UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND INFORMATION ENGINEERING

PROJECT TITLE: CELL PLANNING IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

NETWORKS

PROJECT INDEX: 029

BY
OBADE JOHN KELVIN
F17/1388/2010
SUPERVISOR: PROF. VITALICE K. ODUOL
EXAMINER: PROF. ELIJAH MWANGI

Project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirement for the award of the degree
of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC

ENGINEERING OF
THE UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI 2015

SUBMITTED ON: 24TH APRIL, 2014

1
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY

NAME OF STUDENT: OBADE JOHN KELVIN

REGISTRATION NUMBER: F17/1388/2010
COLLEGE: Architecture and Engineering
FACULTY/ SCHOOL/ INSTITUTE: Engineering
DEPARTMENT: Electrical and Information Engineering
COURSE NAME: Bachelor of Science in Electrical and Electronic
Engineering

TITLE OF WORK: CELL PLANNING IN WIRELESS

COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

1) I understand what plagiarism is and I am aware of the university policy in this regard.
2) I declare that this final year project report is my original work and has not been submitted
elsewhere for examination, award of a degree or publication. Where other peoples work or
my own work has been used, this has properly been acknowledged and referenced in
accordance with the University of Nairobis requirements.
3) I have not sought or used the services of any professional agencies to produce this work.
4) I have not allowed, and shall not allow anyone to copy my work with the intention of passing
it off as his/her own work.
5) I understand that any false claim in respect of this work shall result in disciplinary action, in
accordance with University anti-plagiarism policy.

Signature:

Date:

I
DEDICATION

I dedicate this project to my family for their continued support and belief in me.

II
CERTIFICATION

This report has been submitted to the Department of Electrical and Information Engineering,
University of Nairobi with my approval as supervisor:

..

Prof. Vitalice K. Oduol

Date: .

III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank God for guiding me throughout my academic journey.

I would also like to acknowledge my supervisor, Prof. Vitalice K. Oduol, for his priceless
motivation, support and guidance throughout the project duration.

I extend my gratitude to all the lecturers and non-teaching staff of the Department of Electrical
and Information Engineering for their contribution towards my degree.
I am also grateful to my classmates for their moral support as I did the project

IV
ABSTRACT

Wireless connectivity is being deployed in communication networks throughout the world. The
available spectrum is limited and thus it has to be used judiciously, to meet the objectives of the
network operator. This project addresses the cell planning problem in wireless communication
networks. The basic cell planning concepts are described and the cell planning process is
outlined in detail. Cell planning considerations in GSM, UMTS and LTE networks are also
outlined. A design and demonstration of cell planning in a GSM (TDMA) network is done for an
example scenario producing a nominal cell plan for a given focus zone using Atoll Radio
Planning Software - Version 2.7.1 (Build 2922).

V
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY ............................................................................................ I
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ II
CERTIFICATION ........................................................................................................................ III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................... IV
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................... V
TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................. VI
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... VIII
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ IX
ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................................... X
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of Study........................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Objectives ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.4 Scope of Work.................................................................................................................. 2
1.5 Organization of the Report ............................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................. 3
2.1 Multiple Access Techniques ............................................................................................ 3
2.2 The Cellular Concept ....................................................................................................... 5
2.3 What is Cell Planning? ..................................................................................................... 7
2.3.1 Objectives of Cell Planning ...................................................................................... 7
2.3.2 Cell Planning Process ............................................................................................... 8
2.3.3 Propagation Prediction and Modelling ................................................................... 11
2.3.3.1 Deterministic Path Loss Models ............................................................................. 11
2.3.3.2 Empirical Path Loss Models ................................................................................... 17
2.3.4 Monte Carlo Simulations ........................................................................................ 21
2.3.5 Channel Re-use ....................................................................................................... 21
2.3.6 System (Cell) Balance............................................................................................. 23
2.3.7 RF Emission Limits and Safety .............................................................................. 24
2.4 Planning Considerations for GSM (TDMA) Networks ................................................. 26
2.4.1 Link Budget ............................................................................................................ 26
2.4.2 GSM Frequency Spectrum ...................................................................................... 26
2.4.3 GSM Channels ........................................................................................................ 27

VI
 2.4.4 Frequency Planning ................................................................................................ 29
2.4.5 Base Station Identity Code (BSIC) Planning .......................................................... 31
2.5 Planning Considerations in UMTS Networks ................................................................ 32
2.5.1 Link Budget ............................................................................................................ 32
2.5.2 UMTS Frequency Spectrum ................................................................................... 33
2.5.3 UMTS Channels...................................................................................................... 35
2.5.4 Code Planning ......................................................................................................... 37
2.5.5 Cell Breathing ......................................................................................................... 38
2.6 Planning Considerations for LTE (4G) Networks ......................................................... 39
2.6.1 Link Budget ............................................................................................................ 39
2.6.2 LTE Frequency Spectrum ....................................................................................... 39
2.6.3 Channel Bandwidths and Subcarriers ..................................................................... 41
2.6.4 Radio Channel Organization ................................................................................... 41
2.6.6 LTE Frequency Planning ........................................................................................ 43
CHAPTER THREE: DESIGN ...................................................................................................... 44
3.1 Frequency Planning in the GSM 900 Frequency Band .................................................. 44
3.1.1 Frequency Re-use Pattern ....................................................................................... 44
3.1.2 Control Channels .................................................................................................... 44
3.1.3 Traffic Channels (TCH) .......................................................................................... 44
3.1.4 Synthesized Frequency Hopping ........................................................................... 45
3.2 Allocation of Intra-technology Neighbours ................................................................... 49
3.3 Coverage Prediction ....................................................................................................... 49
3.3.1 Choice of Antenna .................................................................................................. 51
3.3.2 Propagation Path Loss Model ................................................................................. 54
3.3.3 Link Budget ................................................................................................................ 54
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS ............................................. 55
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................... 61
5.1 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................. 61
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 61
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................................... 62
APPENDIX: .................................................................................................................................. 63

VII
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 FDMA............................................................................................................................ 3

Figure 2.2 A combination of FDMA and TDMA ........................................................................... 3
Figure 2.3 CDMA ........................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 2.4 Sectored cells ................................................................................................................. 6
Figure 2.5 Cell Planning Process .................................................................................................... 8
Figure 2.6 Two Ray Model ........................................................................................................... 12
Figure 2.7 Overhead View of the Ten-Ray Model ....................................................................... 14
Figure 2.8 Knife-Edge Diffraction ................................................................................................ 15
Figure 2.9 Scattering ..................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 2.10 Minimum Re-use Distance ........................................................................................ 22
Figure 2.11 Cell Breathing ............................................................................................................ 23
Figure 2.12 ICNIRP Reference Levels for 400MHz to 300GHz.................................................. 24
Figure 2.13 Occupational and Public Exposure ............................................................................ 25
Figure 2.14 3/9 Cell Repeat Pattern .............................................................................................. 29
Figure 2.15 4/12 Cell Repeat Pattern ............................................................................................ 30
Figure 2.16 Strict FFR (left) and SFR (right) Geometry with N=3 Cell-edge Reuse Factors ...... 43

Figure 3.1 3/9 Cell Repeat Pattern ................................................................................................ 44

Figure 3.2 Histogram of the Channel Distribution ....................................................................... 45
Figure 3.3 Digital Terrain Map (DTM) view................................................................................ 50
Figure 3.4 Images of the Focus Zone............................................................................................ 50
Figure 3. 5 Clutter Classes View .................................................................................................. 51
Figure 3.6 K80010305_900_02V Horizontal Pattern ................................................................... 52
Figure 3.7 K80010305_900_02V Vertical Pattern ....................................................................... 52
Figure 3.8 K80010305_900_06V Vertical Pattern ....................................................................... 52
Figure 3.9 K80010305_900_06V Horizontal Pattern ................................................................... 52

Figure 4.1 Coverage by Signal Level ........................................................................................... 55

Figure 4.2 Coverage by Signal Level Properties .......................................................................... 55
Figure 4.3 Histogram based on Best Signal Level of Covered Areas .......................................... 56
Figure 4.4 Overlapping Zones ...................................................................................................... 57
Figure 4.5 Overlapping Zones Properties ..................................................................................... 57
Figure 4.6 Coverage by C/I Level................................................................................................. 58
Figure 4.7 Coverage by C/I Level properties ................................................................................ 58
Figure 4.8 Histogram based on C/I Level of Covered Areas ........................................................ 59
Figure 4.10 Coverage by Transmitter ........................................................................................... 60

VIII
LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 GSM Frequency Spectrum............................................................................................ 26

Table 2.2 FDD Frequency Bands [5] ............................................................................................ 33
Table 2.3 UMTS Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number [5] ............................................. 34
Table 2.4 Duplex Distance [6] ...................................................................................................... 34
Table 2.5 UTRA/TDD Frequency Bands [6] ................................................................................ 34
Table 2.6 UTRA/TDD ARFCNs [6] ............................................................................................. 34
Table 2.7 UMTS-TDD [6] ............................................................................................................ 34
Table 2.8 LTE (FDD) Frequency Spectrum [3]............................................................................ 40
Table 2.9 LTE (TDD) Frequency Spectrum [3] ........................................................................... 40

Table 3.1 Frequency Groups for Control Channels ...................................................................... 44

Table 3.2 Frequency Groups for Traffic Channels ....................................................................... 45
Table 3.3 Hopping and Non-hopping Channels ........................................................................... 49
Table 3.4 Non-symmetric links..................................................................................................... 49
Table 3.5 Antennas ....................................................................................................................... 51
Table 3.6 Antennas used in the various Sites ............................................................................... 54

Table 4.1 Signal Levels in Different Areas of the Focus Zone .................................................... 56

Appendix Table 1 Key ICT Indicators for Developed and Developing Countries and the World
(totals) ........................................................................................................................................... 63

IX
ABBREVIATIONS

ARFCN Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number

BSC Base Station Controller
BTS Base transceiver station
CS - Circuit Switched
DL- Downlink
EIRP - Effective Isotropically Radiated Power
ERP - Effective Radiated Power
FEC - Forward Error Correction
GSM Global System for Mobile Communication
LoS Line of Sight
MS Mobile Station
MSC Mobile Switching Centre
UE Universal Equipment
UL Uplink
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System

X
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

All over the world, the demand for wireless communication services continues to increase
rapidly. According to statistics provided by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU),
the number of mobile-cellular subscriptions in the world increased from 2.205 billion in the year
2005 to 6.915 billion subscriptions in the year 2014. The number of active mobile-broadband
subscriptions has increased from 0.268 billion in the year 2007 to 2.315 billion subscriptions in
2014. The number of mobile-cellular subscriptions worldwide is approaching the number of
people on earth with mobile-cellular penetration reaching 90%. Wireless transmission sites are
being deployed by wireless service providers in various countries to meet this high demand.
Existing wireless service providers have to expand their capacity to meet the high demand and
more wireless service providers are joining the telecommunications industry. With a limited
spectrum available for wireless communication, wireless service providers have to share the
available spectrum.

1.2 Problem Statement

The need of tools for system design optimization and radio network planning has been triggered
by the tremendous growth in the demand for wireless communication services, with many
network operators joining the market. Wireless communication network design involves several
inter-dependent factors such as system capacity, traffic demand, cell coverage, topography and
propagation characteristics. The selection of the number of cells, cell locations, power at base
station and other design parameters have to be determined in the context of one another. The cell
locations can be determined based on the number of cells, the coverage performance, traffic
distribution, and propagation environments. Design parameters at base transceiver stations (BTS)
and mobile stations (MS) cannot be specified until the cell allocation is completed. For instance,
the channel assignment, which can improve system performances in terms of system capacity
and interference avoidance can only be determined after the architecture of the wireless
communication network has been specified. Finally, cell planning is not a one-time task as the
design has to be continually updated based on the mobile network scenario and hence such
provision should be included in the design tool.

1.3 Objectives
The objectives of this project were:
To study and describe (the need for) cell planning in wireless communication networks.
To design and demonstrate cell planning for an example scenario.

1
 1.4 Scope of Work
This project covers cell planning in wireless communication networks and a nominal cell plan
design for a selected focus zone in a GSM (TDMA) network.
1.5 Organization of the Report
The project is organized into five chapters as follows: the introduction, literature review, design,
results, analysis and discussion then the conclusions and recommendations. After the chapters
there is the bibliography and finally the appendix.
The introduction chapter discusses the background of study, problem statement, objectives and
the scope of work.
The literature review section outlines the cell planning process in detail. Planning considerations
for GSM, UMTS and LTE networks are described.
The design chapter focuses on the nominal cell plan design.
The results are given in the fourth chapter together with their analysis.
The fifth chapter concludes the findings of the entire project and recommends what should be
done for further works in line with that project.
References of the project are given under bibliography. The appendix has world
telecommunication statistics given by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU).

2
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Multiple Access Techniques
2.1.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
The frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) channel-access scheme is based on the frequency-
division multiplexing (FDM) scheme, which provides different frequency bands to different data-streams.
In the FDMA case, the data streams are allocated to different nodes or devices. An example of FDMA
systems were the first-generation (1G) cell-phone systems, where each phone call was assigned to a
specific uplink frequency channel, and another downlink frequency channel. Each message signal (each
phone call) is modulated on a specific carrier frequency.

Figure 2.1 FDMA [2]

2.1.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

TDMA) channel access scheme is based on the time-division multiplexing (TDM) scheme, which
provides different time-slots to different data-streams (in the TDMA case to different transmitters) in a
cyclically repetitive frame structure. It allows several users to share the same frequency channel by
dividing the channel into different time slots. The users transmit in rapid succession, one after the other,
each using its own time slot. This allows multiple stations to share the same transmission medium (e.g.
radio frequency channel) while using only a part of its channel capacity. TDMA is used in the digital 2G
cellular systems such as Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and IS-136

Figure 2.2 A combination of FDMA and TDMA [2]

3
 2.1.3 Code Division Multiple Access CDMA

CDMA is the dominant multiple access technique for 3G cellular systems. It is based on spread
spectrum and a special coding scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a code). In CDMA a
wider radio spectrum is used than the data rate of each of the transferred bit streams, and several
message signals are transferred simultaneously over the same carrier frequency, utilizing
different spreading codes. It is used in many mobile phone standards such as cdmaOne,
CDMA2000, and WCDMA (the 3G standard used by GSM carriers).

Figure 2.3 CDMA [2]

CDMA users share time and frequency slots but employ codes that allow the users to be separated by the
receiver.

2.1.4 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)

OFDMA is based on the orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) digital modulation
scheme. Multiple access is achieved in OFDMA by assigning subsets of subcarriers to individual
users. This allows simultaneous low data rate transmission from several users.

2.1.5 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

In Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) different information is transmitted in different
physical areas. The sharing of channels is achieved by using physical separation methods.
Directional antennas are used to separate users sharing the same frequency. Examples include
simple cellular radio systems and more advanced cellular systems which use directional antennas
and power modulation to refine spacial transmission patterns.

4
 2.2 The Cellular Concept
Cellular network systems are used in providing both broadcast only (down-link) and 2-way (up-
link and downlink) communication. These systems must accommodate a large number of users
over a large geographic area with limited frequency spectrum, i.e., with a limited number of
channels. If a single transmitter/ receiver is used with only a single base transceiver station
(BTS), then sufficient amount of power may not be present at a huge distance from the BTS. A
high powered transmitter has to be used for a large geographic coverage area. High power radio
transmitters are harmful to the environment and therefore mobile communication calls for
replacing the high power transmitters with low power transmitters by dividing the coverage area
into small segments, called cells.

A cell is the area covered by a base transceiver station. It is the smallest building block of a
cellular system. Each cell has a low power transmitter with a coverage area equal to the area of
the cell. As signal propagation attenuates with distance (subject to clutter, fading and multi-path
effects) a distance can be defined beyond which repeater stations are used. Typically, to
minimize multi-coverage while providing 100% area coverage, a regular hexagonal grid is
frequently used as the best possible model for transmitter location. This technique of substituting
a single high powered transmitter with several low powered transmitters to support many users is
the backbone of the cellular concept.

2.2.1 Types of Cells

Based on size:

Macro-cells: Have a typical cell radius range from 1 to 35 km. Normally, the site location is
on a hilltop or a rooftop.
Micro-cells: Have a typical coverage range from 0.2 to 1 km. They can maintain indoor
coverage in the lower levels of buildings.
Pico-cells: Have a typical coverage range from 0.01 to 0.2km. They provide coverage in
indoor environment. Pico cells are used when the capacity need is extremely high in certain
hot spots.
Femto-cells: Have a typical coverage range of less than 10 meters. They provide coverage in
indoor environment. A femto-cell allows service providers to extend service coverage
indoors or at the cell edge, especially where access would otherwise be limited or
unavailable.

5
Cells can also be classified into omnidirectional cells and sectored cells.

Omnidirectional cells
An omni-directional cell (or omni-cell) is served by a BTS with an antenna which transmits
equally in all directions (360 degrees). Typically, omni-directional cells are used to gain
coverage, whereas sectored cells are used to gain capacity.
Sectored cells
Sectoring involves dividing an omnidirectional (360 degree) view of a cell site into non-
overlapping slices. It involves replacing an omni-directional antenna at the base transceiver
station by several directional antennas. Cell sectoring is done to overcome some limitations like
co-channel interference. Replacing a single omnidirectional antenna at a base transceiver station
with several directional antennas achieves capacity improvement by essentially rescaling the
system.

Figure 2.4 Sectored cells [1]

6
 2.3 What is Cell Planning?
The term cell planning refers to a collective series of processes designed to produce a
network plan that will meet a predefined set of cost and performance targets. Cell
planning can be described as all the activities involved in:

Selecting the sites for the radio equipment

Selecting the radio equipment
Configuring the radio equipment

Every cellular network requires cell planning in order to provide adequate coverage,
capacity and call quality.

2.3.1 Objectives of Cell Planning

The objectives of cell planning are:
1. Provision of sufficient coverage (radio aspect):
An important requirement in cellular networks is the contiguous coverage of the service areas
without noticeable holes. Furthermore an adequate depth of outdoor and indoor coverage is
necessary to meet the operators marketing plans.
2. Provision of sufficient network capacity (traffic aspect):
The operator has to meet traffic demand at peak hours with a very low probability of call
blocking (congestion) and call dropping in order to avoid complaints from the subscribers.
3. Provision of good network quality (frequency aspect):
Since the number of frequencies a network operator can use is limited the frequencies must be
reused, for instance, in TDMA network systems. In order to receive a good quality radio network
planning is trying to separate the cells with equal frequencies as much as necessary.
4. Extendibility i.e. accommodation of network growth (forecast development):
This involves adapting to the future network development and expansion. It includes extension
of coverage to new areas for the case that an operator does not start with country-wide coverage
and expansion of the network capacity so that the quality of service is maintained at all times. A
provident planning is an important issue since network operators start with only a few
subscribers.

5. A cost effective network design:

Cost effectiveness means lowest possible cost over the life of the network while meeting the
quality targets.

7
 2.3.2 Cell Planning Process

System Growth Start: Initial Planning

Traffic and
Coverage
Analysis

System Nominal
Tuning Cell Plan

System
Implementat Surveys
ion

System
Design

Figure 2.5 Cell Planning Process [1]

2.3.2.1 Traffic and Coverage Analysis

Cell planning begins with traffic and coverage analysis. The analysis should produce information
about the geographical area and the expected capacity (traffic demand). The types of data
collected are:
Cost - Radio planning and economic planning are two separate functions that frequently
clash. However, they must be considered as two inputs with a common goal if a quality
network is to be built and to survive
Capacity
Coverage
Grade of Service (GoS) - which is the percentage of allowed congested calls and defines the
quality of service (QoS). The QoS will vary from service to service and need not be constant
across the entire network.

8
 Available frequencies
Speech quality
System growth capability
The basis for all cell planning is the traffic demand, i.e. how many subscribers use the
network and how much traffic they generate. The Erlang (E) is a unit of measurement of
traffic intensity. It can be calculated with the following formula:

= .. (2.1)
3600
where,

A = offered traffic from one or more users in the system

n = number of calls per hour

T = average call time in seconds

The geographical distribution of traffic demand can be calculated by the use of

demographic data such as:

Population distribution
Car usage distribution
Income level distribution
Land usage data
Telephone usage statistics
Other factors, like subscription/call charge and price of MSs

2.3.2.2 Nominal Cell Plan

A nominal cell plan can be produced from the data compiled from traffic and coverage analysis.
The nominal cell plan is a graphical representation of the network and looks like a cell pattern on
a map. Nominal cell plans are the first cell plans and form the basis for further planning.
Successive planning must take into account the radio propagation properties of the actual
environment. Such planning needs measurement techniques and computer-aided analysis tools
for radio propagation studies.
Radio planning software tools such as Atoll (by Forsk) and TEst Mobile System (TEMS) Cell
Planner (by Ericsson) can be used and they include prediction packages which provide:
Coverage predictions, composite coverage synthesis, co-channel interference (CCI) predictions
and adjacent channel interference (ACI) predictions. The radio planning software tools are
designed to simplify the process of planning and optimizing a cellular network.

9
 2.3.2.3 Surveys
Once a nominal cell plan has been completed and basic coverage and interference predictions are
available, site surveys and radio measurements can be performed.
Site Surveys
Site surveys are performed for all proposed site locations. The following must be checked for
each site:
Exact location
Space for equipment, including antennas
Cable runs and power facilities
Contract with site owner
In addition, the radio environment must be checked to ensure that there is no other radio
equipment on site that causes problems.
Radio Measurements
Radio measurements are performed to adjust the parameters used in the planning tool to
reality i.e. adjustments are made to meet the specific site climate and terrain
requirements. For instance, parameters used in a cold climate will differ from those used
in a tropical climate.

Drive tests are done using a test transmitter mounted on a vehicle, and signal strength is
measured while driving around the site area. The results from these measurements can then be
compared to the values the planning tool produces when simulating the same type of transmitter.
The planning parameters can then be adjusted to match the actual measurements.

2.3.2.4 System Design

The final cell plan is produced after adjustment of the planning parameters to match the
actual measurements. Dimensioning of the BSC, and MSC/VLR can also be adjusted.
This final cell plan can then be used for system installation.

New coverage and interference predictions are run at this stage, resulting in Cell Design
Data (CDD) documents containing cell parameters for each cell.

2.3.2.5 System Implementation and Tuning

System tuning is the continuous monitoring of the installed system to determine how well it
meets demand. It involves:
Checking that the final cell plan was implemented successfully
Evaluating customer complaints
Checking that the network performance is acceptable
Changing parameters and taking other radio measurements, if necessary

10
 2.3.2.6 System Growth/Change
Cell planning is not a one-time activity, it is an ongoing process. If the network needs to
be expanded because of an increase in traffic or because of a change in the environment
(e.g. a new building), then the operator must perform the cell planning process again,
starting with a new traffic and coverage analysis.

2.3.3 Propagation Prediction and Modelling

Two general methods are used for providing area coverage planning:
Deterministic Modelling
This type of modelling attempts to determine propagation conditions by mathematical modelling
of the relevant physical mechanisms. One approach might be to use a free space modelling
approach and then account for all obstructions/clutter in terms of the reflection, scattering,
diffraction, etc., caused. This would require extensive data defining the radio paths and the
computational load of this approach is considerable. Deterministic modelling is more applicable
in coverage predictions for small areas such as microcells and pico-cells (indoor areas). Several
tools exist for this purpose. The radio signals are usually modelled as rays and are often referred
to as ray-tracing tools.
Empirical Modelling
This approach is based on statistical analysis of a large of number of measurements from which
averages for a variety of power levels, frequencies, antenna heights etc. are obtained. These
average results can then be modelled mathematically to produce empirical formulae allowing
path loss to be calculated. Empirical modelling is the preferred method of carrying out coverage
prediction in large areas.

2.3.3.1 Deterministic Path Loss Models

Free-Space Path Loss
Consider a signal transmitted through free space to a receiver located at distance d from the
transmitter. Assume there are no obstructions between the transmitter and receiver and the signal
propagates along a straight line between the two. The channel model associated with this
transmission is called a line-of-sight (LOS) channel, and the corresponding received signal is
called the LOS signal or ray. Free-space path loss introduces a complex scale factor, resulting in
the received signal [2]
2


() = { () 2 } (2.2)
4

where,
is the product of the transmitting and receiving antenna field radiation patterns in
the LOS direction.
2
The phase shift is due to the distance, d, the wave travels.

11
The power in the transmitted signal s(t) is Pt, so the ratio of received to transmitted power is:

2

= ( 4 ) (2.3)

Thus, the received signal power falls off inversely proportional to the square of the distance d
between the transmitting and receiving antennas. The received power can be expressed in dBm
as:
Pr dBm = Pt dBm + 10log10 (Gl) + 20 log 10 () 20 log 10 (4) 20 log 10 (d) (2.4)

Free-space path loss is defined as the path loss of the free-space model and is given by:
2

= 1010 = 1010 ( ) (2.5)
4

The free-space path gain is thus

2

= = 1010 ( 4 ) .. (2.6)
Ray Tracing
Ray tracing techniques approximate the propagation of electromagnetic waves by representing
the wavefronts as simple particles. Thus, the reflection, diffraction, and scattering effects on the
wavefront are approximated using simple geometric equations instead of Maxwells more
complex wave equations. The error of the ray tracing approximation is smallest when the
receiver is many wavelengths from the nearest scatterer, and all the scatterers are large
relative to a wavelength and fairly smooth. [2]
Two-Ray Model
The two-ray model is used when a single ground reflection dominates the multipath effect, as
illustrated in Figure 2.5. The received signal consists of two components: the LOS component or
ray, which is just the transmitted signal propagating through free space, and a reflected
component or ray, which is the transmitted signal reflected off the ground.

Figure 2.6 Two Ray Model [2]

12
 The received LOS ray is given by the free-space propagation loss formula,
2


() = { () 2 } (2.7)
4

The reflected ray is shown in Figure 2.6 by the segments x and x. If we ignore the effect of
surface wave attenuation then, by superposition, the received signal for the two-ray model is:
2 2(+ )

() ()
2 () = {
4
[
+
+
] 2 } (2.8)

Where,
+
= is the time delay of the ground reflection relative to the LOS ray,

= is the product of the transmit and receive antenna field radiation patterns in
the LOS direction, R is the ground reflection coefficient, and
= is the product of the transmitting and receiving antenna field radiation
patterns corresponding to the rays of length x and x, respectively.
The delay spread of the two-ray model equals the delay between the LOS ray and the reflected
+
ray = . If the transmitted signal is narrowband relative to the delay spread ( << Bu1)

then u(t) u(t ) . With this approximation, the received power of the two-ray model for
narrowband transmission is:
2
2
= {[ ] | + | } . (2.9)
4 +
2( + )
where, = is the phase difference between the two received signal components.

If d denotes the horizontal separation of the antennas, denotes the transmitter height and hr
denotes the receiver height, then using geometry we can show that:
+ = ( + )2 + 2 ( )2 + 2 ......... (2.10)
When d is very large compared to ht + hr we can use a Taylor series approximation to get:
2( + ) 4
= .. (2.11)

The ground reflection coefficient is given by:
sin
= .. (2.12)
sin +
Where;
2
for vertical polarization
= {
2 for horizontal polarization

13
 and is the dielectric constant of the ground. For earth or road surfaces this
dielectric constant is approximately that of a pure dielectric (for which is real with a value of
about 15).
For asymptotically large d, x + x l d, 0, Gl Gr, and R 1. Substituting these
approximations into the above equation for the received power of the two-ray model for
narrowband transmission yields that, in this asymptotic limit, the received signal power is
approximately:
2 2
4 2
= {[
4
] [
] } = [
d2
] . (2.13)
or, in dB, we have
dBm = dBm + 10log10( ) + 20log10( ) 40 log10(d) (2.14)
Ten-Ray Model (Dielectric Canyon)
This model assumes rectilinear streets with buildings along both sides of the street and
transmitter and receiver antenna heights that are close to street level. The building-lined streets
act as a dielectric canyon to the propagating signal. Theoretically, an infinite number of rays can
be reflected off the building fronts to arrive at the receiver; in addition, rays may also be back-
reflected from buildings behind the transmitter or receiver. However, since some of the signal
energy is dissipated with each reflection, signal paths corresponding to more than three
reflections can generally be ignored. When the street layout is relatively straight, back reflections
are usually negligible also. Experimental data show that a model of ten reflection rays closely
approximates signal propagation through the dielectric canyon. The ten rays incorporate all paths
with one, two, or three reflections: specifically, there is the LOS, the ground-reflected (GR), the
single-wall (SW) reflected, the double-wall (DW) reflected, the triple-wall (TW) reflected, the
wall-ground (WG) reflected and the ground-wall (GW) reflected paths. There are two of each
type of wall-reflected path, one for each side of the street. An overhead view of the ten-ray
model is shown in Figure 2.7:

Figure 2.7 Overhead View of the Ten-Ray Model [2]

For the ten-ray model, the received signal is given by:
2 )
2
( )
()
10 () = {4 [ + 9=1 ] 2 } (2.15)

14
where xi denotes the path length of the ith reflected ray, = (xi l)/c and is the product of the
transmitting and receiving antenna gains corresponding to the ith ray.
General Ray Tracing
General Ray Tracing (GRT) can be used to predict field strength and delay spread for any
building configuration and antenna placement. For this model, the building database (height,
location, and dielectric properties) and the transmitter and receiver locations relative to the
buildings must be specified exactly. Since this information is site-specific, the GRT model is not
used to obtain general theories about system performance and layout; rather, it explains the basic
mechanism of urban propagation, and can be used to obtain delay and signal strength
information for a particular transmitter and receiver configuration in a given environment. It uses
geometrical optics to trace the propagation of the LoS and reflected signal components, as well
as signal components from building diffraction and diffuse scattering.
Diffraction occurs when the transmitted signal bends around an object in its path to the
receiver. Diffraction is most commonly modeled by the Fresnel knife edge diffraction model
due to its simplicity.

Figure 2.8 Knife-Edge Diffraction [3]

The geometry of this model is shown in the Figure 2.8, where the diffracting object is assumed to
be asymptotically thin, which is not generally the case for hills, rough terrain, or wedge
diffractors. The geometry of the above figure indicates that the diffracted signal travels distance
2( + )
d + d resulting in a phase shift of = . Thus for h small relative to d and d, the signal

must travel an additional distance relative to the LOS path of approximately
2 +
= + .. (2.16)
2
and the corresponding phase shift relative to the LOS path is approximately
2
= = 2 .. (2.17)
2
where
2( + )
= is the Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter.

Approximations for knife-edge diffraction path loss (in dB) relative to LOS path loss are given
by Lee as

15
 20 log10[0.5 0.62] 0.8 < 0
20 log10[0.5 .95] 0 < 1
()dB = 20 log10 [0.4 0.1184 (0.38 0.1)2 ] 1 < 2.4 .. (2.18)
0.225
{ 20 log10 [ ] > 2.4
The knife-edge diffraction model yields the following formula for the received diffracted signal:
2(+)
() = {() ( ) 2 } . (2.19)
where,
is the antenna gain and

= is the delay associated with the diffracted ray relative to the LOS path.

Figure 2.9 Scattering [3]

A scattered ray, shown in Figure 2.9 by the segments s and s, has a path loss proportional to the
product of s and s. The received signal due to a scattered ray is given by the bistatic radar
equation:
2(+ )


() = {( ) 3 2 } . (2.20)
(4)2
where,
+
= is the delay associated with the scattered ray, (in m2) is the radar cross

section of the scattering object, which depends on the roughness, size, and shape of the scatterer,
and is the antenna gain.
The path loss associated with scattering is

Pr dBm = Pt dBm+10 log10 (Gs) + 20 log10 () + 10 log10 () 30 log10 (4) 20 log10 s20
log10(s) (2.21)

16
The received signal is determined from the superposition of all the components due to the
multiple rays. Thus, if we have a LOS ray, Nr reflected rays, Nd diffracted rays, and Ns diffusely
scattered rays, the total received signal is
2 )
2
( )
()
( ) = {[ ] [
+ =1 +
4

2( +)
2( + ) ( )

=1 () ( )




+ =1 ] 2 }

.. (2.22)
where,
, are, respectively, the time delays of the given reflected, diffracted, or scattered ray
normalized to the delay of the LoS ray, as defined above.

2.3.3.2 Empirical Path Loss Models

Most mobile communication systems operate in complex propagation environments that cannot
be accurately modeled by free-space path loss or ray tracing. A number of path loss models have
been developed over the years to predict path loss in typical wireless environments such as large
urban macro-cells, urban micro-cells, and, more recently, inside buildings. These models are
mainly based on empirical measurements over a given distance in a given frequency range and a
particular geographical area or building.

The Okumura Model

This is one of the most common models for signal prediction in large urban macro-cells. This
model is applicable over distances of 1-100 Km and frequency ranges of 150-1500 MHz.
Okumura used extensive measurements of base station-to-mobile signal attenuation throughout
Tokyo to develop a set of curves giving median attenuation relative to free space of signal
propagation in irregular terrain. The base station heights for these measurements were 30-100 m,
the upper end of which is higher than typical base stations today. The empirical path loss formula
of Okumura at distance d parameterized by the carrier frequency fc is given by

PL (d) dB = L (fc, d) + Amu (fc, d) G ( ) G ( ) GAREA .. (2.23)

where,
L (fc,d) is free space path loss at distance d and carrier frequency fc
Amu (fc,d) is the median attenuation in addition to free space path loss across all
environments.
G ( ) is the base transceiver station antenna height gain factor
G ( ) is the mobile antenna height gain factor, and
GAREA is the gain due to the type of environment.

17
The values of Amu (fc, d) and GAREA are obtained from Okumuras empirical plots. Okumura
derived empirical formulas for G (ht) and G (hr) as:

( ) = 2010 (200 ) , 30 < < 1000

10 log10 ( 3 ) , 3
( ) = {
. (2.24)
20 log10 ( 3 ) , 3 < < 10m
Correction factors related to terrain are also developed to improve the model accuracy.
Okumuras mode has a 10 -14 dB empirical standard deviation between the path loss predicted
by the model and the path loss associated with one of the measurements used to develop the
model. [2]

Hata Model
The Hata model is an empirical formulation of the graphical path loss data provided by Okumura
and is valid over roughly the same range of frequencies, 150-1500 MHz. This empirical model
simplifies calculation of path loss since it is a closed-form formula and is not based on empirical
curves for the different parameters. The standard formula for empirical path loss in urban areas
under the Hata model is:

, () dB = 69.55 + 26.16 log10 ( ) 13.82 log10 ( ) ( ) + (44.9

6.55 log10( ))log10() (2.25)
The parameters in this model are the same as under the Okumura model, and a () is a
correction factor for the mobile antenna height based on the size of the coverage area. For small
to medium sized cities, this factor is given by:
( ) = (1.1 log10 ( ) 0.7) (1.56 log10 ( ) 0.8)dB .. (2.26)
and for larger cities at frequencies fc > 300 MHz by
( ) = 3.2(log10 (11.75 ))2 4.97 dB .. (2.27)
Corrections to the urban model are made for suburban and rural propagation, so that these
models are, respectively:
2
, () = , () 2 [log10 (28 )] 5.4 .... (2.29)
and
, () = , () 4.78[10 ()]2 + 18.33log10 () .. (2.30)
where K ranges from 35.94 (countryside) to 40.94 (desert).
The Hata model does not provide for any path specific correction factors, as is available in the
Okumura model. The Hata model well-approximates the Okumura model for distances d > 1
Km. Thus, it is a good model for first generation cellular systems, but does not model
propagation well in current cellular systems with smaller cell sizes and higher frequencies.
Indoor environments are also not captured with the Hata model. [2]

18
 COST 231 Extension to Hata Model (COST 231 Hata Model)
The Hata model was extended by the European cooperative for scientific and technical research
(EURO-COST) to between 1500MHz and 2000MHz as follows:

()dB = 46.3 + 33.9 log10() 13.82 log10 () ()(44.9 6.55 log10 ())log10 ()
+ . (2.31)
where;
a () is the correction factor for the mobile antenna height based on the size of the coverage
area, and
CM is 0 dB for medium sized cities and suburbs, and 3 dB for metropolitan areas.
This model is restricted to the following range of parameters: 1.5GHz < fc < 2 GHz, 30m < ht <
200 m, 1m < hr < 10 m and 1Km < d < 20 Km.

COST 231 Walfish-Ikegami Model

This model is designed for modelling cells up to about 5km in urban areas and at frequencies of
900MHz, 1800MHz and 1900MHz. COST-231 Walfisch-Ikegami model is an extension of
COST Hata model. It requires more extensive clutter data than the Hata models and it can be
used for frequencies above 2000 MHz. When there is Line of Site (LOS) between the transmitter
and receiver the path loss is given by the following formula:
dB = 42.4 + 26 log10 () + 20 log10 () ... (2.32)
While in Non-Line of Sight (NLOS) conditions, path loss is given as:
dB = L0 + L + L .... (2.33)
where L0 is the attenuation in free-space and is described as:
0 dB = 32.45 + 20 log10 () + 20 log10 () .. (2.34)
LRTS represents diffraction from rooftop to street, and is defined as:
dB = 16.9 10 log10 () + 10 log10 () + 20 log10 ( ) + .. (2.35)
Here LORI is a function of the orientation of the antenna relative to the street a (in degrees) and is
defined as:
10 + 0.354 0 < < 35
dB = { 2.5 + 0.075( 35) 35 < < 55 (2.36)
4 0.114 ( 55) 55 < < 90
LMSD represents diffraction loss due to multiple obstacles and is specified as:
dB = + + log10 () + log10 () 9 log10 ( ) .. (2.37)
where,

19
 18 log10 (1 + ) <
dB = { . (2.38)
54 + 0.8( ) 2 > 0.5
54 <
= { (2.39)
54 + 0.8( ) > 0.5

18 + 15 ( ) <
= { . (2.40)
18 > 0.5

= { 4 + k ( )
924

Ericsson 9999 Model

This model is implemented by Ericsson as an extension of the Hata model. Hata model is used
for frequencies up to 1900 MHz. In this model, we can adjust the parameters according to
the given scenario. The path loss as evaluated by this model is described as:
dB = a0 + a1 log10 () + a2 log10 ( ) log10 () 3.2 (log10 (11.75))2 + g (2.41)
where,
g = 44.49 log10 () 4.78 (log10 ())2 (2.42)
The values of a0, a1, a2 and a3 are constant but they can be changed according to the scenario
(environment). The defaults values given by the Ericsson model are a0 = 36.2, a1 = 30.2, a2 =
12.0 band a3 = 0.1. The parameter f represents the frequency.

2.3.3.3 Choice of Propagation Model

Planning macro cells
At 900MHz, the basic Okumura-Hata models is recommended
At 1800MHz and 1900MHz, the COST 231 Hata Model must be used
Planning micro cells
COST 231 Walfisch-Ikegami model is recommended.
Planning pico cells
Simple Power Law model can be used.
= 42.6 + 26 log10 + 20 log10 (2.43)
20dB is added for each corner obstructing the LoS.
Tuning the Propagation Model
Almost all propagation modelling done for network planning is based on empirical models.
However, statistical models cannot produce results which fit every environment. In most cases
modelling will be based on a standard model such as the COST231 Hata Model, often with
additional features to incorporate as much information as possible. Empirical models are set up
only to copy a set of measurements taken in a limited variety of environmental conditions. In a
different environment, particularly a built environment, where building styles and materials
differ significantly, the parameters in the model will be inappropriate. Tuning is performed by

20
making direct comparisons between predicted signal levels and real measurements, typically
continuous wave (CW) measurements in a test site. The real measurements are then imported
into the planning tool and adjustments made to the parameter values of the chosen propagation
model in order to minimize errors in predictions.
2.3.3.4 Continuous Wave (CW) Testing Process
A temporary antenna in the area of interest is energized using a continuous wave (CW) signal
generated from a test transmitter. CW testing can be used to generate data for model calibration
purposes or to validate planning levels in difficult areas. For identification purposes, the test
transmitter can be arranged to provide a dummy Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
transmission instead of CW, if required, depending on the equipment capability.

2.3.4 Monte Carlo Simulations

Monte Carlo Simulations are used for prediction in UMTS and LTE networks. The Monte Carlo
Simulation is a general term for a mathematical approach to solving problems having a large
number of random characteristics. It can be used to model cellular network behavior. To simulate
network operation it is necessary to account for the effects of interference between users in both
the uplink and downlink directions. It is also necessary to model the effects of power control,
channel adaptation and mixed traffic. To achieve this, Monte Carlo simulation creates a series of
snapshots. For each of these snapshots users are randomly scattered over the ground area with
weightings for expected traffic density. The tool then uses defined radio parameters to estimate
transmitted power, cell load, interference, channel adaptation and, ultimately, connection success
rate. A number of snapshots are then combined to produce a statistical analysis of the probability
of coverage for various service types

2.3.5 Channel Re-use

Channel re-use is a key element of cellular system design. It determines how much interference
is experienced by different users, and therefore the system capacity and performance. Reuse
distance is the distance between the centers of cells that use the same channels.
Consider a cellular system with S duplex channels available for use and let N be the number of
cells in a cluster. If each cell is allotted K duplex channels with all being allocated unique and
disjoint channel groups we have:
S = KN, under normal circumstances.
Now, if the cluster is repeated M times within the whole area, the total number of duplex
channels, or, the total number of users in the system would be
= =
Clearly, if K and N remain constant, then

If T and K remain constant, then
1

21
Hence the capacity achieved is directly proportional to the number of times a cluster is repeated.
For a fixed cell size, small N decreases the size of the cluster which in turn results in an increase
in the number of clusters and hence the capacity. However for small N, co-channel cells are
located much closer and hence more interference. The value of N is determined by calculating
the amount of interference that can be tolerated for sufficient quality communication. Hence the
smallest N having interference below the tolerated limit is used. However, the cluster size N
cannot take on any value and is given only by the following equation:
= 2 + + 2 i 0 ,j 0
where, i and j are integer numbers.
Consider the cell diagram in Figure 2.9 where R is the hexagonal cell radius. Denote the location
of each cell by the pair (i,j). If channel Cn is used in the center cell and again in the shaded cell
then there would be exactly two cells between co-channel cells and reuse distance would be easy
to find. However, when Cn is reused in the cell adjacent to the shaded cell, there is not an integer
number of cells separating the co-channel cells. For hexagonal cells, it can be shown that the
distance between two adjacent cell centers = 3 where R is the radius of any cell. The
normalized co-channel cell distance Dn can be calculated by traveling 'i' cells along the u axis
and then traveling 'j' cells along the v axis.

Figure 2.10 Minimum Re-use Distance [8]

Using law of vector addition,

2 = 2 2 (300 ) + ( + (300 ))2 .. (2.44)

which turns out to be
= 2 + + 2 =
Multiplying the actual distance 3 between two adjacent cells with it, we get
= 3 = 3 = 3 2 + + 2 .. (2.45)

22
 2.3.6 System (Cell) Balance
An unbalanced system can result from either the DL range exceeding the UL range (UL limited)
or vice versa (DL limited). The ideal aim is to have a balanced system where the DL and UL
range are substantially equal in order to avoid the possibility of dropped calls or failed call setups
at the edge of an unbalanced cell.
The use of Low Noise Amplifiers (LNA) at the masthead is commonplace in GSM 1800/1900
installations and helps to ensure a balanced cell where uplink range is matched to downlink. In
most cellular systems, the UL tends to be weaker than the DL. This can be established by
calculating the uplink and downlink power budgets and then choosing an LNA whose
performance is just adequate to correct the difference.

Figure 2.11 Cell Breathing [1]

The best site for the LNA is as close to the antenna feed point as possible. The LNA will require
power for its operation and will also have internal switching to shunt downlink power around the
amplifier to the common antenna. The additional downlink loss may need adding to the
downlink losses overall and could reduce the range slightly. The LNA will also, in the case of
CDMA, bring capacity benefits because it will lower the noise level at the input to the Node B,
which is equivalent to lowering the overall interference level.

23
 2.3.7 RF Emission Limits and Safety
The level of RF emission from a site is governed by two factors: license conditions and safety
considerations. The operators license will limit the EIRP per RF channel, e.g. 53 dBm. In some
countries, the operator may also be legally obliged to demonstrate that emissions from the site
comply with guidelines for limiting human exposure to the time-varying Electromagnetic Fields
(EMF) emitted from the antennas.

Effective Isotropically Radiated Power (EIRP)

It is the power launched from the antenna, corrected to the value that would have to be fed to the
theoretical isotropic reference antenna to give the same power. It is found by taking the
transmitters output power and processing this value through all gains and losses of the system
up to the point when it is launched from the antenna.
Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is found by using antenna gain referenced to a dipole (dBd) and
is 2.2 dB less than EIRP.
EIRP = PT LC + GA
where PT transmitter power in dBm
LC - cable losses in dB
GA antenna gain in dBi

ICNIRP Guidelines
At the frequencies used by cellular systems, the guidelines define basic restrictions on exposure,
based on Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) in Watts per kilogram (Wkg-1) of body tissue. These
can be equated to reference levels, for the purpose of compliance testing, in terms of E-field
strength in volts per metre (Vm-1), H-field strength in Amperes per metre (Am-1), magnetic flux
density (T) and plane wave power density (s) in Watts per square metre (Wm-2). If
measurement indicates that levels are below the reference level, then the basic restrictions are
being met. If measured levels exceed the reference level, it does not automatically follow that the
basic restrictions are being exceeded, and further investigation is necessary.

Occupational Exposure General Public Exposure

400 2000 MHz 1 1
= 3 2 Vm1 = 1.375 2 Vm1

= Wm2 = Wm2
40 200
2000 300 MHz = 137 Vm1 = 61 Vm1
= 50 Wm2 = 10 Wm2
Figure 2.12 ICNIRP Reference Levels for 400MHz to 300GHz [4]

f measured in MHz
averaged over any six minute period
unperturbed rms values

24
 PGSM + EGSM 900 GSM (DCS) 1800 UMTS FDD

Uplink Downlink Uplink Downlink Uplink Downlink

f MHz 880 915 925 960 1710 1785 1805 1880 1920 1980 2110 2170
Occupational Vm1 89 90.8 91.2 93 124.1 126.7 127.5 130.1 131.5 133.5 137 137
Exposure
Wm2 22 22.9 23.1 24 42.8 44.6 45.1 47 48 49.5 50 50
1
Public Vm 40.8 41.6 41.8 42.6 56.9 58.1 58.4 59.6 60.3 61.2 61 61
Exposure 2 4.4
Wm 4.6 4.6 4.8 8.6 8.9 9 9.4 9.6 9.9 10 10
Figure 2.13 Occupational and Public Exposure
Compliance with Reference Levels
Compliance can be verified by calculation at the planning stage. Established sites can be verified
through direct measurement of the E field or power density using calibrated equipment. For a
single TRX, and assuming the worst case of continuous radiation, then from the EIRP it is
possible to calculate E field strengths and power densities along the bearing of strongest
radiation at a distance d from:

= 42 Wm2 .. (2.46)

= 120S Vm1 .. (2.47)

25
 2.4 Planning Considerations for GSM (TDMA) Networks
2.4.1 Link Budget
A power budget, which takes account of each element on the radio link, is required to determine
the transmission power required to produce a minimum required receive level at some distant
point. The elements include: path loss, shadow fade margin, minimum required SNR, body loss,
allowances for building and/or vehicle penetration loss, the Noise Figure (NF) of the receiver
and the basic noise floor in the communication channel. The noise floor in a 200 kHz channel is -
121dBm and the assumed NF for a GSM 900 Class 4 MS is 10dB. The minimum SNR is quoted
as 8 dB for a basic GSM link. This suggests that signals should have a minimum level of (-121 +
10 + 8) = - 103dBm comparing closely with the referenced sensitivity of -102dBm for a GSM
900 Class 4 MS.

2.4.2 GSM Frequency Spectrum

System Band Uplink (MHz) Downlink Channel Number Equivalent
(MHz) UMTS/LTE
Band
T-GSM-380 380 380.2389.8 390.2399.8 dynamic
T-GSM-410 410 410.2419.8 420.2429.8 dynamic
GSM-450 450 450.6457.6 460.6467.6 259293 31
GSM-480 480 479.0486.0 489.0496.0 306340
GSM-710 710 698.2716.2 728.2746.2 dynamic 12
GSM-750 750 777.2792.2 747.2762.2 438511
T-GSM-810 810 806.2821.2 851.2866.2 dynamic 27
GSM-850 850 824.2849.2 869.2893.8 128251 5
P-GSM-900 900 890.0915.0 935.0960.0 1124
E-GSM-900 900 880.0915.0 925.0960.0 9751023, 0-124 8
R-GSM-900 900 876.0915.0 921.0960.0 9551023, 0-124
T-GSM-900 900 870.4876.0 915.4921.0 dynamic
DCS-1800 1800 1,710.21,784.8 1,805.21,879.8 512885 3
PCS-1900 1900 1,850.21,909.8 1,930.21,989.8 512810 2

Table 2.1 GSM Frequency Spectrum

26
 2.4.3 GSM Channels

2.4.3.1 GSM Physical Channels

The time domain over the air interface is divided into 217 frames (of duration 4.615ms) per
second. Each frame is divide into eight timeslots (of duration 0.577ms) numbered 0 to 7. A non-
hopping physical channel comprises a single Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number
(ARFCN) and timeslot. The Mobile Station (MS) maintains the same timeslot on both uplink and
downlink. A frequency-hopping physical channel comprises a set of ARFCN. The MS maintains
the same timeslot number on both UL and DL, but changes ARFCN on a frame-by-frame basis
i.e. frequency hops 217 times.
The physical channel must support both user traffic and network signalling. This is achieved
using a system of 26, 51 and 52-frame multi-frames. The 52-frame multi-frame maybe used for
networks supporting GPRS.

2.4.3.2 GSM Logical Channels

Logical channels are defined functions which can be supported within a physical channel. One
physical channel can support a number of logical channels. A logical channel is implemented on
the air interface using a multiframe structure depending on the type of channel being
implemented. They include traffic channels and control channels.

Traffic Channels
Full Rate Traffic Channel (TCH/F)
Supports encoded/protected speech at a gross rate of 22.8 kbit/s or Forward Error Correction
(FEC) coded, Circuit Switched (CS) data at 14.4, 9.6, 4.8 or 2.4 kbit/s (TCH/F14.4/F9.6/F4.8 or
F2.4).
Half Rate Traffic Channel (TCH/H)
Supports second generation speech vocoders at a gross rate of 11.4kbit/s, or FEC coded data at
4.8 or 2.4kbit/s.
A full rate channel requires one physical channel whereas two half-rate channels can be
supported by a single physical channel.

Control Channels
i) Broadcast Control Channels (BCH)
There are three types:
a) Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH) used for frequency control of the MS in respect
of the BTS
b) Synchronization Channel(SCH)) used for frame synchronization of the MS
c) Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) used for general broadcast functions.
BCCH channel types are downlink (DL) only

27
 ii) Common Control Channels (CCCH)
Includes:
a) Paging Channel (PCH) used in the downlink direction only to inform mobiles of
incoming calls
b) Random Access Channel (RACH) used in the uplink direction only by mobiles initiating
a call. In this case the mobile is requesting the allocation of a Stand-Alone Dedicated
Control Channel (SDCCH) for signaling purposes
c) Access Grant Channel (AGH) used for signal allocation of a SDCCH to the MS
d) Cell Broadcast Channel (CBCH) used for downlink only cell broadcast
e) Notification Channel (NCH)

iii) Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH)

a) Stand-Alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH) is a bidirectional channel used to
convey the signalling messages between the mobile and the network at Call Setup, and
for activities such as Location Updating, Supplementary Service Control and SMS
Traffic
There are two types:
SDCCH/4 has four sub-channels
SDCCH/8 has eight sub-channels

b) Associated Control Channels (ACCH)

These channels are always located with either a traffic channel or a SDCCH. They are
bidirectional and support the transfer of information such as signal measurements, power
adjustment commands and handover instructions
Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)
Is associated with either traffic channels or SDCCHs. It has a low data rate that is sufficient to
support, for instance, power control commands in the DL or signal level measurement of
adjacent cells in the UL
Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)
Is associated with either a full-rate or half-rate traffic channel. It facilitates the rapid transfer of
data, such as handover commands, by means of bit stealing technique. It is actually supported by
stealing bits from the traffic channel leading to a reduction in traffic quality.

28
 2.4.4 Frequency Planning
Frequency planning is concerned with reusing radio frequencies as tightly as possible without
causing unacceptable interference.
2.4.4.1 Frequency Reuse Patterns
Common frequency reuse or cell repeat patterns used for GSM are 3/9, 4/12 and 7/21
3/9 Cell Repeat Pattern
Three sites each serving three cells are used to form a cluster of nine cells.

Figure 2.14 3/9 Cell Repeat Pattern

C/I in 3/9 Cell Repeat Pattern
In theory this pattern leads to a C/I of > 9 dB. Extra measure need to be taken to reduce the
impact of interference. Appropriate measures include frequency hopping and dynamic power
control.

C/A in 3/9 Cell Repeat Pattern

The geographically adjacent cells A1 and C3 use adjacent radio carriers. This implies a C/A of
0dB for MSs operating on the boundary of A1 and C3. Although this is better than the -9dB
figure quoted for GSM, it is a high level of interference and frequency hopping and dynamic
power control are used to minimize the interference.

29
 4/12 Cell Repeat Pattern
Four sites each serving three cells are used to form a cluster of twelve cells.

Figure 2.15 4/12 Cell Repeat Pattern [8]

C/I in 4/12 Cell Repeat Pattern

In theory this pattern leads to a C/I of > 12 dB. The use of frequency hopping and dynamic
power control, although beneficial, are not actually required.

7/21 Cell Repeat Pattern

Seven sites each serving three cells are used to form a cluster of twenty one cells.

2.4.4.2 Slow Frequency Hopping (SFH)

In SFH, channels retain their timeslot but hop in the frequency domain between designated
carriers on a burst-by-burst basis, i.e. at the rate of 217 hops per second. This technique is
employed to minimize the effects of (Rayleigh) fast fading and interference.
A number of parameters have to be set for a MS and BTS to communicate using a frequency
hopping channel. These include:
Timeslot Number (TN)
Mobile Allocation (MA), which lists the carrier frequencies over which hopping will
occur
Mobile Allocation Index Offset (MAIO), which defines the carrier frequency upon which
hopping must commence
TDMA Frequency Number (FN), which is the future FN on which hopping should
commence
Hopping Sequence Number (HSN), from which the hopping sequence will be derived.
HSN 0 defines cyclic hopping. HSN 1-63 define pseudo-random sequences

30
 Baseband Hopping
The baseband data for a subscriber using a hopping channel is directed through electronic
switching to a different transmitter with each burst. Thus the TRX tuning does not alter, but the
bursts being transmitted to that particular MS frequency hop.

Synthesizer Hopping
The baseband data for a subscriber using a hopping channel is directed to the same transmitter at
all times but the tuning of the TRX is changed on a burst-by-burst basis under the control of the
hopping algorithm. This requires very fast tuning and fast settling synthesizers. The advantage of
Synthesizer Hopping is that a TRX can hop over many frequencies being constrained only by the
frequency plan.

2.4.5 Base Station Identity Code (BSIC) Planning

Every GSM cell transmits a BSIC in the Synchronization Channel (SCH). The structure of the
BSIC results in 64 different identities, eight for each of the eight possible National Colour Codes
(NCC).

NCC National Colour Code BCC Base-station Colour Code

e.g. if NCC = 001 and BCC = 011 then BSIC = 00001011

31
 2.5 Planning Considerations in UMTS Networks
2.5.1 Link Budget
The link budget in a CDMA system must account for interference levels. The interference level
for a cell can be calculated if its capacity is known. If traffic distribution and traffic types are
known, then cell capacity can be calculated for a given coverage. In order to calculate cell
coverage it is necessary to calculate a link budget.
Load Factor (Lj)
This is an indicator of how close a link is operating with respect to its theoretical maximum
capacity. Loading reduces coverage hence it is undesirable to plan a system for a very high load
factor. Ideally, the system should be dimensioned such that cells operate with a load factor
allowing a margin of safety
The load factor for an individual UE Lj is the ratio of wanted signal power, , against total
interference power, Itotal, for that UE.
1
L = = .. (2.48)
Itotal 1+
( )

1
= (1 + ) Lj = (1 + ) . (2.49)

=1 =1 1 +

( ) }
{
Where;
= UL load factor
i = neighbor cell interference factor
j = an individual UE
N = number of UEs in the cell
W = chip rate
= energy per bit
= noise spectral density
= bit rate for UE
= activity factor for UE
1
=
=1 ((1 ) + ) .. (2.50)
1+
( )

Where
= DL load factor
= neighbor cell interference factor
j = an individual UE
N = number of UEs in the cell
W = chip rate

32
 = energy per bit
= noise spectral density
= bit rate for
= activity factor for
= orthogonality factor
Noise Rise
This is a measure of the increase in noise caused by the interference level in the cell. This
interference includes both intra-cell and inter-cell sources. The noise rise can be calculated from
serving and neighbour cell operating load factors. Thus a higher load factor results in a higher
noise rise.
1
Noise Rise =
1
Noise Rise in dB = 10 log10 (1 ) . (2.51)
Interference Margin
This is used to account for predicted noise rise. As part of the planning process an assessment of
operating load factor will indicate a noise rise. The interference margin should be set such that
the link budget is valid for the required noise rise. However, in setting interference margin, hence
link budget, the cell size is determined. This in turn will affect the predicted load factor, leading
to a reassessment. Thus an iterative process is required to arrive at suitable parameters for system
planning and simulations.

2.5.2 UMTS Frequency Spectrum

The bands for 3rd Generation operation are:
806960 MHz
17101885 MHz
25002690 MHz

UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA)/FDD

UTRA/FDD is designed to operate in either of three paired bands as shown in the table below.
Each channel is identified by a UMTS Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number (UARFCN).
The nominal channel band spacing is taken to be 5 MHz.

UTRA/FDD Frequency Bands

Operating Band UL Frequencies DL Frequencies
I 19201980 MHz 21102170 MHz
II 18501910 MHz 19301990 MHz
III 17101785 MHz 18051880 MHz
Table 2.2 FDD Frequency Bands [5]

33
UARFCNs
Operating Band Transmit-Receive Frequency Separation
I 190 MHz
II 80 MHz
III 95 MHz
Table 2.3 UMTS Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number [5]

Duplex Distance
Operating Band UL Frequencies DL Frequencies
I 19201980 MHz 21102170 MHz
II 18501910 MHz 19301990 MHz
III 17101785 MHz 18051880 MHz
Table 2.4 Duplex Distance [6]

UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA)/TDD

UTRA/TDD Frequency Bands
Region Frequency Bands
1 19001920 MHz, 20102020 MHz
2 18501910 MHz, 19301990 MHz, 19101930 MHz
Table 2.5 UTRA/TDD Frequency Bands [6]

UTRA/TDD ARFCNs
Region Frequency Range UARFCN
1 19001920 MHz, 20102025 MHz 9512 to 9588, 10062 to 10113
2 18501910 MHz, 19301990 MHz, 9262 to 9538, 9662 to 9938,
19101930 MHz 9562 to 9638
Table 2.6 UTRA/TDD ARFCNs [6]

UMTS-TDD Frequency Bands

Operating Band Frequency Band Frequency (MHz) UARFCN Channel Number
A (lower) IMT 1900 1920 9504 9596
A (upper) IMT 2010 2025 10054 10121
B (lower) PCS 1850 1910 9254 9546
B (upper) PCS 1930 1990 9654 9946
C PCS (Duplex-Gap) 1910 1930 9554 9646
D IMT-E 2570 2620 12854 13096
E 2300 2400 11504 11996
F 1880 - 1920 9404 9596
Table 2.7 UMTS-TDD [6]

34
 2.5.3 UMTS Channels
2.5.3.1 Logical Channels
The logical channels used for the transfer of signalling information in FDD mode are:
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) is a downlink broadcast channel carrying system
information.
Paging Control Channel (PCCH) is a downlink channel carrying paging messages. It is used
when the network does not know the location cell of the UE, or the UE is using sleep mode
procedures.
Common Control Channel (CCCH) is a bidirectional channel carrying control information
between the network and the UE. It is used when the UE has no RRC connection with the
network.
Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH) is a point-to-point bidirectional channel carrying
dedicated control information between the network and the UE.
The logical channels used for the transfer of user information in FDD mode are:
Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH) is a dedicated point-to-point channel carrying user
information between the network and the UE. It may be used in both the uplink and downlink
directions.
Common Traffic Channel (CTCH)

2.5.3.2 Transport Channels

Information is transferred from the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer and mapped into the
physical channels via a set of transport channels. Transport channels are classified into common
channels and dedicated channels. Information in common channels will require in-band
identification of the UE. For dedicated channels the UEs identity is associated with the channel
allocation.
The common transport channels for FDD mode are:
Random Access Channel (RACH) is a contention-based channel in the uplink direction and is
used for initial access or non-real-time dedicated control or traffic data.
Common Packet Channel (CPCH) is a contention-based channel used for the transmission of
bursty traffic data in a shared mode. Fast power control is used.
Forward Access Channel (FACH) is a common downlink channel without power control. It is
used for relatively small amounts of data.
Downlink Shared Channel (DSCH) is used in shared mode by several UEs to carry control or
traffic data.
Broadcast Channel (BCH) is a downlink broadcast channel used to carry system information
across a whole cell.
Paging Channel (PCH) is a downlink broadcast channel used to carry paging and notification
messages across a whole cell.
Dedicated Channel (DCH) is used in the uplink or downlink direction to carry user
information to or from the UE.

35
 2.5.3.3 Physical Channels
Downlink (DL) Physical Channels
The DL physical channels carrying higher-layer information are:
Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH) is used to carry the DSCH. It is shared by
multiple users by way of code multiplexing. The PDSCH is always associated with one or more
DL Dedicated Physical Channels (DPCHs).
Secondary Common Control Physical Channel (SCCPCH) is used to carry the transport
channels PCH and FACH in the DL direction.
Primary Common Control Physical Channel (PCCPCH) is used in the DL direction to
broadcast the BCH across a cell. There will be only one of these on each cell.
Dedicated Physical Data Channel (DPDCH) and Dedicated Physical Control Channel
(DPCCH). The DPDCH is a bidirectional channel used to carry higher-layer information from
the transport channel DCH. It is multiplexed with the DPCCH that provides the layer 1 control
and synchronization information. Once multiplexed, the two are referred to as a DPCH. One
DPCCH may be associated with one or more DPDCHs.
The DL channels carrying control and synchronization are:
Paging Indicator Channel (PICH) is used to carry Paging Indicators (PI used to enable
discontinuous reception of the PCH being carried on an associated SCCPCH.
Synchronization Channel (SCH) is a DL channel used during cell search. It consists of primary
and secondary sub-channels, and conveys information to the UE concerning the time alignment
of a cells codes and frame structures.
Common Pilot Channel (CPICH) is used to provide the phase reference for the SCH,
PCCPCH, AICH and the PICH. There will be only one Primary CPICH in a cell.
Acquisition Indicator Channel (AICH) carries Acquisition Indicators (AI) used to
acknowledge UE random access attempts, and grant permission for a UE to continue with its
random access transmission.
CPCH Access Preamble Acquisition Indicator Channel (AP-AICH) carries access
preamble acquisition indicators which correspond with the access preamble signature transmitted
by the UE.
CPCH Collision Detection/Channel Assignment Indicator Channel (CD/CA-ICH) is used
to acknowledge the collision detection access preamble.
CPCH Status Indicator Channel (CSICH) uses the unused part of the AICH channel to
indicate CPCH physical channel availability so that access is only attempted on a free channel.

Uplink (UL) Physical Channels

Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH) is a contention-based channel used to carry
higher-layer information in the form of the RACH.
Dedicated Physical Channel (DPCH) is ultimately used to carry the transport channel DCH.

36
 Physical Common Packet Channel (PCPCH) carries the common packet transport channel,
which comprises access preambles, collision detection preamble, power control preamble and a
message part.

2.5.4 Code Planning

2.5.4.1 DL Code Requirements
The DL code requirements include: synchronization, cell resolution, and physical channel
resolution. There are three code types utilized in the UMTS DL direction.
- Synchronization requires short, highly orthogonal codes. Therefore, hierarchical Golay
codes are used in conjunction with Hadamard codes.
- Cell resolution requires noise-like spectral characteristics and good cross-correlation
characteristics; consequently, Gold code segments are used. The codes used for cell
resolution are referred to as cell scrambling codes.
- Channel resolution requires maximal orthogonality which is provided through the use of an
orthogonal code set in a code tree. The codes used for channel resolution are referred to as
spreading codes.

Synchronization Codes
The set of synchronization codes available consists of one primary and 16 secondary codes. All
the codes are potentially available on all cells. The single primary code will always be present in
all cells. In addition, each cell will be broadcasting one of 64 sequences consisting of 15
secondary codes.

Cell Scrambling Codes

The cell scrambling codes are complex-valued 10 ms segments of Gold codes. There are 512
primary cell scrambling codes; each cell will be allocated one of these (unique to a cell within its
immediate geographic area). The set of 512 primary codes is organized into 64 groups of 8.
These 64 groups map to the secondary synchronization code sequences. Each of the 512 primary
cell scrambling codes is also associated with 15 additional secondary cell scrambling codes.
Thus there are a total of 8192 cell scrambling codes defined. These secondary scrambling codes
could be used to subdivide a cell into sub-cells, thus providing a means of increasing capacity in
a cell, or dealing with traffic hotspots.

DL Spreading Codes
A set of Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF) codes in the form of a code tree is
defined for spreading and channel resolution in the DL direction. The use of the code tree
enables orthogonal codes to be applied across the length of one complete baseband symbol for a
range of different possible baseband rates. Thus at low rates with long-duration baseband
symbols, long codes from the top of the tree can be selected. At high rates with short-duration
baseband symbols, codes from the root of the tree can be selected. The result is the maintenance

37
of good orthogonality between DL channels running at either the same or different rates. Codes
from different levels of the tree may be used simultaneously. There are some limitations,
however. Firstly, a code may only be used if no other code on the path to the root of the tree is
already in use. Secondly, once a code is in use no other code derived from it may be used.

2.5.4.2 Uplink Code Requirements

UL Scrambling Codes
The two options for UL scrambling codes are complex-valued 10 ms segments of Gold codes
and complex-valued S(2) codes. While similar in structure and characteristic, the UL Gold code
segments are from a different and much larger set of codes than that used in the DL direction. In
total there are 16,777,216 codes available. The Gold code segments are sometimes referred to as
long codes. From the set of Gold code segments, the first 8192 codes are reserved for PRACH
operation and the next 32,768 codes are reserved for PCPCH operation. In both these cases
groups of codes taken from these sets will be allocated to particular cells within the planning
process. The remainder of the Gold code segments are available for DPCH operation and are not
part of the planning process. The Gold code segments may optionally be replaced with S(2)
codes for use in the PCPCH and DPCH only. The S(2) codes are sometimes referred to as short
codes. The set of S(2) codes is the same size as that of Gold codes and there is a direct mapping
from one to the other. The S(2) codes will be used if the Node B equipment supports Multi-User
Detection (MUD).
UL Spreading Codes
UL spreading is performed using the same set of OVSF codes as is used in the DL direction for
channel resolution. However, in the UL direction a pair of OVSF codes will be allocated to a
physical channel in order to differentiate between I and Q information flows.

2.5.5 Cell Breathing

UL Cell Breathing
The load on the cell increases with increase in the number of active mobiles in the cell. The
interference will grow to the extent that distant mobiles will be dropped due to the poor signal-
to-noise ratio, effectively causing the cell to shrink. As mobile connections are terminated the
interference reduces and the cell size increases. This is known as cell breathing.

DL Cell Breathing
Downlink cell breathing also occurs as the cell becomes loaded. However, this is caused by the
fact that the base station employs a linear power amplifier. As more connections are established
in the cell each mobile will be given proportionally less power, causing the range of the cell to
reduce. With fewer connections each mobile may be apportioned more power, effectively
increasing the cell range.

38
 2.6 Planning Considerations for LTE (4G) Networks
2.6.1 Link Budget
A link budget must be performed in both the UL and DL directions. The chief inputs to a link
budget are radio factors such as transmit power, receiver sensitivity, feeder losses and antenna
gains. The overall aim is to find a maximum path loss that is acceptable in both UL and DL
directions. However, for LTE, the link budget is not static because it is affected by vary
operation conditions and service requirements implying that other margins need to be included to
reflect these varying possibilities. Multiple link budgets are usually required to give a full picture
of likely system performance.

High capacity cellular systems are assumed to operate under high interference conditions and an
additional interference margin is necessary to account for this. The interference margin reflects
the interference that will occur between users with the same frequency resource. The magnitude
of the interference margin depends on the implementation options selected by the operator such
as spectrum division and frequency planning strategy, or the use of MIMO options.

2.6.2 LTE Frequency Spectrum

There are currently 15 bands for FDD operation ranging from frequencies of approximately
700MHz to 2.7GHz. There are also 8 bands identified for TDD operation ranging from
approximately 1900MHz to 2.6GHz.

E- UL Range DL Range Duplex Channel Common Name Frequenc Duplex

UTRA (MHz) (MHz) mode bandwidths y Band Spacin
Band (MHz) (MHz) g
(MHz)
1 1920 1980 2110 2170 FDD 5, 10, 15, 20 IMT 2100 190
2 1850 1910 1930 1990 FDD 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 PCS blocks A-F 1900 80
3 1710 1785 1805 1880 FDD 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 DCS 1800 95
4 1710 1755 2110 2155 FDD 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 AWS-1 1700 400
5 824 849 869 894 FDD 1.4, 3, 5, 10 CLR 850 45
7 2500 2570 2620 2690 FDD 5, 10, 15, 20 IMT-E 2600 120
8 880 915 925 960 FDD 1.4, 3, 5, 10 E-GSM 900 45
9 1749.9 1784.9 1844.9 1879.9 FDD 5, 10, 15, 20 UMTS 1700 / 1800 95
Japan DCS
10 1710 1770 2110 2170 FDD 5, 10, 15, 20 Extended AWS 1700 400
11 1427.9 1447.9 1475.9 1495.9 FDD 5, 10 Lower PDC 1500 48
12 699 716 729 746 FDD 1.4, 3, 5, 10 Lower SMH blocks 700 30
A/B/C
13 777 787 746 756 FDD 5, 10 Upper SMH block 700 31
C
14 788 798 758 768 FDD 5, 10 Upper SMH block 700 30
D

39
17 704 716 734 746 FDD 5, 10 Lower SMH blocks 700 30
B/C
(subset of band 12)
18 815 830 860 875 FDD 5, 10, 15 Japan lower 800 850 45
19 830 845 875 890 FDD 5, 10, 15 Japan upper 800 850 45
20 832 862 791 821 FDD 5, 10, 15, 20 EU Digital 800 41
Dividend
21 1447.9 1462.9 1495.9 1510.9 FDD 5, 10, 15 Upper PDC 1500 48
22 3410 3490 3510 3590 FDD 5, 10, 15, 20 3500 100
23 2000 2020 2180 2200 FDD 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 S-Band (AWS-4) 2000 180
24 1626.5 1660.5 1525 1559 FDD 5, 10 L-Band (US) 1600 101.5
25 1850 1915 1930 1995 FDD 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 Extended PCS 1900 80
blocks A-G
26 814 849 859 894 FDD 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15 Extended CLR 850 45
27 807 824 852 869 FDD 1.4, 3, 5, 10 SMR 850 45
28 703 748 758 803 FDD 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 APT 700 55
30 2305 2315 2350 2360 FDD 5, 10 WCS blocks A/B 2300 45
31 452.5 457.5 462.5 467.5 FDD 1.4, 3, 5 450 10
Table 2.8 LTE (FDD) Frequency Spectrum [3]

E- DL Range Duplex Channel bandwidths Common Name Frequency

UTRA (MHz) mode (MHz) Band (MHz)
Band
33 1900 1920 TDD 5, 10, 15, 20 Pre-IMT 2100
(subset of band 39)
34 2010 2025 TDD 5, 10, 15 IMT 2100
35 1850 1910 TDD 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 PCS (Uplink) 1900
36 1930 1990 TDD 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 PCS (Downlink) 1900
37 1910 1930 TDD 5, 10, 15, 20 PCS (Duplex spacing) 1900
38 2570 2620 TDD 5, 10, 15, 20 IMT-E (Duplex 2600
Spacing)
(subset of band 41)
39 1880 1920 TDD 5, 10, 15, 20 DCS-IMT gap 1900
40 2300 2400 TDD 5, 10, 15, 20 2300
41 2496 2690 TDD 5, 10, 15, 20 BRS / EBS 2500
42 3400 3600 TDD 5, 10, 15, 20 3500
43 3600 3800 TDD 5, 10, 15, 20 3700
44 703 803 TDD 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 APT 700
Table 2.9 LTE (TDD) Frequency Spectrum [3]

40
 2.6.3 Channel Bandwidths and Subcarriers
Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN)/LTE is designed to work in a
variety of bandwidths ranging initially from 1.4MHz, 3 MHz, 5 MHz, 10 MHz, 15 MHz to
20MHz. The E-UTRAN scheme allows for two fixed subcarrier spacing options; 15 kHz in most
cases, with an optional 7.5 kHz spacing scheme, only applicable for TDD operation and intended
for very large cells in an SFN (Single Frequency Network).

2.6.4 Radio Channel Organization

For both UL and DL operation subcarriers are bundled together in groups of 12. This grouping is
referred to as Resource Block (RB). The number of resource blocks available in the system is
dependent on bandwidth, varying between 100 for 20MHz bandwidth to just 6 for 1.4MHz
channel bandwidth. The nominal spectral bandwidth of an RB is 180 kHz for the standard 15
kHz subcarrier spacing implying that there is a difference between the stated channel bandwidth
and the transmission bandwidth. The difference acts as a guard band. OFDMA channels are
allocated within an operators licensed spectrum allocation. The centre frequency is identified by
an EARFCN (E-UTRA Absolute radio Frequency Channel Number). The precise location of the
EARFCN is an operator decision, but they must be placed on a 100 kHz raster and the
transmission bandwidth must not exceed the operators licensed spectrum.

2.6.5 LTE Channels

2.6.5.1 LTE Physical Channels
Downlink
Physical Broadcast Channel (PBCH) carries system information for UEs requiring access to the
network. It only carries what is termed Master Information Block, MIB, messages.
Physical Control Format Indicator Channel (PCFICH) informs the UE about the format of the
signal being received. It indicates the number of OFDM symbols used for the PDCCHs, whether
1, 2, or 3.
Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH) carries mainly scheduling information of
different types: downlink resource scheduling, uplink power control instructions, uplink resource
grant and indication for paging or system information
Physical Hybrid ARQ Indicator Channel (PHICH) is used to report the Hybrid ARQ status. It
carries the HARQ ACK/NACK signal indicating whether a transport block has been correctly
received. The HARQ indicator is 1 bit long - "0" indicates ACK, and "1" indicates NACK.

Uplink
Physical Uplink Control Channel (PUCCH) provides the various control signalling
requirements. It includes the ability to carry Scheduling Requests (SRs).
Physical Uplink Shared Channel (PUSCH) is the uplink counterpart of PDSCH
Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH) is used for random access functions. This is the
only non-synchronized transmission that the UE can make within LTE.

41
 2.6.5.2 LTE Transport Channels
Downlink

Broadcast Channel (BCH). The LTE transport channel maps to Broadcast Control Channel
(BCCH)
Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH) is the main channel for downlink data transfer. It is used
by many logical channels.
Paging Channel (PCH): To convey the PCCH.
Multicast Channel (MCH): This transport channel is used to transmit MCCH information to
set up multicast transmissions.

Uplink

Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH) is the main channel for uplink data transfer. It is used by
many logical channels.
Random Access Channel (RACH) is used for random access requirements.
2.6.5.3 LTE Logical Channels
Control channels:
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) provides system information to all mobile terminals
connected to the eNodeB.
Paging Control Channel (PCCH) is used for paging information when searching a unit on a
network.
Common Control Channel (CCCH) is used for random access information, e.g. for actions
including setting up a connection.
Multicast Control Channel (MCCH) is used for Information needed for multicast reception.
Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH) is used for carrying user-specific control information, e.g.
for controlling actions including power control, handover, etc.

Traffic channels:

Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH) is used for the transmission of user data.

Multicast Traffic Channel (MTCH) is used for the transmission of multicast data.

42
 2.6.6 LTE Frequency Planning
2.6.6.1 Fractional Frequency Re-use (FFR)
Frequency planning techniques have been proposed for LTE systems to mitigate inter-cell
interference instead of standard universal frequency reuse. Fractional Frequency Reuse (FFR) is
one such strategy that partitions a cell into several regions and applies different reuse factors in
each region. FFR increases spatial distance between neighboring interferers significantly
reducing inter-cell interference. The two main types of FFR are Strict FFR and Soft Frequency Reuse.
a. Strict FFR
In a Strict FFR system, users in the interior of the cells universally share a common sub-band of
frequencies, while the cell edge users bandwidth is partitioned based on a reuse factor of N,
requiring a total of N+1 sub-bands. It is termed strict because interior users do not share any
spectrum with edge users, which reduces interference for both interior users and edge cell users
b. Soft Frequency Reuse (SFR)
SFR employs a similar partitioning strategy as Strict FFR, with the exception that interior users
can share the same bandwidth as edge users in adjacent cells. As a result, cell interior users
typically transmit at lower power levels than the cell-edge users in order to reduce interference to
neighboring cells. While SFR is more bandwidth efficient than Strict FFR, it allows more
interference to both cell interior and edge users.
Since the cell partitions are based on the geometry of the network, the locations of the users are
important in order to determine the frequency partitions. However, the average received SINR of
users in a cell, which is usually a good indicator of the distance of the user from the BTS, can be
used to determine user classifications. The BTS then classifies users with average SINR less than
a predetermined threshold as edge users and the rest as interior users.

Figure 2.16 Strict FFR (left) and SFR (right) Geometry with N=3 Cell-edge Reuse Factors [7]

2.6.6.2 1.1.3 Single Frequency Network (SFN)

The available spectrum is used as a single channel. This results to considerable interference and
therefore loss of capacity at the edges of the cell, but potential for very high capacity within the
cell area
2.6.6.3 1.3.3 Frequency Reuse Pattern
The available spectrum is split into three (3) channels. This provides a degree of frequency
planning such that adjacent cells will not be using the same frequency.

43
CHAPTER THREE: DESIGN

3.1 Frequency Planning in the GSM 900 Frequency Band

3.1.1 Frequency Re-use Pattern
A 3/9 cell repeat pattern was used i.e. a cluster of 9 cells with 3 sectored cells being served by a
single site.

Figure 3.1 3/9 Cell Repeat Pattern [8]

Theoretical minimum reuse distance, = 3 = 3 2 + + 2

Using a radius of 1.0km, D = 3 3 1000 = 3000 = 3.0

The total number of carriers = 50 carriers

3.1.2 Broadcast Control Channels

Frequency Groups ( for 20 carriers)
A1 B1 C1 A2 B2 C2 A3 B3 C3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20
Table 3.1 Frequency Groups for Control Channels

3.1.3 Traffic Channels (TCH)

Frequency Groups ( for 30 carriers)
A1 B1 C1 A2 B2 C2 A3 B3 C3
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47
48 49 50

44
 Table 3.2 Frequency Groups for Traffic Channels
Histogram of the Channel Distribution

Load
6

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Channels
Figure 3.2 Histogram of the Channel Distribution

3.1.4 Synthesized Frequency Hopping

Synthesized Frequency Hopping was used for traffic channels (TCH) in order to minimize
adjacent cell interference between cell A1 and cell C3 in the 3/9 cell repeat pattern used.
Hopping Sequence Numbers (HSN) vary from 0 63 with each HSN representing a different
hopping sequence. HSN 0 initiates a cyclic hopping sequence. The traffic load used for
simulation purposes was 1.

TRX Frequency Traffic Timeslot

Transmitter Hopping Mode HSN
type domain load configuration

Site1_1 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site1_1 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 22

Site1_2 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site1_2 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 36

Site1_3 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site1_3 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 25

45
Site2_1 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site2_1 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 4

Site2_2 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site2_2 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 16

Site2_3 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site2_3 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 11

Site3_1 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site3_1 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 25

Site3_2 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site3_2 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 19

Site3_3 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site3_3 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 1

Site4_1 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site4_1 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 29

Site4_2 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site4_2 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 33

Site4_3 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site4_3 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 8

Site5_1 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site5_1 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 23

Site5_2 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

46
Site5_2 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 35

Site5_3 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site5_3 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 14

Site6_1 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site6_1 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 3

Site6_2 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site6_2 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 5

Site6_3 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site6_3 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 17

Site7_1 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site7_1 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 34

Site7_2 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site7_2 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 20

Site7_3 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site7_3 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 6

Site8_1 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site8_1 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 27

Site8_2 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site8_2 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 30

Site8_3 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site8_3 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 26

47
Site9_1 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site9_1 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 12

Site9_2 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site9_2 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 63

Site9_3 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site9_3 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 31

Site10_1 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site10_1 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 13

Site10_2 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site10_2 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 10

Site10_3 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site10_3 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 32

Site11_1 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site11_1 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 28

Site11_2 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site11_2 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 18

Site11_3 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site11_3 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 21

Site12_1 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site12_1 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 7

Site12_2 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

48
 Site12_2 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 15

Site12_3 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site12_3 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 19

Site13_1 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site13_1 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 24

Site13_2 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site13_2 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 2

Site13_3 BCCH GSM 900 BCCH 1 BCCH Non Hopping

Site13_3 TCH GSM 900 TCH 1 TCH Synthesized Hopping 9

Table 3.3 Hopping and Non-hopping Channels

3.2 Allocation of Intra-technology Neighbours

Average number of neighbours = 5

Non-symmetric links: 11

TRANSMITTER NEIGHBOURS CAUSE TRANSMITTER NEIGHBOURS CAUSE

Site10_1 Site6_1 Adjacent Site4_2 Site7_2 Adjacent
Site11_2 Site13_2 Adjacent Site4_3 Site3_3 Adjacent
Site11_3 Site7_3 Adjacent Site5_3 Site1_3 Adjacent
Site12_2 Site10_2 Adjacent Site8_1 Site9_1 Adjacent
Site3_1 Site1_1 Adjacent Site9_3 Site2_1 Adjacent
Site4_1 Site1_1 Adjacent
Table 3.4 Non-symmetric links

3.3 Coverage Prediction

Prediction Tool: Atoll Radio Planning Software - Version 2.7.1 (Build 2922)
Focus Zone Area = 40.839 km2
Focus Zone Coordinates

3654'41.72"E - 19'54.92"S, 3654'33.54"E - 111'21.88"S, 3654'50.58"E - 112'45.87"S,

3656'45.21"E - 112'48.95"S, 3658'40.31"E - 112'43.9"S, 3658'44"E - 111'15.43"S,
3658'35.72"E - 19'47.77"S, 3656'37.23"E - 19'45.95"S, 3654'41.72"E - 19'54.92"S

49
Digital Terrain Model (DTM) View

Figure 3.3 Digital Terrain Map (DTM) view

Images of the Focus Zone

Figure 3.4 Images of the Focus Zone

50
 Clutter Classes View

Figure 3. 5 Clutter Classes View

3.3.1 Choice of Antenna

The antennas in the table below were used.

Name Manufacturer Gain Beam- Fmin Fmax Horizontal Vertical Electrical Maximum
(dBd) width (MHz) (MHz) Width Width Tilt (0) Input Power
K80010305_ Kathrein 17.2 64.8 790 960 64.8 8.1 2 500W per input
900_02V K80010305V02 (at 500C)
K80010305_ Kathrein 17.1 65.3 790 960 65.3 7.8 6 500W per input
900_06V K80010305V02 (at 500C)

Table 3.5 Antennas

51
 K80010305_900_02V Antenna

Figure 3.7 K80010305_900_02V Vertical Pattern Figure 3.6 K80010305_900_02V Horizontal Pattern

K80010305_900_06V Antenna

Figure 3.8 K80010305_900_06V Vertical Pattern Figure 3.9 K80010305_900_06V Horizontal Pattern

The antenna heights ranged from 30m 35m

52
 Mechanic Additional
Losse Traffic
Transmi Height Azimu al Electrical EIRP Powe
Antenna s Channels BCCH
tter (m) th () Downtilt Downtilt (W) r (W)
(dB) (TCH)
() ()
Site1_1 K80010305_900_02V 35 0 0 0 56.75 35 7.27 3 23 32 41 50 3
Site1_2 K80010305_900_02V 30 120 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 14 26 35 44 14

Site1_3 K80010305_900_06V 30 240 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 9 29 38 47 9

Site2_1 K80010305_900_02V 30 280 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 17 28 37 46 17

Site2_2 K80010305_900_02V 30 40 2 1 53 7.27 2 22 31 40 49 2
Site2_3 K80010305_900_02V 30 160 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 5 25 34 43 5

Site3_1 K80010305_900_02V 30 0 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 19 21 30 39 48 19

Site3_2 K80010305_900_02V 30 120 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 13 24 33 42 13

Site3_3 K80010305_900_02V 30 240 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 7 27 36 45 7

Site4_1 K80010305_900_02V 30 0 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 11 22 31 40 49 11

Site4_2 K80010305_900_02V 30 120 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 14 25 34 43 14

Site4_3 K80010305_900_02V 35 240 2 1 56.75 30 7.27 8 28 37 46 8

Site5_1 K80010305_900_02V 30 0 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 10 21 30 39 48 10

Site5_2 K80010305_900_02V 30 120 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 4 24 33 42 4

Site5_3 K80010305_900_02V 30 240 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 16 27 36 45 16

Site6_1 K80010305_900_02V 30 0 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 2 22 31 40 49 2

Site6_2 K80010305_900_02V 30 120 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 5 25 34 43 5

Site6_3 K80010305_900_06V 30 240 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 17 28 37 46 17

Site7_1 K80010305_900_02V 30 0 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 1 21 30 39 48 1

Site7_2 K80010305_900_02V 30 120 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 4 24 33 42 4

Site7_3 K80010305_900_02V 30 240 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 16 27 36 45 16

Site8_1 K80010305_900_02V 35 0 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 12 23 32 41 50 12

Site8_2 K80010305_900_02V 30 120 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 5 26 35 44 5

Site8_3 K80010305_900_02V 30 240 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 18 29 38 47 18

Site9_1 K80010305_900_02V 30 0 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 11 22 31 40 49 11

Site9_2 K80010305_900_06V 30 120 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 14 25 34 43 14

Site9_3 K80010305_900_02V 30 240 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 8 28 37 46 8

Site10_1 K80010305_900_02V 30 0 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 3 23 32 41 50 3

Site10_2 K80010305_900_02V 30 120 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 14 26 35 44 14

53
Site10_3 K80010305_900_02V 30 240 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 9 29 38 47 9
Site11_1 K80010305_900_02V 30 0 2 1 58.61 45 7.27 2 22 31 40 49 2
Site11_2 K80010305_900_02V 30 120 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 5 25 34 43 5

Site11_3 K80010305_900_02V 30 240 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 17 28 37 46 17

Site12_1 K80010305_900_02V 30 0 0 0 59.07 50 7.27 19 21 30 39 48 19
Site12_2 K80010305_900_02V 30 120 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 13 24 33 42 13

Site12_3 K80010305_900_02V 30 240 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 7 27 36 45 7

Site13_1 K80010305_900_02V 30 0 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 10 21 30 39 48 10

Site13_2 K80010305_900_02V 30 120 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 13 24 33 42 13

Site13_3 K80010305_900_02V 30 240 0 0 56.75 30 7.27 7 27 36 45 7

Table 3.6 Antennas used in the various Sites

3.3.2 Propagation Path Loss Model

The Okumura-Hata model was used because it is recommended for coverage prediction in macro
cells in the GSM 900 frequency band.

3.3.3 Link Budget

The transmission power required to produce a minimum required signal level at some distant
point was determined using a link (power) budget. The noise floor in a 200 kHz channel is -
121dBm and the assumed NF (Noise Figure) for a GSM 900 Class 4 MS is 10dB. The minimum
SNR is quoted as 8 dB for a basic GSM link. Thus,

minimum signal level = (-121 + 10 + 8) = - 103dBm

This compares closely with the referenced sensitivity of -102dBm for a GSM 900 Class 4 MS. A
threshold of -99dBm was used for the signal level.

54
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS
Coverage by Signal Level

Figure 4.1 Coverage by Signal Level

Figure 4.2 Coverage by Signal Level Properties

55
 Histogram based on Covered Areas

Figure 4.3 Histogram based on Best Signal Level of Covered Areas

From the above histogram, signal levels in different areas of the focus zone were tabulated as
shown in the table below:

Signal level Area (km2) Percentage of the Focus Zone (%)

-40dBm 6.22 15.2
-50dBm -40dBm 18.38 45
-55dBm -50dBm 11.8 28.9
-60dBm -55dBm 4.15 10.2
-70dBm -60dBm 0.3 0.7
Table 4.1 Signal Levels in Different Areas of the Focus Zone
The threshold value for the receive signal obtained from the link budget is -103dBm while the
referenced sensitivity for a GSM 900 Class 4 MS is -102dBm. The threshold value used for
simulation purposes was -99dBm. From the coverage by signal level results, the signal levels in
the focus zone were above the threshold with the least signal level within the focus zone being -
70dBm.

56
Overlapping Zones

Figure 4.4 Overlapping Zones

Figure 4.5 Overlapping Zones Properties

57
Coverage by C/I Level

Figure 4.6 Coverage by C/I Level

Figure 4.7 Coverage by C/I Level properties

58
Figure 4.8 Histogram based on C/I Level of Covered Areas
From the above results, 86% of the focus zone area had C/I level above 18dB. The theoretical
value of C/I level expected for a network based on the GSM 900 band and a 3/9 cell repeat
pattern is >9dB. From the coverage prediction by C/I level results, 99% of the focus zone area
had a C/I level greater than 9dB.

59
Coverage by Transmitter

Figure 4.9 Coverage by Transmitter

The coverage by transmitter prediction results show that the whole focus zone was fully covered
with no noticeable holes. There are overlaps at the cell edges

60
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

Cell planning in wireless communication networks has been studied and planning considerations
for GSM, UMTS and LTE networks have been described in detail. With limited spectrum, cell
planning in wireless communication networks is very important in provision of sufficient
coverage, sufficient network capacity and good network quality. A nominal cell plan for a
selected focus zone was successfully produced using Atoll Radio Planning Software - Version
2.7.1 (Build 2922). Prediction results based on coverage by signal level and coverage by C/I
level were obtained using the radio planning software (Atoll).

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

I recommend nominal cell planning for LTE or CDMA networks in future works in order to
make use of Monte Carlo simulations in coverage predictions.

61
BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] J. P. Manuel F. Catedra, Cell Planning for Wireless Communications, Massachusetts:

Artech House, Inc., 1999.

[2] A. Goldsmith, Wireless Communications, cambridge University Press, 2005.

[3] S. Glisic, Advanced Wireless Communications 4G Technologies, West Sussex: John Wiley
& Sons, Limited, 2004.

[4] International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection, [Online]. Available:

http://www.icnirp/de.

[5] J. M. P. &. C. S. Bannister, Convergence Technologies for 3G networks: IP, UMTS,

EGPRS and ATM, John Wiley & Sons, 2004.

[6] M. A. Abu-Rgheff, Introduction to CDMA Wireless Communications, Oxford: Elsevier Ltd,

2007.

[7] D. Amzallag, "Cell planning of 4G cellular networks: Algorithmic techniques, and results,"
Proceedings of the 6th IEE International Conference on 3G & Beyond G., vol. 3, pp. 501 -
506, 2005.

[8] H. Stephen, "Planning effective cellular mobile radio networks," Vehicular Technology,
IEEE Transactions on 51.2, pp. 243 - 253, 2002.

[9] "Statistics," International Telecommunications Union, [Online]. Available:

http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics.

[10] A. W. a. T. N. Jaana Laiho, Radio Network Planning and Optimisation for UMTS, West
Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2006.

[11] D. C. Clint Smith, 3G Wireless Networks, McGraw-Hill, 2001.

[12] W. C. Lee, Mobile Cellular Telecommunications Systems, Prentice-Hall , 1989.

[13] W. R. M. a. S. Hurley, "Evolution of Planning for Wireless Communication Systems,"

Proceedings of the 36th Annual Hawaii International Conference on. IEEE, p. 10, 2003.

[14] M. Hatay, "Empirical formula for propagation loss in land mobile radio services," IEEE
Transactions on, 29(3), pp. 317-325, 1980.

[15] F. Atoll, Radio Planning & Optimisation Software. Technical Reference Guide., Blagnac:
Forsk, 2011.

[16] S. Sesia, LTE: the UMTS long term evolution, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2009.

62
APPENDIX:
ITU World Telecommunication Statistics

(millions)
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014*
Fixed-telephone subscriptions
Developed 570 565 546 544 562 553 540 526 515 511
Developing 673 696 708 705 692 676 661 652 643 636
World 1,243 1,261 1,254 1,249 1,254 1,229 1,201 1,178 1,158 1,147
Mobile cellular Subscriptions
Developed 992 1,127 1,243 1,325 1,383 1,404 1,411 1,447 1,490 1,515
Developing 1,213 1,618 2,125 2,705 3,257 3,887 4,453 4,785 5,171 5,400
World 2,205 2,745 3,368 4,030 4,640 5,290 5,863 6,232 6,662 6,915
Active mobile-broadband subscriptions
Developed N/A N/A 225 336 450 554 707 828 939 1,050
Developing N/A N/A 43 86 165 253 475 726 991 1,265
World N/A N/A 268 422 615 807 1,182 1,554 1,930 2,315
Fixed (wired)-broadband subscriptions
Developed 148 188 219 250 271 291 306 321 332 345
Developing 71 96 127 161 197 236 282 315 341 366
World 220 284 346 411 468 526 588 635 673 711
Note:
Rounded values. N/A: Not available.
Regions in this table are based on the ITU BDT Regions

Appendix Table 1 Key ICT Indicators for Developed and Developing Countries and the World
(totals) [9]

63