
the curricula; nobody indicated that it was not useful. That might demonstrate
their awareness in the educational process. This demonstrates that the lecturers
were interested in using IT applications to support their lectures, which agreed
with [Libyan Business Executive Survey] and Kenan et al., 2013, which showed
that LHEIs were aware of the importance of adopting ICT in the academic field.
That awareness might be reflected in the participants perspectives.

Time spent using technology in teaching:


The participants were asked to determine the amount of time spent weekly
using technology for teaching. See Figure 4.

60.00%

50.00%

40.00%

30.00% UK Libya

20.00%

10.00%

0.00%
Less than 2 hours 2-5 hours 6-9 hours more than 9 hours

Figure 4. Time spent using technology in teaching per week

According to Figure 4, of the majority of the participants worked in Libya,


approximately 52% spent (2-5) hours per week, while approximately 5% of them
spent (6-9) hours weekly. In contrast, more than 40% of the participants based in
the UK spent (2-5) hours weekly using the technology in teaching, whilst
approximately 9% used it for (6-9) hours per week. Thus, it appeared that the
time spent using technology for teaching per week was inadequate, comparing
this result with the time spent in teaching per week. This result confirms the
need to implement an active learning approach Bhatti, et al., (2005).

Benefits of e-learning implementation:

It was crucial to identify the benefits that would be obtained from implementing
e learning in LHE. See Figure 5.

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181

strongly agree

Libya

UK

Libya
disagree

UK

Libya
nutral

UK

Libya
agree

UK
strongly agree

Libya

UK

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

increasing teaching efficiency flexiblity curriculum development.

solving some educational problems motivating students obtaining IT skill

time management learning other languages

Figure 5. Benefits of e-learning implementation

As seen in Figure 5, the majority of participants agreed or strongly agreed that


implementing e learning in LHEIs would increase achievement and provide a
set of benefits. On the other hand, more than 5% of the participants strongly
disagreed that implementing e-learning in LHEIs would assist in solving some
educational problems, while approximately 4% of the participants based in the
UK strongly disagreed that e-learning would help in developing the curriculum,
motivating students, obtaining skills, managing time and learning other
languages. This reveals that the participants might be aware of the importance of
adopting e-learning systems. This result confirms the results of Kenan et al., 2013,
Kenan et al., (2011). Thus, implementing e learning in LHEIs is useful in terms of
enhancing the teaching and learning process.

Important elements of e-learning implementation:

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182

The participants were asked to select important elements that affect the
successful implementation of e learning. See Figure 6.

Figure 6. Important elements for successful e-learning implementation

Figure 6 shows that the most important element of e-learning implementation


was the development of ICT; this was agreed by more than 95% of the
participants working in Libya, and more than 75% of those who studied in the
UK. In contrast, activating e-courses was the least important element, with less
than 50% of both participants acknowledging it; this disagrees with the results of
Kenan et al., 2013, where implementing e learning required the development of
ICT tools for better achievement.

Barriers to e-learning implementation:


However, the participants were aware of the importance of applying e learning
in LHEIs; the participants faced a number of barriers. See Figure 7.

50.00%
UK Libya
40.00%

30.00%

20.00%

10.00%

0.00%
Technology Culture Mismanagement Other

Figure 7. Barriers to e learning implementation

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183

According to Figure 7, mismanagement barriers were the most significant


barriers confronting both sets of participants, with a response of approximately
40% by both of them. These barriers might be related to a lack of legislation, a
lack of education strategy, and policy rules. On the other hand, cultural issues
were less important barriers for the participants who worked in Libya
(approximately 15%), while they accounted for more than 20% for those based in
the UK. Cultural barriers may refer to the rejection of a change in the education
system, or it might be as a result of a lack of skills. Furthermore, approximately
5% of the participants working in Libya indicated other barriers that were about
security, cost and free time. There are numerical references to confirm this,
which are Rhema& Miliszewska (2013); Othman et al., (2013). and (Keats, 2002).
Adopting a SWOT analysis approach is useful in terms of identifying the main
barriers that faced the participants in terms of implementing e learning.

Satisfaction with the Internet speed on-campus:


Participants were asked to evaluate their satisfaction level with the Internet
speed operating on-campus. See Figure 8.

50.00%
45.00% UK Libya
40.00%
35.00%
30.00%
25.00%
20.00%
15.00%
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%
Strongly satisfied satisfied neutral unsatisfied Strongly
unsatisfied

Figure 8. Participants satisfaction with the Internet speed on campus


According to Figure 8, the majority of the participants working in Libya
(approximately 45%) were dissatisfied with the Internet speed provided on
campus, while approximately 10% of them were satisfied. In contrast,
approximately 20% of the participants in the UK were strongly dissatisfied,
whilst more than 30% of them were neutral. The dissatisfaction of the
participants working in Libya might because of a lack of Internet network,
disconnection or slow network. Critically, it was unexpected that the majority of
the participants studied in the UK would be neutral. That might reveal that they
do not consider the importance of Internet quality in enhancing the educational
process. The authority of the Ministry of the LHE can affect participants
dissatisfaction. Furthermore, all barriers and difficulties facing the participants
can be reflected in their satisfaction level, either negatively or positively.

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184

Cost of Off-campus Internet Access:


Finally, the participants were asked to identify whether Internet cost outside of
the campus was expensive. See Figure 9.

Figure 9. Cost of off-campus Internet access

In Figure 9, the majority of the UK participants (approximately 50%) were


neutral, in comparison with more than 25% of those who worked in Libya. That
might be because they used the Internet from their offices. On the other hand,
more than 30% of the participants working in Libya indicated that the cost of the
Internet off-campus was normal, while approximately 20% of them mentioned
that the cost was expensive. Hence, implementing e-learning and collaborative
learning can decrease the cost of access (Othman et al., 2013).

Libyan Internet bandwidth constraints:


Bandwidth in Libya suffers from a lack of ICT resources, mainly in the HEIs.
This is as a result of participating in the educational institutions and increasing
license costs for authorisation to connect Lishan; (2003). Most countries in Africa
do not have satisfactory international bandwidth. According to Jensen in 2012,
almost 60% of African countries have satisfactory bandwidth Lishan; (2003)
however, this percentage is less than the normal average of HEIs in developed
countries. Only six African countries have a reasonable bandwidth (Jensen,
2012); Libya still needs huge efforts to jump actively into a significant stage of
improving the performance of HEIs. Table 2 shows the distribution of outgoing
bandwidth in Africa.

African Outgoing Bandwidth Countries


Bandwidth %
(Mbits/sec)
Egypt, South Africa, Morocco 100500 6
Algeria, Senegal, Tunisia 50100 6
Botswana, Gabon, Kenya, Nigeria, Sudan, 1050 13

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185

Tanzania, Zimbabwe
Angola, Cameroon, Cte dIvoire, Libya, Mali, 5-10 15
Namibia, Uganda, Zambia
Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cape Verde, Central Less than 5 60
African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo, DR
Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-issau,
Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritania,
Mauritius, Mozambique, Niger, Rwanda, So
Tom & Principe, Seychelles, Sierra Leone,
Somalia, Swaziland, Togo
Table 2. The bandwidth in Africa (Jensen, 2012).

LHEIs try to override additional challenges that should be concurrently


addressed in order to find a suitable improvements policy aiming to address
access and high costs of bandwidth:
1. Cost of Megabits of connections is expensive. This affects the availability for
the majority of LHEIs.
2. Most LHEIs do not have policies regarding ways in which to optimize their
existing bandwidth and manage the circulation and usage.
3. The current infrastructure such as electricity, local intranet and the technical
teams skills, is still underlying. It is insufficient to provide high bandwidth
exhaustive applications.
4. There is a lack of suitable strategic will and district cooperation between the
LHEIs to profit from an economy of balanced or accumulated bandwidth.
5. Incomplete knowledge and limited information about appropriate
technologies (optical fibre, satellite types, other bandwidth tools) fit for
distinctive settings in the LHEIs.
It is obvious that the limited Internet bandwidth in Libya negatively affects the
effectiveness of collaborative learning processes. It is, therefore, necessary to
develop ICT strategies, which will contain solutions aiming to improve current
learning performance in the LHEIs.

The modern SWOT analysis for the ICT in the learning and teaching in
LHEIs:
The SWOT analysis is an essential step to analyse various factors before
implementing any solution to improve ICT in teaching or develop collaborative
learning at any institution. The success or failure of any collaborative learning
system initiative will be directly related to the quality of strategic thinking that
underpins it. It is thus important to have a collaborative learning strategy in
place before the starting in stage from the implementation process. See Table 3.
The collaborative learning initiative must be tied to the institutions core
business to ensure that the quality of the educational processes is enhanced
Kenan et al., 2013. SWOT analysis should help the decision makers at
departmental level to decide on opportunities with respect to choosing the

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186

appropriate policy issues for it, and the following factors should be considered:
improvement of learners knowledge, learning outcomes, efficiency of the
teaching and learning processes, and the reductions of costs.

Strength points Weakness points


1. Annual increase in student numbers 1. Lack of training courses for
2. The proliferation of digital technology, students, technical and academic
because the majority of people are using staff.
computers and social media channels. 2. Lack of technological support and
3. The need to eliminate the maintenance for the Lab tools and
administrative corruption aspects. computers.
4. Libya has a strategic geographical 3. Lack of online library catalogues in
location in Africa. They could use the LHEIs.
collaborative learning packages 4. Mismanagement.
developed by companies situated in the 5. Post-war chaos that pervades all
south of Libya. sectors of Libyan society.
Opportunity points Threat points
1. The government policy system that 1. Numerous barriers related to
looks to support the LHEIs has been collaborative learning processes
changed since 2011. stages.
2. Official recognition of education 2. Preference for using only
certificates of distance or collaborative traditional academic methods in
learning. education.
3. Create new business strategies to attract 3. Lack of support from the
students from other African countries. government.
4. Reduce the migration of skilled and 4. Increased migration of skilled and
intelligent people from Libya. intelligent people from Libya.
5. Create a competitive educational
environment with neighbouring
countries.

Table 3. SWOT analysis for the ICT in LHEIs.

Collaborative learning and the quality of Internet technology:


Collaborative learning has an essential impact on the development of higher
education. It has been practiced in various sectors, whether public or private,
and in education and business (Keats, 2002). However, collaborative learning
could be a constituent part of traditional learning, alongside e learning. It
encourages students to achieve their qualifications in higher education,
especially those who are located far away. It can also be low-cost and
timesaving for both lecturers and students (Othman et al., 2013).

There is a requirement to redesign the current curriculum in LHEIs in order to


find a more comprehensive method, and to adopt intelligent multimedia in the
current system. In the educational process, there is a need to place emphasis on
the basic concepts of acquiring information, providing feedback sessions on the

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187

information, and consider different information processing methods and


characteristics (Salmon, 2005).
Firstly, there is a need for students to acquire basic skills for finding information,
categorising it and broadcasting or publishing it (Othman et al., 2013). Internet
technology is used for improving these skills and obtaining the right perception
of the information revolution. The massive recruitments of students in terms of
gaining such technological understanding can serve Libyan development plans
through their future participation in manufacturing, marketing and global
competition Kenan et al., 2013. Secondly, there is another need for the educational
curricula in the Arabic world to apply and include Internet technologies.

The means offered by intelligent multimedia, such as the Internet, e-mail, e-


motivations, educational videos, and other applications should be used as
methods of teaching and learning. Thirdly, it is necessary to work on creating a
digital environment such as an Arabic information network, in collaboration
with all Arab countries. It should contribute to a higher extent to feed Arabic
educational political and economic systems with all necessary data and
information. Improving the performance of the HEIs in Arabic countries can
therefore be done by adopting collaborative learning, including the courses of
training, which should be offered for Libyan lecturers to assist them in finding
appropriate methods of electronic data processing, and to achieve the purposes
of courses they teach.

Furthermore, the students enrolled in different courses should be trained in the


practice of Internet technologies to improve their skills, thereby, attaining better
results (Elzawi & Wade, 2012). The lecturers play a fundamental role. They can
use and develop different Internet applications and tools such as intelligent
multimedia and collaborative learning, which assist them in delivering
information to students. Offering appropriate training for the lecturers is
necessary to enhance their knowledge and skills, which are relevant to their
work performance. However, they are not the only group to successfully adopt
and implement it. The students can also reflect a positive learning environment.
The training is the main concern of the LHEIs in implementing any form of
collaborative learning methods. Lecturers with inadequate training of e-
learning in the real educational environment can pose a problem in balancing
the learning process with students (Kenan et al., 2013).

Conclusion
This paper has displayed the current state of ICT and collaborative learning
systems that show that, despite some progress, LHEIs are at a crossroads in
formulating ICTs beneficial to their academic projects; it also considers
implications for learning and teaching and their development. Regardless of the
huge potential profits, it is still unclear as to what influences ICTs may have on
teaching and learning. In considering Libyas agenda in research on the ICT and

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188

the higher education system, it is critical to consider the difficult negotiations


between different actors such as local different areas, different education levels
and the implications of ICT applications to social and organisational
development in the LHE system. More coordination and resource sharing
between LHEIs could be beneficial as universities move to combine ICT fully
into their teaching and learning. The creation of regional policies for sharing
information on ICT strategies and courseware and exchanging experiences are
critical to increasing the positive contribution of ICTs to higher education.

The LHEIs cannot actually build a respectable collaborative learning or e-


learning environment without developments in teaching, research, good
networking connections, modern software, and contemporary computer
applications development. The highly skilled human resource development is
also a foundation of ICT in higher education institutions. The networked
learning environment in higher education requires significant government
intervention. Government policy has a real impact on strategic initiatives in
universities and often determines the parameters of such initiatives through
laws, regulations, and the allocation of funds. At the same time, the LHEIs
should play a key role in articulating national e-strategies. Universities could
play a monitoring, mentoring, and evaluation role in shaping ICT laws and
regulations.

This paper focused on the analysis of ICT impact on the effectiveness of


collaborative learning processes in LHEIs; though the interview questions with
some academics in Engineering school in Tripoli University and Mature Libyan
students, divided into two categories, completed a questionnaire: the first
category is a group of researchers in the UK who were also full-time lecturers
from different universities in Libya; the second category is full-time lecturers
from the same universities. Their answers referred time spent on the Internet;
time spent using technology in teaching; the value of using intelligent
multimedia applications; benefits of e-learning implementation and the barriers
that face it. Satisfaction with Internet implementation and cost of off-campus
access were also considered.

The findings showed that the participants in the UK were aware of the Internet
and intelligent multimedia value, and they spent more time using the Internet
than the participants who worked in Libyan universities; however, participants
who worked in Libya spent more time in teaching than those in the UK.
Furthermore, there was an agreement between both groups of participants that
implementing e learning in the LHEIs would increase achievement and that it
provided a set of benefits. The most important element of the e-learning
implementation was the development of ICT. On the other hand, the main
barriers that can face both groups were mismanagement and technological
challenges. Additionally, the participants who studied in the UK were more
satisfied with the Internet speed provided on-campus than those in Libya were.

Finally, the cost of the Internet off-campus was problematic for participants who
worked in Libyan universities. Likewise, the paper has presented other factors

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189

such as intelligent multimedia, internet technologies, knowledge management


and how these have a significant influence on creating innovative and inspiring
collaborative learning environments, where lecturers are expert designers of
intellectual experiences for students who become active participants in the
learning processes. In addition, the fundamental role of the lecturers and
students in development of the LHEIs was discussed. Finally, the paper
concluded that some LHEIs have already shown success in the implementation
and management of collaborative learning and Internet technologies and
applications; those institutions should be encouraged to share their success with
other institutions. There should be cooperation between government teams
responsible for the LHEIs. Governmental departments and the private sector
should be encouraged to sponsor the development of Internet technologies in
HEIs that can produce staff that are competent in such technologies.

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