Dr.

Satish Shukla 1 of 27

Engg. Math. I (Unit-III)

Syllabus: Numerical Analysis: Number Representation and Errors: Numeri-

cal Errors; Floating Point Representation; Finite Single and Double Precision
Differences; Machine Epsilon; Significant Digits. Numerical Methods for Solv-
ing Nonlinear Equations: Method of Bisection, Secant Method, False Position,
Newton-Raphsons Method, Multidimensional Newtons Method, Fixed Point
Method and its convergence.

Decimal and Binary system

Decimal System: There are two parts of any number, (i) the integer part; and (ii) the
fractional part.
(i) The integer part: In the decimal system, there are ten digits, namely, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 which are used for the representation of any numbers. The individual
digits in a number, such as 3137, are the coefficients of powers of 10, i.e.,

3137 = 3 103 + 1 102 + 3 101 + 7 100 .

In general, a string of digits an an1 . . . a1 a0 is represented by the following formula:

an an1 . . . a1 a0 = an 10n + an1 10n1 + + a1 101 + a0 100 .

(ii) Fractional part: Any number which is not integer, i.e., any number between 0 and 1
is represented by a string of digits to the right of a decimal point. For example, 0.3137.
The individual digits in a number, such as 0.3137, are the coefficients of negative powers
of 10, i.e.,
0.3137 = 3 101 + 1 102 + 3 103 + 7 104 .
In general, we have the following formula:

0.b1 b2 . . . bn = b1 101 + b2 102 + b3 103 + + bn 10n .

By combining the above two, we have the following representation of number in Decimal
system:

.
an an1 . . . a1 a0 |{z} b b ...b
| {z } |1 2{z n}
Integer part Decimal Fractional part
= 10n + an1 10n1 + a1 101 + a0 100 + b1 101 + b2 102 + bn 10n .
| {z } | {z }
Integer part Fractional part

For example

3137.3137 = 3 103 + 1 102 + 3 101 + 7 100

+3 101 + 1 102 + 3 103 + 7 104 .

This method of representing numbers is called the decimal system, because the number
10 is used as the base of this representation.
Dr. Satish Shukla 2 of 27

General System: Note that, in decimal system, to represent a number we need ten
basic numbers, namely, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 9. We are habitual of this system and it
is more convenient for us to deal with numbers by this system. But, it is not the case
everywhere, for example, in case case of machines like computer, which can handle only
two basic numbers (binary system), namely, 0 and 1, the decimal system is not useful.
Therefore, we define a general system with a base (obviously, this system will have
1 basic numbers, namely, 1, 2, . . . , 1). In this general system the number is
represented as follows:
.
an an1 . . . a1 a0 |{z} b1 b2 . . . bn
| {z } | {z }
Integer part Decimal Fractional part
= a0n n + a0n1 n1 + + a01 1 + a00 0
| {z }
Integer part
+ b01 1
+ b02 2 + b03 3 + b0n n . (1)
| {z }
Fractional part

For different values of in the above formula, we can obtain the different representa-
tion of the number an an1 . . . a1 a0 .b1 b2 b3 . . ., for example, if = 2 we get the binary
representation and for = 8, we obtain the octal representation.
How to represent a number in a system? Next, we consider the problem of represen-
tation of numbers in a system. We consider the particular case of Binary system (i.e.,
= 2). We use the following well-known formula form algebra:
Divident = (divisor)( quotient) + remainder. (2)
Suppose, we have to find the binary representation of a3 a2 a1 a0 .b1 b2 b3 b4 . Then taking
= 2 in (1) we have
a3 a2 a1 a0 .b1 b2 b3 b4 = a03 23 + a02 22 + a01 21 + a00 20
| {z }
Integer part
+ b01 21 + b02 22 + b03 23 + b04 24 . (3)
| {z }
Fractional part

We have to find the values of a00 , a01 , a02 , a03 and b00 , b01 , b02 , b03 . The integer part can be
written as
a03 23 + a02 22 + a01 21 + a00 20 = 2 a03 22 + a02 21 + a01 + a00 .

Comparing this equation with the formula (2), we obtain that the a00 is the remainder
when the integer part (say I) is divided by 2. Also, the quotient (q1 ) is a03 22 + a02
21 + a01 . Now, this quotient q1 can be written as
a03 22 + a02 21 + a01 = 2 (a03 2 + a02 ) + a01 .
Again comparing the above equation with the formula (2), we obtain the a01 is the
remainder when the previous quotient q1 is divided by 2. Also, the new quotient (say
q2 ) is a03 2 + a02 . Again, this quotient q2 can be written as
a03 2 + a02 = 2 (a03 ) + a02 .
Dr. Satish Shukla 3 of 27

Again comparing the above equation with the formula (2), we obtain the a02 is the
remainder when the previous quotient is divided by 2. Also, the new quotient (say q3 )
is a03 . Thus, we have obtained the values of a00 , a01 , a02 and a03 .

Process: To find the integer part, divide the integer part successively by 2,
and find the remainder in each step. These remainders are the required digits in
binomial representation of integer part. If r1 , r2 , . . . , rn1 , rn are the successive
remainders then the binomial representation is rn rn1 r2 r1 .

To obtain the representation of fractional part (say F ) multiply F by 2 we obtain

b01 + b02 21 + b03 22 + b04 23 .
Therefore, b01 is the integer part when F is multiplied by 2. Also, the fractional part
now becomes F1 = b02 21 + b03 22 + b04 23 and if it is multiplied by 2 then we get
b02 + b03 21 + b04 22 .
Therefore, b02 is the integer part when F1 is multiplied by 2. Also, the fractional part
now becomes F2 = b03 21 + b04 22 and if it is multiplied by 2 then we get
b03 + b04 21 .
Therefore, b03 is the integer part when F2 is multiplied by 2. Also, the fractional part
now becomes F3 = b04 21 and if it is multiplied by 2 then we get
b4 .
Therefore, b04 is the integer part when F3 is multiplied by 2. Thus, we have obtained
the values of b01 , b02 , b03 and b04 .

Process: To find the fractional part, multiply the fractional part successively
by 2 until the quotient is not 0, and find the integer part in each step. These
integer parts are the required digits in binomial representation of fractional part.

Example 1. Find the binary representation of integer and fractional parts of

412.625.

Sol. For integer part, dividing 412 successively by 2 and obtaining the remainder in
each term we get:
divisor quotient remainder
I=412 2 206 r1 = 0
q1 =206 2 103 r2 = 0
q2 =103 2 51 r3 = 1
q3 = 51 2 25 r4 = 1
q4 = 25 2 12 r5 = 1
q5 = 12 2 6 r6 = 0
q6 = 6 2 3 r7 = 0
q7 = 3 2 1 r8 = 1
q8 = 1 2 0 r9 = 1
Dr. Satish Shukla 4 of 27

Therefore, the integer part: (412)2 = 110011100. For fractional part the process is as
follows:
multiplier result integer part
F=.625 2 1.25 1
F1 =0.25 2 0.5 0
F2 =0.5 2 1.0 1
Therefore, the fractional part: (.625)2 = 101.

Remark 1. In the above example, we see that the expression for 412 in binary
system is 10011100, i.e., both 412 and 110011100 represent the same number in
two different systems (412 in decimal and 110011100 in binary). Therefore, to
distinguish the number we represent the number with suffix of the base of system.
Thus, (412)10 = (110011100)2 .

The Floating Point Representation: Every real number can be represented in the
following form:
R = M Be
where M is called the Mantissa and e is an integer called the Exponent and B is
the base of the system. Since the real number may have positive or negative signs,
therefore, the Mantissa and the exponent are considered with appropriate signs. Such
a representation of number is called the Floating Point Representation of the number
R. Note that, in floating point representation a number is represented by two parts,
the Mantissa, and the Exponent. The Mantissa is a number with the sign of number,
and the Exponent decides the position of decimal (or binary) point. For example, in
the decimal system the floating point representation of the number (31.37)10 is

(31.37)10 = .3137 102 .

Similarly, in the binary system the number (1011.0011)2 is

(1011.0011)2 = (.10110011)2 24 .

The above representations are called the true normalized forms of real numbers.
Operations on Binary numbers:
(i) Sum of Binary numbers. All the rules of sum of numbers in binary system are
similar to those of decimal system, except the rule for carry. In binary system:

(1) 0 + 0 = 0;

(2) 0 + 1 = 1 + 0 = 1;

(3) 1 + 1 = 0 with carry 1 to the next left bit (or next more significant bit).

Example 2. Find (110010101)2 + (010110110)2 .

Dr. Satish Shukla 5 of 27

Sol.
1 1 1 1 =carries
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 =first number
+ 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 =second number
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 =sum
(ii) Subtraction of Binary numbers. All the rules of subtraction of numbers in binary
system are similar to those of decimal system, except 0 1 = 1 with 1 borrow.
(1) 0 0 = 0;
(2) 1 0 = 1;
(3) 1 1 = 0;
(4) 0 1 = 1 with borrow 1 from the next left bit (or next more significant bit).

Example 3. Find (00101001)2 (00000110)2 .

Sol.
0 =borrows
1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 =first number
- 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 =second number
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 =difference
(i) Multiplication of Binary numbers. All the rules of sum of numbers in binary system
are similar to those of decimal system.
(1) 0 0 = 0;
(2) 1 0 = 0 1 = 0;
(3) 1 1 = 1.

Example 4. Find (00101001)2 (00000110)2 .

Sol.
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 =first number
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 =second number
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 =product
(i) Division of Binary numbers. Binary division is almost as easy, and involves our
knowledge of binary multiplication. Take for example the division of (1011)2 into (11)2 .
1 1 Quotient
1 1 ) 1 0 1 1
- 1 1
1 0 1
- 1 1
1 0 Remainder
Dr. Satish Shukla 6 of 27

Errors (Mathematical Formula): True value or Actual value (x) = Approximated or

observed value (x) + error (ex ). Therefore, for error we have the following formulae
Error ex = x x;
Absolute Error |ex | = |x x|;
Relative Error = |ex /x|;
Percentage Error = |ex /x| 100.
Numerical Errors in computation, Roundoff and Truncation Errors.
In computation, the numerical errors arise due to roundoff and truncation of the real
numbers. These errors is divided into two categories:
(i) Roundoff Errors: Roundoff error occurs because computers use fixed num-
ber of bits and hence fixed number of binary digits to represent numbers. When the
number of bits required for representing a number are less then the number is usually
rounded to fit the available number of bits. This is done either by chopping or by
symmetric rounding.

(a) Chopping: Rounding a number by chopping amounts to dropping the extra digits.
Here the given number is truncated. Suppose that we are using a computer with a
fixed word length of four digits. Then the truncated representation of the number
31.37731 will be 31.37. The digits 731 will be dropped. Now to evaluate the error
due to chopping let us consider the normalized representation of the given number
x, i.e.:
x = 31.37731 = .3137731 102 = (0.3137 + 0.0000731) 102
= (0.3137 + 0.731 104 ) 102
= 0.3137
| 10}2 + 0.731
{z | 1024} .
{z
rounded number chopping error
Thus, if the true value of a number is x and after chopping its rounded number
(approximated value) in normalized form is x = fx 10E and the normalized form
of the chopped part (chopping error) is ec = gx 10Ed then:
x = x + ec = fx 10E + gx 10Ed .
Because, 0 gx < 1, therefore, the chopping error ec = gx 10Ed < 10Ed .
(b) Symmetric Rounding: In the symmetric roundoff method the last retained sig-
nificant digit is rounded up by 1 if the first discarded digit is greater or equal to
5, otherwise we simply chop without rounding. In other words, if gx 0.5 then
the last digit in is raised by 1 before chopping. For example, let x = 31.377331,
y = 19.783737 be two given numbers to be rounded to five digit numbers. The
normalized form x and y are 0.31377331 102 , y = 0.19783737 102 . On rounding
these numbers to five digits we get 0.31377102 and y = 0.19784102 respectively.
Therefore, in this case the absolute value of symmetric roundoff error:
|Symmetric Roundoff Error| = |er | = |gx | 10Ed if gx < 0.5
= |gx 1| 10Ed if gx 0.5.
In both the above cases, we have the symmetric roundoff error 0.5 10Ed .
Dr. Satish Shukla 7 of 27

(ii) Truncation Errors: In computations, the infinite mathematical expressions

cannot be used in their exact form. Therefore, we truncate the infinite mathematical
expressions up to a suitable term. Therefore an error is produced and such error is
called the truncation error. For instance, consider the Maclaurins series for ex , then

x x2 x3 x4 x5
e =1+x+ + + + + .
2! 3! 4! 5!
Obviously, we cannot use this series in the above (infinite) form. Suppose, the above
2
series is truncated with tree terms, then the approximated value ex 1 + x + x2! . Now,
the truncation error is

x3 x4 x5 X xi
Truncation Errors = + + + = .
3! 4! 5! i=3
i!

Machine Epsilon: The maximum relative roundoff error due to rounding off known
as the machine epsilon. Suppose that we have a machine working on a decimal system.
Then, we know that we would encounter roundoff error when a number is represented
in floating point form. The relative roundoff error due to chopping is defined by
 e   g 10Ed 
 c x
er =   =  . (4)
x fx 10E 
 
Ed Ed
 gx 
Since, the chopping error ec = gx 10 < 10 and |fx | 0.1, therefore   < 10,
fx
and so,
 gx 10Ed   10 10Ed 
   
 <  = 10d+1 .
 fx 10E   10E 

Therefore, from (4) we have ex < 10d+1 . Thus, the relative roundoff error due to
chopping cannot exceed the value 10d+1 and it is the known as the machine epsilon
due to chopping and denoted by c = 10d+1 .
With a similar process, we get the machine epsilon due to symmetric roundoff
r = 0.5 10d+1 (since symmetric roundoff error er < 0.5 10Ed ).

Significant Digit: It is counted from the leading nonzero digit to the last correct one.
For instance, 0.3137 has four significant digits. We obey the following rules for finding
the significant digits:
Rule 1. Non-zero digits are always significant.

Rule 2. Any zeros between two significant digits are significant.

Rule 3. A final zero or trailing zeros (the zeros after a significant digit) in the decimal
portion ONLY are significant, all other are nonsignificant.

Example 5. Find the significant digits in (1) 3.0800 (2) 0.00418 (3) 7.09 105
(4) 91, 600 (5) 0.003005 (6) 3.200 109 (7) 250 (8) 780, 000, 000 (9) 0.0101 (10)
0.00800.
Dr. Satish Shukla 8 of 27

Sol.
S.No. Number No. of Significant Digits
1 3.0800 5
2 0.00418 3
5
3 7.0910 3
4 91,600 3
5 0.003005 4
9
6 3.20010 4
7 250 2
8 780,000,000 2
9 0.0101 3
10 0.00800 3

Numerical Methods for Solving Nonlinear Equations

Algebraic function: A function f (x) is called algebraic functions if it can be expressed

using a finite number of terms, involving only the algebraic operations addition, sub-
traction, multiplication, division, and raising to a fractional power of the variable x.
Transcendental function: A function f (x) is called a Transcendental functions if it
have any root which is not a root of any algebraic function. They are built on func-
tions like logs, exponents, trigonometric functions and inverse trigonometric functions.
Intermediate value theorem: If f (x) be a continuous function in the interval [a, b]
and there are two numbers x, y in the interval [a, b] such that f (x) and f (y) have op-
posite signs (or f (a)f (b) < 0). Then, there is a root of function f (x) between x and y.

Next, we discuss some methods to find the approximate roots of a given function.
Bisection Method. This method is based on the intermediate value theorem. In this
method, first we find an interval [a, b] such that f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs. By
intermediate value theorem, there exists a root of the function f (x), between a and b.
a+b
Now, we bisect this interval by taking mean of a and b and find the point x1 = .
2
If f (x1 ) = 0, then we are done. If f (x1 ) 6= 0, then we find f (x1 ). If f (x1 ) has an
opposite sign to f (a), then the bisected interval is taken [a, x1 ], otherwise it is [x1 , b].
We repeat the same process with the bisected interval till we get the desired root.

Example 6. Find a root of the equation x3 4x = 9 by bisection method correct

up to three places of decimals.

Sol. Here f (x) = x3 4x9. We have to find a root of f (x). Then, since f (2) = 9 < 0
and f (3) = 10 > 0. Therefore f (2) f (3) < 0, and so, there is a root of f (x) in the
interval [2, 3].
Step I. Let
2+3
x1 = = 2.5
2
and
f (x1 ) = f (2.5) = 3.375 < 0, and so, f (x1 ) f (3) < 0.
Dr. Satish Shukla 9 of 27

Therefore, there is a root of f (x) in the interval [2.5, 3].

Step II. Let
2.5 + 3
x2 = = 2.75.
2
The
f (x2 ) = f (2.75) = 0.7969 > 0, and so, f (x1 ) f (x2 ) < 0.
Therefore, there is a root of f (x) in the interval [2.5, 2.75].
Step III. Let
2.5 + 2.75
x3 = = 2.625.
2
Then,
f (x3 ) = f (2.625) = 1.4121 < 0, and so, f (x2 ) f (x3 ) < 0.
Therefore, there is a root of f (x) in the interval [2.625, 2.75].
Step IV. Let
2.75 + 2.625
x4 = = 2.6875.
2
Then,
f (x4 ) = f (2.6875) = 0.3391 < 0, and so, f (x2 ) f (x4 ) < 0.
Therefore, there is a root of f (x) in the interval [2.6875, 2.75].
Step V. Let
2.75 + 2.6875
x5 = = 2.7188.
2
Then
f (x5 ) = f (2.7188) = 0.2218 > 0, and so, f (x5 ) f (x4 ) < 0.
Therefore, there is root of f (x) in the interval [2.6875, 2.7188].
Step VI. Let
2.6875 + 2.7188
x6 = = 2.7031.
2
Then
f (x6 ) = f (2.7031) = 0.0615 < 0, and so, f (x6 ) f (x5 ) < 0.
Therefore, there is a root of f (x) in the interval [2.7031, 2.7188].
Step VII. Let
2.7031 + 2.7188
x7 = = 2.711.
2
Then
f (x7 ) = f (2.711) = 0.0806 > 0, and so, f (x7 ) f (x6 ) < 0.
Therefore, there is a root of f (x) in the interval [2.7031, 2.711].
Step VIII. Let
2.7031 + 2.711
x8 = = 2.7071.
2
Then
f (x8 ) = f (2.7071) = 0.01028 > 0, and so, f (x8 ) f (x6 ) < 0.
Dr. Satish Shukla 10 of 27

Therefore, there is a root of f (x) in the interval [2.7031, 2.7071].

Step IX. Let
2.7071 + 2.7031
x9 = = 2.7051.
2
Then
f (x9 ) = f (2.7051) = 0.0256 < 0, and so, f (x8 ) f (x9 ) < 0.
Therefore, there is a root of f (x) in the interval [2.7051, 2.7071].
Step X. Let
2.7071 + 2.7051
x10 = = 2.7061, and so, f (x10 ) = f (2.7061) = 0.0077 < 0.
2
Therefore, f (x10 )f (x8 ) < 0, and so, there is a root of f (x) in the interval [2.7061, 2.7071].
Step XI. Let x11 = 2.7061+2.7071
2
= 2.7066.
Since x10 = x11 (up to the three places of decimal), therefore x = 2.706 is the required
root of given equation.

Example 7. By using the bisection method, find an approximate root of the equa-
tion sin x = 1/x, that lies between x = 1 and x = 1.5 (measured in radians).
Carry out computation upto 7th stage.

Sol. Let f (x) = x sin x 1. Then we have to find a root of f (x) lies between 1 and
1.5, i.e., the root lies in the interval [1, 1.5]. Then, since f (1) = 0.1585 < 0 and
f (1.5) = 0.4962 > 0. Therefore f (1) f (1.5) < 0, and so, there is a root of f (x) in the
interval [1, 1.5].
Step I. Let
1 + 1.5
x1 = = 1.25
2
and
f (x1 ) = f (1.25) = 0.1862 > 0, and so, f (x1 ) f (1) < 0.

Therefore, there is a root of f (x) in the interval [1, 1.25].

Step II. Let
1 + 1.25
x2 = = 1.125.
2
The
f (x2 ) = f (1.125) = 0.0150 > 0, and so, f (x2 ) f (1) < 0.

Therefore, there is a root of f (x) in the interval [1, 1.125].

Step III. Let
1 + 1.125
x3 = = 1.0625.
2
Then,
f (x3 ) = f (1.0625) = 0.0718 < 0, and so, f (x2 ) f (x3 ) < 0.
Dr. Satish Shukla 11 of 27

Therefore, there is a root of f (x) in the interval [1.0625, 1.125].

Step IV. Let
1.0625 + 1.125
x4 = = 1.09375.
2
Then,
f (x4 ) = f (1.09375) = 0.02836 < 0, and so, f (x2 ) f (x4 ) < 0.

Therefore, there is a root of f (x) in the interval [1.09375, 1.125].

Step V. Let
1.09375 + 1.125
x5 = = 1.10937.
2
Then
f (x5 ) = f (1.10937) = 0.00664 < 0, and so, f (x2 ) f (x5 ) < 0.
Therefore, there is root of f (x) in the interval [1.10937, 1.125].
With similar process we obtain:x6 = 1.11719 and x7 = 1.11328. Therefore, x = 1.11328
is the required root of given equation.

Secant Method

6 Q
Y

f (x)

x0r x2r x3r r r -X

O x1

P P0
The Secant Method

Suppose, we have to find a root of equation f (x) = 0 which is between x0 and

x1 . Instead of taking average (as we do in Bisection method) we now do a linear
approximation to the root . For this, we join the points P (x0 , f (x0 )) and Q(x1 , f (x1 ))
so that the chord P Q to the curve y = f (x) is constructed. Then, the equation of this
chord will be:
f (x1 ) f (x0 )
y f (x1 ) = (x x1 ).
x1 x0
Suppose, this cord P Q intersect the X-axis at point (x2 , 0). Then, from the above
equation we have
Dr. Satish Shukla 12 of 27

f (x1 ) f (x0 )
0 f (x1 ) = (x2 x1 ), or:
x1 x0
x1 x0
x 2 = x1 f (x1 ).
f (x1 ) f (x0 )

Then, x2 is the first approximation of . Now join the points P 0 (x2 , f (x2 )) and Q(x1 , f (x2 ))
so that the chord P 0 Q to the curve y = f (x) is constructed. Then, the equation of this
chord will be:
f (x2 ) f (x1 )
y f (x2 ) = (x x2 ).
x2 x1
Suppose, this cord P 0 Q intersect the X-axis at point (x3 , 0). Then, from the above
equation we have
f (x2 ) f (x1 )
0 f (x2 ) = (x3 x2 ), or:
x2 x1
x2 x1
x 3 = x2 f (x2 ).
f (x2 ) f (x1 )

Then, x2 is the second approximation of and obviously, the value x2 is more closed
to than the x1 (first approximation). We repeat this process till we get the desired
accuracy.

General Formula for Secant Method. First find the values x0 and x1 by Inter-
mediate value theorem (as we have done in the bisection method), then use the
following formula for further approximation:
xn xn1
xn+1 = xn f (xn ), n = 1, 2, . . . .
f (xn ) f (xn1 )

Example 8. Find the root of equation x log10 (x) = 1.2 by Secant method correct
upto three places of decimals.

Sol. Let f (x) = x log10 (x) 1.2. Then, we have to find the root of f (x). Note that,
f (1) = 1.2, f (2) = 0.598 and f (3) = 0.231. Therefore, there is a root of f (x)
between 2 and 3. Let x0 = 2 and x1 = 3. Then the first approximation:
x1 x0 32 1
x2 = x1 f (x1 ) = 3 f (3) = 3 0.231
f (x1 ) f (x0 ) f (3) f (2) 0.231 (0.598)
= 2.721.

Then, f (x2 ) = f (2.721) = 0.017. Now, the second approximation:

x2 x1 2.721 3
x 3 = x2 f (x2 ) = 2.721 f (2.721)
f (x2 ) f (x1 ) f (2.721) f (3)
0.279
= 2.721 (0.017)
0.017 0.231
= 2.740.
Dr. Satish Shukla 13 of 27

Then, f (x3 ) = f (2.740) = 0.0005. Now, the third approximation:

x3 x2 2.740 2.721
x4 = x3 f (x3 ) = 2.740 f (2.740)
f (x1 ) f (x2 ) f (2.740) f (2.721)
0.019
= 2.740 (0.0005)
0.0005 (0.017)
= 2.740.

Therefore, = 2.740 is the root of given equation (correct upto the three decimal
places).

Example 9. Find the root of equation x4 x 10 = 0 by Secant method correct

upto four places of decimals.

Sol. Let f (x) = x4 x 10 = 0. Then, we have to find the root of f (x). Note that,
f (1.8) = 1.3024 and f (2) = 4. Therefore, there is a root of f (x) between 0 and 2.
Let x0 = 1.8 and x1 = 2. Then the first approximation:
x1 x0 2 1.8 0.2
x2 = x1 f (x1 ) = 2 f (2) = 2 4
f (x1 ) f (x0 ) f (2) f (1.8) 4 (1.3024)
= 1.8491.

Then, f (x2 ) = f (1.8491) = 0.1584. Now, the second approximation:

x2 x1 1.8491 2
x3 = x2 f (x2 ) = 1.8491 f (1.8491)
f (x2 ) f (x1 ) f (1.8491) f (2)
0.1509
= 1.8491 (0.1584)
0.1584 4
= 1.8548.

Then, f (x3 ) = f (1.8548) = 0.0192. Now, the third approximation:

x3 x2 1.8548 1.8491
x4 = x3 f (x3 ) = 1.8548 f (1.8548)
f (x3 ) f (x2 ) f (1.8548) f (1.8491)
0.0057
= 1.8548 (0.0192)
0.0192 (0.1584)
= 1.8555.

Then, f (x4 ) = f (1.8555) = 0.0021 Now, the fourth approximation:

x4 x3 1.8555 1.8548
x5 = x 4 f (x4 ) = 1.8555 f (1.8555)
f (x4 ) f (x3 ) f (1.8555) f (1.8548)
0.0007
= 1.8555 (0.0021)
0.0021 (0.0192)
= 1.8555.

Therefore, = 1.8555 is the root of given equation (correct upto the four decimal
places).
Dr. Satish Shukla 14 of 27

Method of false position (Regula-falsi) method.

It is the oldest method for finding the real roots of an equation, and this method is a
combination of Bisection and Secant method.
Formula for Regula-falsi method. In this method, for the approximation of the
root of the equation f (x) = 0,we use the following formula:

ba
c=b f (b)
f (b) f (a)

where a and b are such that f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0. Note that, in this method
the values of a and b changes in each step.

Example 10. Find the root of the equation cos x = xex using the regula-falsi
method correct to four decimal places.

Sol. Let f (x) = cos x xex . Then we have to find the root of f (x). Now since f (0) =
1 > 0, f (1) = 2.1779 < 0, therefore a = 1 and b = 0. By the formula, the first
approximation for :
ba 01 1
c = b f (b) = 0 f (0) = = 0.3146.
f (b) f (a) f (0) f (1) 1 (2.1779)
Then, f (0.3146) = 0.5198 > 0. Therefore, the root is between 0.3146 and 1 and, now
a = 1 and b = 0.3146. Then, the second approximation for :
ba 0.3146 1
c = b f (b) = 0.3146 f (0.3146)
f (b) f (a) f (0.3146) f (1)
0.6854
= 0.3146 0.5198
0.5198 (2.1779)
= 0.4476.

Then, f (0.4476) = 0.2012 > 0. Therefore, the root is between 0.4476 and 1 and, now
a = 1 and b = 0.4476. Then, the third approximation for :
ba 0.4476 1
c = b f (b) = 0.4476 f (0.4476)
f (b) f (a) f (0.4476) f (1)
0.5524
= 0.4476 0.2012
0.2012 (2.1779)
= 0.4943.

Then, f (0.4943) = 0.0699 > 0. Therefore, the root is between 0.4943 and 1 and, now
a = 1 and b = 0.4943. Then, the fourth approximation for :
ba 0.4943 1
c = b f (b) = 0.4943 f (0.4943)
f (b) f (a) f (0.4943) f (1)
0.5057
= 0.4943 0.0699
0.0699 (2.1779)
= 0.5100.
Dr. Satish Shukla 15 of 27

Then, f (0.5100) = 0.0234 > 0. Therefore, the root is between 0.5100 and 1 and, now
a = 1 and b = 0.5100. Then, the fifth approximation for :
ba 0.5100 1
c = b f (b) = 0.5100 f (0.5100)
f (b) f (a) f (0.5100) f (1)
0.49
= 0.5100 0.0234
0.0234 (2.1779)
= 0.5152.

Then, f (0.5152) = 0.0077 > 0. Therefore, the root is between 0.5152 and 1 and, now
a = 1 and b = 0.5152. Then, the sixth approximation for :
ba 0.5152 1
c = b f (b) = 0.5152 f (0.5152)
f (b) f (a) f (0.5152) f (1)
0.4848
= 0.5152 0.0077
0.0077 (2.1779)
= 0.5169.

Then, f (0.5169) = 0.0026 > 0. Therefore, the root is between 0.5169 and 1 and, now
a = 1 and b = 0.5169. Then, the seventh approximation for :
ba 0.5169 1
c = b f (b) = 0.5169 f (0.5169)
f (b) f (a) f (0.5169) f (1)
0.4831
= 0.5169 0.0026
0.0026 (2.1779)
= 0.5174.

Then, f (0.5174) = 0.001 > 0. Therefore, the root is between 0.5174 and 1 and, now
a = 1 and b = 0.5174. Then, the eighths approximation for :
ba 0.5174 1
c = b f (b) = 0.5174 f (0.5174)
f (b) f (a) f (0.5174) f (1)
0.4826
= 0.5174 0.001
0.001 (2.1779)
= 0.5176.

Then, f (0.5176) = 0.0004 > 0. Therefore, the root is between 0.5176 and 1 and, now
a = 1 and b = 0.5176. Then, the ninth approximation for :
ba 0.5176 1
c = b f (b) = 0.5176 f (0.5176)
f (b) f (a) f (0.5176) f (1)
0.4824
= 0.5176 0.0004
0.0004 (2.1779)
= 0.5176.

Therefore, the required root is = 0.5176 (correct to four decimal places).

Example 11. Use the method of false position and find the fourth root of 32
correct to three decimal places.
Dr. Satish Shukla 16 of 27

Sol. Let x = 321/4 , i.e., x4 = 32 and f (x) = x4 32. Then, the fourth root of 32 is the
root of f (x). Now since f (2) = 16 < 0 and f (3) = 49 > 0, therefore root lies between
2 and 3, and so, a = 2 and b = 3. By the formula, the first approximation for the root
:
ba 32 1
c = b f (b) = 3 f (3) = 3 49 = 2.2461.
f (b) f (a) f (3) f (2) 49 (16)

Then, f (2.2461) = 6.5483 < 0. Therefore, the root is between 2.2461 and 3 and, now
a = 2.2461 and b = 3. Then, the second approximation for :
ba 3 2.2461 0.7539
c = b f (b) = 3 f (3) = 3 49
f (b) f (a) f (3) f (2.2461) 49 (6.5483)
= 2.335.

Then, f (2.335) = 2.2732 < 0. Therefore, the root is between 2.335 and 3 and, now
a = 2.335 and b = 3. Then, the third approximation for :
ba 3 2.335 0.665
c = b f (b) = 3 f (3) = 3 49
f (b) f (a) f (3) f (2.335) 49 (2.2732)
= 2.3644.

Then, f (2.3644) = 0.7475 < 0. Therefore, the root is between 2.3644 and 3 and, now
a = 2.3644 and b = 3. Then, the fourth approximation for :
ba 3 2.3644 0.6356
c = b f (b) = 3 f (3) = 3 49
f (b) f (a) f (3) f (2.3644) 49 (0.7475)
= 2.3739.

Then, f (2.3739) = 0.2422 < 0. Therefore, the root is between 2.3739 and 3 and, now
a = 2.3739 and b = 3. Then, the fifth approximation for :
ba 3 2.3739 0.6261
c = b f (b) = 3 f (3) = 3 49
f (b) f (a) f (3) f (2.3739) 49 (0.2422)
= 2.378.

Then, f (2.378) = 0.0222 < 0. Therefore, the root is between 2.378 and 3 and, now
a = 2.378 and b = 3. Then, the sixth approximation for :
ba 3 2.378 0.622
c = b f (b) = 3 f (3) = 3 49
f (b) f (a) f (3) f (2.378) 49 (0.0222)
= 2.3783.

Therefore, the required root is 321/4 = = 0.378 (correct to three decimal places).

Newton-Raphson method or Newton's method

The NewtonRaphson method named after English mathematicians Isaac Newton and
Joseph Raphson. In this method, we approximate the root of an equation f (x) = 0
Dr. Satish Shukla 17 of 27

with a tangential approximation. In the Secant and Regula-Falsi methods, the approx-
imation is done with a chord joining the two initial guess. Here we start with an initial
guess x0 which is reasonably close to the true root, then the function is approximated
by its tangent line drawn at the point (x0 , f (x0 )).

Y 6

rQ

f (x)
Pr X
r r -
O x1 x0

The Newtons Method

Suppose, x0 be the initial guess (initial approximation) of the root then we draw
a tangent at point (x0 , f (x0 )) to the curve. Then the slope of this tangent will be f 0 (x0 )
and its equation will be:
y f (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ).
Suppose, this tangent intersect the X-axis at point P (x1 , 0), then we obtain from the
above equation: 0 f (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 )(x1 x0 ), i.e.,

f (x0 )
x1 = x0 .
f 0 (x0 )

The quantity x1 is called the first approximation of the root and obviously, it is more
close to than the initial approximation x0 . We again draw a tangent at the newly
obtained point (x1 , F (x1 )), and repeat the same process to get second approximation:

f (x1 )
x2 = x1 .
f 0 (x1 )

For the further approximations, we repeat this process until we the root (upto the
desired accuracy).

Formula for Newton-Raphson method. First find the two values a and b such
that f (a) < 0, f (b) > 0 by using Intermediate value theorem and then initial
a+b
approximation x0 = (or, you can choose from a and b which one is more
2
closer to the root). Then use the following formula for further approximation:

f (xn )
xn+1 = xn , n = 1, 2, . . . .
f 0 (xn )
Dr. Satish Shukla 18 of 27

Note. Although, the Newtons method converges faster towards the root of f (x)
than the previous method (Secant mathod), but it demands the differentiability
of the function y = f (x). If f 0 (x) is not available, then one can use the secant
method.

Example 12. Find the positive root of the equation x4 x = 10 correct to three
decimal places, using Newton-Raphson method.

Sol. Let
f (x) = x4 x 10.
Then we have to find the positive root of f (x). Since f (1) = 10 < 0and f (2) = 4 > 0,
there is a positive root of f between 1 and 2. Obviously, the root is more closer to 2
than 1. Therefore, let the initial approximation x0 = 2. Now

f 0 (x) = 4x3 1.

Then, the first approximation:

f (x0 ) 24 2 10 4
x 1 = x0 0
= 2 3
=2 = 1.871.
f (x0 ) 42 1 31
Now, the second approximation:
f (x1 ) (1.871)4 1.871 10 0.3835
x2 = x1 0 = 1.871 3
= 1.871 = 1.856.
f (x1 ) 4 (1.871) 1 25.199
Now, the third approximation:
f (x2 ) (1.856)4 1.856 10 0.010
x3 = x2 0
= 1.856 3
= 1.871 = 1.856.
f (x2 ) 4 (1.856) 1 24.574

Therefore, = 1.856 is the positive root of the given equation (correct to three places
of decimals).

Example 13. By Newton-Raphson method, find the real root of the equation 3x =
cos x + 1.

Sol. Let
f (x) = 3x cos x 1.
Then we have to find the real root of f (x). Since f (0) = 2 < 0and f (1) = 1.4597 > 0,
there is a root of f between 0 and 1. Therefore, let the initial approximation x0 =
0+1
= 0.5. Now
2
f 0 (x) = 3 + sin x.
Then, the first approximation:
f (x0 ) 3 0.5 cos(0.5) 1
x 1 = x0 0 = 0.5 = 0.6085.
f (x0 ) 3 + sin(0.5)
Now, the second approximation:
Dr. Satish Shukla 19 of 27

f (x1 ) 3 0.6085 cos(0.6085) 1

x2 = x1 0
= 0.6085 = 0.6071.
f (x1 ) 3 + sin(0.6085)
Now, the third approximation:
f (x2 ) 3 0.6071 cos(0.6071) 1
x3 = x2 0 = 0.6071 = 0.6071.
f (x2 ) 3 + sin(0.6071)
Therefore, = 0.6071 is the positive root of the given equation (correct to four places
of decimals).
Fixed Point Method

Fixed point: A point, say, is called a fixed point of a function g(x) if it satisfies the
equation g() = .
Fixed point Method: In this method, the equation f (x) = 0 is first converted into
the form x = g(x) and then we use the following iterative scheme, called the Picard
iteration given by:
xn = g(xn1 ), n = 1, 2, . . .
with some initial guess x0 is called the fixed point iterative scheme. Again, we first
find the values a and b such that f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0, and then the initial guess x0
can be obtained by a similar process as we used in Newtons method.
Important Note.

The solution of f (x) = 0 is the fixed point of the function g(x), that is
why, this method is called the fixed point method.

In the fixed point method, the convergence of the Picard iterative scheme
is must, and for the convergence of this scheme, we have to ensure the
condition of convergence given by

|g 0 (x)| < 1 for all x [a, b].

We observe that, the function g(x) in not unique and can be chosen in
infinitely many ways. We should choose such a g for which the condition
|g 0 (x)| < 1 for all x [a, b] is satisfied.

Example 14. Obtain the root of the equation x3 2x + 5 = 0 correct upto four
decimal places using fixed point method.

Sol. The given equation is f (x) = x3 2x + 5 = 0. First we find a and b. Then since
f (3) = 16 < 0 and f (2) = 1 > 0, therefore a = 3 and b = 2. We write this
equation in the following form
x = (2x 5)1/3 = g(x).
2
Then, g 0 (x) = 2/3
. Now, it is easy to see that g 0 (x) < 1 for all x lying in the
3 (2x 5)
interval [3, 2]. Therefore, the formula for the Picard iteration will be:
xn = g(xn1 ) = (2xn1 5)1/3 .
Dr. Satish Shukla 20 of 27

Let the initial guess is x0 = 2, then by the above formula the first approximation:

x1 = (2x0 5)1/3 = (2 (2) 5)1/3 = 2.0800.

Then, the second approximation:

x2 = (2x1 5)1/3 = (2 (2.0800) 5)1/3 = 2.0923.

Then, the third approximation:

x3 = (2x2 5)1/3 = (2 (2.0923) 5)1/3 = 2.0942.

Then, the fourth approximation:

x4 = (2x3 5)1/3 = (2 (2.0942) 5)1/3 = 2.0944.

Then, the fifth approximation:

x5 = (2x4 5)1/3 = (2 (2.0944) 5)1/3 = 2.0945.

Then, the sixth approximation:

x6 = (2x5 5)1/3 = (2 (2.0945) 5)1/3 = 2.0945.

Therefore, the root of given equation = 2.0945 (correct upto four decimal places).

Home Work (Assignment)

(Q.1) Find the roots of the following equations, using the Bisection method, Secant
method and False position method, correct to three decimal places:

(1) x3 2x 5 (2) x3 x2 1 = 0
(3) cos x = xex (4) x log10 (x) = 1.2
(5) x3 x 11 which lies between 2 and 3.

Ans. (1) 2.687 (2) 1.46 (3) 0.519 (4) 2.875 (5) 2.375

(Q.2) Using Newton-Raphson method find a root of the following equations correct to
three decimal places:

(1) x3 + x 1 = 0 (2) xex = 2

(3) x3 3x + 1 = 0 (4) x log10 (x) = 1.2

Ans. (1) 0.686 (2) 0.853 (3) 1.532 (4) 2.741

(Q.3) Find the square root of 12 by the Newtons method. Ans. 3.4641
Dr. Satish Shukla 21 of 27

(Q.4) Obtain the root of the equation x3 3x 5 = 0 correct upto four decimal places
using fixed point method.
Hint: Here f (2) = 3 < 0 and f (3) = 13 > 0, so, a = 2, b = 3. Write the given
equation into the following form

x = (3x + 5)1/3 = g(x).

 
Now you can see that |g 0 (x)| =  (3x+5)
1
2/3  < 1 for all x [2, 3]. Now apply the
 
Picard iteration scheme and find the solution of the given equation.

Multidimensional Newton's Method

The Newtons method is useful for obtaining in solving of an equation consisting one
variable. When we have to solve more than one equations with more than one variables,
then we use the multidimensional Newtons method. Suppose, we have to solve the
following two equations in two variables x and y:

f (x, y) = 0;
g(x, y) = 0.

Clearly, the solutions of the above equations is the point, where the surfaces z = f (x, y)
and z = g(x, y) cut the xy-plane. Suppose, x0 and y0 , i.e., the point (x0 , y0 ) be the
initial guess. Then, we know that by the Taylors series for a function of two variables:

f f
f (x, y) = f (x0 , y0 ) + (x x0 ) + (y y0 ) + O((x x0 ), (y y0 ));
x y
g g
g(x, y) = g(x0 , y0 ) + (x x0 ) + (y y0 ) + O((x x0 ), (y y0 ))
x y

where O((x x0 ), (y y0 )) denotes the terms containing the higher orders of x x0

and y y0 . If the initial guess is sufficiently close to the solution x = , y = , then the
values of x x0 and y y0 are very small and we can neglect the higher order terms,
and so, we have:

f f
f (x, y) = f (x0 , y0 ) + (x x0 ) + (y y0 ) ;
x y
g g
g(x, y) = g(x0 , y0 ) + (x x0 ) + (y y0 ) .
x y

Suppose, (x1 , y1 ) be the point where the surfaces z = f (x, y) and z = g(x, y) cut the
xy-plane (it is similar to the assumption of the Newtons method for single variable,
that the point x1 is the point where the curve f (x) cuts the X-axis), then at (x1 , y1 )
we have:
f f
0 = f (x0 , y0 ) + (x1 x0 ) + (y1 y0 ) ;
x y
g g
0 = g(x0 , y0 ) + (x1 x0 ) + (y1 y0 ) .
x y
Dr. Satish Shukla 22 of 27

Then, in matrix form, the above system of two equation can be written as:
f f

   
0=
f (x0 , y0 )
+
x y x1 x0
g(x0 , y0 ) g g y1 y0
x y 0
or 1
f f

   
x1 x0 f (x0 , y0 )
= x y

y1 y0 g g g(x0 , y0 )
x y 0
or
1
f f

     
x1 x0 f (x0 , y0 )
= x y

y1 y0 g g g(x0 , y0 )
x y 0
or
X1 = X0 [J0 ]1 Z0
   
x1 x0
where X1 = is the first iteration, X0 = is the initial guess, Z0 =
y1 y0
f f

 
f (x0 , y0 )
and J0 = x y
g g is the Jacobian of f and g with respect to

g(x0 , y0 )
x y 0
x, y at point (x0 , y0 ). Similarly, we repeat the process for further iteration.

Note. In each step of iteration, the value of Jacobian changes. The general
formula for the iteration is given by

Xn = Xn1 [Jn1 ]1 Zn1 , n = 1, 2, . . .

   
xn th f (xn , yn )
where Xn = is the n iteration, Zn = and
yn g(xn , yn )

f f

Jn = x y

g g
x y n

is the Jacobian of f and g with respect to x, y at point (xn , yn ).

Example 15. Find the intersection points of the curves x2 +y 2 = 4 and y = 1ex .

Sol. The point of intersection of the given curves is the solution of the equations:
f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 4 = 0;
g(x, y) = y 1 + ex = 0.
Dr. Satish Shukla 23 of 27

f f g g
On differentiating w.r.t. x and y we have: = 2x, = 2y, = ex , = 1.
x y x y
Therefore, the Jacobian:
f f

 
J = x
y = 2x 2y .
g g ex 1
x y
Now we find its inverse. Then
 
 2x 2y 
|J| =  x
  = 2(x yex ).
e 1 
Therefore,  
adjJ
1 1 1 2y
[J] = = .
|J| 2(x yex ) ex 2x
Let x0 = 0, y0 = 2 be the initial guess.
         
x0 0 f (x0 , y0 ) 0 + 22 4 0
First Iteration. X0 = = , Z0 = = =
y0 2 g(x0 , y0 ) 21+1 2
and    
1 1 1 2y0 1 1 4
[J0 ] = = .
2(x0 y0 ex0 ) ex0 2x0 4 1 0
Therefore,
X1 = X0 [J0 ]1 Z0
     
0 1 1 4 0
= +
2 4 1 0 2
 
2
=
2
       
x1 2 f (x1 , y1 ) 4
Second Iteration. X1 = = , Z1 = = and
y1 2 g(x1 , y1 ) 1 + e2
   
1 1 1 2y1 1 1 4
[J1 ] = x1 = 2 .
2(x1 y1 ex1 ) e 2x1 4(1 + e2 ) e 4
Therefore,
X2 = X1 [J1 ]1 Z1
     
2 1 1 4 4
= +
2 4(1 + e2 ) e2 4 1 + e2
4e2
   
2 1
= +
2 4(1 + e2 ) 4 8e2
   
2 0.1191
=
2 1.1181
 
2.1191
=
0.8818
Dr. Satish Shukla 24 of 27

       
x2 2.1191 f (x2 , y2 ) 1.2681
Third Iteration. X2 = = , Z2 = =
y2 0.8818 g(x2 , y2 ) 0.0019
and  
1 1 1 2y2
[J2 ] =
2(x2 y2 ex2 ) ex2 2x2
 
1 1 2 0.8818
=
4(2.1191 0.8818 e2.1191 ) e2.1191 2 2.1191
 
0.2247 0.3963
= .
0.0269 0.9523
Therefore: X3 = X2 [J2 ]1 Z2
     
2.1191 0.2247 0.3963 1.2681
= +
0.8818 0.0269 0.9523 0.0019
   
2.1191 0.2841
= +
0.8818 0.0359
 
1.835
= .
0.8459
     
f (x3 , y3 ) 0.0827 0
Fourth Iteration. Z3 = = . Therefore, (x, y) =
g(x3 , y3 ) 0.0055 0
(x3 , y3 ) = (1.835, 0.8459) is the point of intersection of the given curves.

Example 16. Find the intersection points of the curves x2 + y 2 = 4 and y 3 = 2x.

OR

Solve the equations: x2 + y 2 = 4 and y 3 = 2x.

Sol. The point of intersection of the given curves is the solution of the equations:
f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 4 = 0;
g(x, y) = y 3 2x = 0.
f f g g
On differentiating w.r.t. x and y we have: = 2x, = 2y, = 2, = 3y 2 .
x y x y
Therefore, the Jacobian:
f f

 
J = x
y = 2x 2y .
g g 2 3y 2
x y
Now we find its inverse. Then
 
 2x 2y 
|J| =   = 6xy 2 + 4y.
2 3y 2 

Therefore,  
1 adjJ 1 3y 2 2y
[J] = = .
|J| 2
6xy + 4y 2 2x
Dr. Satish Shukla 25 of 27

Let x0 = 1, y0 = 1 be the initial guess.

       
x0 1 f (x0 , y0 ) 2
First Iteration. X0 = = , Z0 = = and
y0 1 g(x0 , y0 ) 1
 2   
1 1 3y0 2y0 1 3 2
[J0 ] = = .
6x0 y02 + 4y0 2 2x0 10 2 2

Therefore,

X1 = X0 [J0 ]1 Z0
     
1 1 3 2 2
=
1 10 2 2 1
 
1.4
=
1.6
       
x1 1.4 f (x1 , y1 ) 0.52
Second Iteration. X1 = = , Z1 = = and
y1 1.6 g(x1 , y1 ) 1.296
 2   
1 1 3y1 2y1 1 7.68 3.2
[J1 ] = = .
6x1 y12 + 4y1 2 2x1 27.904 2 2.8
Therefore,

X2 = X1 [J1 ]1 Z1
     
1.4 1 7.68 3.2 0.52
=
1.6 27.904 2 2.8 1.296
     
1.4 0.275 0.114 0.52
=
1.6 0.071 0.1 1.296
   
1.4 0.004
=
1.6 0.166
 
1.404
= .
1.434
       
x2 1.404 f (x2 , y2 ) 0.027
Third Iteration. X2 = = , Z2 = = and
y2 1.434 g(x2 , y2 ) 0.1408
 2   
1 1 3y2 2y2 1 6.169 2.868
[J2 ] = = .
6x2 y22 + 4y2 2 2x2 23.058 2 2.808
Therefore,

X3 = X2 [J2 ]1 Z2
     
1.404 1 6.169 2.868 0.027
=
1.434 23.058 2 2.808 0.140
   
1.404 0.010
=
1.434 0.019
 
1.414
= .
1.415
Dr. Satish Shukla 26 of 27

     
f (x2 , y2 ) 0.001 0
Fourth Iteration. Z3 = = . Therefore, (x, y) =
g(x2 , y2 ) 0.005 0
(1.414, 1.415) is the point of intersection of the given curve.

Example 17. Find the intersection points of the curves x3 + y 3 = 1 and y = x2 .

OR

Solve the equations: x3 + y 3 = 1 and y = x2 .

Sol. The point of intersection of the given curves is the solution of the equations:

f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 1 = 0;
g(x, y) = y x2 = 0.

f f g g
On differentiating w.r.t. x and y we have: = 3x2 , = 3y 2 , = 2x, = 1.
x y x y
Therefore, the Jacobian:
f f

 2 2

J = x
y = 3x 3y .
g g 2x 1
x y
Now we find its inverse. Then
 
 3x2 3y 2 
|J| =   = 3x2 + 6xy 2 .
2x 1 

Therefore,  
1 adjJ 1 1 3y 2
[J] = = 2 .
|J| 3x + 6xy 2 2x 3x2
Let x0 = 1, y0 = 1 be the initial guess.
       
x0 1 f (x0 , y0 ) 1
First Iteration. X0 = = , Z0 = = and
y0 1 g(x0 , y0 ) 0
   
1 1 1 3y02 1 1 3
[J0 ] = = .
6x0 y02 + 4y0 2x0 3x20 9 2 3

Therefore,

X1 = X0 [J0 ]1 Z0
     
1 1 1 3 1
=
1 9 2 3 0
 
0.888
=
0.777
       
x1 0.888 f (x1 , y1 ) 0.169
Second Iteration. X1 = = , Z1 = = and
y1 0.777 g(x1 , y1 ) 0.011
Dr. Satish Shukla 27 of 27

   
1 1 1 3y12 1 1 1.811
[J1 ] = = .
2
6x1 y1 + 4y1 2x1 3x21 5.582 1.776 2.365
Therefore,

X2 = X1 [J1 ]1 Z1
     
0.888 1 1 1.811 0.169
=
0.777 5.582 1.776 2.365 0.011
   
0.888 1 0.188
=
0.777 5.582 0.274
   
0.888 0.033
=
0.777 0.049
 
0.855
= .
0.728
       
x2 0.855 f (x2 , y2 ) 0.01
Third Iteration. X2 = = , Z2 = = and
y2 0.728 g(x2 , y2 ) 0.003
   
1 1 1 3y22 1 1 1.589
[J2 ] = = .
6x2 y22 + 4y2 2x2 3x22 5.63 1.71 2.193
Therefore,

X3 = X2 [J2 ]1 Z2
     
0.855 1 1 1.589 0.01
=
0.728 5.63 1.71 2.193 0.003
   
0.855 0.002
=
0.728 0.001
 
0.853
= .
0.727
     
f (x2 , y2 ) 0.004 0
Fourth Iteration. Z3 = = . Therefore, (x, y) =
g(x2 , y2 ) 0.0006 0
(0.853, 0.727) is the point of intersection of the given curve.