Chapter 3.

Concreting Works
3.1 Formworks and Scaffoldings
Introduction
Scaffolding is a temporary framework of timber or steel elements, having platforms at different levels, to
enable the masons to work at different heights of a building. A mason standing on ground can work up to a
height of about 1.5m.When construction is to be done more than this height, masons and labor requires a
temporary platform. This temporary plat form provided with necessary supports close to the work to provide a
limited space for the workers, building materials, tools, etc. is termed as scaffolding.
3.1.1 Tools and Equipments
(i) Measuring and marking tools
Folding Rule When using the folding rule, place it flat on the
work. The O end of the rule should be exactly even with the end
of the space or board to be measured. The correct distance is
indicated by the reading on the rule. A very accurate reading may be
obtained by turning the edge of the rule toward the work. In this
position, the marked gradations of the face of the rule touch the surface of the board.
Steel tape or roller tape:
It extends smoothly to full length. It returns quickly to its compact
case when the return button is pressed or winds it up by crank
handle. It used to measure and determine the size of the object.
Carpenters square:
Carpenters squares are used to provide a guide for marking
straight, square and /or parallel/ lines. If one edge is straight and the
handle part of the square is placed against this straight edge, then the
blade can be used to measure the wood perpendicular to the edge.
(ii) Marking tools
Sharp pencil: It is used to indicate the point that you required to
show the point or cut point.
Scratch awl: Scratch awl is a handy tool for a carpenter. It is used to mark wood with a scratch mark.
Scriber or marking knife: It is used to draw lines parallel with the edge of the timber.
(iii) Cutting tools
On the construction site, the workman uses a number of different saws. These saws are designed for specific
types of work. Many are misused. They will still do the job, but they would do a better job if used properly.
Most of these saws are used with a push motion in contrast. To cut material to size the use of some type of
saw is required. There are money types available; each is design for particular purpose. The better grade
handsaws are taper ground. That is the blade is thinner along the back than along the cutting or to other edge.

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Crosscut saw: Crosscutting is cutting wood across the grain. The teeth are sharpened like knife and bent right
and left alternately. This is called Set. It makes the kerf or cut wider than the blade. Since the kerfs is wider
than the blade the blade will not bind (stick) as the sawing is going.
Ripsaw: It is used for sawing with the grain or along the grain or fiber of the wood. The tooth is chisel shaped
and is set alternately to the right and left.

Backsaw: It is a cross cut saw with a thin blade and fine teeth. A heavy piece of steel is fitted over the back of
the thin blade to prevent it from buckling. The blades of backsaw are from 20cm to 45cm long. It is designed
for fine accurate work.
Hacksaw: The hack saw form is used with a variety of interchangeable metal cutting blades, which are used,
for cutting soft metals and hard metals such as nails, angle Iron and reinforced steel.
Bow saw: carpenters usually use Bow saw in the construction
site in order to cut like eucalyptus wood. The upper section to
the tension arm should be provided with an eye for easy opening
and should be designed to support the hand; supplied with blade
of hardened tooth points.
Carpenters axe: This tool is used mainly to cut tree and chop the wooden plugs. But also has many other
uses. It can have hard wood or steel handle, steel head forged in one piece, fine grain steel, hardened and
tempered edge.

Craw bar Claw hammer

3.1.2 Terms used in scaffolding

Ordinary scaffoldings consist of the following components: -
a. Standards: - are vertical pole erected at a distance of about 1.2 to 1.5 meters from the structure. All the
loads are to be finally taken by standards. As such, they should be strong, ridged and properly buried in to
the ground.
b. Ledgers: - These are the members placed horizontal parallel to the wall. These ledgers connect all the
standards at heights where temporary working plat form is required.

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c. Putlogs (or bearer or transom): - This are the cross or lateral pieces, one end of which remains supported
on ledgers and other end on the wall. Thus, a hole is left in the masonry for keeping the putlogs. Such holes
are filled only after completing the entire work including plastering and then filled by inserting header in
cement mortar. In the case of double scaffolding- two sets of standards, one very close to the wall and the
other away provided. Two sets of ledgers are used to connect all standards. As such put logs remains
supported on both the ledgers and there is no need to have a hole in the wall. Putlogs, in the case of double
scaffolding are known as transoms.
d. Braces:- A member placed diagonally with respect to the vertical or horizontal
members of a scaffold and fixed to them to afford stability.
e. Guard rail: - It us an additional horizontal member like ledger, provided at working level as a safe guard
for the workers.
f. Toe board: - it is a wooden plank placed parallel to the ledgers and supported between the put logs. It is
provided to work as a protective measure on the working plate form.
g. Ranker: - It is an inclined support given to the scaffolding or structure.
h. Planks or Boarding: - they form horizontal platform for supporting men, materials and other tools.
*The above members of scaffold are secured by means of ropes, nails, bolts, etc.
i. Scaffolder: - A scaffolder is a person skilled and experienced in the erection, altering and dismantling
of scaffolding. A scaffolder aspires to or holds a certificate of competency as a scaffolder.
j. Base plate: A square metal or wood plate (member) fitted to the bottom of the standard. It is used to
spread the load from the standard over a large area and this helps to avoid settlement or displacement of
the standard bearing on the ground.
k. Sole plate: A timber, concrete or metal plate on which the base plate rests to avoid the base plates
resting directly on to a poor or thin surface. It is good practice to use always a sole plate and generally
these are placed across or parallel to the scaffold and carry two or three base plates in their length.
l. Working platform: That part of a scaffolding on which workers and/or materials are supported for the
purpose of carrying out construction work.
3.1.3 General safety requirements
To be safe it is a basic requirement that suitable materials be used in the construction of the scaffold and
that they are well made with adequate strength. No defective material should be used for whatever
particular role. To ensure that the materials are at their best they have to be stored properly in conditions
likely to avoid distortion, corrosion, damage or rusting.
A competent person must examine closely all materials before their use. If it is not done so, the materials
should not be used. It is particularly important to treat threaded parts such as adjustable base plates to
avoid seizure or damage to the thread. Sufficient parts must be available to carry out the required
temporary structure to the approved standards.
During erection all parts must be securely fixed to other members to ensure rigidity and avoid collapse. It
is essential that all standards are erected and fixed vertically and that the ledgers are likewise horizontal. It

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is however permitted for standards to lean inwards slightly. Base plates must be used to avoid the tendency
for standards to punch through the supporting ground material and the settlement can be avoided.
All scaffolding must be braced diagonally in both the vertical and the horizontal planes at regular intervals.
3.1.4 Types of scaffolding
Scaffolds can be classified into two kinds based on the materials used in constructing it. They are :
i) Timber/ Wooden scaffold
Wood is commonly used for scaffolds in Ethiopia. The logs
are obtained from young straight trees, which are cut for
about 4.0 m length. The branches are trimmed of and the
barks are cleaned away. Usually nails of 150 mm long are
used to nail one piece to another.
Advantages: -
1. Trees are available to supply the poles.
2. It is usually cheaper to buy timber poles than metal.
3. The scaffold parts can be joined without especial fittings.
4. The timber can be reused when not required for scaffolding.
5. It is easy to cut and fit.
Disadvantages: -
1. It takes longer to erect.
2. The pole joints are secured with strings and nails rather than stronger purpose made fitting.
3. The timber may have hidden defects.
4. Timber putlogs leave holes in the walls, to be filled in.
5. It may lose its strength due to weather effects and will be dangerous for the worker if it is not maintained
often.
6. It will contribute to deforestation

ii) Steel/Tubular scaffolds

Steel tubes, aluminium tubes, prefabricated frames and light weight tubes are the commonest material used for
this type, because of its weight and costs of maintenance; the scaffold is erected using a series of fittings.
Advantages,
1) It is durable. 3) It is quick and simple to erect.
2) It is more adaptable. 4) The poles are the same quality and strength.
Disadvantages:
1) Initial cost is high. 3) They require skilled labor.
2) They require periodical painting.
Scaffolding can also be classified based on method of construction
i. Brick layers scaffolding or single scaffolding

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It consists of a raw of standards at a distance of about 1.2m to 1.5m from the wall. The distance between
adjacent standards shall be about 1.75m to 2m. Ledgers are connected to the standards towards the wall.
Putlogs are connecting to the ledgers with the help of ropes at one end and are supported in holes left in the
wall at the other end. Placing wooden planks over putlogs forms working platform. Guard rails, toe boards,
etc. are also fixed at appropriate place to create more safety at working platform. If scaffolding is quite high,
cross braces are also provided to have more stiffness.

Fig. Brick layers scaffolding

ii. Masons Scaffolding or Double scaffolding
This scaffolding is more or less similar to single scaffolding, except that where single scaffolding has only
one row of standards and ledgers; this scaffolding has two rows of standards and ledgers, one close to the
walls within 15cm of the face of the wall and the other 1-1.5m away from the face of the wall. Put logs are
directly supported on ledgers of the two rows. As such, no holes are required to be left in the wall to support
end of the putlog.
This scaffolding is stronger than the single scaffolding. Guard rail, toe boards, cross braces & rakes (shores)
are provided to make the scaffolding stronger and stiff. If this scaffolding has to carry heavy loads due to
lifting devices being supported on them, standards of bigger size at close interval are to be provided.
Masons scaffolding is used for stone masonry, superior brick work and surface finishing of high rise
buildings. Since it remains independent of masonry wall, it is also sometimes known as independent
scaffolding.

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 Fig. Parts of independent scaffolding
Masons scaffolding can also be made from Steel tubes. They are available in 38mm to 64mm diameter and
in standard length. Square or circular plates having holes are welded to the steel tubes at different height for
the purpose of fabricating the entire scaffolding. Ledgers, putlogs are connected to the standards by means of
bolts and nuts. Put logs are kept projecting on the side of wall and working platform are formed mostly on
the projected parts of putlogs. Angle iron brackets support these projections.

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 Fig. Tube and fitting double scaffolding

iii. Needle or Cantilever Scaffolding

This type of scaffolding is used under the following situations:
1. Hard or firm ground is not available for standards to rest.
2. It is required to keep the ground, near wall, free for traffic, etc.
3. When construction is to be carried on the upper part of the building.
In this scaffolding, general framework is similar to that of single or double scaffolding. But the standards
are supported by series of ties or needles projecting outside through window openings or openings
developed for this purpose. Needles may also be taken out at floor level.
Needles are prevented from being lifted up by provided vertical struts and wedged between the needles. The
projected ends of the needles are given added support by inclined struts resting on windows sill, cornice or
stringcourse.

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 Fig. Details of cantilever or needle scaffolding
iv. Trestle scaffolding
In this types of scaffolding, working platform are supported on ladders, tripods etc. They do not require any
standards, ledger, putlogs etc. This scaffolding can be easily shifted from one place to the other. The type of
scaffolding is mostly used for inside works like minor repairs, painting works etc. Its minimum height may
be about 5m and can be used for external works of low height

v. Suspended scaffolding
The types of scaffolding are mostly used for maintenance work such as painting, distempering, white washing
etc. In this arrangement, working platform is suspended from the roof or parapet wall by means of ropes,
chains etc. Ropes or chains ends are kept anchored on terrace and working platform is suspended from other
ends of the ropes. It can also be raised or lowered using winches. Working platforms can be adjusted for any
height.
These types of scaffolding do not cause obstruction on the ground. It is considered most effective as optimum
level for working can be easily adjusted.
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3.1.5 Points to be kept in mind while erecting scaffolding:
a. Standards should be made to rest on hard and firm ground. If such surface is not available, standards
may be made to on timber sole plated. Sometimes they are buried in to the ground to sufficient depth.
b. Scaffolding should not be loaded heavily.
c. Scaffolding should be tied to the building at suitable level. Scaffolding can be tied to building by
providing horizontal or vertical wooden members inside the building. Rankers may be provided to
give lateral support to the scaffold.
d. Lengthening standards and providing additional ledgers should raise working platforms and put logs.
e. Hole left in the walls, after put logs have been withdrawn should be filled with masonry work
immediately.
f. Standards should be spaced according to the loads they have to carry, and also according to the section
of the standards.
g. For structures like domes, towers, chimneys etc. especial patented scaffolding should be used.
h. Screens: Where the scaffold platform is above a public thoroughfare (main road), and due to the nature
of the work falls of material are possible with injury to passers-by, special precautions must be taken.
Special protection may consist of:
Materials
When selecting containment sheeting the following should be considered:
Degree of weather protection required;
Degree of protection to the public that is required;
Light transmission to the workface;

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3.1.6 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
The design of the scaffold shall take into account the following:
(a) The strength, stability and rigidity of the supporting structure;
(b) The handling normally associated with scaffolding;
(c) The safety of persons engaged in the erection, alteration and dismantling of the scaffold;
(d) The safety of persons using the scaffold;
(e) The safety of persons in the vicinity of the scaffold.
LOAD COMBINATIONS
where scaffolding is designed, it shall be designed for the most adverse combination of dead loads, live loads
and environmental loads that can reasonably be expected during the period that the scaffold is expected to be
in service.
Load combinations for strength limit states shall be in accordance with national standards. Where
environmental loads will be such that work is unlikely to proceed under those conditions, then the worst case
may be restricted to dead loads, expected live loads from stacked materials and environmental loads.
For permissible stress design, the sum of the dead and live loads applied shall be increased by 15 percent, to
allow for re-use of materials.
DESIGN LOADS
DEAD LOAD
The dead load (G) shall include the self-weight of the scaffold structure and components including working
platforms, catch platforms, access platforms, stairways, ladders, screens, sheeting, platform brackets,
suspension ropes, secondary ropes, traversing ropes, tie assemblies, scaffolding hoists, electrical
cables and any other attachments, where appropriate.
ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS
Where appropriate, the environmental loads shall include the following:
(a) Wind loads in accordance with national standard imposed on the scaffold, including any guardrails, toe

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boards, stacked materials, screens, sheeting, platform ropes, guy wires and other attachments;
(b) Snow loads in accordance with national standard
N.B. this case is not common in our country
(c) Rain and ice loads, where it is considered likely that the scaffold and claddings will be subjected to rain or
a build-up of ice;
(d) Earthquake loads in accordance with the national standard.
LIVE LOADS
General. The live load (Q) shall include the following:
(a) The weight of persons;
(b) The weight of materials and debris;
(c) The weight of tools and equipment;
(d) Impact forces.
2.4.4.2 Duty Live Loads. The live load applied to a working platform shall be categorized by the following
duty conditions:
(a) Light-duty, a load of 2.2 kN per bay that includes a single concentrated load of 1 kN;
(b) Medium-duty, a load of 4.4 kN per bay that includes a single concentrated load of 1.5 kN;
(c) Heavy-duty, a load of 6.6 kN per bay that includes a single concentrated load of 2.0 kN;
(d) Special-duty, the largest intended load but not less than heavy-duty.
For design purposes, the single concentrated load shall be assumed in the most adverse position within the
bay.

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