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FeministFilmTheory
byAnnekeSmelik
Introduction

Feminismisasocialmovementwhichhashadanenormousimpactonfilmtheoryandcriticism.Cinemaistakenby
feministstobeaculturalpracticerepresentingmythsaboutwomenandfemininity,aswellasaboutmenand
masculinity.Issuesofrepresentationandspectatorshiparecentraltofeministfilmtheoryandcriticism.Early
feministcriticismwasdirectedatstereotypesofwomen,mostlyinHollywoodfilms(Haskell1973/1987,Rosen
1973).Suchfixedandendlesslyrepeatedimagesofwomenwereconsideredtobeobjectionabledistortionswhich
wouldhaveanegativeimpactonthefemalespectator.Hence,thecallforpositiveimagesofwomenincinema.
Soon,however,theinsightdawnedthatpositiveimageswerenotenoughtochangeunderlyingstructuresinfilm.
Feministcriticstriedtounderstandtheallpervasivepowerofpatriarchalimagerywiththehelpofstructuralist
theoreticalframeworkssuchassemioticsandpsychoanalysis.Thesetheoreticaldiscourseshaveprovedvery
productiveinanalysingthewaysinwhichsexualdifferenceisencodedinclassicalnarrative.Foroveradecade
psychoanalysiswastobethedominantparadigminfeministfilmtheory.Morerecentytherehasbeenamoveaway
fromabinaryunderstandingofsexualdifferencetomultipleperspectives,identitiesandpossiblespectatorships.
Thisopeninguphasresultedinanincreasingconcernwithquestionsofethnicity,masculinityandhybridsexualities.

ClassicalFilmNarrative

ClaireJohnstonwasamongthefirstfeministcriticstoofferasustainedcritiqueofstereotypesfromasemioticpoint
ofview(1973/1991).Sheputforwardhowclassicalcinemaconstructstheideologicalimageofwoman.Drawingon
RolandBarthes'notionof'myth',Johnstoninvestigatedthemythof'Woman'inclassicalcinema.Thesign'woman'
canbeanalyzedasastructure,acodeorconvention.Itrepresentstheideologicalmeaningthat'woman'hasfor
men.Inrelationtoherselfshemeansnothing(1991:25):womenarenegativelyrepresentedas'notman'.The
'womanaswoman'isabsentfromthetextofthefilm(26).
Theimportanttheoreticalshifthereisfromanunderstandingofcinemaasreflectingreality,toaviewofcinemaas
constructingaparticular,ideological,viewofreality.Classicalcinemanevershowsitsmeansofproductionandis
hencecharacterizedbyveilingoveritsideologicalconstruction.Thus,classicalfilmnarrativecanpresentthe
constructedimagesof'woman'asnatural,realisticandattractive.Thisistheillusionismofclassicalcinema.

Inhergroundbreakingarticle'VisualPleasureandNarrativeCinema'(1975/1989),LauraMulveyusespsychoanalysis
tounderstandthefascinationofHollywoodcinema.Thisfascinationcanbeexplainedthroughthenotionof
scopophilia,thedesiretosee,whichisafundamentaldriveaccordingtoFreud.Sexualinorigin,likealldrives,der
Schautriebiswhatkeepsthespectatorgluedtothesilverscreen.Classicalcinema,addsMulvey,stimulatesthe
desiretolookbyintegratingstructuresofvoyeurismandnarcissismintothestoryandtheimage.Voyeuristicvisual
pleasureisproducedbylookingatanother(character,figure,situation)asourobject,whereasnarcissisticvisual
pleasurecanbederivedfromselfidentificationwiththe(figureinthe)image.
Mulveyhasanalyzedscopophiliainclassicalcinemaasastructurethatfunctionsontheaxisofactivityand
passivity.Thisbinaryoppositionisgendered.Thenarrativestructureoftraditionalcinemaestablishesthemale
characterasactiveandpowerful:heistheagentaroundwhomthedramaticactionunfoldsandthelookgets
organized.Thefemalecharacterispassiveandpowerless:sheistheobjectofdesireforthemalecharacter(s).In
thisrespect,cinemahasperfectedavisualmachinerysuitableformaledesiresuchasalreadystructuredand
canonizedinthetraditionofWesternartandaesthetics.
Mulveyhasdisentangledthewaysinwhichnarrativeandvisualtechniquesincinemamakevoyeurismintoan
exclusivelymaleprerogative.Withinthenarrativeofthefilmmalecharactersdirecttheirgazetowardsfemale
characters.Thespectatorinthetheatreismadetoidentifywiththemalelook,becausethecamerafilmsfromthe
optical,aswellaslibidinal,pointofviewofthemalecharacter.Therearethusthreelevelsofthecinematicgaze
(camera,characterandspectator)thatobjectifythefemalecharacterandmakeherintoaspectacle.Inclassical
cinema,voyeurismconnoteswomenas'tobelookedatness'(1989:19).
MulveytacklesnarcissisticvisualpleasurewithLacan'sconceptsofegoformationandthemirrorstage.Thewayin
whichthechildderivespleasurefromtheidentificationwithaperfectmirrorimageandformsitsegoidealonthe
basisofthisidealizedimage,isanalogoustothewayinwhichthefilmspectatorderivesnarcissisticpleasurefrom
identifyingwiththeperfectedimageofahumanfigureonthescreen.Inbothcases,however,duringthemirrorstage
andincinema,identificationsarenotalucidformofselfknowledgeorawareness.Theyareratherbasedonwhat
Lacancalls'mconnaissance'(a'misrecognition'),thatistosaytheyareblindedbytheverynarcissisticforcesthat
structuretheminthefirstplace.Egoformationisstructurallycharacterizedbyimaginaryfunctions.Andsois

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cinema.AtaboutthesametimeasChristianMetzworkedonthisanalogyinhisessaysonpsychoanalysisand
cinema,Mulveyarguedthatcinematicidentificationswerestructuredalongthelinesofsexualdifference.
Representationof'themoreperfect,morecomplete,morepowerfulidealego'(20)ofthemaleherostandsinstark
oppositiontothedistortedimageofthepassiveandpowerlessfemalecharacter.Hencethespectatorisactively
madetoidentifywiththemaleratherthanwiththefemalecharacterinfilm.

Therearethentwoaspectstovisualpleasurewhichare
negotiatedthroughsexualdifference:thevoyeuristic
scopophilicgazeandnarcissisticidentification.Boththese
formativestructuresdependfortheirmeaninguponthe
controllingpowerofthemalecharacteraswellasonthe
objectifiedrepresentationofthefemalecharacter.Moreover,
accordingtoMulvey,inpsychoanalytictermstheimageof
'woman'isfundamentallyambiguousinthatitcombines
attractionandseductionwithanevocationofcastration
anxiety.Becauseherappearancealsoremindsthemale
subjectofthelackofapenis,thefemalecharacterisa
sourceofmuchdeeperfears.Classicalcinemasolvesthe
threatofcastrationinoneoftwoways:inthenarrative
structureorthroughfetishism.Toallaythethreatofcastration
onthelevelofnarrative,thefemalecharacterhastobefoundguilty.ThefilmsofAlfredHitchcockareagood
exampleofthiskindofnarrativeplot(seeModleski1988).Thewoman's'guilt'willbesealedbyeitherpunishmentor
salvationandthefilmstoryisthenresolvedthroughthetwotraditionalendingswhicharemadeavailabletowomen:
shemusteitherdie(asine.g.Psycho(1960))ormarry(asine.g.Marnie(1964)).Inthisrespect,Mulvey
provocativelysaysthatastorydemandssadism.
Inthecaseoffetishism,classicalcinemareinstatesanddisplacesthelackingpenisintheformofafetish,thatis,a
hyperpolishedobject.MulveyrefersheretoJosefSternberg'sfetishisationofMarleneDietrich.MarilynMonroeis
anotherexampleofafetishisedfemalestar.Fetishizingthewomandeflectsattentionfromfemale'lack'andchanges
herfromadangerousfigureintoareassuringobjectofflawlessbeauty.Fetishismincinemaconfirmsthereification
ofthefemalefigureandthusfailstorepresent'Woman'outsidethephallicnorm.
Thenotionof'themalegaze'hasbecomeashorthandtermfortheanalysisofcomplexmechanismsincinemathat
involvestructureslikevoyeurism,narcissismandfetishism.TheseconceptshelptounderstandhowHollywood
cinemaistailormadeformaledesire.BecausethestructuresofHollywoodcinemaareanalyzedasfundamentally
patriarchal,earlyfeministsdeclaredthatawoman'sfilmshouldshuntraditionalnarrativeandcinematictechniques
andengageinexperimentalpractice:thus,women'scinemashouldbeacountercinema.

AFeministCounterCinema

Whatshouldafeministcountercinemalooklike?ForMulvey,feministcinemawastobeanavantgardefilm
practicewhichwould'freethelookofthecameraintoitsmaterialityintimeandspaceandthelookoftheaudience
intodialecticsandpassionatedetachment'(Mulvey1989:26).Thatsuchacountercinemawoulddestroythevisual
pleasureofthespectatorwasnoproblemforwomenaccordingtoMulveytheywouldviewthedeclineofclassical
filmnarrativewithnothingmorethan'sentimentalregret'(1989:26).
Feministcountercinematookitsinspirationfromtheavantgardeincinemaandtheater,suchasthemontage
techniquesofSergeiEisenstein,thenotionof'Verfremdung'(distantiation)ofBertoltBrechtandthemodernist
aestheticofJeanLucGodard.Assuchitwasverymuchpartofthe1970spoliticalfilmmaking.Theprivileged
examplesoffeministcountercinemaareChantalAkerman'sJeanneDielman,23QuaiduCommerce,1080
Bruxelles(Belgium1975),LauraMulveyandPeterWollen'sRiddlesoftheSphinx(GB1977)andSallyPotter's
Thriller(GB1979).ItisinterestingtonotethattheradicalfilmsofMarguriteDurashavedrawnmuchlessattention
fromAnglophonefeministfilmcritics.ImportantAmericanexperimentalfilmsareYvonneRainer'sLivesof
PerformersandFilmAboutaWomanWho...(USA1972and1974)andSigmundFreud'sDora(madebyTyndall,
McCall,PajaczkowskaandWeinstock,USA1979).

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Howdoesfeministcountercinemaavoidtheconventionsof
classicalcinemaandhowdoesitaccomodateafemalepoint
ofview?IntheshortexperimentalfilmThriller,forexample,
thisisachievedbydeconstructingaclassicalmelodrama,
Puccini'soperaLaBohme(1895).Thefilmsplitsthefemale
characterintotwo:MimiI,whoisplacedoutsideofthe
narrativeinwhichsheistheheroine,MimiII.ThefirstMimi
investigateshowsheisconstructedasanobjectinthe
melodramaticnarrative.AccordingtoAnnKaplan(1983),the
investigationisbothpsychoanalyticandMarxistmaterialist.
OnthepsychoanalyticlevelMimiIlearnshowthefemale
subjectisexcludedfrommalelanguageandclassical
narrative.Theonlypositionshecanoccupyisthatofasking
questions:'DidIdie?WasImurdered?Whatdoesitmean?'
OntheMarxistmaterialistlevelMimiIlearnstoinvestigate
MimiII'sroleasaseamstressandasamother.AsinPotter'ssecondfilm,TheGolddiggers(GB1980)itisawoman
ofcolourwithadeepFrenchaccentedEnglishvoice(ColetteLafont),whodoesthecriticalquestioningofthe
patriarchalimageofwhitewomanhood.Thus,inbothfilmsitisthe'foreign'femalevoicethatspeaksthediscourse
oftheoryandcriticism.
Thrillercommunicatesthesetheoreticaldiscoursesbothvisuallyandacoustically.Thesoundtrackincludesthe
dominantfemalevoice,aswellasarepeatedlaugh,arepeatedshriekandthesoundofaheartbeat.Theseare
typicalcomponentsoftheclassicalthrillerandhorrorgenres,whilethefilmnarrativedoesnotgiverisetoanysuch
suspense.Instead,itrefocusestheattentionofthespectatorontheenigmassurroundingthefemalesubjectin
classicaldiscourse.Thrillerdeliberatelyviolatesconventionalrealistcodes.Themelodramaticstoryispartlytoldin
shotswhicharepicturesofphographsofastageperformance,andpartlyinreconstructedscenesinwhichthe
actorsmoveinhighlystylizedmovements.Anothervisualdeviceistheuseofmirrors.ForKaplan,theplaywith
repeatedandjarringmirrorshotsillustratethementalprocessesthatLacan'smirrorphaseinvolves
psychoanalytically.Forexample,whenMimiIrecognisesherselfasobjecthershadowisthrownuponthescreen.
MimiIisthenshownwithherbacktothemirror,facingthecamera.Thisimageisrepeatedinaseriesofmirrors
behindher(insteadof'correctly'reflectingthebackofherhead).ForKaplan,thiscomplexshotsignalsMimiI's
recognitionofhersplitsubjectivity.Theinvestigationleadsthewomentounderstandtheyarenotsplitin
themselves,norshouldtheybesplitnarratively.ThefilmendssymbolicallywithbothMimi'sembracing.

Feministcountercinemadidnotonlypertaintofictionalfilm,butalsotodocumentary.Theproblemsoffindingan
appropriateformandstyleweremaybeevenmoreacutefordocumentaryfilm,becausetraditionaldocumentaryuses
illusionismandrealismtocapturethe'truth'or'reality'.Formanyfeministfilmmakersinthe1970s,thisidealismwas
unacceptable.Itcouldnotincludeselfreflexivity,oneofthestartingpointsoffeministfilmpractice.Feminist
documentaryshouldmanufactureandconstructthe'truth'ofwomen'soppression,notmerelyreflectit(Johnston
1983).However,othervoiceswerealsoheard.Becausemanystylisticallytraditionaldocumentarieshavebeen
importanthistoricaldocumentsforthewomen'smovement,thiskindoffeministformalismwasquestioned.Alex
Juhaszcriticisedthiskindoforthodoxy,whichproscribedantiillusionisttechniquesunderminingidentification.She
pointstotheparadoxthattheunifiedsubjectwhichwasrepresentedinearlyfeministdocumentaries,presentedthe
feministviewerinfactwitha'radical,newandpoliticizedreinterpretationofthatfemalesubjectivity,onewhich
mobilizedvastnumbersofwomenintoactionforthefirsttime'(1994:174).
Wewitnessatheoreticalcontradictionoffeminismhere:whilefeministsneedtodeconstructthepatriarchalimages
andrepresentationsof'Woman',theyhistoricallyneedtoestablishtheirfemalesubjectivityatthesametime.Thatis
tosay,theyhavetofindoutandredefinewhatitmeanstobeawoman.Arelentlessformalismmaybetoomuchof
aonesidedapproachtothecomplexenterpriseof(re)constructingthefemalesubject.
Countercinemarepresentsonlyasmallfractionofthemanyfilmsproducedbywomensincethemid1970s.Yet,
theseexperimentalfilmshavebeenoverpraisedfortheirsubversivepowerswhilerealistwomen'sfilmswere
overcriticisedfortheirillusionism(seeKuhn1982andKaplan1983).Thesuspicionofcollusioncastonrealistor
narrativefilmhasresultedineitheraconcentrationofcriticaleffortsonclassicalHollywoodcinemaorinalargely
unjustifiedacclaimofexperimentalwomen'scinemaamongtheelectedfewwhogettoseeit.Thishasresultedina
paradoxicalneglectofcontemporarypopularfilmsmadebywomenforawideraudiencealackofacademic
attentionwhichcontinuedlongintothe1980sandeven1990s(seeforareappraisalofnarrativefeministcinema
Humm1997andSmelik1998).TeresadeLauretis(1984,1987)wasamongthefirsttoclaimthatfeministcinema
shouldnotdestroynarrativeandvisualpleasure,butrathershouldbe'narrativeandOedipalwithavengeance'(1987:
108).Accordingtoher,feministcinemainthe1980sshoulddefine'allpointsofidentification(withcharacter,image,
camera)asfemale,feminine,orfeminist'(1987:133).

TheFemaleSpectator
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Theaccountof'themalegaze'asastructuringlogicinWesternvisual
culturebecamecontroversialintheearly1980s,asitmadenoroom
forthefemalespectatornorforafemalegaze.Yet,womendidanddo
gotothemovies.Mulveywasmuchcriticizedforomittingthequestion
offemalespectatorship.Inalateressay(1981/1989),sheaddressed
thevicissitudesoffemalespectatorshipinheranalysisofthewestern
DuelintheSun(KingVidor,1946).Mulveysuggeststhatthefemale
spectatormaynotonlyidentifywiththeslotofpassivefemininity
whichhasbeenprogrammedforher,butisalsolikelytoenjoy
adoptingthemasculinepointofview.Mulveyelaboratesonthenotion
oftranssexualidentificationandspectatorshipbypointingtothepre
oedipalandphallicfantasyofomnipotencewhichforgirlsisequally
activeasforboys,andhence,inaFreudianperspective,essentially
'masculine'.Inordertoacquire'proper'femininity,womenwillhaveto
shedthatactiveaspectoftheirearlysexuality.Mulveyspeculatesthat
femalespectatorsmaynegotiatethemasculinisationofthe
spectatorialpositioninHollywoodcinema,becauseitsignifiesforthem
apleasurablerediscoveryofalostaspectoftheirsexualidentity.
Evenso,thefemalespectatorremains'restlessin[her]transvestite
clothes'(37).
Itwasnotuntiltheendofthedecadebeforefemalespectatorshipwas
theorizedoutsidethedichotomouscategoriesofpsychoanalytic
theory.Anaccountoffemalespectatorshipinallitsculturalcontextsandmultipledifferenceswasthenundertaken
inaspecialissueofCameraObscura,entitled'TheSpectatrix'(1989:nos2021).TheeditorsJanetBergstromand
MaryAnnDoanechosetogiveacomprehensivesurveyofinternationalresearchonandtheoriesofthefemale
spectatorinfilmandtelevisionstudies.

Themasquerade

Ithasbecomeageneralassumptionoffeministfilmtheorythatfemalespectatorsaremorefluidintheircapacityto
identifywiththeothergender.Forexample,inherstudyofthefanphenomenon,MiriamHansen(1991)hasusedthe
ideaofspectatorialflexibilitytoexplainwhywomeninthe1920sweredrawntothefemininepositioningofRudolph
Valentino.
Thisspectatorialtransvestismofthewomanviewerpointstoafemalemasquerade.Theconceptofmasquerade
wasfirstintroducedintofeministfilmtheorybyJohnston(1975)inheranalysisofJacquesTourneur'sAnneofthe
Indies(1951).Thenotionofmasqueradewasinspiredbytheroleofthefemalecharacterwhocrossdressedasa
malepirate.ForJohnstonthefemalemasqueradesignifiednotonlyamaskingbutalsoan'unmasking'inthe
deconstructionistsenseofexposingandcriticising.
MaryAnnDoane(1982/1991)exploredthenotionofmasqueradefurthertounderstandwoman'srelationtotheimage
onthescreen.DrawingonthepsychoanalyticworkofJoanRivire,Doaneunderstandsthemasquerade,notas
crossdressing,butonthecontraryasamaskoffemininity.Rivirehadnoticedinherclinicalobservationsthat
womenwhofindthemselvesinamalepositionofauthorityputonamaskoffemininitythatfunctionsas
compensationfortheirmasculineposition.
Howdoesthisconceptofthemasqueraderelatetoissuesofidentificationandspectatorship?Aswehaveseen,the
malegazeinvolvesvoyeurism.Voyeurismpresupposesdistance.Doanearguesthatthefemalespectatorlacksthis
necessarydistancebecausesheistheimage.Femininityisconstructedascloseness,as'anoverwhelming
presencetoitselfofthefemalebody'(22).Thefemalespectatorcanadopt'themasochismofoveridentification'or
'thenarcissismentailedinbecomingone'sownobjectofdesire'(3132).Doanearguesthatthefemalespectatoris
consumedbytheimageratherthanconsumingit.Thispositioncanbeavoidednotonlythroughatranssexual
identification,butalsothroughthemasquerade.Themasqueradeiseffectiveinthatitmanufacturesadistancefrom
theimage.Bywearingfemininityasamask,thefemalespectatorcancreatethenecessarydifferencebetween
herselfandtherepresentedfemininityonthescreen.
InastudyoftheWoman'sfilmoftheforties,Doane(1987)returnstotherathernegativewaysinwhichHollywood
constructsfemaleidentificationandsubjectivity.ForDoane,thefemalespectatorofthosemelodramasisinvolvedin
emotionalprocesseslikemasochism,paranoia,narcissismandhysteria.TheWoman'sfilm,inspiteofitsfocuson
afemalemaincharacter,perpetuatestheseprocessesandthusconfirmstereotypesaboutthefemalepsyche.The
emotionalinvestmentsoftheviewerleadtooveridentification,destroyingthedistancetotheobjectofdesireand
turningtheactivedesireofboththefemalecharacterandthefemalespectatorintothepassivedesiretobethe
desiredobject.Mere'desiretodesire'seemstobe,then,theonlyoptionforwomen.

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Dotheseratherdireinterpretationsoffemalespectatorshipimplythatthefemalelookisimpossibleandthatthelook
orgazeisnecessarilymale?Intheearly1980sthisseemedthecaseinfeministtheory.Inheranalysisof
Hollywoodwoman'sfilmsofthe1970'sand1980's,AnnKaplan(1983)arguesthatfemalecharacterscanpossess
thelookandevenmakethemalecharactertheobjectofhergaze,butbeingawomanherdesirehasnopower.The
neofeministHollywoodmoviesinvolveamerereversalofrolesinwhichtheunderlyingstructuresofdominanceand
submissionarestillintact.Thegazeisnotessentiallymale,'buttoownandactivatethegaze,givenourlanguage
andthestructureoftheunconscious,istobeinthe"masculine"position'(30).
ThedifficultiesoftheorizingthefemalespectatormadeJackieStacey(1987)exclaimthatfeministfilmcriticshave
writtenthedarkestscenariopossibleforthefemalelookasbeingmale,masochistormarginal.Therehavebeen
somedifferentvoices,however.GertrudKoch(1980)isoneofthefewfeministswhoearlyonrecognizedthat
womencouldalsoenjoytheimageoffemalebeautyonthescreen.Especiallythevamp,animageexportedfrom
EuropeandintegratedintoHollywoodcinema,providesthefemalespectatorwithapositiveimageofautonomous
femininity.Kocharguesthattheimageofthevamprevivesforthefemalespectatorthepleasurableexperienceof
themotherastheloveobjectinearlychildhood.Moreover,thesexualambivalenceofthevamp,offorexample
GretaGarboandMarleneDietrich,allowsforafemalehomoeroticpleasurewhichisnotexclusivelynegotiated
throughtheeyesofmen.InKoch'sviewthevampisaphallicwomanratherthanafetishizedwoman,assheoffers
contradictoryimagesoffemininitywhichgobeyondthereifyinggaze.Thevamp'sambiguitycanbeasourceof
visualpleasureforthefemalespectator.Thedisappearanceofthevampincinema,therefore,meansagreatlossof
possibleidentificationsandvisualpleasureforthefemaleaudience.
Asimilarfocusonthepreoedipalphaseandonthemotherasloveobjectandpotentialsourceofvisualpleasure
hasbeendevelopedbyGaylynStudlar(1988),thoughfromaverydifferentangle.AnalyzingfilmsmadebyJosef
vonSternbergstarringMarleneDietrich,sheinvestigatestheDeleuziannotionofmasochism.Deleuzeviews
masochismasthedesireofthemaletomergewiththemotherandsubvertthefather'sphalliclaw.Itsviolenceis
contractualandconsensual,inawaythatsadismisnot.Sadismisnegatesdifferenceofthemotherandexultsin
thepowerofthefather.Studlararguesthatvisualpleasureincinemaresemblesmorethepsychicprocessesof
masochismthanofsadism.Cinemaevokesthedesireofthespectatortoreturntothepreoedipalphaseofunity
withthemother,andofbisexuality.Thefemalespectatorcanthusidentifywithanddrawpleasurefromthepowerful
femmefataleincinema.Thisisasortofreenactmentofthesymbiosisthroughwhichthespectatorwishesto
subjectherorhimselftothepowerfulmotherimage.Theconditionofthisactivemasochisticdesireisthatitbe
suspended,whichisachievedbymeansofperformanceandmasqueradeonthepartofthefemalecharacter.These
ritualizationsoffantasykeepdesireundercontrol.ForStudlarthemasqueradeservesasadefensivestrategyfor
women,bywhichtheydeflectandconfusethemalegaze.Shethuscreatesaplaceforthepleasureanddesireof
thefemalesubjectspectator,albeitthepleasurablepainofdesire.
Bisexualidentificationhasalsosubmergedinstudiesofvery
differentfilmgenres.Inherstudyofthemodernhorrorfilm,Carol
Clover(1992)arguesthatbothfemaleandmalespectators
identifybisexually.Sherestshercaseonthenarrativeroleofthe
'FinalGirl':theonegirlinthefilmwhofights,resistsandsurvives
thekillermonster.TheFinalGirlacquiresthegaze,and
dominatestheaction,andisthusmasculinised.Theslasherfilm,
likeHalloween(1978),FridaytheThirteenth(1980)andNightmare
onElmStreet(1984)(andtheirsequels),openlyplaysona
differencebetweenapperance(sex)andbehaviour(gender).
Cloverarguesthatitisthis'theatricalizationofgender'which
feminisestheaudience.Whereasinclassichorror(e.g.filmsby
HitchcockandDePalma)thefeminisationoftheaudienceis
intermittentandceaseswhentheFinalGirlbecomesthe
designatedvictim(MarioninPsycho),inthemodernhorrorfilm
theFinalGirlbecomesherownsaviour.Herselfrescueturnsher
intotheheroanditisatthatmomentthatthemaleviewer'givesupthelastpretenseofmaleidentification'.For
Cloverthewillingnessofthemalespectatortothrowinhisemotionallotwithawomaninfearandpain,pointsto
masochism.AlthoughCloverisawareofthemisogynyofthegenreoftheslasherfilm,sheclaimsasubversive
edgeinthatitadjustsgenderrepresentationsandidentifications.

Femalesubjectivity

Thequestionoffemalespectatorshipandthefemalelookcirclearoundtheissueofsubjectivity.Femalesubjectivity
hasbeenexplorednotonlyinrelationtospectatorship,butalsowithrespecttothenarrativestructureoffilm.Oneof
thekeyfiguresinthisfieldisTeresadeLauretis,whoexaminedthestructuralrepresentationsof'woman'incinema
(1984,1987).
DeLauretis(1984)emphasizesthatsubjectivityisnotafixedentitybutaconstantprocessofselfproduction.
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Narrationisoneofthewaysofreproducingsubjectivityeachstoryderivesitsstructurefromthesubject'sdesireand
fromitsinscriptioninsocialandculturalcodes.Narrativestructuresaredefinedbyoedipaldesire,whichshouldbe
understoodasbothasociopoliticaleconomydominatedbymen'scontrolofwomenandasawayofemphasizing
thesexualoriginofsubjectivity.Sexualdesireisboundupwiththedesireforknowledge,thatis,thequestfortruth.
Thedesiretosolveriddlesisamaledesireparexcellence,becausethefemalesubjectisherselfthemystery.
`Woman'isthequestionandcanhencenotaskthequestionnormakeherdesireintelligible.InHitchcock'sVertigo
(1958),forexample,Scottie'sdesirefortheenigmaticJudy/Madeleinestructuresthenarrativeofthefilm.
Narrativeisnotoedipalincontentbutinstructure,bydistributingrolesanddifferences,andthuspowerand
positions.Oneofthefunctionsofnarrative,deLauretisargues,isto'seduce'womenintofemininitywithorwithout
theirconsent.Thefemalesubjectismadetodesirefemininity.Thisisacruelandoftencoerciveformofseduction.
HeredeLauretisturnsMulvey'sfamousphrasearound:notonlydoesastorydemandsadismsadismdemandsa
story.ShereferstothewaysinwhichthefemalecharactersinVertigo,butalsoina'woman'sfilm'likeRebecca
(alsobyHitchcock,1940),aremadetoconformtotheidealimagethatthemanhasofthem.Thefunctionof
portraitsoffemaleancestorsinbothfilmsishighlysignificantinthisrespect:theyrepresentthedeadMother,the
idealthatthemaleherodesirestohaveandforcesuponthefemaleheroine.FordeLauretisthedesireofthefemale
characterisimpossibleandthenarrativetensionisresolvedbythedestruction(Judy/Madeleine)orterritorialization
ofwomen(thenewMrs.deWinter).Desireinnarrativeisintimatelyboundupwithviolenceagainstwomenandthe
techniquesofcinematicnarrationbothreflectandsustainsocialformsofoppressionofwomen.
DeLauretisishardlymoreoptimisticthanMulveyaboutthefemalespectator.Notthatsheassumesidentificationto
besingleorsimplefemininityandmasculinityareidentificationsthatthesubjecttakesupinachangingrelationto
desire.DeLauretisdistinguishestwodifferentprocessesofidentificationincinema.Thefirstsetisanoscillating
either/oridentification.Itconsistsofamasculine,activeidentificationwiththegaze(Scottie)andapassive,
feminineidentificationwiththeimage(Judy/Madeleine).Thesecondsetisasimultaneousboth/andidentification.It
consistsofthedoubleidentificationwiththefigureofnarrativemovement(theprotagonist,thenewMrs.deWinterin
Rebecca)andwiththefigureofnarrativeimage(heretheimageofRebecca).Thissetoffiguralidentifications
enablesthefemalespectatortotakeupboththeactiveandpassivepositionsofdesire:'Desirefortheother,and
desiretobedesiredbytheother'(143).Thisdoubleidentificationmayyieldasurplusofpleasure,butitisalsothe
veryoperationbywhichanarrativesolicitsthespectators'consentandseduceswomenintofemininity.
Thenotionofthefemalesubject,then,seemstobeacontradictioninterms,somuchsothatdeLauretis
sometimesreferstothefemalesubjectasa'nonsubject'(1985:36).'Woman'isfundamentallyunrepresentableas
subjectofdesireshecanonlyberepresentedasrepresentation(1987:20).Feministtheoryisbuiltonthevery
paradoxoftheunrepresentabilityofwomanassubjectofdesire,andhistoricalwomenwhoknowthemselvestobe
subjects.FordeLauretis,theselfconsciousexperienceofbeingboth'woman'and'women'istheproductive
contradictionoffeminism.Women'sfilmslikeLesRendezvousd'AnnaorJeanneDielmanbyChantalAkerman,
ThrillerbySallyPotter,orSigmundFreud'sDora:ACaseofMistakenIdentitybyTyndall,McCall,Pajaczkowska
andWeinstock,areherprivilegedexamplesoffilmswhichexploreandexplodethatverycontradiction.

Femaledesire

AfeministcriticwhohasalsoapproachedthequestionoffemaledesirewithinpsychoanalyticdiscourseisKaja
Silverman(1988).DrawingonLacanianpsychoanalysis,Silvermanarguesthateachsubjectisstructuredbylackor
symboliccastration.InWesterncultureitis,however,thefemalesubjectwhoismadetobeartheburdenofthat
lackinordertoprovidethemalesubjectwiththeillusionofwholenessandunity.Silvermansuggeststhatincinema
thisdisplacementisenactednotonlythroughthegazeandtheimagebutalsothroughtheauditoryregister.Contrary
tothemorefrequentdisembodimentofthemalevoiceincinema,thefemalevoiceisrestrictedtotherealmofthe
body.Thisamountstokeepingitoutsidediscourse.Thefemalevoicecanhardlyreachasignifyingpositionin
language,meaningorpowerandishencealltooeasilyreducedtoscreams,babbleorsilenceindominantcinema.
Silvermandiscussestheculturalfantasyofthematernalvoicethatsurroundstheinfantlikeanacousticblanket.
Thisfantasyforthematernalenclosurenegativelysignifiesthefearofbeingswallowedupbythemother,whereasit
positivelysignifiesaregressiontothestateofharmonyandabundancewhenmotherandchildarestillone.
Silvermanarguesthatboththesefantasiesequatethematernalvoicetopuresoundanddenythemotherany
culturalroleasadiscursiveagent.InherrereadingofpsychoanalysisSilvermanattemptstomakeroomforthe
motherandforfemaledesirewithindiscourseandthesymbolicorder.
ReinterpretingFreud'saccountofthepsychologicaldevelopmentofthelittlegirl,Silvermanputsgreatemphasison
thesignifyingroleofthemotherinearlychildhood.Theentryintolanguagemeanstheendoftheunitybetween
motherandchildaswellasofanunmediatedaccesstoreality.Thelossandseparationentailedbytheacquisition
oflanguageleadthechildtodesirethemother.Thegirlredirectsherdesiretothemotherinwhatiscalledthe
negativeOedipuscomplex.Thiscanonlyhappenafterthepreoedipalstage,becausedistancefromthemotheris
necessaryforhertobeconstructedasaneroticobjectforthedaughter.Silvermanthusrecuperatesfemaledesire
forthemotherasfullyoedipal,thatistosaywithinthesymbolicorder,withinlanguageandsignification.

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Itisaftertheeventofthecastrationcrisis,thedramaticonsetofsexualdifference,thatthegirlleavesthenegative
OedipuscomplexandentersthepositiveOedipalphase,learningtoredirectherdesiretothefather.Fortherestof
herlifethefemalesubjectremainssplitbetweenthedesireforthemotherandforthefather.Thetwodesiresarethe
siteofaconstitutivecontradictionandareconsequentlyirreconcilable.ForSilverman,thedaughter'serotic
investmentinthemothercanbeasubversiveforcefora'libidinalpolitics'becauseitisaformofdesirewhichis
opposedtothenormativedesireforthefather.SilvermanemphasizesthenegativityofthefemalenegativeOedipus
complexasapoliticalpotential.Shearguesthatitisparamountforfeminismtodrawonthelibidinalresourcesofthe
'homosexualmaternalfantasmatic'(125).
Silvermanalsorevisesthetraditionalviewonthedivergenceofidentificationanddesire.Inherviewthesetwo
psychicparadigmsarenotalwaysmutuallyexclusiveandcanactuallycoalesce.InthenegativeOedipuscomplex
thegirlbothidentifieswithanddesiresthemother,whilethefatherfiguresneitherasanobjectofdesirenorof
identification:forthegirlheismerely'atroublesomerival'(FreudquotedinSilverman:153).Inthisstageof
developmentthegirlformsheridentitythroughtheincorporationofthemother'simagoshebothwishestopossess
andtobethemother.Thereisthenaconjunctionofidentificationanderoticism,whichSilvermanbelievestohavea
vitalrelationtofemalenarcissism.Forher,feminism'slibidinalstruggleagainstthephallusliesintheintersectionof
desireforandidentificationwiththemother.
InSilverman'sreading,afantasyforthematernalenclosureistheorganizingprincipleofRiddlesoftheSphinx(Laura
MulveyandPeterWollen,1977).Inthisexperimentalfilm,thefigureoftheSphinxoccupiesthepositionofan
'imaginarynarrator',adistinctlyfictionalisedvoiceover.Thisdisembodiedvoicespeaksawidevarietyofdiscourses
aboutmotherhood,frompsychoanalysistofeministpolitics,thusfirmlyestablishingthematernalvoicewithinthe
symbolicorder.ThefilmiscentereduponthefemaledesiretorecovertheOedipalorsymbolicmother,represented
bytheSphinx.Riddlesspringsofffromthemother/daughterrelationship,ofLouiseandherchildAnna.Thematernal
fantasycanbefoundnotonlyinthepreOedipaldyad,butalsointhehomosexualmaternalmnagetroisof
mother,grandmotherandchild.Thefilmopensthismaternalenclosureuptoafeministcommunityofwomen,
includingLouise'sfriendMaxine,andthevoiceandworkofartistMaryKelly.Thisfemalecollectivity,likefemale
subjectivityisbaseduponthepassionatedesireforthemother.

SexualDifferenceandItsDiscontents

Althoughfeministshavenotalwaysagreedabouttheusefulnessofpyschoanalysis,therehasbeengeneral
agreementaboutthelimitationsofanexclusivefocusonsexualdifference.Onesuchlimitationisthereproductionof
adichotomy,male/female,thatneedstobedeconstructed.Thefearwasthatthisbinaryoppositionwouldsomehow
tiequestionsofpleasureandidentificationtoanatomicaldifference.EspeciallywithinAmerianfeminismtheterm
sexualdifferencewasthereforereplacedbyarenewedinterestinthesex/genderdistinctionthatGayleRubinhad
introducedin1975.Thetermgendergenerallyseemedtoindicateaclearerdistinctionbetweenanatomy(sex)and
socialconstruction(gender),andequallybetweensexualpracticeandgenderidentity.
Anotherlimitationoftheexclusivefocusonsexualdifferencewithinpsychoanalyticfilmtheoryisitsfailuretofocus
onotherdifferencessuchasclass,race,ageandsexualpreference.
Lesbianfeministswereamongthefirsttoraiseobjectionstotheheterosexualbiasofpsychoanalyticfeministfilm
theory.Indeed,feministfilmtheorynotunliketheHollywoodcinemaitcriticisedsofiercelyseemedunableto
conceiveofrepresentationoutsideheterosexuality.ThejournalJumpCutwroteinitsspecialissueonLesbiansand
Film(1981,no24/25):'Itsometimesseemstousthatlesbianismistheholeintheheartoffeministfilmcriticism'(p.
17).Apparently,almosttenyearslatermattershadimprovedverylittle,asJudithMayne(1990,1994)complains
thatthedenialofthelesbianidentityofHollywooddirectorDorothyArznerpointstoacuriousgapinfeministfilm
theory,indeedtothe'structuringabsence'oflesbianism(1994:107).AsPatriciaWhite(1991)observes,the'ghostly
presenceoflesbianism'doesnotonlyhauntHollywoodgothicsbutalsofeministfilmtheory.
Inspiteoftheincreasingfocusonfemalespectatorshipinfeministscholarship,thehomosexualpleasuresofthe
femalespectatorwereindeedlargelyignored.Yet,itisinterestingtoknowwhathappensforthefemalespecator
whenaclassicalnarrativefeaturestwofemalecharacters.ThisquestionaroseasearlyasJulieLesage's(1980)
pioneeringanalysisoftheimprovisationalinterplayofthetwofemalecharactersinJacquesRivette'sCelineand
JulieGoBoating(France1974).Sheshowsthattheabandonmentoftheclassicalstorybasedonmale/female
distinctionsproducesnewandpreviouslyunimaginablenarrativepermutations.

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Stacey(1987)arguesthatinHollywoodfilmswithtwofemale
protagonists,likeAllAboutEve(USA1950)orDesperately
SeekingSusan(USA1984),anactivedesireisproducedby
thedifferencebetweenthetwowomen.Thesestoriesare
aboutwomenwantingtobecometheidealizedother.An
interplayofdifferenceandothernesspreventsthecollapseof
thatdesireintoidentification,promptingStaceytoarguethat
therigidpsychoanalyticdistinctionbetweendesireand
identificationfailstoaddressdifferentconstructionsofdesire.
Shesuggeststhatamoreflexiblemodelofcinematic
spectatorshipisneededsoastoavoidafacilebinarismthat
mapshomosexualityontoanoppositionofmasculinityand
femininity.
DeLauretis(1988)hasdrawnattentiontothedifficultiesof
imagininglesbiandesirewithinapsychoanalyticdiscourse
thatpredicatessexualdifferenceonsexualindifference.She
herefollowsLuceIrigaray'snotionofthesymboliclaw
representingonlyoneandnottwosexes:patriarchyisdeeply'hommosexual'asiterectsthemasculineastheone
andonlynorm.Discussingthesameproblematicinalateressay,deLauretis(1991)observesthattheinstitutionof
heterosexualitydefinesallsexualitytosuchanextentthatisdifficulttorepresenthomosexuallesbiandesire.She
criticizesbothStaceyandSilvermanforconceivingofdesirebetweenwomenaswomanidentifiedfemalebonding
andfailingtoseeitassexual.Here,andmoreextensivelyinherlaterbookThePracticeofLove(1994),deLauretis
returnstoFreudiantheorytoaccountforthespecificityoflesbiandesireintermsoffetishism.
InanswertodeLauretis'criticismStacey(1994)arguesinherstudyoffemalespectatorshipthatsheisnot
concernedwithaspecificallylesbianaudiencebutwithapossiblehomoeroticismforallwomenintheaudience.Her
pointisnottodeeroticisedesire,buttolookforwaysinwhichafilmmayeroticiseidentification.Thefemale
spectatorisquitelikelytoencompasseroticcomponentsinherdesiringlook,whileatthesametimeidentifyingwith
thewomanasspectacle.ThehomoeroticappealoffemaleHollywoodstarshasindeedbeenwidelyrecognised.
Weiss(1992),forexample,discussestheattractionofHollywoodstarsforlesbianspectatorsinthethirties.
EspeciallytheandroynousappearancesofMarleneDietrichinMorocco(USA1930),GretaGarboinQueenChristina
(USA1933)andKatherineHepburninSylviaScarlett(USA1935)wereembracedasanimageofagenderin
betweenandofsexualambiguity.Thestarimageofsexualandrogynyservedaspointofidentificationoutside
conventionalgenderpositions.
Whilethesediscussionsoflesbianspectatorshiparepartofawidermovementinfilmstudiestoincludethe
heterogeneityofthespectatorialsituation,mostdiscussionsofspectatorshiphavebeenaboutwhiteaudiences.De
LauretiswascriticizedfornottakingintoaccountracialdynamicsinthelesbianfilmSheMustBeSeeingThings
(USA1987)(seethediscussionfollowingdeLauretis'1991article).Theissueofblacklesbianspectatorshiphasso
farhardlybeenraised.ThecollectionQueerLooks(Geveretal,1993)addressesthecombinationofracialdifference
andhomosexuality,butitfocusesmoreongayandlesbianfilmmakingthanonspectatorshipassuch.

Gayandlesbiancriticism

Theshiftawayfromtherestrictivedichomomiesofpsychoanalyticfeministfilmtheory,hasresultedinamore
historicalandculturalcriticismofcinemabygayandlesbiancritics.ThisinvolvedrereadingsofHollywoodcinema,
forexampleoftheimplicitlesbianismofthefemalebuddyfilm.Inordertoavoidthat'danger'Hollywoodfilmsoften
includeexplicitscenesofdenyinganylesbianintent.InJulia(USA1977)JaneFondaslapsamaninthefacewho
suggeststhatherfriendshipwithJulia(VanessaRedgrave)wassexual.Otherfilmsputa'real'lesbianinthestoryas
awayofshowingthatthefemalefriendshipofthetwoheroinesisnot'thatway'(Girlfriends,USA1978).Insome
filmsthefemalebuddies,however,becomelovers,asinLianna(USA1982)andPersonalBest(USA1982).Several
criticshavepointedoutthatthelesbiansubjectmatterofthesefilmsisacceptabletoallkindsofaudiences,
becauseitseroticismfeedsintotraditionalmalevoyeurism(LindaWilliams1986,MandyMerck1993).Ellsworth
(1990)investigatedlesbianresponsestothefilmandfoundthatmanylesbianspectatorsactivelyrewrotethefilmby
imaginingadifferentending.Herresearchshowsthatlesbianspectatorsuseinterpretivestrategiestochallengethe
dominantreadingofafilm.
Thethemeoflesbianismstillrunsstronginmorerecentfemalebuddyfilms.FriedGreenTomatoes(USA1991)is
oneofthosefilmsaboutfemalefriendshipinwhichlesbianismremainsunspoken,althoughitisasourceofstrength
andinspiration.InThelmaandLouise(USA1991)thelesbianattractionbetweenthewomencanonlybeexpressed
inakissonthemouthjustbeforetheleaptotheirdeathintotheGrandCanyon.BasicInstinct(USA1991)features
lesbianandbisexualcharactersaspathologicalkillers,harpingbackonthetimeoldassociationinHollywoodfilms
oflesbianismwithdeathandpathology.Whatelseisnew?AngelaGalvin(1994)suggeststhatthenoveltymaywell
lieintheheroine'sabsenceofamustache.ThecontroversyoverThelmaandLouiseandBasicInstinctshowssome
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ofthevariousresponsesoffeministandlesbiancriticism.Whilethefilmshavebeencriticisedfortheirreactionary
representationofstrongwomenandfortheirexploitationofvoyeuristicthemes,somespectatorshaveappropriated
themas'lesbianfilms',enjoyingimagesofempoweredwomenwhoescapetheLaw(Tasker1993,Graham1995).
AlongsiderereadingsofHollywoodfilmsgayandlesbiancriticismturnedtofilmsmadebylesbiansandgaymen.
EarlyfilmsofEuropeanartcinemawererediscovered,suchasMdcheninUniform(GirlsinUniform,Germany
1931).Rich(1984)arguesthattheantifascistpoliticsofMdcheninUniformisinterconnectedwithitslesbian
themeanditsstruggleagainstauthoritarianstructuresandsexualrepression.Richplacesthefilminthehistorical
contextofWeimarwithitsvibrantlesbiansubculture,especiallyinBerlin.

MdcheninUniformdoesnotstandalonebutispartofatraditionofgayandlesbianfilmmakingwithinearlycinema
(seeDyer1990,Weiss1992).Otherfilmsweremadebygayorlesbianfilmmakers,likethesurrealistshortsof
GermaineDulac.Herfilmshavebeenreadascritiquesofheterosexuality(FlittermanLewis,1990).Fantasyplaysan
importantroleintheseexperimentalfilms.InLaSourianteMadameBeudet(TheSmilingMmeBeudet,France1923)
awomanfantasizesmurderingherbullyofahusbandandescapingfromherbourgeoismarriage,andLaCoquilleet
leClergyman(TheSeashellandtheClergyman,France1927)exposesOedipalmalefantasiesaboutthemysteryof
'Woman'.
JeanGenet'sprisonfilmUnChantd'Amour(ASongofLove,France1950)isaclassicwhichhasbecome
enormouslypopularwithgayaudiencesuntiltodayandwhichalsohasinfluencedgayfilmmakers.Dyer(1990)
discussesthefilm'seroticismintermsofthetensionbetweenpoliticsandpleasure.Whilesomegaycriticshave
reprimandedthefilmforits'oppression'ofgaymenorweredisturbedbyits'homophobic'representationoferotic
pleasures,otherstookamorepermissiveorevencelebratoryattitudetothesadomasochismofthefilm.Dyer
arguesthattherenewedpoliticalinterestinperversesexualitiesopenedaFoucauldianreadingofthefilm'seroticism
intermsofthesocialandhistoricalrelationbetweensexualityandpower.
Theplayofpoweranddesirehasbecomethethemeofsomegayandlesbianfilmsintheeighties,whichDyercalls
a'Genetesque'tradition.Aritualizationofpoweranddesirecanforexamplebefoundinthesadeantheatreof
Verfhrung:diegrausameFrau(Seduction:theCruelWoman,Germany1985)byElfiMikeschandMonikaTreut.
Thishighlyformalisedandestheticisedexplorationofsadomasochismwasoneofthefirstfilmstobringfemale
desireandlesbiansexualitywithinthedomainofpowerandviolence.Anotherfilmmakerthatmustbementionedin
thiscontextisUlrikeOttinger,whosefantasmaticfilmsfromMadameXeineabsoluteHerrscherin(MadameXan
AbsoluteRuler,Germany1977)toJohannaD'ArcofMongolia(Germany1989)humorouslydeconstructtraditional
femininityandperverselycelebratenomadiclesbiansubjectivities(White1987,Longfellow1993).
Thesefilmsareverydifferentfromthelesbianromance,DesertHearts(USA1985),whichistodatestilltheonly
lesbianindependentfeaturewhichmadeuseofHollywoodconventionsandwasaboxofficesuccess.AsJackie
Stacey(1995)pointsout,thefilm,quitesurprisingly,wasnotfollowedbyothersuccessfullesbianromancesnordid
itreceivemuchacademicattention.Shesuggeststhatthismayhavetodowiththepopluarlesbianromancefilm
being'avirtualcontradictioninterms'(112).Thefilmhas,however,remainedpopularwithlesbianaudiences.

FeministTheoryandRace

Persistentcritiqueofpsychoanalyticfilmtheoryhasalsocomefromblackfeminism,whocriticiseditsexclusive
focusonsexualdifferenceanditsfailuretodealwithracialdifference.JaneGaines(1988)isoneofthefirstfeminist
criticstopointtotheerasureofraceinfilmtheoriesthatarebasedonthepsychoanalyticconceptofsexual
difference.Shepleadsforaninclusionofblackfeministtheoryandofahistoricalapproachintofeministfilmtheory
inordertounderstandhowincinemagenderintersectswithraceandclass.
Whitefilmcriticshaveuniversalisedtheirtheoriesofrepresentationsofwomen,whileblackwomenhavebeen
excludedfromthoseveryformsofrepresentation.Thesignificationoftheblackfemaleasnonhumanmakesblack
femalesexualitythegreatunknowninwhitepatriarchy,thatwhichis'unfathomedanduncodified'andyet'worked
overagainandagaininmainstreamculturebecauseofitsapparentelusiveness'(Gaines1988:26).Theeruptive
pointofresistancepresentblackwomen'ssexualityasanevengreaterthreattothemaleunconsciousthanthefear
ofwhitefemalesexuality.
Thecategoryofracealsoproblematisestheparadigmofthemalegazepossessingthefemaleimage.Themale
gazeisnotauniversalgivenbutitisrathernegotiatedviawhiteness:theblackman'ssexualgazeissocially
prohibited.Racialhierarchiesinwaysoflookinghavecreatedvisualtaboos,theneglectofwhichreflectsbackon
filmtheory,whichfailstoaccountforthewaysinwhichsomesocialgroupshavethelicencetolookopenly,while
otherscanonly`look'illicitly.Theracialstructuresoflookingalsohaverepercussionsforstructuresofnarrative.
Gainesdiscussestheconstructionoftheblackmanasrapist,whileintimesofslaveryandlongafter,itwasthe
whitemanwhorapedblackwomen.Thehistoricalscenarioofinterracialrapeexplainsmuchofthepenaltyofsexual
lookingbytheblackman,whowasactually(ratherthansymbolically)castratedorlynchedbywhitemen.ForGaines
thisscenarioofsexualviolence,repressionanddisplacementsrivalstheoedipalmyth.
InterventionssuchasGaines'showthatthecategoryofracerevealstheuntenabilityofmanyonesidedbeliefs
withinfeministfilmtheory,andpointstothenecessityofcontextualisingandhistoricisingsexualdifference.Thus,
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LolaYoung(1996)examinestherepresentationofblackfemalesexualitybysituatingBritishfilmsintheirhistorical
andsocialcontext.Intersectingtheoriesofsexualdifferencewiththoseofdifferencesofraceandsexualpreference,
alongwithethnicityandclass,willeventuallymakeotherformsofrepresentationthinkable,althoughYoungargues
convincinglythatwhiteandblackfilmmakersfindithardtochallengestereotypicalimagesofblackwomen.

AlmostsimultaneouslywithYoung'sbookaspecialissueofCameraObscura(nr.36)waspublished,whichfocused
on'BlackWomen,Spectatorship,andVisualCulture'.InherreadingofNeilJordan'sfilmsMonaLisaandTheCrying
GameJoyJamescomestoaverysimilarcritiqueasYoung:thesefilmsfailtofulfillthepromiseoftransgressive
relationshipsandultimatelyreproducestereotypesofblackfemalesexuality.DeborahGraysonexaminestheiconic
representationofblackwomen'shairinvisualculture.Lookingatdiversemediaandpopularpractices(e.g.dolls),
sheidentifiestheracializedsignificationofhairwithinAmericanhealthandbeautyculture.Inasimilarvein,Marla
SheltonanalyzesthecrossoverstardomofWhitneyHouston.WhileSheltoncelebratesHoustons'successful
constructionofherownimageandformationofdifferentaudiences,shepointstotheinherentconflictsthatconverge
aroundthis'rainbowicon'.Forexample,Houstonhasfoundithardtoescapenegativeinterpretationsofhersexuality
andofherroleasawifeandmother.Andwhileshehasalwayshadenormouscrossoverappeal,accordingto
Shelton,inmorerecentyearsHoustonhadtoembraceandexpressherblacknessinordertomaintainalarge
audience.
Generally,littleresearchhasbeenavailableaboutblackaudiences.OneoftheexceptionsistheworkofJacqueline
Bobo(1995)onStevenSpielberg'sTheColorPurple(1985).Thefilmwasattackedintheblackpressforitsracism.
Yet,thiscriticalviewismixedwithreportsofblackspectatorswhofoundthefilmempowering.Bobosetoutto
researchthisapparentcontradictionandinterviewedagroupofblackwomen.Theblackfemalespectatorswere
quiteunanimouslyimpressedbythefilm'Finally,somebodysayssomethingaboutus'andfeltstrengthenedby
thetriumphofthefemaleprotragonistCelie.Theythoughtthecriticismofthefilm(andalsoofAliceWalker'snovel),
particularlyonthepartofblackmen,quiteunjustified.Thewomendorecognisethatthefilmcontinuesthetradition
ofracistrepresentationsofblacksSpielberg'sinterpretationofSofiaandHarpoisnotconsideredtobesuccessful.
However,Boboarguesthat,asblackspectators,thewomenarebysheernecessityusedtofilteringoutoffensive
racistimagesfromwhattheyseeincinema.Thewomennegotiatedtheirappreciationofthefilmthroughtheir
personalhistoryandpastviewingexperience.Moreover,Bobofoundthatcertaintechnicalaspectsofthefilm
contributedtospectatorialpleasure:TheColorPurpleintroducedaninnovativewayofphotographingblackpeopleso
thattheystoodoutagaistthebackground.Thisphotographictechniquemadeblackpeopleappearmoredistinctlyon
thescreenthaninthecinematictraditionofHollywood.
Theinfluentialfeministcriticbellhooks(1990,1992and1994)confirmsthatblackviewershavealwayscritically
respondedtoHollywood.Blackfemalespectatorsdonotnecessarilyidentifywitheitherthemalegazeorwithwhite
womanhoodaslack.Rather,they'constructatheoryoflookingrelationswherecinematicvisualdelightisthe
pleasureofinterrogation'(1992:126).Forhooksthisisaradicaldeparturefromthe'totalizingagenda'offeministfilm
criticism,andthebeginningofanoppositionalspectatorshipforblackwomen.
Asearchforanoppositionalsubjectivitycanalsobefoundinthepracticeoffilmmaking.NgoziOnwurah'sfilmThe
BodyBeautiful(1991),forexample,inscribesnewsubjectpositionsforthediasporandaughterofaBritishmother
andaNigerianfather.Combiningdocumentarywithfictionalelements,thishybridfilmcentresontherelation
betweenthebodyofthemotherandthatofherdaughterbyforegroundingquestionsofauthenticityandauthority.In
arewritingoftheFreudianprimalscenethedaughterwatchingthelovemakingofhermaturewhitemotherwitha
youngblackmanthefilmtakesontheethnographicgazeatthe'Other',radicallysubvertingtraditional
psychoanalyticdiscourse.
RichardDyer(1988/1993)isoneofthefewfilmcriticswhohaswrittenaboutwhitenessincinema.Hearguesthatit
isdifficulttothinkaboutwhiteness,becauseitisoftenrevealedasemptinessandabsence.Becausewhitenessis
constructedasthenorm,itisunmarked.Yet,orrather,assuch,itcanrepresenteverything.Thiseeriepropertyof
whitenes,tobenothingandeverythingatthesametime,isthesourceofitsrepresentationalpower.Inhisreadingof
Jezebel(1938),DyerpointstothenarrativetechniqueofHollywoodcolonialmovies,wherethewhite,sexually
repressedheroinelivesheremotionsthroughtheblackservant.Suchfilmsconventionallyopposethechastityand
virginityofwhitewomanhoodtothevitalityandsexualityoftheblackwoman,usuallythewhitewoman'sservant.Its
closureistheacquiredidealofwhitewomanhood,althoughmuchofthepleasureofthefilmliesinthetransgression
ofJezebel(BetteDavis),exposingthatidealtobequiteanordeal.

OnMasculinity

WhilefeministshaveconvincinglyexposedWesterncultureasmaledominated,thishasnotautomaticallyproduced
afeministtheoryofmalesubjectivityandsexuality.PamCook'sessay'MasculinityinCrisis'(1982)inaspecial
issueofScreenopenedupanewareaofinvestigation:theriddledquestionofmasculinityintheageoffeminism.
Muchasthedominantparadigmoffeministfilmtheoryraisedquestionsaboutthemalelookandthefemale
spectacle,italsoraisedquestionsabouttheeroticisationofthemalebodyaseroticobject.Whatifthemalebodyis
theobjectofthefemalegazeorofanothermalegazeandhoweactlydoesthemalebodybecomethesignifierof
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thephallus?(Screen1992).
Inthediscussionofmasculinityincinematheissueofhomosexualdesirewasraised(Dyer1982,Neale1983).Most
criticsagreethatthespectatoriallookinmainstreamcinemaisimplicitlymale.WhileforDyerthismeansthat
imagesofmendonotautomatically'work'forwomen,accordingtoNealetheeroticelementinlookingatthemale
bodyhastoberepressedanddisavowedsoastoavoidanyimplicationsofmalehomosexuality.Yet,male
homosexualityisalwayspresentasanundercurrentitisHollywood'ssymptom.Thedenialofthehomoeroticismof
lookingatimagesofmenconstantlyinvolvessadomasochisticthemes,scenesandfantasies.Hence,thehighly
ritualizedscenesofmalestrugglewhichdeflectthelookawayfromthemalebodytothesceneofthespectacular
fight.
Theimageofthemalebodyasobjectofalookisfraughtwithambivalences,repressionsanddenials.Likethe
masquerade,thenotionofspectaclehassuchstrongfeminineconnotationsthatforamaleperformertobeputon
displayortodonamaskthreatenshisverymasculinity.Becausethephallusisasymbolandasignifier,noman
canfullysymbolizeit.Althoughthepatriarchalmalesubjecthasaprivilegedrelationtothephallus,hewillalways
fallshortofthephallicideal.Lacannoticesthiseffectinhisessayonthemeaningofthephallus'...thecurious
consequenceofmakingviriledisplayinthehumanbeingitselfseemfeminine'(1977:291).Malespectacle,then,
entailstobeputinafeminineposition.Theimmanentfeminizationofmalespectaclebringsabouttwopossible
dangersfortheposingorperformingmale:functioningasanobjectofdesirehecaneasilybecometheobjectof
ridicule,andwithinaheterosexistcultureaccusationsofhomosexualitycanbelaunchedagainsthim(Neale1983,
Tasker1993).
Masculinitystudiesbecameestablishedinfeministfilmtheoryinthe1990s.Inaspecialissueon'MaleTrouble'of
CameraObscura(1988)theeditorsConstancePenleyandSharonWillisarguethatthegreatvarietyofimagesof
contemporarymasculinityareorganizedaroundhysteriaandmasochism.Astheypointout,thesetwosymptomatic
formationsareatellingdisplacementofvoyeurismandfetishism,thetermsthathavesofarbeenusedinfeminist
filmtheorytodescribemalesubjectivityandspectatorship.LynneKirby,forexample,describesmalehysteriain
earlycinema.Shearguesthatthedisturbingshockeffectsofearlycinema(therollercoasterride,thespeedingtrain
shots)constructahystericizedspectator.Hysteriawasseenasaquintessentialfemalecondition,butwithmodern
technologymenwereequallysubjectedtoshockandtraumaandhence,respondedwithhysteria.Malehysteriaand
masochismarefurtherexploredinbooksonmalesubjectivitybyTaniaModleski(1991)andKajaSilverman(1992).
Moststudiesofmasculinitypointtothecrisisinwhichthewhitemaleheterosexualsubjectfindshimself,acrisisin
whichhismasculinityisfragmentedanddenaturalized(Easthope1986Kirkham&Thumin1993Tasker1993
Jeffords1994).Thesignifiersof'man'and'manly'seemtohavelostalloftheirmeaning,whichmakesHollywood
desperatetofinda'fewgoodwhitemen',inthewordsofSusanJeffords.Yet,thecrisisinmasculinityiswelcomed
bygaycriticsasaliberatorymoment.InhisbookonmaleimpersonatorsMarkSimpsontakesgreatpleasurein
celebratingthedeconstructionofmasculinityasauthentic,natural,coherentanddominant(1994).

QueerTheory

Gaystudiesofmasculinityoftenborderoncampreadingsofthemalespectacle(Medhurst1991b,Simpson1994).
Campcanbeseenasanoppositionalreadingofpopularculturewhichoffersidentificationsandpleasuresthat
dominantculturedeniestohomosexuals.Asanoppositionalreading,campcanbesubversiveforbringingoutthe
culturalambiguitiesandcontradictionsthatusuallyremainsealedoverbydominantideology.
Thischaracteristicbringscampintotherealmofpostmodernismwhichalsocelebratesambivalenceand
heterogeneity.Subculturalcampandpostmoderntheoryshareapenchantforirony,playandparody,forartificiality
andperformance,aswellasfortransgressingconventionalmeaningsofgender.Thisqueeralliancebetweencamp
andpostmodernismhasoftenbeennoted.Medhurstevenprovokinglystatesthat'postmodernismisonly
heterosexualscatchingupwithcamp'(1991a:206).ItisindeedaneasyleapfromBabuscio'sunderstandingofcamp
assignifyingperformanceratherthanexistence,toJudithButler'snotionofgendersignifyingperformancerather
thanidentity.JustasBabuscioclaimsthattheemphasisonstyle,surfaceandthespectacleresultsinincongruities
between'whatathingorpersonistowhatitlookslike'(1984:44),Butler(1990)assertsthatthestresson
performativityallowsustoseegenderasenactingasetofdiscontinuousifnotparodicperformances.Thus,italso
becameanavailablenotionforlesbians(seeGraham1995).Bothcampandpostmodernismdenaturalisefeminity
andmasculinity.
Itissignificantthatinthe1990sthenotionof'camp'isoftenreplacedbytheterm'queer'.Campishistoricallymore
associatedwiththeclosetedhomosexualityofthefiftiesandonlycametothesurfaceinthesixtiesandseventies.
Postmodernismoftheeightiesandninetiesbroughtcampystrategiesintothemainstream.Now,lesbiansandgay
menidentifytheiroppositionalreadingstrategiesas'queer'.Awayfromthenotionsofoppressionandliberationof
earliergayandlesbiancriticism,queernessisassociatedwiththeplayfulselfdefinitionofahomosexualityinnon
essentialistterms.Notunlikecamp,butmoreselfassertive,queerreadingsarefullyinflectedwithirony,
transgressivegenderparodyanddeconstructedsubjectivities.

Conclusion
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Thediversityofcontemporaryfeministfilmtheoryreflectsthe
variegatedproductionofwomen'scinemaofthe1990s.
WomenfilmmakershaveincreasinglyconqueredHollywood.
Severalofthemhavebeenabletomaintainaconsistent
productionindiversegenres:comedy(PennyMarshal),
romanticdrama(NoraEphron),andactionmovies(Kathryn
Bigelow),tonamejustafew.Thishasalsobeenthecasefor
severalwomenfilmmakersinEurope,suchasMargarethe
vonTrotta(Germany),ClaireDenis(France)andMarion
Hensel(Belgium).Inamorenoncommercialpocketofthe
market,therehasbeenasignificantincreaseinfilmsmadeby
lesbian,blackandpostcolonialdirectors:filmmakersas
diverseasMonikaTreutandPatriciaRozema,JulieDashand
NgoziOnwurah,AnnHuiandClaraLaw.Thisdecadehas
witnessedthepopularsuccessoffeministartfilms,like
OrlandobySallyPotter(1992)andtheOscarwinningfilmsThePiano,acostumedramabyJaneCampion(New
Zealand1994)andAntonia'sLine,amatriarchalepicbyMarleenGorris(Netherlands1995).Droppingafewnames
andtitlesdoesinnowaydojusticetothescaleofwomen'scinemaofthisdecade.Itmerelyindicatesaprolific
diversitywhichresonateswithfilmaudiencesinthisdecadeofhybridity.Thepolyphonyofvoices,multiplepointsof
view,andcinematicstylesandgenres,signifywomen'ssuccessfulstruggleforselfrepresentationonthesilver
screen.

Morocco(USA1930,JosefvonSternberg)

FormanyfeministfilmcriticsJosefvonSternberg'sstarvehicleforMarleneDietrichhasbeentheprivileged
exampleofthefetishimageofwomaninclassicalcinema.MoroccofeaturesDietrichasthecabaretsingerAmy
Jolly,strandedinMorocco.InherfirstAmericanmovie,andinthemanythatwouldfollow,theplotillustratesa
repeatedpatterninwhichthewomaniscaughtbetweenthedesireoftwomales.Here,shemustchoosebetween
wealthyEuropeanaristocratLaBessi re(AdolpheMenjou)andForeignLegionnaireTomBrown(GaryCooper).As
usual,Dietrichistheimageofglamourouseroticismandperfectlychiseledbeauty.Thatfetishimagefollowsallof
theclassicaldefinitionsofthefetish:anthropological,MarxistandFreudian.ClaireJohstonreadsthefetishised
imageofAmyJollyasanillustrationoftheabsenceofwomanaswomaninclassicalcinema.Womanisasign,a
spectacle,afetish.ForJohnstontheimageofwomanasasemioticsigndeniestheoppositionman/woman
altogethertherealoppositionismale/nonmale.ThisisillustratedbyDietrich'sfamouscrossdressinginthe
beginningofthefilm.Themasqueradesignalstheabsenceofmanthefetishisedimagemerelyindicatesthe
exclusionandrepressionofwomen(1973/1991:26).
ForLauraMulvey(1975/1989)too,MarleneDietrichisthe
ultimate(Freudian)fetishinthecycleofvonSternberg'sfilms.
Inordertodisavowthecastrationanxietythatthefemale
figureevokes,sheisturnedintoafetishaperfectedobjectof
beautywhichissatisfyingratherthanthreatening.Inthis
respect,itissignificantthatvonSternbergproducesthe
perfectfetishbyplayingdowntheillusionofscreendepththe
imageofthefetishisedwomanandthescreenspace
coalesce.Inthiskindof'fetishisticscopophilia'theflawless
iconoffemalebeautystopstheflowofactionandbreaks
downthecontrollinglookofthemaleprotagonist.Thefetish
objectisdisplayedfortheimmediategazeandenjoymentof
themalespectatorwithoutmediationofthemalescreen
character.Forexample,attheendofMorocco,TomBrown
hasalreadydisappearedintothedesertwhenAmyJollykicks
offhergoldsandalsandwalksafterhimintotheSahara.The
eroticimageofthefetishisedwomanisestablishedindirect
rapportwiththespectator.Themalehero,saysMulvey,doesnotknoworsee(223).
Itisinthispossiblesubversionofthemalegazethatthefemalestarcanmanipulateherimage.Kaplan(1983)
arguesthatMarleneDietrichdeliberatelyusesherbodyasspectacle,manipulatingthemenwithinthefilmnarrative
forherownends.HerawarenessofvonSternberg'sfascinationwithherimageaccountsforadisplayedself
consciousnessinherperformancebeforethecamera.AccordingtoKaplan,thiscreatesatensionintheimage
whichtogetherwithDietrich'sslightlyironicstance,makesthe(female)spectatorawareofherconstructionasfetish
(51).ForMaryAnnDoane(1982/1991:26)thisuseofthewoman'sownbodyasadisguisepointstothe
masqueradetheselfconscioushyperbolisationoffemininity.Thisexcessoffemininityistypicalofthefemme
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fatale.ForDoane,too,themasqueradesubvertsthemasculinestructureofthelook,indefamiliarisingfemale
iconography.
AdifferentreadingofMoroccoisofferedbyGaylynStudlar(1988).Toherthefilmexpressesamasochisticmodeof
desire.InvonSternberg'sfilmsthemasochisticsubjectisrepresentedbyamalecharacter.AmyJolly'srepeated
rejectionandpublichumiliationofLaBessirepointstohismasochisticselfabnegation.Masochisticdesirethrives
onpainandLaBessireisindeedshowntorelishthepublicmomentsofhumiliation.Thepleasurablehumiliationis
increasedbytheentryoftherivalanditisnosurprisethathehelpsAmytofindthemansheloves,Legionnaire
Brown.Studlarreadstheexquisitetortureoftheolder,richerandhigherclassmanbythefemmefatale(eithera
prostituteorapromiscuouswoman),asasustainedattackonthesymbolicfatherandphallicsexuality.Intheendof
thefilmLaBessireisreducedtothepositionofahelplessandabandonedchild.
StudlararguesthatinthemasochisticscenariosofvonSternberg'sfilmssexrolesandgenderidentitiesare
confused.LaBessireisthetophatted,tuxedoedsuitortoAmy.WhileAmyundermineshissymbolicmasculinity
andsocialstatus,sheinturnbecomesthetophatted,tuxedoedsuitortoBrown.Dietrich'scrossdressingis
counterpointedbytheeffeminisedmasculinebeautyofTomBrown.Thefeminisationofthefemmefatale'sobjectof
desireisfurtheremphasizedbytheactivefemalegaze.ItisDietrichwhosinglesBrownoutinthenightclubwhere
shesingsandwholookshimoverwithanappraisinggaze.Shethrowshimaflower,whichhewearsbehindhisear.
StudlararguesthatDietrich'sactivelookunderminesthenotionthatthemalegazeisalwaysoneofcontrol.
MarleneDietrich'stantalisingmasculinisationaddedtoherandrogynousappeal.AndreaWeiss(1992)arguesthather
sexualambiguitywasembracedasaliberatingimagebylesbianspectators.Rumourandgossiphadalreadybeen
sharedinthegaysubcultureasearlyasinthe1930s.Dietrich'srumouredlesbianismhasevenbeenexploitedby
Paramounts'publicitysloganforthereleaseofMorocco:'Dietrichthewomanallwomenwanttosee'.Inthecross
dressingscene,AmyJollyperformsaFrenchsonginanightclub.Shewalksdownintotheaudiencelookingata
womanatatable.Shelooksoverherentirebody,turnsawayandhesitatesbeforelookingatthewomanagain.Then
shekissesthewomanonherlips,takesherflowerandgivesittoTomBrownintheaudience.AmyJollyinvertsthe
heterosexualorderofseducerandseduced,whileherlesbianflirtationandherbutchimagemakethesceneeven
moresubversive.Howeverfleetingandtransitorysuchmomentsmaybeinclassicalcinema,Dietrich'sstarpersona
allowsthelesbianspectatoraglimpseofhomoeroticenjoyment.Reassemblage(USA1982,TrinhT.Minhha)

ReassemblageisthefirstfilmbyVietnameseAmericanfilmmakerTrinhMinhha.ItisadocumentaryonSenegalese
women.Orisit?Itmaybemorecorrecttosaythatthefilmisapoeticimpressionofthedailylifeofwomenliving
andworkinginavillageinSenegal.Orthatthefilmisaselfreflexivestudyofthepositionofthedocumentary
filmmaker.Thefilmisdefinitelyanexcerciseinfindinganewlanguagetofilmthe'Other'.
TrinhMinhhaisawriterandfilmmakerwhoseworkchallengesFirstWorldfeminism.Herfocalpointisthe
postcolonialfemalesubject.Bothinherwritingandfilmssheexploresquestionsofidentity,authenticityand
difference.Forthepostcolonialfemalesubject,differenceis'aspecialThirdWorldwomenissue'(1989:80).The
focusoffeministfilmtheoryuponapsychoanalyticunderstandingofdifferenceassexualdifferencehasproduceda
dichotomythatdoesnotallowforanyunderstandingofthecomplexitiesofthemanydifferencesinwhichwomen
live.Withinaracialisedcontext,differencemeansessentiallydivision,dismissionorevenworse,elimination.Inher
writingandfilms,TrinhMinhhadedicatesherwordsandimagestounderstandingdifference,soastobeableto'live
fearlesslywithandwithindifference(s)'(84).Shealsoreliesonpoststructuralistphilosophiesofdifference,notably
Deleuze'snomadology,inordertoexplorethepossibilityofpositiverepresentationsofdifferenceassomethingelse
thanmerely'differentfrom'.Shethuscombinescreativeexperimentationwiththeoreticalsophistication.
Reassemblageisafilmthatisfullyawareoftheanthropologicaltraditioninfilmingdifferenceanditsappropriative
gazeoftheradicalOther.Itisthiskindofcinemathatthefilmdefies.Reassemblageprovidesthespectatorwith
imagesofvillagelife,singlingoutthewomenforcloseupattentionandconcentratingontherhythmsoftheirdaily
activitiesshuckingcorn,grindinggrain,washingbabies.Thefilmsuggeststheseasonalcycleinshotsofthe
Africanearth,nowgreen,thencracked.Repetitionofcertainshotsaddtotherhythmofthemontage:thealbinochild
clingingtohisblackmother,therottingcarcassesofanimals.Sohowdoesthefilmcritiquetheanthropologicalfilm,
givenitssubjectmatterandthetraditionalwayoffilmingthewomenwithanunobtrusivecameraandfroma
calculateddistance?

TrinhMinhhabreakswithtraditionbyexperimentingwithsound.Originallyanethnomusicologist(andstilla
composer),shehasusedmusictocreateacontestbetweentheimageandthesound.Thesoundisasynchronous
withtheimages,abruptlyshiftingfrommusic,tovoiceover,tosilenceinthesamescene.Moreover,thevoiceover
isinnoway'theVoiceofGod'oftraditionaldocumentary.TrinhMinhHaherselfspeaksthecommentaryand
criticallyreflectsuponherpositionasfilmmakerandupontheanthropologicalrecordingmethod.Shechallengesthe
objectivityofthecamera('Thebestwaytobeneutralandobjectiveistocopyrealityindetail,givingdifferentviews
fromdifferentangles'),flatlycontradictingherironicalcommentaryintheimagesthatareshownonthescreen.In
ReassemblageTrinhMinhhastrugglestofindawayofapproachingthesubject,theAfricanother.Sherefusesto
speakfortheotherwomen,rather,shewantstospeaknearbytheSenegalese.Herselfreflexivelycriticalvoice
unsettlesnotonlythesubjectfilmed,butalsothefilmingsubject.
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ReassemblagecanbeseenasanexampleofthecountercinemathatClaireJohnstonandLauraMulveyadvocated.
Thefilmchallengestheillusionismandtheconventionsthatdelivertheimpressionofreality.However,thefilm
deconstructsmainstreamdocumentaryratherthanclassicalHollywood,andthereforeitdealswithissuesofthe
gazeinanaltogetherdifferentcontext.Thegazehereisnotthemalegazethatobjectifiesthewoman,butthe
WesterngazethattriestoobjectifytheracialOther.Thisgazeisan'othering'look:itbestowsdifferenceuponthe
Other.Theissuesarethusnotcentereduponvisualpleasureandvoyeurism,butuponconventionsofseeingthe
Other.TrinhMinhhasuggestsinReassemblagethatonecanneverreally'see'theOther.Thereisnodirect
translationpossiblethatmakestheradicalotheraccessibleoravailable.Theimages,whichareoftenstrangely
framed,orjarringlyedited,alsosuggestthatthereisnoimmediategazetotheOther.Differenceisfundamentally
incommensurableandthatisthesourceofitsstrengthandfascination.Antonia'sLine(Netherlands1995,Marleen
Gorris)

MarleenGorriswasthefirstwomandirectorevertowinanOscarforafeaturefilm:theAcademyAwardforthebest
foreignfilmforAntonia'sLinein1996.Thisisallthemoreremarkablebecausesheisknownasanoutspoken
feministfilmmaker.Herfirstfilm,AQuestionofSilence(1982),aboutthreewomenwhomurdertheownerofa
boutiqueshop,wonmanypricesonfestivalsandbecameaclassicfeministhit.Thereceptionwas,however,quite
mixedandmanyestablishedmalecriticstrasheditforitsradicalfeminism.Thiswasevenmorethecasewithher
secondfilm,BrokenMirrors(1984),anintricatestoryaboutaserialkillerandprostitution.Herthirdfilmwasmuch
lesssuccessful.TheLastIsland(1990)finishesoffGorris'trilogyaboutmaleviolenceattheheartofpatriarchy.
ItisthroughmetaphorsthatGorrisconveysherpoliticalmessage:AQuestionofSilencepresentstheWesternworld
asaprisonforwomenBrokenMirrorsshowsthisworldasabrothelandinTheLastIslandapotentialparadiseturns
intoaworldlyhellbecauseofmaleviolence.Eachfilmissituatedinaseparateworldsetapartfromnormalsociety
withinthemicrocosmosoftheseenclavespowerrelationsbetweenthesexesexplodeintoviolence.Inthiswaythe
prison,thebrothelandthedesertislandbecomemetaphorsforamaledominatedsocietyinwhichwomenare
subjected(seeSmelik1998).
Antonia'sLinebreaksawayfromGorris'focusonwomen'soppressionandmaleviolenceofherearlierfilms.It
featuresthealmostutopianhistoryofamatriarchalfamilywithinaEuropeancountryvillage.Yet,Gorris'particular
stylecanstillberecognizedinmanyofher'authorialsignatures'.Humm(1997)thereforearguesthatGorrisshould
beviewedasafeministauteur.Herauthorshipcanbesituatedforexampleinthegenresubversion,thecamera
direction,therepresentationofsilenceaswoman'svoice,theimportanceoffemalefriendships,subtlelesbian
inflectionsinthestoryandbiblicalreferences.
Antonia'sLineisafilmwhichreflectsdeLauretis'callforafeministcinemathatis'narrativeandOedipalwitha
vengeance'.Itisnarrative,butwithoutamalehero,andhencewithoutthevoyeuristpleasuresofthemalegaze.Itis
Oedipalinthesensethatitisaboutafamily,butinsteadoffeaturingthetriangleoffather,motherandchild,thefilm
establishesalineofmothersanddaughters.ThefilmopenswiththeoldAntoniatellinghergreatgranddaughter
Sarahthattodayshewilldie,becauseherlifehasbeenlongandgoodanditistimetogo.Initsexplorationofthe
epicgenre,thefilmtellsthestoryofAntonia'sline.Uponhermother'sdeathafterthewar,Antoniareturnswithher
daughterDanielletothevillagewhereshewasborntotakeoverthefamilyfarm.WhenDanielleexpressesherwish
forachildwithoutahusband,Antoniatakeshertotownandmotheranddaughterchooseagoodlookingstudfor
impregnation.DaniellegivesbirthtodaughterTherse,whoturnsouttobeaprodigyandagenius.Therse,inher
turn,becomesmotheroftheredhairedSarah.
Theestablishmentofafemalegeneaologywithoutfathers(orsons,forthatmatter)isremarkableenough.Inthat
senseAntonia'sfamilyistrulymatriarchal.Thefilm'spoliticsliesfurthermoreintherepresentationofwhatSilverman
wouldcallthehomosexualmaternalfantasmatic.Itiswithintheembraceofmutuallovebetweenmothersand
daughtersthatthewomencanruthlesslypursuetheirowndesires.Astheirdesiresareatoddswithpatriarchy,they
havetofightthebigotryofthevillagepeopleandespeciallyofthechurch.ItisAntonia'swilfulstrengththatenables
women'sautonomyforgenerationstocome.

Femaledesireisrepresentedinallofitsdiversemanifestations:Antonia'swishforindependence,Danielle'squest
forartisticcreativity,Therse'spursuitofknowledge,andSarah'scuriosityaboutlifeingeneral.Thelifeofthemind
mathematics,music,philosophyiseroticisedinthefilm.Thisismatchedbydifferentkindoffemaledesires,like
theirfriendLettawhowishestoprocreateandproducesthirteenchildren.Themostmovingmomentsofthefilmare,
however,thescenesinwhichthewomenexploresexualdesire.WhenDaniellemeetstheloveofherlife,Ther s e's
femaleteacherLara,sheseestheobjectofherdesireinhermind'seyeastheVenusofBotticelli.WhenAntoniais
alreadyarespectedgrandmothershetellsthefarmerBasthatshewillnotgivehimherhand,butthatsheiswilling
togivehimherbodyonherconditions.Aftertheirfirstsexualencounter,thefilmcutstobranchesofcherry
blossomblowinginthewind.Thefilmthuscreatesanunexpectedlinkbetweenanolderwoman'ssexualityandthe
fertilityofspring.
Antonia'sLinecertainlyidealisestheproductiveandreproductivepowerofthehomosexualmaternalcommunity.Itis
aninclusivecommunityoffamilyandfriendsthattranscendsclass,ageandreligion,wherethelesbian,thementally
handicapped,theunmarriedmother,thelonelyandtheweak,andevenmen,canfindrefuge.However,this
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idealisationdoesnotmeanthatthewomenareimmunetotheviolenceoftheworldoutside.Theyareconfrontedwith
sadisticincestandbrutalrape.Buttogethertheyfindthestrengthtosurviveandtopunishtheculpablemen.
Oneofthedistinctivefeaturesofthefilmistheuseofadisembodiedfemalevoice,thatisrevealedinthelastscene
asSarah'svoice.Itisapoeticvoicethatrecountsthepassingoftimeandthecycleoflifeanddeath.Thevoice
overbringsoncemorethefemalefantasmaticfirmlywithinlanguageandhistorythatis,withinthesymbolic.

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Usefulanthologiesare:

Carson,Diane,LindaDittmar,andJaniceR.Welsch(eds),MultipleVoicesinFeministFilmCriticism.London
andMinneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1994.
Erens,Patricia(ed),IssuesinFeministFilmCriticiscm.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1990.
Penley,Constance(ed.)FeminismandFilmTheory.London:BFI,NewYork:Routledge,1988.

AnnekeSmelikisAssistantProfessorinFilmStudiesattheUniversityofNijmegen,theNetherlands.

ThisarticleispublishedinPamCookandMiekeBernink,(eds),TheCinemaBook,secondedition.London:British
FilmInstitute,1999,pp353365.

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