I N D I A N I N S T I T U T E O F R E M O T E S E N S I N G, D E H R A D U N

Digital Elevation Model

(DEM) Hydro-Processing &
Watershed Characterization
Arpit Chouksey
Scientist/Engineer SD, Water Resources Department
arpit@iirs.gov.in

1
5/24/2017
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Outline of the Presentation

DEM: Definition and Synonyms

Generation of DEM
DEM Online Sources
Terrain Parameters and their Extraction
Watershed Delineation
DEM applications
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Introduction to DEM

DEM : "any digital representation of the continuous

variation of relief over space, where relief refers
to the height of earths surface with respect to the
datum considered.
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Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

Digital representations of altitude or elevation. This is
the altitude of the terrain surface.
780 770 690 710 715 720

740 680 710 720 725 730

675 690 705 710 712 715

685 673 680 685 700 705

690 671 675 680 695 705

700 702 666 680 681 710

DEM as matrix of elevations with a uniform cell

size
If this surface is combined with a terrain information
such as landuse, soil type, rock type, hydrological
condition etc., then it is called Digital Terrain Model.
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DEM, DSM, DTM ??????????

Digital surface model (DSM) a first-reflective-surface model that contains
elevations of natural terrain features in addition to vegetation and cultural
features such as buildings and roads.

Digital terrain model (DTM) a bare-earth model that contains elevations of

natural terrain features such as barren ridge tops and river valleys.
Elevations of vegetation and cultural features, such as buildings and roads,
are digitally removed.

Digital elevation models (DEM) are a superset of

both digital terrain models (DTM) and digital
surface models (DSM).
Remote sensing generally captures the surface
height, so the top of the tree canopy or buildings
is returned, not the bare ground elevation. If this
data is corrected to remove elements which
extrude above the terrain height, you're left with a
DTM.
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DTM and DSM...

Surface Model Terrain Model

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DTM/DEM has no scale but a spatial resolution!

Spatial Resolution of the digital elevation model:
spacing between grid centre points/contour lines

3D model

contours from high resolution DTM contours from low resolution DTM
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Comparison b/w Low and High Resolution

DEM
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Cell Size
30m 100m

Note difference in detail

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Generation of DEM

Interpolation technique - point and line

Photogrammetric technique
Interferometery (Radars)
Altimeters/Lidars
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How is a DEM generated?

A) From terrestrial measurements with precise land survey
instruments.

These spot measurements are then interpolated into an elevation

surface. With this method, it is costly and time-consuming to cover
bigger areas.
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How is a DEM generated?

B) Photogrammetric techniques
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B) Photogrammetric techniques (contd..)

Relief Displacement
Relief Displacement exists because photos are a
perspective projection.
To determine the height of object:
d (H)
h=
r
h = height of object
d = radial distance to top of object-radial distance to
bottom of object.
r = radial distance to top of object.
H = height of plane above ground
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C) RADAR Interferometry

RADAR Interferometry with 2 receivers, 60m apart

The technique to generate three-

In interferometry, two
dimensional images from the Earths images are taken from
surface. different vantage points
A transmit antenna illuminates the
terrain with a radar beam which is
of the same area. The
scattered by the surface. slight difference in the
Two receive antennas with a fixed two images allows us to
separation between them (baseline)
record the backscattered radar echo
determine the height of
from slightly different positions the surface.
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C) RADAR Interferometry (contd..)

When a radar signal is transmitted from the Shuttle and hits

a target on the Earth, part of the signal is reflected back
toward the Shuttle. A receiver on the Shuttle measures the
strength of the reflected wave, and that strength, when
plotted versus distance from the target, would look much
like the figure below.
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C) RADAR Interferometry (contd..)

z y h * Cos

B 2 2 ( ) 2
Cos(90-+) =
2 B
4
*

B 2 ( ) 2
z ( y) h * Cos
2( BSin ( ))

The height of the terrain at any point of earth z (y) can be estimated using
the formulation given below and figure explains the various terms used in
these equations.
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D) From air/space borne Altimeter/LIDAR satellite remote

sensing

Altimetry satellites determine the distance from the satellite to the Earths surface by
measuring the time it takes a radar pulse to travel from the satellite to the surface and
back. The surface height (H), is the satellite's distance at a given instant from the
reference surface, so:

(corrected) Height = Altitude - (corrected) Range.

The magnitude and shape of the radar echoes (or waveforms) contain additional
information about the characteristics of the surface.
17
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LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) is also used similar to altimeters to

measure the height of given object or terrain features by using Laser in place of
microwave radiation. LIDAR is an optical remote sensing technology that can
measure the distance to, or other properties of a target by illuminating the target
with light, often using pulses from a laser.
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Example of multiple returns from a tree

LiDAR data of forest (top) and

corresponding forest floor DEM
(below)(Courtesy Geolas)

LiDAR data for a hotel (Courtesy Geolas)

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LIDAR data
(LIght Detection And Ranging)

Horizontal resolution: 2m
Vertical accuracy: 2cm
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DEM Data Sources

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DEM SOURCES
SPATIAL GEOGRAPHIC
Sl no TYPE OF DEM SOURCE
RESOLUTION REGION

1 Cartosat DEM 30 m India Bhuvan

Shuttle Radar USGS Earth

Global
2 Topography Mission 30 m, 90 m Explorer
(SRTM)
Advanced Space-borne
Thermal Emission & USGS Earth
3 30 m 83N to 83S.
Reflection Radiometer Explorer
(ASTER)
National Elevation 3 m, 10 m, 30 The National
4 U.S.A.
Dataset (NED) m, 60 m Map Viewer

Global Multi-resolution
225 m, 450 m, USGS Earth
5 Terrain Elevation Data Global
1 km Explorer
(GMTED)
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Sl no TYPE OF DEM SPATIAL GEOGRAPHIC SOURCE

RESOLUTION REGION

6 Japan Aerospace 30 m Global JAXA Global

Exploration Agency ALOS Portal
(JAXA)s Global 5m (commercial)
ALOS DSM

7 SPOT 20 m 2/3rd of the Airbus

global coverage Defence and
Space

8 GTOPO30 1 km Global
9 NOAA GLOBE 1 km Global
project
10 TANDEM-x 5m Global
11 Open Series 1:50000 India Survey of
Elevation Maps India
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Other Sources of DEMs:

EROS (Earth Resources Observation & Science)

Google Earth library- SRTM KML project - 90m
GLSDEM (Global Land Survey Digital Elevation Model)
GeoGratis & GeoBase - Canadian DEMs.
TanDEM-X Intermediate- German Aerospace Center.
LIDAR DEM
ICEDS
ESDI
CGIAR-CSI Geoportal
NGDC
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Terrain Parameters
&
Watershed Delineation
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Terrain Variables
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Errors in DEM
Typos occur frequently in DEMs
Most common variety are sinks and spires.
Sinks occur when a very low elevation, relative to
surrounding cells, is entered.
Spires occur when a very high elevation, relative to
surrounding cells, is entered
Both appear as tightly packed contours
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SLOPE
It controls the flow distribution and movement, land utilization and watershed
behavior.

If slope is more,
the flow velocity is more, and hence flood water drains quickly
results in higher peak discharge
reduces infiltration 1.41 1 1.41
increases the soil transportation 1 0 1 * cell size
1.41 1 1.41
Slopes are calculated locally using a neighborhood function, based
on a moving 3*3 window
Distances are different in horizontal and vertical directions vs
diagonal h
Only steepest slopes are used d
= 100 * (h/d)
for : slope in %
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Slope Calculation

340 335 330 (elevations)

337 332 330

330 328 320

8/42.47 3/30 2/42.47 (difference/distance)

5/30 0 -2/30
-2/42.47 -2/30 -12/42.47
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CLASSIFIED SLOPE MAP

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ASPECT is the compass direction that a slope faces.

For example, a slope on the eastern edge of the Mountain toward the
Great Plains is described as having an easterly aspect.

A slope which falls down to a deep valley on its western side and a
shallower one on its eastern side has a westerly aspect or is a west-
facing slope.

Aspect can have a strong influence on temperature.

The aspect of a slope can make very significant influences on its local climate
(microclimate). For example, because the sun's rays are in the west at the
hottest time of day in the afternoon, in most cases a west-facing slope will be
warmer than a sheltered east-facing slope.
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Aspect Map of watershed

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Determine the Direction of flow D8 Algorithm

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Determine the Direction of flow D Infinity Algorithm

Assigns a flow direction based on

the D-infinity flow method using
the steepest slope of a triangular
facet
The flow direction angle is
determined as the direction of the
steepest downward slope on the
eight triangular facets formed in a
3 x 3 grid cell window centered on
the grid cell of interest. The
resulting flow in a grid is then
usually interpreted as being
proportioned between the two
neighboring cells that define the
triangular facet with the steepest
downward slope. (Tarboton, 1997, "A New Method for the Determination of Flow
Directions and Contributing Areas in Grid Digital Elevation Models,"
Water Resources Research, 33(2): 309-319).
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Flow Direction Map of watershed

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Assign a value to indicate the direction

of flow. Then for each cell determine
the number of cell upstream

Set a threshold for the minimum value of

flow accumulation which defines a stream
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Flow Accumulation Map of watershed

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Main Stream (extracted from Flow Accumulation map )

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Stream Ordering
First and Second order streams
generally form on steep slopes and flow
quickly until they slow down and meet
the next order waterway.

First to Third Order Streams generally

found in upper reaches of watershed

Streams that are classified through 4th

to 6th are called as medium streams

If Stream order is larger than 6th is

considered as river.
Stream Order (Strahler)
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Flow Length Map of watershed

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FLOW DIRECTION MAP DERIVED FROM DIGITAL ELEVATION MAP

DIGITAL ELEVATION MAP FLOW DIRECTION MAP

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FLOW ACCUMULATION MAP DERIVED FROM FLOW DIRECTION MAP

FLOW DIRECTION MAP FLOW ACCUMULATION MAP

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DRAINAGE MAP DERIVED FROM FLOW ACCUMULATION MAP

FLOW ACCUMULATION MAP DRAINAGE MAP

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CATCHMENT EXTRACTION

CATCHMENT MERGE FROM DEM DERIVED LAYERS

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SUB-WATERSHED MAP
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HILL SHADING
SHADOW filter
The SHADOW filter is a standard linear filter which works in a 3x3
environment. The values in the matrix are:

-3 -2 -1
-2 1 2
-1 2 4
The illumination direction can be varied by mirroring the values
of the matrix.
SHADOW applies artificial illumination (from the Northwest) to the DEM.
As a result, higher parts in the DEM become more pronounced because
they obtain a shadow.
In sophisticated softwares like ARC-GIS, ERDAS interactively illumination
Source can be changed
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Illumination
direction

DIGITAL ELEVATION MODEL SHADOW IMAGE

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HILL SHADING MAP

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Curvature of the terrain ( convex / concave / flat )

The Laplace filter is a standard linear filter which works in a 3x3

window.
The values in the matrix are:
1 1 1
1 -8 1
1 1 1

convex (negative value ) or

concave (positive value)

Flat areas and uniform slopes obtain output value 0.

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Curvatures
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Other DEM Derivatives

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Compound Topographic Index (CTI)

The tendency to accumulate water of a pixel with a low slope
angle is greater than the one of a very steep pixel. Commonly used
parameter to describe this tendency at any point in the landscape is the
Compound Topographic Index (CTI), also called Topographic Moisture
Index or Wetness Index. It is defined as a ratio between the slope and
catchment area:

sdsdsd
Sd
Where Af is the specific catchment area draining through the point
is the representative local slope angle.

For the same contributing area, CTI is higher for pixels with lower slopes. This
means CTI primarily reflects the accumulation processes.
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Stream Power Index (SPI)

To reflect the erosive power of the terrain.

Sediment Transport Index (STI)

To reflect the erosive power of the overland flow.
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Drainage Density
Ratio of total length of all streams of the catchment divided by its
area.
Dd = Ls / A
Stream Density
Number of streams of given order per sq. km computed by dividing
the total number of streams with area.
Ds = Ns / A
Shape Factor
Ratio of square of watershed length L to the watershed area A.
Bs = L2 / A
Channel Slope
Centroid of the Basin
Form Factor
Ratio of the watershed area A to the square of its length L2.
Ff = A / L2 = Wb / Lb
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Compactness Coefficient
Ratio of the perimeter of the basin
to the circumference of a circle with equal
area.

Elongation Ratio
Ratio of the diameter of the circle
of the same area to the maximum length of
the basin.

Circularity Ratio
Ratio of the basin area to the area
of a circle having the same parameter as the
basin.

Hypsometric Curve
A hypsometric curve is an
cumulative distribution function of elevations
in a catchment.
A hypsometric curve is essentially a
graph that shows the proportion of land area
that exists at various elevations by plotting
relative area against relative height.
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DEM Applications
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Orthophoto production and topographic mapping

A DEM is needed for

orthorectification of an image, the
process of removing the effects of
sensor tilt and relief to obtain a
photographic map with uniform
scale.
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Comparison of Drainage Maps

(extracted from flow accumulation and topomap )
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Hydrological and Flood modeling

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Visibility Analysis
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Surface Drape
Rainfall

Draped image

DEM
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Perspective View of DEM

FCC

DEM + FCC
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3D Representations
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Contact Details of the Faculty:

Email- arpit@iirs.gov.in
Tel- 0135-252-4167