Involute Reflector

A reflector plate having such a form that two lines start at one point on
a circle enclosing an emission source having a cylindrical, spherical or
similar shape and extend toward opposite sides to form two
symmetrical involutes, whereby an emission from the emission source
can be perfectly and uniformly emitted from an opening without being
shielded at all, so that the efficiency is greatly improved and a uniform
emission can be obtained. An assemblage of a light emitting source
with the involute reflector plate provided at the predetermined position
makes it possible to give an illuminator with a high efficiency of
uniformly emitting the light from the reflector opening.

Nd:Glass Laser
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Methods of Micro / Nano Finishing
Micro / Nano Finishing means removal of material at micro (10^-6)
and Nano (10^-9) level respectively.

Traditional Methods
Grinding
Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel
or grinder as the cutting tool. Grinding is a subset of cutting, as
grinding is a true metal-cutting process. Grinding is used to finish
workpieces that must show high surface quality and high accuracy of
shape and dimension.
Lapping
Lapping is a machining process in which two surfaces are rubbed
together with an abrasive between them.

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Honing
Honing is an abrasive machining process that produces a precision
surface on a metal workpiece by scrubbing an abrasive stone against
it along a controlled path. Honing is primarily used to improve the
geometric form of a surface, but may also improve the surface texture.

Honing

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ABRASIVE FLOW MACHINING (AFM)
AFM is a method to polish difficult to reach surface like intricate
geometries and edges by flowing an abrasive laden viscoelastic
medium over them.
Application:
In industries such as Aerospace, medical, electronics, Automotive,
Precision dies etc.
Limitations: It is not deterministic process.

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MAGNETIC ABRASIVE FINISHING (MAF)
In MAF finishing is performed by the application of magnetic field
across the gap b/w the workpiece surface & the rotating electromagnet
pole.
The magnetic abrasive particles are attracted with each other
magnetically b/w magnetic poles along the lines of magnetic force
forming a flexible magnetic abrasive brush.
MAF was developed to produce efficiently and economically good
quality finish on the internal and external surface of tubes as well as
flat surface.

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MAGNETO RHEOLOGICAL ABRASIVE FINISHING (MRF)
MRF is a deterministic and magnetic field assisted precision finishing
Process.
MRF uses fluid which consists of:-
1. Abrasive Particle
2. carrier liquid (Oil or water)
3. additives (glycerol, grease )
Application: MRF has been used for finishing a large variety of brittle
material ranging from optical glasses to hard crystals.
Limitations: Internal and especially complex surfaces cant be
finished.

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CHEMO MECHANICAL POLISHING (CMP)
CMP is used to polish the silicon wafer.
Principle:
CMP uses both chemical and mechanical type or material removal
mechanism. Chemical reaction to soften material and then
mechanically polish off this layer. Mechanical removal takes place due
to abrading.

Limitations:
1. This process is used for only flat surfaces.
2. CMP is not deterministic in nature.

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MAGNETORHEOLOGICAL ABRASIVE FLOW FINISHING (MRAFF)
MRAFF is the hybrid finishing process to take the advantage of both
the finishing process (MRF & AFM). It is deterministic process. Any
complex geometries can be finished by this process.
Limitations: Non-uniform surface finish in case of freeform surfaces.

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MAGNETIC FLOAT POLISHING (MFP)
Magnetic Float Polishing is a technique based on the
Magnetohydrodynmic behaviour of the magnetic fluid which in the
presence of magnetic field can levitate a non-magnetic float and
abrasive particles suspended in it.The forces applied by abrasives are
extremely small and controllable. When the magnetic field is applied
the ferromagnetic particle in the ferrofluid are attracted downward to
the area of higher magnetic field and upward buoyant force is exerted
on all non-magnetic materials to push them to the area of lower
magnetic field. The balls are polished by the abrasive particles mainly
due to the action of the magnetic buoyancy force when the spindle
rotates

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Surface Coating
The rapid development of tribological coatings in recent years is
largely due to the availability of new coating methods which can
provide properties that previously were unachievable. Such properties
include morphology, composition, structure and adhesion. The
deposition techniques which have mostly caused the increasing
interest in this field are the plasma and ion-based methods.
Their introduction was delayed due to difficulties with the advanced
technologies involved, including: 1) high current and high voltage
technology, 2) process control and related electronic technologies, 3)
plasma physics and chemistry, and 4) vacuum technology. With the
solution of many of these problems plasma-based techniques now
offer considerable benefits to various sectors of engineering.

Surface coating Methods

Coating processes can be put into the following three categories:
1. Gaseous state processes,
2. Solution state processes,
3. Molten or semi-molten state processes

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GASEOUS STATE PROCESSES
Gaseous state processes cover surface engineering techniques in
which the coating material passes through a gaseous or vapour phase
prior to depositing on to the surface. The main generic coating sub-
groups are Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) and Physical Vapour
Deposition (PVD)
In the basic CVD process gases containing volatile compounds of the
element to be deposited are introduced into a reaction chamber, and
condense on to the substrate to form a coating.
1. Lower deposition temperatures, as direct energisation of the
coating species provides many of the benefits previously only
achievable on hot substrates
Chemical vapour deposition
In the basic CVD process gases containing volatile compounds of
the element or elements to be deposited are introduced into a
reaction chamber, and condense on to the substrate to form a
coating.

A typical CVD process layout.

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 The deposition pressure in CVD can range from atmospheric to 1
Pa or less.
The strength of the technique lies in its ability to produce well
adhered, uniform and dense surface layers. The grain orientation
and size, coating composition and its properties can be varied by
the selection of appropriate process parameters. The technique
can be used to deposit a vast number of wear resistant coatings
such as borides, carbides, nitrides, oxides, carbo-nitrides and oxy-
nitrides of almost all the transition metals.

Physical vapour deposition

PVD involves the atomisation or vaporisation of material from a
solid source and the deposition of that material on to the substrate
to form a coating. The basic PVD process has been known for
over 100 years and plasma assisted PVD was patented over 50
years ago.
The advantages of the PAPVD processes in fact extend well
beyond those listed. They include the possibility to deposit alloy
compounds, multi-layer compositions and structures, and the
ability to vary coating characteristics continuously throughout the
film, giving the concept of a functionally graded coating. The
developments leading to these improvements have been many
and varied and this has produced a proliferation of techniques and
acronyms for various processes.
PVD involves the atomisation or vaporisation of material from a
solid source and the deposition of that material on to the substrate
to form a coating.

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 Benefits of PVD
1. Improved coating adhesion, due to the ability to clean and pre-
heat substrates by energetic ion and neutral bombardment of the
substrate surface. This mechanism is sometimes called sputter
cleaning.
2. Uniform coating thicknesses, through gas-scattering effects and
the ability to rotate or displace samples relative to the vapour
source during deposition.
3. Avoidance of a final machining or polishing stage after coating,
as in most cases the coating replicates the original surface finish.
4. Deposition of a wide range of coating and substrate materials,
including insulators, usually by the use of radio frequency biasing.
5. Usually no effluents or pollutants are produced, as in most
cases there are no harmful by-products or toxic chemical solutions
used.
6. High purity deposits through the use of a controlled vacuum
environment and pure source materials.

SOLUTION STATE PROCESSES

The main coating techniques in this category are electroplating and
electroless plating. The solutions used are usually aqueous, and
deposits can be produced on metallic or non-metallic substrates.
Methods may be divided into the categories of chemical and
electrochemical, but this division may not be straightforward since
some reactions which
appear to be purely chemical may in fact be electrochemical.
One of the benefits of the solution processes is that they have no
upper limit on thickness, unlike the vapour deposition methods, which,

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because of stress build up leading to debonding, are typically used for
films less than 10 pm thick, when hard ceramics are deposited.

Chemical solution deposition

Within chemical solution deposition methods we find:
(i) Homogeneous chemical reactions, e.g. reduction of a metal ion in
solution by a reducing agent
(ii) Except that the reaction takes place on surfaces which are catalytic,
rather than throughout the solution, and
(iii) Conversion coatings, where a reagent in solution reacts with the
substrate, to form a compound.

Chemical conversion coating methods include phosphating and

chromating. The main use of the former is to enhance the corrosion
barrier properties of steels or aluminium, prior to painting. The layer,
produced by reaction with phosphoric acid, can be either an
amorphous or a crystalline phosphate. Sometimes this layer is applied
as an aid to the lubrication of moving parts by providing a degree of
protection against scuffing and to facilitate running-in. Chromate
conversion coatings are applied by immersing or spraying a surface
with an aqueous solution of chromic acid, chromic salts, phosphoric
acid or other mineral acids. The surfaces develop an oxide film which
is sealed by a metallic chromate. The process is typically applied to
steel, aluminium, magnesium, cadmium and zinc . It improves the
corrosion properties.

Electrochemical deposition
Electrochemical deposition, also commonly termed electroplating,
involves the deposition of a metallic coating on an electrode by a

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process of electrolysis, whereby chemical changes are produced by
the passage of a current.

Michael Faraday first put forward the laws of electrolysis in 1833, and
they still form the basis of the technology, such as (i) the amount of
chemical change produced is proportional to the quantity of electricity
which passes, and (ii) the amounts of substances liberated by a given
quantity of electricity are proportional to their equivalent weights.

Sol gel processing

A sol is a colloidal dispersion of particles in a liquid, usually aqueous.
Sol-gel processing may be carried out by dipping or spinning and is an
emergent coating technology. It involves applying the sol to a
substrate, whereupon it undergoes aggregation, gelation and final
drying to form a gel. Typically the technique is used for the production
of oxide ceramic films, in which case the gel is fired at above 150 "C
to leave the ceramic. The technique is still in the development stage,
but it seems that it has considerable potential, not only as a means of
producing films with controlled porosity but also as a means of
producing spheres of controlled size, which can then be used in
plasma spraying processes.

MOLTEN AND SEMI-MOLTEN STATE PROCESSES

Within this category may be included laser surface treatments, and the
hard-facing techniques of thermal spraying and welding.

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Laser surface treatments
The tribological uses for lasers in surface treatment and coating:
Surface heating for transformation hardening or annealing.
Microstructure refinement, generation of rapid solidification structures
and surface sealing. Surface alloying for improvement of corrosion,
wear or aesthetic properties. Surface cladding for similar reasons as
well as changing thermal properties such as melting point or thermal
conductivity. Plating by Laser Chemical Vapour Deposition (LCVD) or
Laser Physical Vapour Deposition (LPVD). The latter can use laser
heating of the evaporant in PVD, usually using a continuous wave
laser.
One benefit of lasers is that they can provide a directable deposition
in defined areas. When used as a means of producing the vapour in
PVD, where the laser ablates the source material, the technique is said
to allow the composition of an alloy target to be retained in the coating.
Currently interest centres on high temperature superconducting and
semiconducting film production by this technique, although tribological
films, such as diamond, are increasingly studied.

Thermal spraying
Thermal spraying covers a wide range of techniques in which material
is heated rapidly in a hot gaseous medium and simultaneously
projected at high velocity onto a surface, to produce a coating.
Processes for thermal spraying can be grouped into two categories.
Firstly there are lower energy processes often referred to as
metallising, which include arc and flame spraying. These are
frequently used for spraying metals for corrosion resistance, such as
zinc and aluminum. Secondly there are the higher energy processes
such as plasma spraying, the detonation gun and high velocity
combustion spraying.

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