BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 1

 CONTENTS

4-1 transistor structure

4-2 basic transistor operation
4-3 the transistor characteristics and parameters
4-4 the transistor as an amplifier
4-5 the transistor as a switch
4-6 transistor packages and terminal identification
4-7 troubleshooting

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 2

 OBJECTIVES

•Troubleshoot various failures typical of transistor circuits

•Discuss how a transistor can be used as an amplifier or a switch
•Discuss the parameters and characteristics of a transistor and
how they apply to transistor circuits
•Explain and analyze basic transistor bias and operation
•Describe the basic structure of the bipolar junction transistor
(BJT)

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 3

 INTRODUCTION

A transistor is a device that can be used as either an

amplifier or a switch. Let’s first consider its operation
in a simpler view as a current controlling device.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 4

 4-1 TRANSISTOR STRUCTURE
With diodes there is one p-n junction. With bipolar junction transistors
(BJT), there are three doped semiconductor regions separated by two pn
junctions. The three regions are called emitter, base and collector. Transistors
can be either pnp or npn type. The pn junction joining the base and emitter
region is called base emitter junction. The pn junction joining the base region
and collector region is called base collector junction. The base region is lightly
doped and very thin when compared to the highly doped emitter and
moderately doped collector region.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 5

 Figure 4–1 Basic BJT construction.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 6

 FORWARD-REVERSE BIAS OF A BJT.
To operate the transistor properly, the two pn junctions must be correctly biased with
external dc voltage. In both the circuits, BE is forward biased and BC is reverse
biased.
The heavily doped n type emitter region has number of conduction band free
electrons. These electrons diffuse through the base emitter junction (p type material).
The base region is lightly doped and has limited holes. Thus only a small percentage
of all the electrons flowing through the BE junction can combine with the available
holes in the base. These relatively few recombined electrons flow out of the base lead
as valence electrons forming the small base electron current.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 7

Most of the electrons flowing from the emitter into the thin lightly doped base region
do not recombine but diffused into the base collector depletion layer. In this region,
they are pulled through the reverse biased BC junction by the force of attraction of
the positive and negative ion. The electrons now move through the collector region,
out through the collector lead and into the positive terminal of the collector voltage
source.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 8

 Figure 4–5 Transistor currents
Based on the assumed current directions, the following current relation can be
written:

IE = I B + IC

The Base current is very small when compared to IE or IC

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 9

 TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS AND PARAMETERS

VBB forward biases the base emitter junction and VCC reverse the bias
the base collector junction.
The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc base current (IB) is the
dc beta ratio which is also known as dc current gain of the transistor.
Typical values of βDC range from 20 to 200 or higher.
βDC = IC/IB
The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc emitter current (IE) is
the dc alpha (αDC). The alpha is always less than one. Typical values
range from 0.95 to 0.99.
α = IC / IE

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 10

 Figure 4–6 Transistor dc bias circuits.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 11

 CURRENT AND VOLTAGE ANALYSIS

There are three key dc voltages and three key dc currents to be

considered. Note that these measurements are important for
troubleshooting.

IB: dc base current

IE: dc emitter current
IC: dc collector current
VBE: dc voltage across base-emitter junction
VCB: dc voltage across collector-base junction
VCE: dc voltage from collector to emitter

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 12

 Figure 4–7 Transistor currents and voltages.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 13

When the base emitter junction is forward biased, it acts like a pn junction diode
and has a nominal voltage drop of 0.7 volt.

VBE = 0.7 V

Since emitter is at ground (0 Volt), by applying KVL, the voltage across RB is

VRB = VBB – VBE

Also by Ohm’s law, VRB = IB RB

IB RB = VBB – VBE; Hence, IB = (VBB – VBE) / RB

The voltage at the collector with respect to the grounded emitter is:
VCE = VCC – VRC, where VRC = IC RC

The voltage at the collector is

VCE = VCC – IC RC where IC = βDC IB

The voltage across the reverse biased collector base junction is

VCB = VCE - VBE

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 14

 COLLECTOR CHARACTERISTICS CURVE

•For proper operation, the base-emitter junction is forward-biased by VBB

and conducts just like a diode.

•The collector-base junction is reverse biased by VCC and blocks current

flow through it’s junction just like a diode.

•Remember that current flow through the base-emitter junction will

help establish the path for current flow from the collector to emitter.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 15

Analysis of this transistor circuit to predict the dc voltages and currents
requires use of Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s voltage law and the beta for the
transistor.

Application of these laws begins with the base circuit to determine the
amount of base current. Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, subtract the 0.7 volt (
corresponding to VBE ) and the remaining voltage is dropped across RB.
Determining the current for the base with this information is a matter of
applying of Ohm’s law. VRB/RB = IB

The collector current is determined by multiplying the base current by beta.

.7 VBE will be used in most analysis examples.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 16

 Figure 4–9 Collector characteristic curves.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 17

What we ultimately determine by use of Kirchhoff’s voltage law for series
circuits is that in the base circuit VBB is distributed across the base-emitter
junction and RB in the base circuit. In the collector circuit we determine that
VCC is distributed proportionally across RC and the transistor(VCE).

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 18

Collector characteristic curves give a graphical illustration of the
relationship of collector current and VCE with specified amounts of base
current. With greater increases of VCC , VCE continues to increase until it
reaches breakdown, but the current remains about the same in the linear
region from 0.7V to the breakdown voltage.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 19

 CUTOFF

When IB = 0, the transistor is in the cutoff region of its operation. This is

shown in Figure below with base lead open, resulting in a base current of
zero. Under this condition, there is a very small amount of collector leakage
current, ICEO, due mainly to thermally produced carriers. Because ICEO is
extremely small, will usually be neglected in circuit analysis so that VCE =
VCC. In cutoff, both the base-emitter and the base-collector junctions are
reverse biased.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 20

 SATURATION

• When the base-emitter junction becomes forward-biased and the base

current is increases (IC = ) and VCE decreases as a result of more
drop across the collector resistor(VCE = VCC - ICRC). This is illustrated in
figure shown below. When VCE reaches its saturation value, VCE(sat), the
base-collector junction becomes forward biased and IC can increase no
further even with a continued increase in IB. at the point of saturation, the
relation IC = is no longer valid. VCE(sat) for a transistor occurs
somewhere below the knee of the collector curves, and it is usually only a
few tenths of a volt for silicon transistors.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 21

• Figure 4-13. saturation: as IB increases due to increasing VBB, IC also
increases and VCE decreases due to the increased voltage drop across RC.
When the transistor reaches saturation, IC can increase no further
regardless of further increase in IB. base-emitter and base-collector
junctions are forward biased.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 22

 DC LOAD LINE

• Cutoff and saturation can be illustrated in relation to the collector

characteristic curves by the use of a load line. Figure shown below shows a
dc load line drawn on a family of curves connecting the cutoff point and the
saturation point. The bottom of the load line is at ideal cut off where IC = 0
and VCE = VCC. The top of the load line is at saturation where IC = IC(sat) and
VCE = VCE(sat). In between cutoff and saturation along the load line in the
active region of the transistor’s operation.
 DC LOAD LINE

The dc load line graphically illustrates IC(sat) and cutoff for a transistor.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 24

The beta for a transistor is not always constant. Temperature and collector
current both affect beta, not to mention the normal inconsistencies during
the manufacture of the transistor.

There are also maximum power ratings to consider.

The data sheet provides information on these characteristics.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 25

 MAXIMUM TRANSISTOR RATINGS

• The maximum ratings are given for collector-to-base voltage, collector-to-

emitter voltage, emitter-to-base voltage, collector current, and power
dissipation.
• The product of VCE and IC must not exceed the maximum power dissipation.
Both VCE and IC cannot be maximum at the same time. If VCE is maximum,
IC can be calculated as

• If IC is maximum, VCE can be calculated by rearranging equation above

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 26

• The maximum power dissipation curve can be plotted on the collector
characteristic curves, as shown in figure and these values are tabulated
below.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 27

 DERATING Pd(max)

• Pd(max) is usually specified at 25oc. For higher temperatures, PD(max) is

less. Data sheets often give derating factors for determining PD(MAX) at any
temperature above 250c.

• A derating factor of 2mW/oC indicates that the maximum power dissipation

is reduced 2 mW for each degree centigrade increase in temperature.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 28

 4-4 THE TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER

•Amplification of a relatively small ac voltage can be had by placing the ac

signal source in the base circuit.

•Recall that small changes in the base current circuit causes large changes
in collector current circuit.

•The small ac voltage causes the base current to increase and decrease
accordingly and with this small change in current the collector current will
mimic the input only with greater amplitude.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 29

• The ac input voltage produces an ac base current, which results in a much
larger ac collector current. The ac collector current produces an ac voltage
across RC, thus producing an amplified, but inverted, reproduction of the ac
input voltage in the active region of operation, as illustrated in Figure.
• The ac emitter current is
• The Ac Collector Voltage, VC, equals the ac voltage drop across RC.

• Since , the ac collector voltage is

• Vb can be considered the transistor ac input voltage where Vb – Vin – IbRB.

Vc can be considered the transistor ac output voltage. The ratio of Vc to Vb
is the ac volotage gain, Av, of the transistor circuit.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 30

• Substituting IeRc for Vc and Ier’e for Vb yields

• The Ie terms cancel; therfore,

• Since RC is always considerably larger in value than r’e, the output voltage
is always greater than the input voltage.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 31

 Figure 4–20 Basic transistor amplifier circuit.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 32

 4-5 THE TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

A transistor when used as a switch is simply being biased so that it is in

cutoff (switched off) or saturation (switched on). Remember that the VCE in
cutoff is VCC and 0 V in saturation.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 33

 CONDUCTION IN CUTOFF

• A transistor is in the cutoff region when the base-emitter junction is not

fogased. Neglecting leakage current, all of the currents are zero, and VCE is
equal to VCC.
VCE(cutoff) = VCC
• Conditions in saturation
when the base-emitter junction is forward-biased and there is enough base
current to produce a maximum collector current, the transistor is saturated.
The formula for collector saturation is

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 34

• Since VCE(sat) is very small compared to VCC, it can usually be neglected.
• The minimum value of base current needed to produce saturation is

• IB should be significantly greater than IB(min) to keep the transistor well into
saturation.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 35

 A SIMPLE APPLICATION OF A TRANSISTOR SWITCH

• The transistor in figure 4-24 is yused as a awitch to turn the LED on and off.
For example, a square wave input voltage with a period of 2 s is applied to
the input as indicated.

• When the square wave is at 0 V, the transistor is in cutoff;

• The LED does not emit light.

• When the square wave goes to its high level, the transistor saturates.

• This forward-biases the LED, and the resulting collector current through the
LED causes it to emit light.

• Thus, the LED is on for 1 s and off for 0 s

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 36

 A SIMPLE APPLICATION OF A TRANSDUCER SWITCH
Figure 4–24 A transistor used to switch an LED on and off.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 37

 4-6 TRANSISTOR PACKAGES AND TERMINAL IDENTIFICATION

• Transistors are available in a wide range of package types for various

applications.

• Those with mounting studs or heat sinks are usually power transistors. Low-
power and medium-power transistors are usually found in smaller metal or
plastic cases.

• Still another package classification is for high-frequency devices.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 38

 Figure 4–25 Plastic cases for general-purpose/small-signal
transistors. Both old and new JEDEC TO numbers are given. Pin
configurations may vary. Always check the data sheet.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 39

Figure 4–26 Metal cases for general-purpose/small-signal
transistors.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 40

Figure 4–27 Typical multiple-transistor packages.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 41

 Figure 4–28 Typical power transistors.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 42

 Figure 4–29 Examples of RF transistors.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 43

 Troubleshooting

Troubleshooting a live transistor circuit requires us to

be familiar with known good voltages, but some
general rules do apply. Certainly a solid fundamental
understanding of Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s voltage
and current laws is imperative. With live circuits it is
most practical to troubleshoot with voltage
measurements.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 44

Opens in the external resistors or connections of the base or the circuit
collector circuit would cause current to cease in the collector and the voltage
measurements would indicate this.

Internal opens within the transistor itself could also cause transistor operation
to cease.

Erroneous voltage measurements that are typically low are a result of point
that is not “solidly connected”. This called a floating point. This is typically
indicative of an open.

More in-depth discussion of typical failures are discussed within the textbook.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 45

 Figure 4-30 A basic transistor bias circuit

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 46

 TESTING A TRANSISTOR WITH A DMM

Testing a transistor can be viewed more simply if you view it as testing two
diode junctions. Forward bias having low resistance and reverse bias
having infinite resistance.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 47

The diode test function of a multimeter is more reliable than using an
ohmmeter. Make sure to note whether it is an npn or pnp and polarize the test
leads accordingly.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 48

 TRANSISTOR TESTERS

In addition to the traditional DMMs there are also transistor testers.

Some of these have the ability to test other parameters of the
transistor, such as leakage and gain. Curve tracers give us even
more detailed information about a transistors characteristics.

Dr. Paulraj M P, Associate Professor, Blok A, School of Mechatronic Engineering 49

 SUMMARY

•. Beta is the current gain of a transistor. This the ratio of IC/IB.

• Of the three currents IB is very small in comparison to IE and IC.

• For the BJT to operate as an amplifier, the base-emitter junction is
forward-biased and the collector-base junction is reverse-biased

• The two types of transistors are pnp and npn.

• The BJT has two pn junctions, the base-emitter junction and the base-
collector junction.

• The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is constructed of three regions:

base, collector, and emitter.

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 SUMMARY

• A transistor can be operated as an electronics switch.

• When the transistor is off it is in cutoff condition (no current).

• When the transistor is on, it is in saturation condition (maximum

current).

• Beta can vary with temperature and also varies from transistor to
transistor.

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