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Nanoparticles
Chapter 01
INTRODUCTION
Nanotechnology refers to the creation and utilization of materials whose constituents
exist at the nanoscale; and, by convention, be up to 100 nm in size. Nanotechnology explores
electrical, optical, and magnetic activity as well as structural behavior at the molecular and
submolecular level. It has the potential to revolutionize a series of medical and biotechnology
tools and procedures so that they are portable, cheaper, safer, and easier to administer.
Nanoparticles are being used for diverse purposes, from medical treatments, using in various
branches of industry production such as solar and oxide fuel batteries for energy storage, to wide
incorporation into diverse materials of everyday use such as cosmetics or clothes, optical
devices, catalytic, bactericidal, electronic, sensor technology, biological labelling and treatment
of some cancers. Due to their exceptional properties including antibacterial activity, high
resistance to oxidation and high thermal conductivity, nanoparticles have attracted considerable
attention in recent years. Nanoparticles can be synthesized chemically or biologically. Metallic
nanoparticles that have immense applications in industries are of different types, namely, Gold,
Silver, Alloy, magnetic etc.
The man in his quest for knowledge has been conceiving and developing physical world
and its components in bigger than the biggest and smaller than the smallest dimensions of mass,
length and time. Though the smallest entity with individual characteristic features that was
established happened to be an atom of an element but realization of the single atom in physical
form and serving mankind remained a dream till recently. It is achieved through the development
of nanocrystaline materials, discovery of concept of quantum confined atom and synthesis of
doped nanocrystaline materials. Investigation of growth mechanism of nanoparticles is present
large scientific and practical interest. As, nanoparticles with given size and characteristics are
required in nanotechnology. Nanoparticles growth mechanism determines distribution function
of nanoparticles on size, physical-chemical properties of nanoparticles medium and etc. Because
of, known of growth mechanism give possibility control of preparation of nanoparticles and to
obtain nanoparticles with given parameters (mean diameter, standard deviation, coefficient
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Chapter 02
ROLE OF TOP DOWN & BOTTOM UP
APPROACHES IN NANOTECHNOLOGY
There are two approaches for synthesis of nano materials and the fabrication of nano
structures. Top down approach refers to slicing or successive cutting of a bulk material to get
nano sized particle. Bottom up approach refers to the buildup of a material from the bottom:
atom by atom, molecule by molecule or cluster by cluster.
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Both approaches play very important role in modern industry and most likely in nano
technology as well. There are advantages and disadvantages in both approaches.
Attrition or Milling is a typical top down method in making nano particles, whereas the
colloidal dispersion is a good example of bottom up approach in the synthesis of nano particles.
The biggest problem with top down approach is the imperfection of surface structure and
signicant crystallographic damage to the processed patterns. These imperfections which in turn
leads to extra challenges in the device design and fabrication. But this approach leads to the bulk
production of nano material. Regardless of the defects produced by top down approach, they will
continue to play an important role in the synthesis of nano structures.
Although the bottom up approach is nothing new, it plays an important role in the
fabrication and processing of nano structures. There are several reasons for this and explained as
below.
When structures fall into a nanometer scale, there is a little chance for top down
approach. All the tools we have possessed are too big to deal with such tiny subjects. Bottom up
approach also promises a better chance to obtain nano structures with less defects, more
homogeneous chemical composition.
On the contrary, top down approach most likely introduces internal stress, in addition to
surface defects and contaminations.
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Chapter 03
NUCLEATION & GROWTH
3.1 Nucleation:
Nucleation is the rst step in the formation of either a new thermodynamic phase or a new
structure via self-assembly or self-organization. Nucleation is typically dened to be the process
that determines how long an observer has to wait before the new phase or self-organized
structure appears. For example, if a volume of water is cooled (at atmospheric pressure) below
0 C, it will tend to freeze into ice. Volumes of water cooled only a few degrees below 0 C often
stay completely ice free for long periods of time. At these conditions nucleation of ice is either
slow or does not occur at all. However, at lower temperatures ice crystals appear after little or no
[1][2]
delay. At these conditions ice nucleation is fast . Nucleation is commonly how rst-order
phase transitions start, and then it is the start of the process of forming a new thermodynamic
phase. By contrast new phases at continuous phase transitions start to form immediately.
Nucleation is often found to be very sensitive to impurities in the system. These impurities
may be too small to be seen by the naked eye, but still can control the rate of nucleation. Because
of this, it is often important to distinguish between heterogeneous nucleation and homogeneous
nucleation. Heterogeneous nucleation occurs at nucleation site on surface on the system.
Homogeneous nucleation occurs at away from the surface.
In nucleation of crystals, in many cases, liquids and solutions can be cooled down or
concentrated up to conditions where the liquid or solution is signicantly less thermodynamically
stable than the crystal, but where no crystals will form for minutes, hours, weeks or longer.
Nucleation of the crystal is then being prevented by a substantial barrier. This has consequences,
for example cold high altitude clouds may the nucleation of crystals contain large numbers of
small liquid water droplets that are far below 0C.
In small volumes, such as in small droplets, only one nucleation event may be needed for
crystallisation. In these small volumes, the time until the rst crystal appears is usually dened to
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[3]
be the nucleation time . In larger volumes many nucleation events will occur. A simple for
crystallisation in that case that combines nucleation and growth is the KJMA or Avrami model.
There are many types of different substances that will produce crystals grown from an
aqueous solution: sugar and salt for example. Crystals begin to grow when the amount of the
substance that is dissolved (the solute) exceeds the amount that in this case the water (the
solvent) is capable of dissolving. The maximum amount of solute dissolved in the water
produces a solution that is saturated. If additional solute is added, it will not dissolve. By raising
the temperature of the water it is possible to dissolve more solute such as sugar in hot coffee than
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would be possible at lower temperatures. Each substance will have a characteristic solubility that
can be experimentally determined.
Crystal growth is partly art, partly science. Crystals can be grown from solution using seed
crystals, which involves putting a small crystal into the presence of more of its component
materials (usually in solution) and allowing those components to uniform the pattern of the small
crystal, or seed. Silicon bottles, the blocks used for making microchips, are made or drawn in
this way.
Chapter 04
METHOD OF SYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLES
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Nanotechnology is an important field of modern research dealing with design, synthesis, and
manipulation of particle structures ranging from approximately 1-100 nm. Nanoparticles (NPs)
have wide range of applications in areas such as health care, cosmetics, food and feed,
environmental health, mechanics, optics, biomedical sciences, chemical industries, electronics,
space industries, drug-gene delivery, energy science, optoelectronics, catalysis, single electron
transistors, light emitters, nonlinear optical devices, and photo-electrochemical applications
Nowadays, there is a growing need to develop eco-friendly processes, which do not use toxic
chemicals in the synthesis protocols. Green synthesis approaches include mixed-valence
polyoxometalates, polysaccharides, Tollens, biological, and irradiation method which have
advantages over conventional methods involving chemical agents associated with environmental
toxicity. Selection of solvent medium and selection of eco-friendly nontoxic reducing and
stabilizing agents are the most important issues which must be considered in green synthesis of
NPs.
Some of the important chemical methods for synthesis of nanoparticles which are widely
used are as follows:
1. Coprecipitation method
2. Sol gel method
3. Solution reduction method
4. Microemulsion method
5. Hydrothermal method
6. Polyol method
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Any factor that affects either or both of these reactions is likely to impact the properties of
the gel. These factors, generally referred to as sol-gel parameters, includes type of precursor, type
of solvent, water content, acid or base content, precursor concentration, and temperature. These
parameters affect the structure of the initial gel and, in turn, the properties of the material at all
subsequent processing steps.
After gelation, the wet gel can be optionally aged in its mother liquor, or in another solvent,
and washed. The time between the formation of a gel and its drying, known as aging, is also an
important parameter. A gel is not static during aging but can continue to undergo hydrolysis and
condensation.
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Chapter 05
CHARACTERIZATION OF NANOPARTICLES
When the dimensions of materials are reduced to nano scale, they demonstrate unique
properties which are far different from those of their bulk counterparts. For example, their
electronic and optical properties change, their chemical properties can be increased or decreased
and mechanical/structural stabilities are changed dramatically. These features make
Nanoparticles attractive for unique sensing applications, and also at the same time cause
complications in their characterization processes. Therefore, the challenge lies in finding the
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right characterization techniques that have the optimum capabilities for studying the
characteristics of nanomaterials generated by these techniques.
Common techniques are Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), X-ray
Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), Powder X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform
Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Matrix-assisted Laser Desorption/ionization Time-of-Flight Mass
Spectrometry(MALDI-TOF), Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy, dual polarisation.
Characterization of nanoparticles is based on the size, morphology and surface charge,
using such advanced microscopic techniques as atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron micros- copy (TEM). Properties such as
the size distribution, average particle diameter, charge affect the physical stability and the in vivo
distribution of the nanoparticles. Properties like surface morphology, size and overall shape are
determined by electron microscopy techniques. Features like physical stability and
redispersibility of the polymer dispersion as well as their in vivo performance are affected by the
surface charge of the nanoparticles.
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Chapter 06
CONCLUSION
Nanomaterials have been extensively investigated during the last decade due to their
Wide variety of applications. It is observed that field of nanomaterial synthesis is very dynamic.
Many process such as gas condensation, chemical vapor synthesis, mechanical attrition, chemical
precipitation, Sol-Gel technique, electrodeposition, some other methods widely used are
molecular beam epitaxy, ionised cluster beam, liquid metal ion source, consolidation, sputtering
and gas aggregation of monomers chemical precipitation in presence of capping agents, reaction
in microemulsion and autocombustion are commonly used techniques for synthesis of
nanophosphors. Nanomaterials prepared using the processes include a wide variety.
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