IADC/SPE 62745
Cements for Long Term Isolation Design Optimization by Computer Modelling and
Prediction
Gino di Lullo SPE, Phil Rae SPE, BJ Services Company
Copyright 2000, IADC/SPE Asia Pacific Drilling Technology
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2000 IADC/SPE Asia Pacific Drilling
Technology held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1113 September 2000.
This paper was selected for presentation by an IADC/SPE Program Committee following
review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the
paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the International Association of Drilling
Contractors or the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the
author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of the IADC or
SPE, their officers, or members. Papers presented at the IADC/SPE meetings are subject to
publication review by Editorial Committees of the IADC and SPE. Electronic reproduction,
distribution, or storage of any part of this paper for commercial purposes without the written
consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is
restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The
abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was
presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax
01-972-952-9435.
Abstract
Today, development of high early compressive strength
(CS) is a key performance specification for oilwell cementing.
Early strength is important to ensure structural support to the
casing and hydraulic/mechanical isolation of downhole
intervals. Delays in strength development cause significant
amounts of lost time due to the need to Wait-On-Cement.
Thus, drilling operations cannot proceed and the rig must sit
idle until the cement is deemed hard enough to continue.
The actual development of strength in cement systems is
dependent on a number of factors. The type of cementitious
material is important due in part to chemistry and in part to
granulometry. Slurry density is considered critical lower
density has, traditionally, been associated with lower strength.
Temperature is a key parameter and, to a lesser extent, the
pressure. Less appreciated, is the influence of the many types
of additives that are included in slurry formulations. Correct
selection of cement and additives allows slurry tailoring to
achieve "a strong cement" that will support mechanical
stresses that happen during the well productive life. Since
cement is the primary means of isolation, its integrity as a
sealing material should be paramount.
Under confining pressure, cement compressive strength is
several times higher that the values obtained from an
unconfined API test. In fact, the ultimate compressive strength
of a wide variety of slurries is similar to that of the
surrounding reservoir rock, regardless of initial slurry density.
In the long term, more important than compressive strength is
the ductility/compliance that set cement has to support down-
hole stresses imposed by pressure and temperature oscillations
during drilling, work-over and production operations. In the
vast majority of well operations, cement failure occurs under
tensile loading, not under compression. Poor appreciation of
this has led to the routine use of higher density slurries for
many applications. Such slurries may be not only unnecessary
but also positively harmful, since they can produce more
brittle cements that fail under downhole stresses. This paper
describes a method of designing cement slurries using a
simulator that models cement setting and strength
development. Instead of obsolete rules of thumb, mechanical
properties of set cement, formation and casing responses to
cyclic stresses during the well life are used to optimise designs
for early times and long term. Finally, a few case histories are
presented, demonstrating the benefits of this new design
methodology to produce cost effective cement slurries for one
isolation.
Introduction:
The most important objective of any primary cement job
is to provide isolation from producing zones up to the surface
and this should be accomplished over the entire life of the
well. No fluid movement, either gas or liquid should be
possible at any time through the cemented annulus. In the
annulus there are three possible paths for fluid movement; the
interfaces between cement/rock and cement/casing and the
cement matrix.
Poor mud removal is normally identified as the major
source of communication problems, although poor bonding at
the interface can occur even when mud cake or oil films have
been completely removed. Mud removal is not included in the
scope of this work and it is assumed that state of the art
techniques are used on every well to eliminate this problem.
Cement bonding can also be affected by slurry properties
like fluid loss and free water. However, cement adherence to
the formation and casing is primarily affected by cement
shrinkage and by stress changes induced by downhole
variations of pressure and temperature. These occur mainly
inside the casing but can also originate in the formation.
By convention, when hydrostatics allow, two types of
slurries are used to cement a casing string. A neat (or tail)
slurry, with a density ranging from 15.5 lbm/gal to 16.5
lbm/gal depending on cement type and well BHST (bottom
hole static temperature), is used to anchor the casing.
The second type is a filler slurry that has lower density and,
2 GINO DI LULLO AND PHIL RAE
generally, less demanding performance specifications. It
develops lower strength and has higher permeability than the
tail slurry but is still adequate to protect and support the
casing. Both, the anchor slurry and the filler slurry are used to
reduce the overall cost of a well.
Several rules of thumb have evolved to simplify slurry
design; unfortunately some of them are based on old
technology and outdated price/performance models that are no
longer relevant today.
A good example relates to cement compressive strength, its
relationship with slurry density and the mechanical properties
of hard cement. It is not clear why it is still normal practice to
overpressure the formation, inducing damage or risking lost
circulation problems, with cement slurries that are 2-8 lbm/gal
heavier than the mud that was used to safely drill the well.
Actually, under confinement, all cements eventually have a
strength essentially approaching that of the surrounding
formation, regardless of the initial slurry density.
Unfortunately, correlations drawn between sonic
(compressional) wave attenuation (CBL) and compressive
strength have led to the misguided conclusion that the higher
the strength, the better the bonding. This correlation between
attenuation and compressive strength is quite poor; a much
more respectable correlation exists between compressional
wave attenuation and acoustic impedance (2) but this is
rarely used due to general unfamiliarity in the industry. In
addition, the strength/attenuation correlation was based on
unconfined compressive strength measurements and does not
reflect down hole confined conditions, where cement becomes
ductile instead of brittle and compressive strengths are 2-9
times higher (Figure 1). Note that Young's Modulus, under
different confining pressure, remains practically unchanged.
The CBL actually measures the coupling at the interfaces,
the amount of volume filled and the porosity of the set cement.
It is obvious that the porosity is related to the solids content of
a set cement but not necessarily to the cement content. Further
complicating matters, is the fact that other factors such as
effective coupling and gas, water or mud channels can affect
compressional wave velocities and their attenuation. In the
field, this has led to the common practice of trying to
overcome poor bonding by increasing slurry density, instead
of analysing and understanding the fundamental reasons for
bond failure.
Neat cement slurries (no additives) mixed as per API
specifications, will produce brittle, high strength (in general,
Young Modulus > 1.3E6 psi and Poissons ratios < 0.20) and
low permeability cements (k < 0.001 m.d.). However, cement
coupling, or hydraulic bond to the formation and casing, are
not at all related to compressive strength. Cement bonding is
not accomplished by a chemical reaction but by a physical
interaction. Therefore, bonding is more related to cement
ductility and casing roughness. It is true that cement
adherence, or shear bond, is somehow related to cement
compressive strength through its tensile strength relationship
but the addition of other materials to the cement slurry can
greatly affect the result.
IADC/SPE 62745
Anchoring and Supporting the Casing
To minimize rig time, and hence well cost, there is a need
to speed up cement setting and bonding at the interfaces. This
ensures that the rig doesnt stay idle for long periods waiting
on cement to set. This is, obviously, more important offshore
and on deep wells where rig costs could be an order of
magnitude higher than for average onshore wells.
High axial loads are imposed on the casing string and
surrounding cements by landing or suspension methods and
later by drilling or other operations. This is especially true if
the well is highly deviated, horizontal or completed using
multi-lateral systems where the cement sheath may be subject
to shattering and loss of bond eg. due to mechanical shock or
temperature and pressure cycles.
Casing support can be measured in the laboratory using the
shear bond test or the tensile strength test and calculated
by the following formula (1):
F =9.69 x Ts x D x H,
Where:
F = force or load to break cement bond, pounds
Ts = tensile strength, pound per square inch
D = outside diameter of casing, inches
H = height of cement column, feet
The force, or load, to break the cement, in the worst case
scenario, is the weight of the casing plus the weight of the
complete drilling string while tagging or drilling the shoe.
Table 1 shows that only 15-psi tensile strength is required to
continue drilling, using this formula. In this evaluation, we
used the heaviest casing for its size with only 5% equivalent
cement fill up of tail slurry (based on casing length) to support
the casing and no additional support from the filler slurry.
For neat cement slurries, the tensile strength can be safely
estimated by dividing the cement compressive strength by 10.
Thus, in the above scenario, only 150-psi compressive strength
is required; in other words, less than one third of the accepted
industry standard (500 psi). However, in lighter or extended
slurries, the ten percentile ratio (tensile: compressive) does not
apply and, depending on the slurry composition, the ratio
could be as high as 1:2. Also, the thickening time and strength
development can be accelerated with proper additives. Infact
over 95% of the slurries in use today in the field will develop
more than 150 psi, in less than 5 hours after placement. Figure
2 is a UCA plot comparing compressive strength development
of three cements (13.3 lbm/gal slurries) at identical down-hole
conditions; the slurry formulations are included in Table 2.
Note how both money and time could be saved using a
properly designed lightweight slurry and not waiting for 500-
psi strength. Therefore, for anchoring and casing support, we
can reduce the cost and simplify the operation by using a
single low-density slurry. A properly designed slurry could
have a density of close to 12.5 lbm/gal or, depending on the
hydrostatic control pressure required, 0.5 to 1 lbm/gal heavier
than the drilling mud will suffice. Table 3 contains the slurries
and their strength properties for comparison purposes.
IADC/SPE 62745 CEMENTS FOR LONG TERM ISOLATION - DESIGN OPTIMIZATION BY COMPUTER MODELLING AND PREDICTION
Zonal Isolation at the Interfaces
Zonal isolation is mainly dependent on the hydraulic bond
of cement to the interfaces and the permeability and integrity
of the cement sheath. For a good seal in the annulus, the
cement must be flexible enough to behave as a packing
element does in a packer. During the setting process the
cement undergoes volumetric shrinkage (2, 3) that can be as
high as six percent. This can affect hydraulic bonding and the
permeability of the cement sheath.
Two different types of cement shrinkage have been
recognized; bulk or outer shrinkage and inner or chemical
shrinkage. Bulk shrinkage affects bonding at the interfaces
and varies depending on slurry composition. Increasing the
solids content or adding magnesium and/or aluminum salts can
reduce, or even eliminate, bulk shrinkage. These salts can
actually induce expansion of the concrete under unconfined
conditions but they can also increase the final cost of the
slurry.
Under confinement, cement becomes ductile and it deforms
easily under pressure. Every time there is casing contraction,
due to hydrostatic pressure or temperature reductions in the
well bore, the cement will elastically expand until it becomes
plastic and the hydraulic bond is broken (formation of micro
annulus). Improving the elasticity of cement or its flexural
and tensile strength is an elegant solution to prevent de-
bonding. This can be accomplished by adding materials (3, 4,
10) such as latex, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and/or semi-inert
mineral fibers. Flexural strength can easily be measured in the
laboratory or estimated for neat slurries using 0.25:1 (flexural
strength:compressive strength) ratio. In the case of lighter
slurries, however, particularly those containing mineral fibres,
this ratio can be as high as 1.25:1. In other words, such
lightweight slurries exhibit greater flexibility and can provide
better zonal isolation.
Zonal Isolation in the Cement Matrix
There are two possibilities for flow through the body of the
cement;
(a) High cement permeability that could be related to an
inner shrinkage of cement or high porosity cement due
to poor slurry design and
(b) Macroscopic cement sheath failure due to longitudinal
and radial cracking under pressure or temperature
cycles (8, 10).
Inner shrinkage has to do with the reduction of the absolute
volume (or increase in porosity), that occurs when water and
cement combine to form hydrates. This process, which starts
just after mixing cement, continues until cement hardening has
been completed weeks, months or even years later. The
chemical shrinkage rate is low or non-existent during the
hydration period, very high during setting and initial
hardening and very low from then onwards during the final
hardening.
Therefore, in the short term, during cement setting,
3
highly mobile fluids (gas) can invade the cement matrix and
percolate in the well, producing channels that will greatly
affect sonic wave (CBL) response and possibly affect zone
isolation. Slurries with low free water and fluid loss, right
angle set (short transition time between liquid and solid) or
those containing specific gas control additives can reduce or
prevent this problem (5, 6). Also, the addition of semi-inert
micro size particles, (preferably flexible fibers) of appropriate
granulometry will help to control fluid movement through the
cement matrix.
In the long term, radial cracking of the cement sheath can
happen at any time during the life of the well. Radial cracking
is normally due to tangential and flexural forces rather than
compressional forces. These forces start at the annulus
boundaries, when the casing or plastic formations (salt domes)
expand (11). They can also occur due to compressional forces
in extreme cases, such as in an annular gap between a soft and
a hard casing or a soft casing and a hard formation. At the
limit, under very high loads (variations in hydrostatic
pressures or well temperature), compressional forces could
destroy the cement sheath by compaction of matrix porosity.
Therefore, to improve zonal isolation, (while maintaining
set cement porosity and permeability as low as possible) we
need to increase ductility (tensile and flexural strength, 9) of
the set cement. Increasing slurry density (to reduce porosity)
is not the answer, however as it will increase compressive
strength and induce brittleness. Instead, permeability and
ductility improvements can be accomplished with lighter
slurries and additions of low density semi-inert materials, such
as micro-size mineral fibers, that reduce set cement porosity
and improve the flexural and tensile properties of set cement
(reference 8). In addition when fluid loss properties are
required in the slurry, vinyl base additives or latex should be
used instead of HEC or polyamine derivatives.
Mathematical Simulator
Even though Flexural and Tensile strength measurements
are commonly used in the construction industry and testing
equipment is inexpensive and commercially available, they are
not common in oil field applications.
Yet it is clear from field results and the published literature
that these parameters are far more important from a zonal
isolation perspective than compressive strength, per se. In
order to promote a better and more widespread understanding
of this fact, a "cement strength simulator" was developed.
This software, based on a series of empirical equations,
predicts, with good accuracy, the development of cement
mechanical properties and the response to downhole stresses.
As such, the program can be used for preliminary design
purposes to assess the applicability of any given cement slurry
to accomodate the stresses imposed on it during well
completion and production.
The empirical relationships take the form of a series of
polynomial equations programmed using fuzzy logic, to take
into account synergistic and/or stochastic effects. The
algorithm produces a chart similar to that produced by an
Ultrasonic Cement Analyser (UCA) with cement strength
4 GINO DI LULLO AND PHIL RAE
evolution versus time. Cement strength evolution exhibits an
S shape curve (Figure 2 & 4), with three distinct phases.
The first phase represents the dormant period during which
early hydration is proceeding. The cement has developed no
significant mechanical strength at this time. This phase is
deemed to be complete when the slurry has attained 5 psi
compressive strength. This transition point is designated as
the Kick-Off Time(KOT). The second phase is typified by a
rapid gain in mechanical strength (high slope) and represents
the "early hardening". Finally, the third phase describes the
decelerating reactivity (low slope) that signifies "final
hardening". Each of these phases is described by a separate
equation or series of equations containing terms that relate to
the physical properties of the slurry, the chemical interactions
of the components and the synergistic relationships between
them, as a function of time and temperature. The final
strength is calculated at 48 hours since, at this time, over 90 %
of the total strength will typically have developed in oil field
cements. Also, this is the minimum time recommended before
running bond logs to evaluate zonal isolation.
Both, the KOT and the compressive strength are calculated,
within certain confidence limits, based on results obtained
with several cements around the world. Thus the final
compressive strength development plot is a band instead of a
single line. Figure 5 is a simulation of slurry 5 (UCA in
Figure 4) listed in Table 1. The accuracy of the simulator is
within the accepted testing error limits for this type of test as
defined by ASTM, or better than 75%. Figure 3 is a plot of
actual UCA compressive strengths versus software
predictions, for comparison purposes. The Flexural and
Tensile Strength are calculated based on the calculated
compressive strength at 48 hours. Again, there are several
terms in the polynomial equation that take into account the
effects of individual additives or the synergistic behaviour
exhibited by combinations of certain additives. Table 3,
compares actual and predicted properties for all 5 slurries
listed in table 3. The mechanical properties of cement
(Young's Modulus and Poissons ratio) can either be input or
estimated by the simulator. The estimation is done by
empirical correlations. The Poissons ratio is correlated with
the flexural strength and Young Modulus is correlated to the
compressive strength.
The simulator calculates the changes in the tangential and
radial components of stress in a cement sheath due to changes
in wellbore pressure, far-field total stress, and wellbore
temperature. These induced stresses are calculated by solving
the differential equation governing the radial component of the
displacement field in the casing, cement, and formation. The
solution of the displacement field has 6 constants that are
determined from 6 boundary conditions that impose continuity
of the radial components of stress and displacement at the
inner surface of the casing, the casing-cement and cement-
formation boundary, and far-field. As a result, the six
constants are functions of the inner and outer diameters of the
casing, well bore diameter, and the elastic constants (Young's
Modulus and Poisson's ratio) of the casing, cement, and
formation.
IADC/SPE 62745
The calculation follows the procedures outlined by
Thiercelin et. al. (11). The following assumptions were made
to simplify the calculation:
1. Casing, cement, and formation possess linear elastic,
isotropic properties
2. Isotropy of horizontal far field stress components
3. Plane-strain solution (i.e. no change in height of
cement)
4. No theta-dependence (in cylindrical coordinate system)
of the stress or displacement fields.
Although the radial and tangential stress components are
calculated in the casing, cement, and formation as a function
of the distance from the well bore axis, only the maximum
values at the interfaces are used to calculate cement sheath
failure.
This simulator calculates changes in the stress components
in cement due to changes in well bore temperature.
Simplifying assumptions were made to allow a closed-form
solution of the radial component of the displacement field.
It is assumed that the casing is uniformly heated and
expands into the cement before the cement has time to absorb
heat. Thus, temperature gradients are neglected and
temperature change is used to calculate the maximum stresses.
The results have good agreement with the more exact
numerical solutions. The formation-cement boundary is also
neglected (which is equivalent to assuming that the elastic
constants of the cement and formation are identical), because
temperature effects are almost instantaneous at the cement
casing interface, before heat is dissipated through the cement
sheath. The solution of the displacement field in the casing
and cement has four constants. The constants are determined
from four boundary conditions that impose continuity of the
radial components of stress and displacement at the inner
surface of the casing, the casing-cement boundary and far
field. In this case the change in horizontal stress is assumed
equal to zero. As a result, the four constants (elastic constants
for casing and cement, and thermal expansion coefficient of
the casing) are functions of the inner and outer diameters of
the casing. Radial and tangential components of stress are
calculated as a function of the radial coordinate. However,
only the average values of these stresses in the cement are
used to calculate cement sheath failure. This approach seems
to provide better agreement with the maximum induced
stresses that are derived from the more exact numerical
solutions of this coupled thermal-elastic problem.
The simulator also provides an estimate of bonding and
isolation length. The theoretical CBL amplitude is calculated
for a dual receiver tool and the barrier length required for
zonal isolation, for any specific case, is calculated based on
gas pressure and formation flow capacity, a similar approach
to those described by Rae et. al. (12) and Economides (13).
These parameters are estimated using flexural and tensile
properties of the set cement in addition to the compressive
strength. Finally, the cost of the slurries is also part of the
output to assist engineers in the optimization of cost-effective
IADC/SPE 62745 CEMENTS FOR LONG TERM ISOLATION - DESIGN OPTIMIZATION BY COMPUTER MODELLING AND PREDICTION
designs.
Using the simulator
To illustrate the use of the simulator and its application, we
have selected a shallow well where the last 2 strings cemented
were a 9 5/8 casing and a 7 liner, as per the schematic in
Figure 6. All five slurries in Table 2 were tested as a single
slurry for cementing the liner, based on future operations on
the well. With regard to zonal isolation, all of them passed the
minimum required length adjacent to, or just above, the zone
of interest. The worst case scenario was using the bentonite
slurry that required a minimum of 75 ft (Table 3), which is 3
times smaller than the shale barrier height.
After the liner is cemented in place, the top of the liner is
normally tested, (see Table 4). Applying a pressure through
the casing or though tubing set in the 9 5/8 casing, will make
the 7 liner expand due to a ballooning effect; in this case
there is no change in temperature. All five cements will be
damaged in front of the unconsolidated sandstone. However,
as the cement in front of the barriers remained intact, it is
possible to test the liner to 2000 psi.
The gas zone will be acid fracture stimulated in this well.
Thus, during the job there will be an increase in pressure and a
decrease in temperature due to cool down effects (see Table
4). If the job was performed through casing or through tubing
with a packer set at the top of the liner, the only slurries that
could be used are numbers 1 & 5. Notice that slurry number 1
has a density of 13.3 lbm/gal but contains micro-fibers, which
provides it with the necessary properties. The neat slurry and
the two lightweight slurries will have cement sheath failure in
adjacent zones compromising zonal isolation. Also, notice
that the bentonite slurry is the only one that failed under
compression.
Finally, the well will start producing gas, creating a
pressure drop inside the casing and a temperature increase in
the upper zones. In this scenario only the 15.6 lbm/gal slurries
could be used, as all the extended slurries exhibit failure in
adjacent zones. As a cost-effective alternative we used slurry
number 1 but mixed at 13.6 lbm/gal with a PVA fluid loss
additive instead of CMHEC and it passed all three simulations.
The simulator is not only intended for use in preliminary
design but also in field applications to help explain
mysterious phenomena. Examples might include cases where
the cement has magically disappeared from behind the
casing after an excellent job with no reported problems. More
routinely, the programme can be used to educate engineers on
the complex interaction of the forces that are involved in
achieving and maintaining zonal isolation. A better
understanding of these will help to optimize slurry designs and
reduce the cost of effectively cementing a well.
Case Histories:
Venezuela:
This well is situated in a difficult area to drill in Eastern
Venezuela. The wells are quite deep (15,000 ft) and hot
(350F), with several zones prone to lost circulation
5
throughout the complete interval but especially at 5,500 feet.
Also, there is presence of CO2 and H2S in almost all pay
zones, including the shallow ones. The development of this
field is being reactivated to target dry and associated gas in the
deeper zones.
Three casings and two liners are used to construct these
wells. The casing setting depths are: 20 at 700 feet, 13 3/8
at 3,500 feet, 9 5/8 at 8,500 feet and the 7 5/8 and 5 liners
are set at 13,800 feet and 15,000 feet, respectively.
The 9 5/8 casing is the most difficult to drill and cement as
there are five low pressure gas zones (consolidated sandstone)
intercalated with active shale that are prone to lost circulation
from 5,000 to 6,000 feet. In addition, there are two high-
pressure gas zones at around 7,000 feet. Perfect zonal
isolation in this interval is mandatory and cement sheath
integrity is expected to last over the entire life of the well.
Formate mud with density ranging from 10.0 to 11.5
lbm/gal is used for drilling this section, dictating the use of
lightweight slurries. Also higher static temperatures
encountered in the deeper intervals (up to 350F) mandate the
use of cement retrogression additives, even though the static
temperature in this interval is only 210F.
The cement in this interval is subjected to severe cycles of
temperature and pressure stresses while drilling the next
intervals. An increase in hydrostatic pressure of 2.5 lbm/gal
(equivalent to 1250 psi) and an increase in temperature of over
60F, while drilling the liners indicated the use of ductile
cement to prevent cement sheath failure.
The Cement Simulator program was used to help on the
pre-design of these slurries. The main parameters studied
were mechanical response to cyclic stresses and gas migration
prevention while drilling the liners. The simulator suggested
the use of slurries with at least 670-psi compressive strength
and flexural strength better than 310-psi. Compressive
strength, flexural and tensile strength, gas flow and the
traditional fluid loss, free water, thickening time and rheology
/ compatibility tests were carried out to design the slurries and
verify the simulator predictions.
Mud removal and displacement were accomplished with
100 bbls of a water base pre-flush (to eliminate compatibility
problems) and 100 bbls of a multi purpose cement spacer, both
of them designed for turbulent flow.
Two slurries were used, a tail slurry covering all the lost
circulation zones up to 4,900 feet and a lead slurry up to 200
feet inside the 13 3/8 casing. The final slurry designs used
were:
Lead Slurry: Class H + 30% hollow ceramic spheres + 3%
natural mineral fibers + 3% activated charcoal fibers + 0.5%
anhydrous sodium silicate + 1.5 gps AMPS fluid loss additive
+ 0.8 gps colloidal carbon dispersion + 0.01gps anti-foam.
Density : 1.0 lbm/gal (11.8 at downhole)
Fluid Loss : 21 cc in 30 min
Free Water : 0 ml
Thickening Time : 5:50 hours,
6 GINO DI LULLO AND PHIL RAE IADC/SPE 62745

Compressive Strength : 48 hours: 1,250 psi Openhole size 16 in.

Flexural Strength : 48 hours: 269 psi. Openhole excess 70%.
BHST120F / BHCT101F
The Lead slurry was tested for: Previous Lead Slurry: Class G + 0.65 gps sodium silicate
a. Increase in hydrostatic pressure of 2,000 psi; the simulator extender + 0.30 gps dispersing agent + 0.25 gps synthetic
estimated a minimum CS of 454 psi and a minimum FS of retarder + 0.25 gps PVA based fluid loss additive and bonding
140 psi were required for cement sheath integrity. agent + 0.05 gps anti-foam + sea water.
b. Increase in temperature of 50F; the simulator estimated a While trying to maintain the slurry performance, we tried
minimum CS of 93 psi and a minimum FS of 162 psi were
various slurries in the simulator to improve early compressive
required for cement sheath integrity.
strength development and reduce WOC. This was the reason
c. A combined increase in pressure and temperature (1,000
for the addition of an aluminum salt.
psi and 30F respectively); the simulator estimated a
minimum CS of 283 psi and a minimum FS of 166 psi The New design: Class G + 0.60 gps multi purpose cement
were required for cement sheath integrity. additive + 0.18 gps sodium aluminate extender + 0.05 gps
anti-foam agent + sea water.
Tail Slurry: Class H + 25% silica flour + 10% hollow ceramic
The new designs, as shown, are simpler, have better
spheres + 1.2 % PVA bonding additive + 0.45% CMHEC fluid
properties and have been used without any problems. This has
loss additive + 0.3% dispersing agent + 1.9% anhydrous
reduced the cost by almost 15% and produced enough strength
sodium silicate + 1.8 gps colloidal carbon dispersion + 0.01gps
to actually eliminate the need for a tail slurry without altering
anti-foam.
the 12 hours WOC requirement.
Density : 12.64 lbm/gal (13 at downhole)
Offshore Malaysia:
Fluid Loss : 19 cc in 30 min
To counter problems arising from the concomitant
Free Water: 0 ml
presence of shallow gas and lost circulation in a challenging
Thickening Time : 3:34 hours
offshore environment, a new, high performance cement system
Compressive Strength : 48 hours: 1,380 psi
was developed. The properties of this system were examined
Flexural Strength : 48 hours: 334 psi.
using the simulator and optimized accordingly. This new
system has a density of 14.0 lbm/gal, which is between the
The Tail slurry was tested for:
commonly used 12.6 lbm/gal lead and 15.8 lbm/gal tail
a. Increase in hydrostatic pressure of 2,500 psi; the simulator
slurries. Because of its moderate density, it generally requires
estimated a minimum CS of 622 psi and a minimum FS of
less cement additives in order to be gas-tight for shallow gas
222 psi were required for cement sheath integrity.
control purposes. Coupling this fact with the utilization of
b. Increase in temperature of 60F; the simulator estimated a
highly efficient cement additives results in a more effective
minimum CS of 138 psi and a minimum FS of 240 psi
and economical shallow gas control cement slurry.
were required for cement sheath integrity.
Apart from resisting gas migration, the lightweight system
c. A combined increase in pressure and temperature (1,000
develops adequate compressive strength for this application.
PSI and 50F respectively), the simulator estimated a
Typical 12-hr compressive strengths vary from 300-800 psi,
minimum CS of 428 psi and a minimum FS of 312 psi
depending on temperature. The strength values at 24 hours are
were required for cement sheath integrity.
normally in the range of 800 1,500 psi, easily competent for
support and isolation. This type of slurry also has a flexural:
The simulator predicted values for these 2 slurries for TT,
compressive strength ratio higher than 0.32 and the isolation
CS and FS were within the 25% accepted error for this type of
length required for 0.4 psi/ft gas gradient is < 25 ft. Such
testing. Also, the CBL amplitude from the log was below 12
performance eliminates the need to use a standard density tail
mV (except for the zones where loss circulation ocurred), as
slurry and helps improve cement job execution. Using only a
predicted by the simulator.
single slurry simplifies the cementing operations because of
easier mixing and better continuity. Switching slurry densities
Trinidad:
(ie. from lead to tail) can be problematic and, statistically, a
Trinidad off-shore - The 13 3/8-in. surface-casing primary
significant number of cement job problems are associated with
cement jobs were executed for over a year utilizing a silicate
this transition period. Continuity during cement jobs is
extended lead slurry. Recently, a study using the simulator
important because, for example, a variation in lightweight
was done in order to come up with a more cost effective
slurry density of only 0.3 lbm/gal may affect both compressive
slurry.
strength development and slurry viscosity values by more than
30 percent.
Cementing Parameters Thus, the resulting slurry meets all specifications, making
30-in. conductor driven to + 675 ft, 13 3/8-in. casing depth it ideal for cementing across intervals where problems of weak
at + 4,727 ft. formations and shallow gas co-exist. Similar slurries could
IADC/SPE 62745 CEMENTS FOR LONG TERM ISOLATION - DESIGN OPTIMIZATION BY COMPUTER MODELLING AND PREDICTION
also be used more widely in many circumstances where, today,
conventional lead and tail slurries are used. Adopting this
approach would greatly simplify the mixing procedure, as
noted above, allowing better continuity and greater control
over that most important of slurry properties density.
Furthermore, slurries of this type offer substantial
improvements in drill-out time while still easily exceeding any
compressive strength limits for casing support and structural
competence. The final point worth noting is the long term
safety, security and environmental integrity of the well. Most
oil and gas wells suffer leakage over their lifespan indeed
most regulatory bodies accept, and expect, a certain gas leak
rate from wells. Incorporation of an active gas absorbent in
well cementing slurries offers the tantalizing possibility of
reducing such leak rates by an order of magnitude. This could
reduce the risk of escape of hydrocarbons to surface, or
interzonal communication subsurface, thereby improving
wellsite safety, environmental stewardship and simplifying
well abandonment.
Up to late 1999, seventeen wells were successfully
cemented with this cement system in Malaysia. There have
been no cases of annular pressure build-up in any of these
wells.
Conclusions:
1. A computer simulator that models the evolution of cement
mechanical properties has been developed. This tool can
be used to help understand the complex processes
involved in achieving and maintaining well integrity and
zonal isolation.
2. High cement compressive strength is not crucial for
cement sheath integrity and zonal isolation and should not
be used as the basis for designing cement jobs.
Mechanical properties of set cement, under cyclic down-
hole stresses, should be used to guarantee well integrity.
3. Less that 150 psi compressive strength is required for
anchoring and supporting casing. Elimination of the tail
slurry is possible by using slurry densities higher than
12.5 ppg and/or 1 ppg heavier than the drilling mud,
reducing the cost and simplifing the operation.
4. Casing expansion created by higher internal casing
pressures or temperature increases can create radial cracks
in the set cement in the annulus, which cause loss of
annular zonal isolation.
5. Casing contraction, caused by reductions in hydrostatic
pressure or lower temperatures, can result in the formation
of a microannulus with attendant loss of annular isolation,
particularly to highly mobile fluids (i.e. gas).
6. Low compressive strength cements are more ductile than
other cements and are better suited to withstand stress
cycling. Addition of certain polymers (PVA, Styrene-
Butadiene latex) or, preferably, natural mineral fibres can
also be use to enhance cement flexibility.
7. Generally, the addition of natural mineral fibers allows the
use of low-density cement slurry to cement the entire
well, eliminating the need for tail slurry, or multistage
cementing.
7
Acknowledgment:
The authors wish to thanks the management of BJ Services for
the permission to publish this paper. Also, many thanks to all
those in the laboratories and the field who helped support this
development, especially Russell Maharidge and Norberto
Briggiler.
References:
1. George O. Suman, JR. and Richard C. Ellis: World Oil
Cementing Hand Book, 1977
2. J.J. Jutten, P.A. Parcevaux and D.D. Guillot,
Schlumberger: Relationship between Cement
Composition, Mechanical Properties and Cement Bond
Log Output. SPE 16652, Dallas, TX, September 27,
1987.
3. P.A Parcevaux and P.H. Sault, Schlumberger: Cement
Shrinkage and Elasticity: Anew Approach for a good
Zonal Isolation. SPE 13176, Dallas, TX, 1984
4. Dan Mueller, BJ Services: An Evaluation of well
cements for use in High Stress Environments. JPT , 1999
5. Gino Di Lullo and James Tan, BJ Services: An
Evaluation of Gas Control Additives. OSEA 92167,
Singapore, 1,December, 1992
6. J.C. Hibbeler and Gino Di Lullo - BJ Services and
Michael Tay Shell-Malaysia: Cost-effective Gas
Control: A case Study of Surfactant Cement. SPE 25323,
Singapore, 8, December, 1993
7. K.R. Backe, O.B. Lile, S.K. Lyomov, Harald Elvebakk
and Pal Skalle, Norwegian U. OF Science and
Technology: Characterizing Curing-Cement Slurries BY
Permeability, Tensile Strength and Shrinkage SPE Drill
& Completions 14, 3 September, 1999.
8. K.J. Goodwin, Mobil E&P Services Inc. and R.J. Crook,
Halliburton Services: Cement Sheath Stress Failure
SPE 20453, December 1992
9. R. Abdul Rachman, Phil Rae, BJ Services: A Simpler,
More Effective Method FOR Cementing Surface Casings
in Shallow Gas Zones: A Case History SPE 54286,
Jakarta, Indonesia, 20 April 1999.
10. R.B Carpenter, J.L. Brady and G.G. Blount, Arco Oil &
Gas Co.: Effects of Temperature and Cement Admixes
on Bond Strength SPE 22063, Anchorage, May 31 1991.
11. M.J. Thiercelin, J.F. Baret, Schlumberger and W.J.
Rodrigues, Intevep S.A. Cement Design Based on
Cement Mechanical Response SPE 38598, San Antonio,
TX, 8 October 1997.
12. P. Rae, BJ Services and D. Wilkins, Marathon Oil
Company and D. Free Dowell Schlumberger: A new
Approach TO THE Prediction of Gas Flow After
Cementing SPE 18622, New Orleans, Louisiana, 3
March 1989.
13. Michael J. Economides, Dowell Schlumberger:
Implications of Cementing on Well Performance, Well
Cementing Book, Chapter 1, 1987
8 DI LULLO G., RAE P. IADC/SPE 62745

Table 1

Casing Casing Casing Tail Casing Drill String Total Tensile Tensile Strength
diameter Length Weight Cemented Weight Weight Weight Strength Required for
per Height Required for CSG + Drilling
Inches Feet Feet feet Pounds Pounds Pounds CSG Support String Support,
PSI PSI
20 1000 133 50 133000 15500 148500 14 15
13 3/8 7000 72 350 504000 108500 612500 11 14
9 5/8 15000 54 750 802500 232500 1035000 11 15
7 22000 32 1100 704000 341000 1045000 9 14

Table 2

Slurry API Additives Density Thickening BHST

Cement ppg Time F
Type Type Multi Extender Extender F. Loss Cement h:m
Purpose Bentonite Sodium Additive Dispersant
Additive Silicate CMHEC SNSC
1 A 15% - 0.4% 0.45% 0.25% 13.3 4:26 135
2 A - - 0.36gps 0.45% - 13.3 4:16 135
3 A - 6% - - - 13.3 3:44 135
4 A - - - 0.2% 0.2% 15.6 3:30 135
5 A 50% - - 0.15% 0.15% 15.6 3:15 135
6 A 15% - 0.25% 0.80%* 0.45% 13.6 3:18 135

* PVA Fluid Loss Additive

Table 3

Slurry Actual Test Data Simulator Predictions

Type TT CS CS FS TS KOT CS CS FS TS CBL Required Young Poissons
Min. 24H 48H 48H 48H Min. 24H 48H 48H 48H mV Isolation Modulus Ratio
PSI PSI PSI PSI PSI PSI PSI PSI Height, ft MPSI
1 4:26 1710 1950 365 166 4:51 1523 1626 440 195 6.4 59.0 0.49 0.21
2 4:16 900 1150 296 128 4:29 910 1119 291 123 8.8 67.6 0.44 0.18
3 3:44 800 1060 313 170 2:54 875 1094 289 121 8.8 74.7 0.43 0.19
4 3:30 2450 3250 776 355 3:32 2338 2960 770 326 3.8 9.4 0.95 0.18
5 3:15 1650 2050 581 275 3:23 1739 2076 659 260 3.4 8.2 0.74 0.24
6 3:18 2020 2280 458 208 2:40 1809 1894 603 249 5.4 40.3 0.66 0.22
IADC/SPE 62745 CEMENT FOR LONG TERM ISOLATION - DESIGN OPTIMIZATION BY COMPUTER MODELLING AND PREDICTION 9

Table 4

Evaluation at Operation Delta Delta Cement Sheath Integrity

Formation Pressure Tempe. Slurry 1 Slurry 2 Slurry 3 Slurry 4 Slurry 5 Slurry 6
Top Shale Test Liner 25000 0 OK OK OK OK OK OK
Hanger
Unconsolidated Test Liner 25000 0 Fail by Fail by Fail by Fail by Fail by Fail by
Sandstone Hanger Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension
Medium Shale Test Liner 25000 0 OK OK OK OK OK OK
Hanger
Sandstone Test Liner 25000 0 OK OK OK Fail by OK OK
Hanger Tension
Bottom Shale Test Liner 25000 0 OK OK OK OK OK OK
Hanger
Limestone Test Liner 25000 0 OK OK OK OK OK OK
Hanger
Top Shale Fracture Job 3600 -70 OK OK OK Fail by OK OK
Gas Zone Tension
Unconsolidated Fracture Job 3700 -70 Fail by Fail by Fail by Fail by Fail by OK
Sandstone Gas Zone Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension
Medium Shale Fracture Job 3800 -75 OK Fail by Fail by Fail by OK OK
Gas Zone Tension Tension Tension
Consolidated Fracture Job 3850 -75 OK Fail by Fail by Fail by OK OK
Sandstone Gas Zone Tension Tension Tension
Bottom Shale Fracture Job 3950 -85 Fail by Fail by Fail by Fail by OK OK
Gas Zone Tension Tension Tension Tension

Limestone Fracture Job 4000 -90 Fail by Fail by Fail by Fail by OK OK

Tension & Tension & Tension & Tension
Gas Zone
Compression Compression Compression

Top Shale Bottom -550 20 Fail by Fail by OK OK OK OK

Zone Gas Tension Tension
Production
Unconsolidated Bottom -575 15 OK OK OK OK OK OK
Sandstone Zone Gas
Production
Medium Shale Bottom -600 10 Fail by Fail by Fail by OK OK OK
Zone Gas Tension Tension Tension
Production
Sandstone Bottom -625 5 Fail by Fail by Fail by OK OK OK
Zone Gas Tension Tension Tension
Production
Bottom Shale Bottom -650 5 Fail by Fail by Fail by OK OK OK
Zone Gas Tension Tension Tension
Production
Limestone Bottom -675 0 Fail by Fail by Fail by OK OK OK
Zone Gas Tension Tension Tension
Production
10 DI LULLO G., RAE P. IADC/SPE 62745

Table 5

Property Previous Simulator Actual Simulator

Design Prediction Design Prediction
Slurry wt (ppg) 12.6 12.6 12.6 12.6
Slurry yield (cu ft/sx) 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.15
Mix Water (gal/sx) 11.92 12.55 12.54 12.55
Thickening time 6 hrs 8.00 hrs 5 hrs 5.49 hrs
Free Water (mLs @ 101F) 0 API 0 API
Fluid loss (@ 1,000 psi & 101F) 175 - 135 -
Comp. Strength @ 120 F & 12 hrs 100 173 500 357
Comp. Strength @ 120 F & 24 hrs 450 570 750 698
Rheological properties 45,25,20,13 - 115,73,53,32 -
(600, 300, 200, 100 RPM)
IADC/SPE 62745 CEMENT FOR LONG TERM ISOLATION - DESIGN OPTIMIZATION BY COMPUTER MODELLING AND PREDICTION 11

Figure 1

Young's Modulus vs. Strength

24-48 hour set time
4

3.5
Unconfined Compressive Strength

3
Confined Compressive Strenght
Young's Modulus (Mpsi)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
Compressive Strength (psi)

Figure 2
12 DI LULLO G., RAE P. IADC/SPE 62745

Figure 3

Actual CS vs Simulators Min &Max CS

5450
Simulator
Min CS
Max CS
4450
Simulator Range, PSI

3450

2450

1450

450
450 1450 2450 3450 4450 5450

Actual Compressive Strength (UCA), PSI

IADC/SPE 62745 CEMENT FOR LONG TERM ISOLATION - DESIGN OPTIMIZATION BY COMPUTER MODELLING AND PREDICTION 13

Figure 4

Figure 5

2.5E+03 160

140

2.0E+03

120
Compressive Strength ,

100
1.5E+03
Temperature, F
psi

80

1.0E+03
60

40

5.0E+02

20

0.0E+00 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time, hours
 14 DI LULLO G., RAE P. IADC/SPE 62745

Figure 6

9 5/8 Casing, N-80

4500 feet
Top Shale

4700 feet
Unconsolidated Sandstone
4850 feet

Silt-Stone
5150 feet 7 Casing, N-80
Consolidated Sandstone
5250 feet Oil Zone

Bottom Shale

5450 feet Limestone, Gas Zone

Gas Gradient 0.5 PSI/ft
5,500 feet

BHST: 135 F
Temperature Gradient 1.0 PSI/100 ft
Fracture Initiation Gradient: 1.10 PSI/ft
Mud Density: 10.6 PPG