Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 89 (2017) 189198

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Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/etfs

Experimental investigation on impingement of a submerged circular water MARK

jet at varying impinging angles and Reynolds numbers

Chuan Wanga,c, Xikun Wanga,b, , Weidong Shia, , Weigang Luc, Soon Keat Tanb, Ling Zhoua
a
Research Center of Fluid Machinery Engineering and Technology, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province 212013, China
b
Maritime Research Centre, Nanyang Technological University, 639798, Singapore
c
School of Hydraulic Energy and Power Engineering, Yangzhou Univrsity, 225002, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Based on the particle image velocity (PIV) and pressure measurements, an experimental investigation has been
Impinging jet made to study the ow characteristics of a fully developed submerged pipe jet impinging on an impermeable
Impinging angle plane at a constant jet-to-plane distance of H/D = 3. This study focuses on the velocity distribution in the free-jet
Particle image velocimetry (PIV) region and the ow structure in the impingement region at dierent impinging angles (0 90) and
Reynolds numbers (11,700 Re 35,100). Moreover, the development of the deected wall jet in terms of the
maximum velocity decay and the half width, as well as the jet-induced hydraulic pressure on the plane, have
been presented. The energy loss of the jet in the process of impingement is found to increase with , while the
mean velocity distributions and the hydraulic pressure coecient show little variation with Re, indicating that
the ow is highly dependent on and but is relatively independent of Re within the examined range.

1. Introduction depends on the physical characteristics of the initial momentum. Ac-

Impinging jets have been studied extensively in the past several
decades because of their fundamental signicance and engineering
application [14]. For example, impinging jets could be used in pro-
pellant rocket engines, waste disposal, irrigation/drainage works,
cooling and heating process. The impinging ow is highly complex,
since it depends on many parameters, such as jet nozzle shape, jet exit
velocity, jet-to-plane distance H/D (H is the vertical distance between
the jet exit and plane, and D is the jet diameter), impinging angle (the
angle between the jet axis and the impingement plane), and others. To
study this ow conguration, various experimental techniques, in-
cluding hot-wire anemometer (HWA), laser Doppler anemometry (LDA)
and particle image velocimetry (PIV), have been used [512]. Among
them, PIV is more eective to study the dynamic processes of jet-plate
interaction by providing whole-eld, instantaneous velocity and vorti-
city distributions, as compared to HWA and LDA which are point
measurement techniques.
Depending on the impingement angle , impinging jets under fully-
submerged condition (e.g., water jet in water or air jet in air) can be
roughly classied in two categories, i.e., normal and at an oblique angle
to the plane, as shown in Fig. 1 [13,14]. The ow eld of an impinging
jet consists of three distinct regions: free-jet region, impingement region
and wall-jet region. In the free-jet region, the ow structure completely
cording to the literature [15,16], the development of a free jet in the
near eld is divided into two regions, i.e., the potential core region
(normally extends up to 4D to 6D) where the centerline velocity is equal
to the jet exit velocity; and the free decay region (normally extends up
to 10D) where the centerline velocity starts to decay. In the impinge-
ment region, the jet ow decelerates rapidly because the impingement
plane is impermeable. Typically the height of the impingement region is
about 12D from the impingement surface. After that, the jet deects
and starts to develop along the plane in the transverse direction, re-
sulting in the formation of the wall-jet region. Compared to the normal
impinging jet, the wall-jet region of the oblique impinging jet is more
complex. At smaller , the wall-jet ow is directed more in the forward
direction and with less backward ow.
On the one hand, normal impinging jets have been studied more
extensively due to the relatively simple experimental set-up. Based on
PIV and force measurements, Wang et al. [17] studied the ow struc-
tures and the impact force of a fully-developed pipe jet impinging
normally onto a at plate, and found that the mean velocity eld and
mean impact force coecients on the impingement plate are highly
dependent on H/D, but relatively insensitive to Reynolds number (Re).
El Hassan et al. [18] showed that for a normal impinging jet at
Re = 1260 and 2450, the wall shear stress is correlated with the large-
scale vortex formed. Hammad and Milanovic [19] studied the ow

Corresponding authors at: Research Center of Fluid Machinery Engineering and Technology, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province 212013, China (X. Wang; W. Shi).
E-mail addresses: CXKWang@ntu.edu.sg (X. Wang), wdshi@ujs.edu.cn (W. Shi).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermusci.2017.08.005
Received 31 October 2016; Received in revised form 5 August 2017; Accepted 5 August 2017
Available online 07 August 2017
0894-1777/ 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
C. Wang et al. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 89 (2017) 189198

Fig. 1. (a) Normal and (b) oblique circular submerged jet impinging
D
onto a at plane.

1 : Free-jet region

O1 r

2 : Impingement region
Hw l

H
3 : Wall-jet region
y
1 Y1/2
2 x

3
O2 (GC)

(a)

1 : Free-jet region
r
O1
Hw l
2 : Impingement region

y
H
1 Y1/2
3 : Wall-jet region

2 x
3
O2 (GC)

(b)

structure in the near-wall region of a normal submerged impinging jet 2. Experimental apparatus
with H/D = 18 by using PIV. Fairweather and Hargrave [20] obtained
the mean and uctuating velocities and shear stresses in an air jet As can be seen in Fig. 1, two rectangular coordinate systems, rO1l
normally impinging on a at surface by using PIV, and found that a and xO2y, are used to describe the impinging jet ow in the normal
large, low-velocity recirculation zone could carry material from the central plane before and after the impingement, respectively. The origin
periphery of the wall jet back to its initial regions. On the other hand, of rO1l is set at the center of the nozzle exit, with r and l corresponding
oblique impinging jets received relatively less attention and most of the to the radial and axial (along the jet) directions, respectively, while that
previous studies involved water jet in air. Beltaos [21] found that the of xO2y coincides with the geometric center (GC) of the jet on the im-
ow generated by oblique impingement of a circular turbulent air jet is pingement plane, with x and y corresponding to the wall-parallel and
quasi-axisymmetric and the thickness of the wall jet grows radially and wall-normal directions. The experimental set-up for the submerged
linearly. Kate et al. [22] found that the stagnation point typically shifts impinging water jet is shown in Fig. 2. The experiments were conducted
to the upstream focus of the elliptical impingement zone. Jalil and in the open water channel located at Maritime Research Centre, Na-
Rajaratnam [23] showed that the deected wall jet is mostly in the nyang Technological University, and had a test section of
forward direction with very little backward ow for < 45, and in- 5000 mm 300 mm 400 mm (length width height). The side
creases to an estimated value of about 510% for larger . Al Naib and wall and base of the channel were made of transparent glass for optical
Sanders [24] proposed the generalized laws of degradation and access. The jet was produced by using a straight brass pipe with an
spreading of the boundaries of a submerged round jet under oblique inner diameter D = 20 mm and length L = 1200 mm, corresponding to
impingement onto a channel bed with 45 90. Although there
are lots of research on the internal ow of impinging jet, they are
mainly on normal impinging jet. As for the oblique impinging jet, most
researchers studied the air jet or water jet impinging into the air. As
reviewed above, there is a lack of studies on the eect of impinging
angle on the fully-submerged, oblique impinging water jet except for
the work by Al Naib and Sanders [24]. However, in [24] the impinging
angles were not comprehensive; furthermore, the single point mea-
surement technology, LDA, was used, which is dicult, if not possible,
to obtain the transient, large-scale vortex structures in the ow eld.
This motivated the present detailed measurements of velocity dis-
tributions of a submerged impinging water jet at various impinging
angles (090) by using PIV. Moreover, the decay law of maximum
velocity, the spreading of half width and the jet-induced hydraulic
pressure along the plane were also investigated. The ndings are pre-
sented and deliberated for three Reynolds numbers (Re = 11,700,
23,400 and 35,100), thereby excluding the possible transitional eects.
In the present study, the most commonly used nozzle type, i.e., fully
developed pipe jet, was selected. Fig. 2. Experimental setup.

190
C. Wang et al.
a length-to-diameter ratio of 60, which was large to ensure fully de-
veloped turbulent ow condition at exit. The brass pipe was aligned in
the mid-span plane of the water channel. In the present experiments,
the working uid (water) was charged by using a submersible cen-
trifugal pump, with a cylinder owmeter and a control valve in the
pipeline system to adjust the volumetric ow rate Q. The bulk velocity
Vb could be obtained as Vb = 4Q/D2. The pipe was mounted on an
angle disk using which the impinging angle could be adjusted from 0
to 90 and at an interval of 15. In order to measure the hydrodynamic
pressure of the jet, a pressure sensor (Keller PR41-X model, with a
measurement range of 030 mbar and an accuracy of 0.3%) was
mounted ush on the impingement plate. The impingement plate, made
of 10-mm thick plexiglass, was elevated 120 mm above the base of the
channel with four small kickstands. The vertical jet-to-plane distance H
was maintained at 60 mm (3D), while the water depth between the
plate and the water surface Hw was 240 mm (12D), which was su-
ciently large to ensure that the free surface eect on the jet ow was
negligible.
All the velocity measurements were performed using a two-dimen-
sional PIV system (LaVision model). To fully illuminate the ow eld, a
double cavity Nd:YAG laser (Litron model, wavelength of 532 nm,
power of 135 mJ per pulse and pulse duration of 5 ns) was placed below
the channel. Hollow glass spheres with diameter of 1015 m and re-
lative density of 1.051.15, which were approximately neutrally
buoyant in the uid, were seeded in the jet ow as the tracer particles.
The particle images were recorded using a 12-bit CCD camera, which
had a resolution of 1600 1200 pixels and maximum frame frequency
of 15 Hz. A cross-correlation algorithm with standard Gaussian sub-
pixel t structured as an iterative multi-grid method was used to cal-
culate particle displacements. The image processing procedure included
two passes, starting with a grid size of 32 32 pixels and stepping
down to the nal interrogation area (IA) of 16 16 pixels overlapping
by 50%, resulting in a set of 30,000 vectors (200 150) for a typical
eld. The eld of view was 240 mm 180 mm, so the spatial resolu-
tion for the present experiments was 1.2 mm 1.2 mm (0.06 D 0.06
D). A range validation and calibration along with a moving lter were
used to exclude singular or erroneous vectors. For each experiment, a
set of 1050 pairs of the instantaneous ow elds were acquired at a
frequency of 15 Hz (i.e. 70 s recordings). The particle images were
evaluated by double frame/double exposure, during which the CCD
camera recorded the scattered light from the rst illumination in one
frame and the scattered light from the second illumination in another
frame. The time interval between consecutive laser pulses was varied
between 400 and 700 s depending upon the jet exit velocity which
satised the criteria proposed by Boillot and Prasad [25], yielding a
displacement of 6.5 pixels near the jet exit. Descriptions of other
parameters such as the particle image size (34 pixels) and seeding
densities (about 20 particles/mm2) can be found in related studies
[16,17]. The uncertainty in the instantaneous velocities (u, v) and the
mean velocities (U, V) was estimated to be about 2% and 5%, respec-
tively. The validation of current experimental setup was evaluated by
the measurement of a series of single jets. The jet ow utilised corre-
sponded to a typical pipe jet, exhibiting a fully developed velocity
prole at exit.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Initial condition of the jet ow
Fig. 3 shows the proles of the mean axial velocity near the jet exit
(l/D = 0.5) in the radial direction for = 0, 45 and 90. In order to
verify the reliability on the initial condition of the impinging jet, the
empirical power law reecting the fully developed jet exit was adopted:
V 2r 1/ n
= 1
Vmax D (1)
191
Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 89 (2017) 189198
1.0
n=7
0.8
= 0
0.6 = 45
V/Vmax
= 90
n=6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.50 -0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50
r/D
(a)
D
r
Vb
V
Vmax
(b)
Fig. 3. (a) Proles of the normalized axial velocity V/Vmax near the jet exit (l/D = 0.5)
for Re = 23,400 at = 0, 45 and 90; and (b) denition of the bulk mean velocity (Vb).
where V is the axial velocity; Vmax is the maximum velocity on the jet
centerline; and n is the empirical constant for power law. As can be seen
in Fig. 2, the present data fall approximately within the 1/6 and 1/7
power law (n = 6 and 7) and is an indication of fully developed tur-
bulent jets in the literature [18,20]. Hereinafter, all the velocities are
normalized by the bulk velocity at exit Vb, while the length parameters
(including axial distance l, radial distance r and wall-jet half width )
are normalized by the jet diameter D. Three bulk velocities were con-
sidered, namely, Vb = 0.585, 1.17 and 1.76 m/s, corresponding to Re
( VbD/, where is the kinematic viscosity of water) = 11,700,
23,400 and 35,100, respectively.
3.2. Velocity proles between the jet exit and the plane
Fig. 4 illustrates the development of the normalized mean axial
velocity V/Vb with l/D at three impinging angles of = 0, 45 and 90
for Re = 23,400 and H/D = 3. At = 0, 45 and 90, the axial dis-
tance along the jet centerline from the jet exit to the impingement
point, lmax/D = , 4.24 and 3, respectively according to the formula of
lmax = H/sin. As can be seen in the gure, the maximum value of V/Vb
for dierent is approximately 1.2, which is consistent with that re-
ported by Wang et al. [17]. As can be seen in Fig. 4(a), the proles of
the horizontal jet ( = 0) reveal good symmetric distribution, with the
largest value of V/Vb being observed along the jet centerline. Moreover,
as the axial distance increases within the range l/D 4, the maximum
value of V/Vb is approximately constant with a slight spreading in the
radial direction, indicating that the maximum velocity takes place in
the potential core region. For the case of = 45 (Fig. 4(b)), the ve-
locity proles exhibit appreciable asymmetry in the near-wall region as
expected. Moreover, as the axial distance increases, the proles of V/Vb
display little change in the free-jet region (approx. l/D 3), and
C. Wang et al. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 89 (2017) 189198

1.4 V1x
l/D = 0.5
l/D = 1.5 1
1.2 V1 V1y
l/D = 2.5
1.0 l/D = 3.5
l/D = 3.75
0.8 l/D = 4
V/Vb

V2x
0.6 2 V2y
V2
0.4

0.2
(a)
0.0 1.4
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
r/D
1.2
(a) = 0
1.0
1.4
l/D = 0.5
l/D = 1.5 0.8
1.2 = 0

V/Vb
l/D = 3 = 15
1.0 l/D = 3.5 0.6
= 30
l/D = 3.75
= 45
0.8 l/D = 4 0.4
= 60
V/Vb

= 75
0.6 0.2
= 90

0.4 0.0
2 4 6 8 10 12
0.2 l/D
(b)
0.0 90
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
= 0
r/D
= 15
(b) = 45 75
= 30
1.4 = 45
l/D = 0.5
60 = 60
1.2 l/D = 2 = 75
/

l/D = 2.5 45 = 90
1.0 l/D = 2.75
l/D = 2.85
0.8 30
V/Vb

0.6 15
0.4
0
2 4 6 8 10 12
0.2
l/D
0.0
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
(c)
r/D Fig. 6. (a) Denition of ow angle , (b) normalized mean axial velocity V/Vb and (c)
(c) = 90 ow angle along the jet centerline for Re = 23,400 at various impinging angles.

Fig. 4. Radial prole development of the normalized mean axial velocity V/Vb for
Re = 23,400 at: (a) = 0; (b) 45 and (c) 90. of the deected wall jet in the backward ow direction. For the normal
impinging jet ( = 90, see Fig. 3(c)), the proles of V/Vb vary slightly
1.4 I: Free-jet Region II: Impinging Region with axial distance in the free-jet region (approx. l/D 2), but change
sharply in the impingement region (approx. 2 < l/D 3) where the
1.2 value of V/Vb decreases rapidly in the radial range of 0.5 r/
V/Vb, |Vx|/Vb, |Vy|/Vb

1.0 D 0.5 but increases rapidly outside of that range. It should be noted
that at l/D = 2.85 the maximum value of V/Vb does not appear at the
0.8
jet centerline, which is due to the fact that the horizontal velocity Vx at
0.6 the centerline is signicantly smaller than that at the sides because of
Re = 11700, V/Vb Re = 11700, |Vx|/Vb Re = 11700, |Vy|/Vb the ow deection in the near-wall region. It may be concluded that,
0.4
Re = 23400, V/Vb Re = 23400, |Vx|/Vb Re = 23400, |Vy|/Vb depending on the impinging angle , the proles of V/Vb follow dif-
0.2 Re = 35100, V/Vb Re = 35100, |Vx|/Vb Re = 35100, |Vy|/Vb ferent patterns.
0.0
Fig. 5 shows the normalized mean axial (V/Vb), horizontal (|Vx|/Vb)
1 2 3 4 and vertical (|Vy|/Vb) velocity proles along the centerline of the ob-
l/D
lique jet with = 45 at Re = 11,700, 23,400 and 35,100. For all Re,
Fig. 5. Normalized mean axial (V/Vb), horizontal (|Vx|/Vb) and vertical (|Vy|/Vb) velocity the values of V/Vb, |Vx|/Vb and |Vy|/Vb remain nearly constant in the
proles along the centerline of the impinging jet at = 45.
free-jet region (approx. l/D 3) along the jet centerline, while the
value of |Vx|/Vb is slightly larger than that of |Vy|/Vb due to possibly
thereafter the maximum value of V/Vb decreases rapidly and shifts to slight misalignment of the experimental set-up. With larger axial dis-
the forward direction along the positive r-direction in the impingement tance in the impinging region (approx. 3 < l/D 4.24), the value of
region (approx. 3 < l/D 4.24), indicating change of ow direction |Vy|/Vb and V/Vb decreases signicantly because of the wall boundary.
in the near-wall region. In addition, at l/D = 3, the value of V/Vb is On the other hand, the value of |Vx|/Vb reduces slightly and is nearly
signicantly larger in the region 1.5 r/D 1, which is a result equal to that of V/Vb at the geometric center (GC). This observation

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C. Wang et al. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 89 (2017) 189198

1.4 I: Free-jet Region II: Impinging Region I: Free-jet Region II: Impinging Region
30

1.2
25
1.0
20
0.8 r/D = 0.5
V/Vb

/
r/D = 0.25
15
0.6 r/D = 0
r/D = -0.25
0.4 10 r/D = -0.5
r/D = 0.5 r/D = 0.25
0.2 r/D = 0 r/D = -0.25 5
r/D = -0.5
0.0 0
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
l/D l/D
(a) = 30 (a) = 30
I: Free-jet Region II: Impinging Region
1.4 I: Free-jet Region II: Impinging Region
120
1.2
100
1.0
80
0.8
V/Vb

0.6 60

/
0.4 r/D = 0.5
r/D = 0.5 r/D = 0.25 40 r/D = 0.25
r/D = 0 r/D = -0.25 r/D = 0
0.2
r/D = -0.5 r/D = -0.25
20
0.0 r/D = -0.5
1 2 3 4
0
l/D 1 2 3 4
(b) = 60 l/D
(b) = 60
I: Free-jet Region II: Impinging Region
1.4 I: Free-jet Region II: Impinging Region
180

1.2
150
1.0
120
0.8
/
V/Vb

90
0.6
r/D = 0.5
0.4 60
r/D = 0.5 r/D = 0.25 r/D = 0.25
r/D = 0 r/D = -0.25 r/D = 0
0.2 r/D = -0.5 30 r/D = -0.25
r/D = -0.5
0.0 0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
l/D l/D
(c) = 90 (c) = 90
Fig. 7. Development of the normalized mean axial velocity V/Vb along axial direction at Fig. 8. Development of ow angle along the axial direction at dierent radial locations
dierent radial locations for Re = 23,400: (a) = 30, (b) 45 and (c) 90. for Re = 23,400: (a) = 30, (b) 60 and (c) 90.

corresponds to that of a horizontal wall jet developed along the surface
of the impingement wall. In addition, the velocity proles along the jet
centerline show little variation with the change in Re, reecting that the
ow is relatively independent of Re within the range examined
(11,700 Re 35,100).
Fig. 6 presents the normalized axial mean velocity V/Vb and the
ow angle along the jet centerline for Re = 23,400 at various im-
pinging angles. As shown in Fig. 6(a), the ow angle is dened as:
= Arctan(Vy/Vx), which can reect the ow direction at any points
in the jet. As can be seen in Fig. 6(b), and with smaller , the minimum
value of V/Vb rst increases in the range 90 30 and then de-
creases in the range 30 15, while the maximum value of V/Vb
remains approximately constant at 1.2. The free-jet region can be seen
to roughly compose of two sub-zones with dierent decay rates, i.e., the
potential-core region (approx. l/D 4) where V/Vb remains constant,
and the transition zone (approx. l/D > 4) where V/Vb decays with
axial distance. The impinging region usually exists 12D away from the
plane, where |Vy| decays signicantly and |Vx| reduces slightly.
Therefore, the ow between the impinging jet and the plane may
consist of two or three regions (excluding the wall-jet region) de-
pending on the values of l/D and . At 45 90 (lmax/D 4.24),
there are only the potential-core region and the impinging region. The
value of V/Vb remains approximately constant initially and then de-
creases rapidly. Moreover, as decreases within the range
90 45, |Vx| at the jet exit increases, leading to decrease of axial
velocity decay and increase of the minimum velocity at the point im-
mediately adjacent to the geometric center. At = 30 (lmax/D = 6),
besides the potential core region (approx. l/D 4) and the impinging
region (approx. 4.75 < l/D 6), there exists a small patch of the
transition zone (approx. 4 < l/D 4.75) where |Vx| and |Vy| decay
together. As the transition zone is located within 1D from the plane
surface, the decay of |Vx| is smaller than the rise of |Vx| for smaller
impinging angle from = 45 to 30, leading to the further increase of
the minimum mean velocity. At = 15 (lmax/D = 11.6), the transition
zone is signicantly longer, i.e., approx. 4 < l/D 9.5, where the
magnitudes of |Vx| and |Vy| decrease sharply, resulting in a rapid decay
of the minimum axial velocity. Initially (at approx. 0 < l/D 9.5), the
prole for = 15 basically coincides with that of the horizontal jet
( = 0), and thereafter (at approx. 9.5 < l/D 11.6) decreases more
sharply than that of the horizontal jet, indicating that the mean velocity
in the impinging region decays more rapidly than that in the transition
zone. As can be seen in Fig. 6(c), for a given , the ow angle () along

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C. Wang et al. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 89 (2017) 189198

V/Vb Fig. 9. Mean velocity vectors in the near-wall region and ood con-
tours of the normalized meanaxial velocity V/Vb for Re = 23,400: (a)
30, (b) 45, (c) 60, (d) 75 and (e) 90. geometric center (GC);
stagnation point (SP).
0.085 0.06 1.2
1

y/D

0
SP IP
(a) = 30

(b) = 45

(c) = 60

(d) = 75

(e) = 90

the jet centerline in the free-jet region remains at approximately. For
the case of the oblique impinging jet (excluding = 0 and 90),
reduces rapidly in the impinging region where |Vx| reduces slightly and
|Vy| decreases sharply. Theoretically, the minimum value of along the
jet centerline for any should be zero because the value of |Vy| should
also be zero in the geometric center, which, however, cannot be cap-
tured by PIV due to the nite spatial resolution. Therefore, it can be
concluded that there is a certain ow deviation along the jet center in
the impinging region because of the rapid decrease of |Vy| near the
wall.
Fig. 7 shows the proles of the normalized axial mean velocity V/Vb
at dierent radial locations for Re = 23,400 at = 30, 60 and 90. As
can be seen in Fig. 7(a), at = 30, the proles are approximately
axisymmetric in the free-jet region (approx. l/D 4.75), where the
value of V/Vb at r/D = 0.5 (or r/D = 0.25) is nearly equal to that at r/
D = 0.5 (or r/D = 0.25). Moreover, in the impinging region (ap-
prox. 4.75 < l/D), the value of V/Vb reduces rapidly at r/D = 0,
0.25 and 0.5, but goes up signicantly at r/D = 0.25 and 0.5. This
observation indicates that the increasing rate of |Vx|2 exceeds the de-
creasing rate of |Vy|2 in the impinging region along the forward ow
direction, according to the formula of V2 = Vx2 + Vy2. As shown in
Fig. 7(b), in the impinging region, the value of V/Vb for = 60 de-
creases more rapidly than that for = 30. In addition, there is no
obvious rise of V/Vb at r/D = 0.25. At = 90 (Fig. 7(c)), the velocity
proles are approximately axisymmetric in the whole ow region be-
cause of the geometric symmetry. Moreover, the proles at r/
D = 0.5V/Vb slightly rise in the free-jet region due to the extension
of shear layers. This rising trend continues until a peak value is reached
at l/D 2.9, whence it reduces rapidly near the plane. Therefore, in the
impinging region the ow deects toward the forward direction more
signicantly with smaller , leading to enhanced transformation of |Vy|
into |Vx| in the forward ow direction, and less in the backward ow
direction.
Fig. 8 presents the proles of at dierent radial locations (r/

194
C. Wang et al.
D = 0, 0.25, 0.5) for Re = 23,400 at = 30, 60 and 90. As can
be seen in Fig. 8(a) for the case of = 30, the values of remain
approximately (= 30) in the free-jet region (approx. l/D 4.75),
where the ow is largely unaected by the impingement plane and the
variation of |Vx| and |Vy| must be synchronized. In the impinging re-
gion (approx. 4.75 < l/D), the proles begin to diverge and decay
linearly with r/D. The decay slope decreases and the minimum value of
reduces gradually, indicating gradual increase of |Vx| along the for-
ward ow direction. For the case of = 60 (Fig. 8(b)), the value of
at r/D = 0.5 goes up signicantly in the impinging region, suggesting
strong backward ow along the plane. For the normal jet ( = 90, see
Fig. 8(c)), in comparison, the changing rate of is relatively smaller in
the forward ow direction, while it is relatively larger in the backward
ow direction. This observation indicates that the oblique jet indeed
enhances the ability of converting |Vy| into |Vx| in the forward ow
direction by reducing the ability in the backward ow direction.
3.3. Mean velocity plots in the near-wall region
The mean velocity vector elds are shown in Fig. 9 to illustrate the
ow patterns in the near-wall region (0 h/D 1, h is the vertical
distance away from the plane) for Re = 23,400 at dierent impinging
angles. Flood contours of the normalized mean axial velocity and the
locations of the stagnation point (SP) and the geometric center (GC) are
added in this gure to highlight the ow structure. As can be seen in
Fig. 8, the ow decelerates rapidly near GC and starts to develop along
the plane in the transverse direction, resulting in the formation of the
Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 89 (2017) 189198
Fig. 10. Normalized distance Lsp/D between SP and GC as a function
of for Re = 23,400. Data of O'Donovan [26] for H/D = 2 and 6 and
Re = 10,000 and Goldstein and Franchett [27] for H/D = 4 and 6 and
Re = 10,000 30,000 are also included for comparison.
wall-jet region. The wall-jet region is composed of ows in both the
forward and backward directions (the point of transition in ow di-
rection is denoted as SP). For the normal jet ( = 90), SP coincides
with GC. With smaller in the range < 90, SP shifts toward the
backward ow direction. The shear layer grows in the forward ow
direction, and reduces rapidly in the backward ow direction. At
= 30 the wall jet is mostly in the forward direction with very little
backward ow, and may be considered as the critical impinging angle.
Moreover, when < 30, SP does not exist at all and the wall jet ows
in the forward direction. The uphill direction is towards the acute angle
that the jet makes with the impingement surface. Consequently the
downhill direction is the direction of the main ow. In this schematic
SP is displaced in the uphill direction from GC. The variation of the
normalized horizontal distance Lsp/D between GC and SP as a function
of is shown in Fig. 10. The results in O'Donovan [26] and Goldstein
and Franchett [27] for an impinging air jet with dierent values of H/D
at are included for comparison. In general, these dierent sets of data
agree satisfactorily in the variation trend of Lsp/D with that is a
monotonic decrease. Note there are some inconsistencies, which is at-
tributed to the dierences in Reynolds number, nozzle geometry and
measurement technique among these studies. For the present study, the
value of Lsp/D at = 30 (the critical impinging angle) is as high as 1.8,
which rst decreases sharply to 0.75 at = 45 and thereafter de-
creases almost linearly to 0 in the range 45 90. It is clear that
Lsp/D is highly dependent on the value of impinging angle, but is re-
latively insensitive to variation in the jet-to-plane distance or Reynolds
number. The value of Lsp/D can be varied up to 3 [28]. The above
195
C. Wang et al. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 89 (2017) 189198

1.5 1.0
= 15 = 30 = 45
= 60 = 75 = 90
1.2 V/Vb = 2.7D/x V/Vb = 2.2D/x 0.8
V/Vb = 1.7D/x V/Vb = 1.4D/x
0.9 0.6

/D
Vm/Vb

0.6 0.4 = 15 = 30
= 45 = 60
= 75 = 90
0.3 0.2
Y1/2/D = 0.06x/D + 0.07

Y1/2/D = 0.07x/D - 0.01

0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
x/D x/D
(a) (a)
1.5 1.0
Re = 11700
Re = 23400
1.2 0.8
Re = 35100
Re = 87000 (Al Naib & Sanders [24])

0.9 V /Vb = 2.7D/x

m 0.6

/D
Vm/Vb

0.6 0.4
Re = 11700
Re = 23400
0.3 0.2 Re = 35100
Y1/2/D = 0.06x/D + 0.07
0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
x/D x/D
(b) (b)
Fig. 11. Normalized maximum velocity Vm/Vb along the plane in the forward ow di- Fig. 12. Normalized half-width thickness Y1/2/D along the plane in the forward ow
rection: (a) at dierent impinging angles for a xed Reynolds number (Re = 23,400); (b) direction: (a) at dierent impinging angles for a xed Reynolds number (Re = 23,400);
at dierent Reynolds numbers for a xed impinging angle ( = 45). The LDV results of (b) at dierent Reynolds numbers for a xed impinging angle ( = 45).
oblique jet at Re = 87,000 by Al Naib and Sanders [24] are also included for comparison.
Vm 396D

nding has certain reference signicance for the engineering applica- Vb x (3)
tions.
It is noteworthy that this formula is valid only for the oblique im-
pinging jet at 45 90 within the range of 4 x/D 12.
3.4. Decay law of maximum velocity and the spreading of half width along
As can been seen in Fig. 11(b), the normalized maximum velocity
the plane
along the plane in the forward ow direction shows little variation with
Re, indicating that the ow in the wall-jet region is also relatively in-
To illustrate the development of the wall jet along the plane, Fig. 11
dependent of Re within the examined range (11,700 Re 35,100).
shows the normalized maximum velocity Vm/Vb in the forward ow
In addition, the value of Vm/Vb in the present study is slightly larger
direction (positive x-axis) for various impinging angles and Reynolds
numbers. Suppose the decay law of Vm/Vb along the plane may be used than those reported by Al Naib and Sanders [24], but the overall trend
is similar.
to describe the decay ow phenomenon here, as follows:
Fig. 12 shows the normalized half-width Y1/2/D along the plane.
Vm x m This gure illustrates the lateral spreading of the wall jet in the forward
= C
Vb D (2) ow direction for various impinging angles and Reynolds numbers.
Here, Y1/2 is dened as the vertical distance from the plane to where
where C is the proportionality coecient; m is the exponent; and x is
the forward velocity in the outer shear layer is half of its local max-
the horizontal distance away from the geometric center. Our ndings
imum, i.e., Vx = 0.5Vm. As can be seen in Fig. 12(a), the value of Y1/2/D
show that there are only the potential-core region and the impinging
decreases over the range 1 x/D 2, and then increases gradually
region for the ow with 45 90. For 30, however, there is
over 2 < x/D 12, indicating clearly that the forward velocity dis-
an additional intermediate region in which the mean axial velocity has
tribution contracts in the impinging region and expands in the wall-jet
a dierent decay rate from those in the potential-core and impinging
region. Moreover, for 45, the growth rate of /D becomes almost
regions. Therefore, only the data for 45 90 are tted by using
linear, and can be expressed as:
the exponent power law with least-squares-t procedure, as shown in
Fig. 11. For 45 90, the value of Vm/Vb agrees very well with the Y1/2 x
above power law of m = 1 at 4 x/D 12. Fig. 11(a) shows that =k +M
D D (4)
for a xed , Vm/Vb decreases with x/D, and the rate of decay decreases
gradually. The decay rate increases with , as indicated by the pro- where k is the linear proportionality coecient; and M is the constant
portionality coecient that decreases from C = 2.7 at = 45 to 1.4 at term. The case of = 45 follows the formula of Y1/2/D = 0.06x/D +
= 90. Based on the four tted formulae, a new generalized formula 0.07, while that for the 90 case is Y1/2/D = 0.07x/D - 0.01. Therefore,
can be established to account for the impinging angle : for 45 90, k varies between 0.06 and 0.07, which is consistent

196
C. Wang et al. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 89 (2017) 189198

1.6 2.0
Cpmax
= 15
= 30 Cpmax= 2.045sin 0.521
1.6
1.2 = 45
= 60
= 75 1.2
= 90

Cpmax
0.8
Cp

0.8

0.4
0.4

0.0 0.0
-4 0 4 8 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
x/D /
(a) (a)
1.2
2.0
Re = 11700
Cpmax
1.0 Re = 23400
Re = 35100 1.6 Cpmax = 1.5Vc/Vb - 0.255
0.8
1.2
0.6
Cp

Cpmax
0.8
0.4

0.2 0.4

0.0 0.0
-4 0 4 8 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
x/D
(b) /
Vc Vb

Fig. 13. Pressure coecient Cp along the plane: (a) at dierent impinging angles for a (b)
xed Reynolds number (Re = 23,400); (b) at dierent Reynolds numbers for a xed
Fig. 14. Variation of the maximum pressure coecient Cpmax at Re = 23,400 as a func-
impinging angle ( = 45).
tion of: (a) impinging angles ; (b) normalized critical vertical velocities Vc/Vb.

with the value of k = 0.067 as reported in Al Naib and Sanders [24].

Fig. 14 shows the maximum pressure coecient on the stagnation
The eects of Re on the half-width are shown in Fig. 12(b). The data
point (Cpmax) for various impinging angles and normalized vertical
for all Reynolds numbers fall on a single straight line, indicating that
velocities at Re = 23,400. As can be seen in Fig. 14(a), for the jet of
the jet development is independent of Re within the range examined
15 90, the growth rate of Cpmax can be approximated by
(11,700 Re 35,100).
Cpmax = 2.045sin 0.521, which means that Cpmax increases with as
well, but the rate of increasing slows down gradually. Furthermore, the
3.5. Pressure coecient distribution along the plane two formulas: Cpmax = 2.045sin 0.521 and Vy = V sin (at the
centerline of the jet exit) indicates indirectly that Cpmax is aected
Fig. 13 presents the pressure coecient Cp along the plane for signicantly by the magnitude of Vy in the impingement region. In
various impinging angles and Reynolds numbers. The pressure coe- order to verify the above hypothesis, the critical vertical velocity at the
cient Cp is dened as follows: point just entering into the impinging region, Vc, is selected as a new
variable. The variation of Cpmax with Vc/Vb is shown in Fig. 14(b). It is
PAP0 clear that Cpmax grows linearly with Vc/Vb, satisfying the relationship
Cp =
0.5Vb2 (5) Cpmax = 1.5Vc/Vb 0.255, indicating that the pressure coecient on
the plane depends completely upon the magnitude of the impinging
where PA is the mean pressure on the measuring point during a period
velocity in the normal direction.
of time; P0 is the reference pressure located at the same depth of
channel, and is equal to gHw; and is the density of water.
4. Conclusion
As can be seen in Fig. 13(a), the value of Cp rst increases with x and
then decreases rapidly. With the decrease of , the location of the
An experimental investigation on the ow formed by a submerged
maximum pressure coecient Cpmax shifts to the backward direction,
circular jet impinging on an impermeable plane at various impinging
indicating that Cpmax always occurs at the stagnation point. Moreover,
angles (0 90) and Reynolds numbers (11,700 Re 35,100)
the value of Cpmax increases monotonically with , from about 0 at
under a constant jet-to-plane distance H/D = 3 has been conducted by
= 15 to 1.55 at = 90. Furthermore, for each case, the signicant
using PIV and pressure measurements. The following is a summary of
value of Cp always concentrates on the impinging region in the range
the main conclusions that could be drawn from the results presented:
2 x/D 2, while it is approximately zero on the wall-jet region,
indicating that the eect of the free diusion ow on the pressure
1. The results show that the ow is highly dependent on the impinging
distribution is negligible. As can been seen in Fig. 13(b), when is
angle , but is relatively insensitive to Re. The normalized mean
xed, the proles for various Re collapse very well, reecting that the
velocity V/Vb along the jet centerline remains constant in the po-
pressure coecient along the plane is independent of Re (similar con-
tential-core region, and decrease rapidly in the transition zone and
clusion has been made based on the velocity data).

197
C. Wang et al.
the impinging region. On the other hand, the ow angle remains
constant in the free-jet region (including the potential-core region
and the transition zone) and decreases rapidly in the impinging
region. Moreover, with increasing , the decay rate of V/Vb and
increases gradually in the impinging region due to the impermeable
plane. The ow angle , which can reect the ow direction at any
point in the jet, has not yet been proposed in the related documents
and hence has certain innovation.
2. In the impinging region, the jet decelerates rapidly and starts to ow
along the plane. Through observing the mean velocity vectors, the
location of the stagnation point between the forward and backward
ows can be accurately determined. As decreases, the stagnation
point shifts towards the backward ow direction, which indicates
that the forward ow is strengthened by weakening the backward
ow. For the impinging jet of 30, the wall-jet is mostly in the
forward ow direction with little backward ow.
3. For 4 x/D 12 and 45 90, the increasing rate of the
deected wall jet in terms of the normalized half-width /D along
the forward ow direction is proportional to the downstream dis-
tance. The proportional coecient k is 0.060.07, corresponding to
a spreading angle of 3.44, which indicates that the spreading of
the deected wall jet along the plane is relatively slow.
4. The pressure coecient Cp along the plane mainly concentrates on
the impinging region in the range 2 x/D 2, with the max-
imum value being observed at the stagnant point. The maximum
pressure coecient Cpmax is found to grow linearly with Vc/Vb,
where Vc is the critical normal velocity of the jet just entering the
impinging region. The above nding successfully links the pressure
and velocity together, and the pressure coecient depends com-
pletely upon the magnitude of the impinging velocity in the normal
direction.
Acknowledgments
Funding support from the Priority Academic Program Development
of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (PAPD), the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51609105), Jiangsu Province
University Natural Sciences Foundation (Grant No. 16KJB570002),
China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Grant No. 2016M601738), and
Open Foundation of National Research Center of Pumps (Grant No.
NRCP201604).
Competing nancial interests
The authors declare no competing nancial interests.
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