Transformer

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or

more circuits through electromagnetic induction. A varying current in one coil of the
transformer produces a varying magnetic field, which in turn induces a voltage in a second
coil. Power can be transferred between the two coils through the magnetic field, without a
metallic connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered in 1831
described this effect. Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages
in electric power applications.
Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885, transformers have
become essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current
electrical energy. A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and
electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a
cubic centimeter in volume to units interconnecting the power gridweighing hundreds of
tons

Power transformers
Laminated core.
Toroidal.
Autotransformer.
Variable autotransformer.
Phase-shifting transformer
.
types of Transformer
An electric arc furnace the transformer has heavy copper bus for the low voltage winding,
which can be rated for tens of thousands of amperes. They are immersed in oil for cooling
and insulation, and are designed to survive frequent short circuits.

A variety of types of electrical transformer are made for different purposes. Despite their
design differences, the various types employ the same basic principle as discovered in 1831
by Michael Faraday, and share several key functional parts.

Laminated core
Laminated core transformer

This is the most common type of transformer, widely used in electric power transmission
and appliances to convert mains voltage to low voltage to power electronic devices. They
are available in power ratings ranging from mw to MW. The insulated laminations
minimizes eddy current losses in the iron core.
Small appliance and electronic transformers may use a split bobbin, giving a high level of
insulation between the windings. The rectangular cores are made up of stampings, often in
E-I shape pairs, but other shapes are sometimes used. Shields between primary and
secondary may be fitted to reduce EMI (electromagnetic interference), or a screen winding
is occasionally used.
Small appliance and electronics transformers may have a thermal cut-out built into the
winding, to shut-off power at high temperatures to prevent further overheating.

Toroidal
Toroidal transformer

Doughnut shaped toroidal transformers save space compared to E-I cores, and sometimes
to reduce external magnetic field. These use a ring shaped core, copper windings wrapped
round this ring (and thus threaded through the ring during winding), and tape for
insulation.
Toroidal transformers have a lower external magnetic field compared to rectangular
transformers, and can be smaller for a given power rating. However, they cost more to
make, as winding requires more complex and slower equipment.
They can be mounted by a bolt through the center, using washers and rubber pads or by
potting in resin.

Autotransformer
An autotransformer has one winding that is tapped at some point along the winding.
Voltage is applied across a portion of the winding, and a higher (or lower) voltage is
produced across another portion of the same winding. The equivalent power rating of the
auto transformer is lower than the actual load power rating. It is calculated by: load
VA (|Vin Vout|) /Vin. For example, an auto transformer that adapts a 1000 VA load
rated at 120 Volts to a 240 Volt supply has an equivalent rating of at least:
1,000VA (240V 120V) / 240V = 500VA. However, the actual rating (shown on the tally
plate) must be at least 1000 VA.
For voltage ratios that don't exceed about 3:1, an autotransformer is cheaper, lighter,
smaller, and more efficient than an isolating (two-winding) transformer of the same rating.
Large three-phase autotransformers are used in electric power distribution systems, for
example, to interconnect 33 kV and 66 kV sub-transmission networks.

Variable autotransformer
Variable autotransformer

By exposing part of the winding coils of an autotransformer, and making the secondary
connection through a sliding carbon brush, an autotransformer with a near-continuously
variable turns ratio can be obtained, allowing for wide voltage adjustment in very small
increments..
Induction regulator
The induction regulator is similar in design to a wound-rotor induction motor but it is
essentially a transformer whose output voltage is varied by rotating its secondary relative
to the primaryi.e., rotating the angular position of the rotor. It can be seen as a power
transformerexploiting rotating magnetic fields. The major advantage of the induction
regulator is that unlike variacs, they are practical for transformers over 5 kVA. Hence,
such regulators find widespread use in high-voltage laboratories.
Polyphase transformer
Cutaway view of a polyphone transformer

For polyphase systems, multiple single-phase transformers can be used, or all phases can
be connected to a single polyphone transformer. For a three phase transformer, the three
primary windings are connected together and the three secondary windings are connected
together. Examples of connections are wye-delta, delta-wye, delta-delta and wye-wye.
A vector group indicates the configuration of the windings and the phase angle difference
between them. If a winding is connected to earth (grounded), the earth connection point is
usually the center point of a wye winding. If the secondary is a delta winding, the ground
may be connected to a center tap on one winding (high leg delta) or one phase may be
grounded (corner grounded delta). A special purpose polyphase transformer is the zigzag
transformer. There are many possible configurations that may involve more or fewer than
six windings and various tap connections.
Grounding transformer

Three-phase transformers 380kV/110kV and 110kV/20kV

Grounding or earthing transformers let three wire (delta) polyphase system supplies
accommodate phase to neutral loads by providing a return path for current to a neutral.
Grounding transformers most commonly incorporate a single winding transformer with a
zigzag winding configuration but may also be created with a wye-delta isolated winding
transformer connection.
Phase-shifting transformer
This is a specialized type of transformer which can be configured to adjust the phase
relationship between input and output. This allows power flow in an electric grid to be
controlled, e.g. to steer power flows away from a shorter (but overloaded) link to a longer
path with excess capacity.
Substation

INTRODUCTION

The electrical power is generated at generating station (such as hydro electric power plant,
thermal power plant and nuclear power pant) which is located far away from the load
centre. Electrical power is transmitted through transmission lines and distributed through
distribution lines. For economical reasons, voltage is transmitted at high voltage and
distributed at low voltage 400/230 volts. These voltage transformations are carried out at
substation, located at suitable places. Thus, it form the most important part of power
system. In this article, we will study about the its various types and various function

It is an assembly of various apparatus (such as, circuit breaker, protective relays etc) which
are installed to control transmission and distribution of the electric power.
The various function are given below
It is used to transformation of voltage level from higher level to lower level or vice-versa.
The function of substations is switch ON and OFF the power lines.
In some cases these required to convert DC power into AC power or vice-versa. For some
electric traction system DC convert AC power into DC power. In electrolysis process DC
power is used.
We can change the frequency from higher level or lower level to higher at the substations.
To improve power factor by installing capacitor banks at the receiving end of the line

TYPE OF SUBSTATION
ACCORDING TO THE SERVICE REQUIREMENT
ACCORDING TO THE CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES.

ACCORDING TO THE SERVICE REQUIREMENT

TRANSFORMER SUBSTATION
The substations where voltage level is changed is called transformer substation. These
substations receive electric power at some voltage level and deliver it at some other voltage.
The main component in this substation is transformer. Maximum number of substations in
power system is this type of substations.

SWITCHING SUBSTATION
In switching substation voltage level is not changed. It means incoming line voltage and
outgoing line voltage is same. It performs only switching operation connect or disconnect
the power lines.

POWER FACTOR CORRECTING SUBSTATION

In these types of substation power factor is improved. Such substation is located at the
receiving end of the transmission lines. These substations are equipped with synchronous
condensers and capacitor banks. But usually synchronous condenser is used.

CONVERTING SUBSTATION
In these types of substations are installed to change characteristics of the electrical power
(such as converting ac into dc or vice versa). We know that electrical energy is generated in
ac form. But most of application dc power is required such in electric traction system, in
electrolysis processes. These substations receive ac power and converted into dc power. In
these types of substations frequency level is also changed. We can change frequency from
higher level to lower level and vice versa

INDOOR SUBSTATION

In this type of substation, the apparatus is installed with in the substation building, so that
why these substations are called indoor substation. These substations are designed for
voltage upto 11kv but can be erected for 33kv. These are located where the surrounding
atmosphere is contaminated with such impurities which may damage the equipment.
These substations are installed in industries. The extension is not possible. This is the
limitation of indoor substations

OUTDOOR SUBSTATION
For the voltage above 66kv, outdoor substation is used. In outdoor substations, equipment
is installed outdoor. It is because for high voltages, the spacing between conductors and the
space required for the switches, circuit breakers and other equipment becomes so great
that it is not economical to install the equipment indoor. The outdoor substations are
divided into two types

According to the constructional features

Step Up Substation
Step up substations are associated with generating stations. Generation of power is limited
to low voltage levels due to limitations of the rotating alternators. These generating voltages
must be stepped up for economical transmission of power over long distance. So there must
be a step up substation associated with generating station.

Step Down Substation

The stepped up voltages must be stepped down at load centers, to different voltage levels
for different purposes. Depending upon these purposes the step down substation are
further categorized in different sub categories.
 Underground Substation
The substation are situated at underground is called underground substation. In congested
places where place for constructing distribution substation is difficult to find out, one can
go for underground substation scheme.

Pole Mounted Substation

Pole mounted substation are mainly distribution substation constructed on two pole, four
pole and sometime six or more poles structures. In these type of substation fuse
protected distribution transformer are mounted on poles along with electrical
isolator switches

Primary Step Down Substation

The primary step down sub stations are created nearer to load center along the
primary transmission lines. Here primary transmission voltages are stepped down to
different suitable voltages for secondary transmission purpose
Along the secondary transmission lines, at load center, the secondary transmission voltages
are further stepped down for primary distribution purpose. The stepping down of
secondary transmission voltages to primary distribution levels are done at secondary step
down substation.

Distribution Substation
Distribution substation are situated where the primary distribution voltages are stepped
down to supply voltages for feeding the actual consumers through a distribution network.

Bulk Supply or Industrial Substation

Bulk supply or industrial substation are generally a distribution substation but they are
dedicated for one consumer only. An industrial consumer of large or medium supply group
may be designated as bulk supply consumer. Individual step down substation is dedicated
to these consumers.

Mining Substation
The mining substation are very special type of substation and they need special design
construction because of extra precautions for safety needed in the operation of electric

Mobile Substation
The mobile substations are also very special purpose substation temporarily required for
construction purpose. For big construction purpose this substation fulfills the temporary
power requirement during construction work.
Depending upon the constructional feature categories of substation may be divided into
following manner

Insulator

An electrical insulator is a material whose internal electric charges do

not flow freely; very little electric current will flow through it under the
influence of an electric field. This contrasts with other
materials, semiconductors and conductors, which conduct electric
current more easily. The property that distinguishes an insulator is
its resistivity; insulators have higher resistivity than semiconductors or
conductors.
A perfect insulator does not exist, because even insulators contain small
numbers of mobile charges (charge carriers) which can carry current. In
addition, all insulators become electrically conductive when a sufficiently
large voltage is applied that the electric field tears electrons away from
the atoms. This is known as the breakdown voltage of an insulator. Some
materials such as glass, paper and Teflon, which have high resistivity,
are very good electrical insulators. A much larger class of materials, even
though they may have lower bulk resistivity, are still good enough to
prevent significant current from flowing at normally used voltages, and
thus are employed as insulation for electrical wiring and cables.
Examples include rubber-like polymers and most plastics which can
be thermoset or thermoplastic in nature.
Insulators are used in electrical equipment to support and separate
electrical conductors without allowing current through themselves. An
insulating material used in bulk to wrap electrical cables or other
equipment is called insulation. The term insulator is also used more
specifically to refer to insulating supports used to attach electric power
distribution or transmission lines to utility poles and transmission
towers. They support the weight of the suspended wires without allowing
the current to flow through the tower to ground

TYPE OF INSULATORS

Pin Insulator
Suspension Insulator
Strain Insulator
Pin Insulator
Pin Insulator is earliest developed overhead insulator, but still popularly used in
power network up to 33 KV system. Pin type insulator can be one part, two parts
or three parts type, depending upon application voltage. In 11 KV system we
generally use one part type insulator where whole pin insulator is one piece of
properly shaped porcelain or glass
. As the leakage path of insulator is through its surface, it is desirable to increase
the vertical length of the insulator surface area for lengthening leakage path. In
order to obtain lengthy leakage path, one, tow or more rain sheds or petticoats
are provided on the insulator body. In addition to that rain shed or petticoats on
an insulator serve another purpose. These rain sheds or petticoats are so
designed, that during raining the outer surface of the rain shed becomes wet but
the inner surface remains dry and non-conductive. So there will be
discontinuations of conducting path through the wet pin insulator surface. In
higher voltage like 33KV and 66KV manufacturing of one part porcelain pin
insulator becomes difficult. Because in higher voltage, the thickness of the
insulator become more and a quite thick single piece porcelain insulator can not
manufactured practically. In this case we use multiple part pin insulator, where a
number of properly designed porcelain shells are fixed together by Portland
cement to form one complete insulator unit. For 33KV tow parts and for 66KV
three parts pin insulator are generally used

Designing Consideration of Electrical Insulator

The live conductor attached to the top of the pin insulator is at a potential and bottom
of the insulator fixed to supporting structure of earth potential. The insulator has to
withstand the potential stresses between conductor and earth. The shortest distance
between conductor and earth, surrounding the insulator body, along which electrical
discharge may take place through air, is known as flash over distance.
Post Insulator
Post insulator is more or less similar to Pin insulator but former is suitable for higher
voltage application. Post insulator has higher numbers of petticoats and has greater
height. This type of insulator can be mounted on supporting structure horizontally as
well as vertically. The insulator is made of one piece of porcelain but has fixing clamp
arrangement are in both top and bottom end. The main differences between pin
insulator and post insulator are,

Suspension Insulator
In higher voltage, beyond 33KV, it becomes uneconomical to use pin insulator because size,
weight of the insulator become more. Handling and replacing bigger size single unit insulator are
quite difficult task. For overcoming these difficulties, suspension insulator was developed.
In suspension insulator numbers of insulators are connected in series to form a string and the
line conductor is carried by the bottom most insulator. Each insulator of a suspension string is
called disc insulator because of their disc like shape.

Advantages of Suspension Insulator

Each suspension disc is designed for normal voltage rating 11KV (Higher voltage rating 15KV),
so by using different numbers of discs, a suspension string can be made suitable for any voltage
level.

If any one of the disc insulators in a suspension string is damaged, it can be replaced much
easily.

Mechanical stresses on the suspension insulator is less since the line hanged on a flexible
suspension string.
 As the current carrying conductors are suspended from supporting structure by suspension
string, the height of the conductor position is always less than the total height of the
supporting structure. Therefore, the conductors may be safe from lightening.

Disadvantages of Suspension Insulator

Suspension insulator string costlier than pin and post type insulator.

Suspension string requires more height of supporting structure than that for pin or post insulator
to maintain same ground clearance of current conductor.

The amplitude of free swing of conductors is larger in suspension insulator system, hence, more
spacing between conductors should be provided.

Strain Insulator
When suspension string is used to sustain extraordinary tensile load of conductor it is referred
as string insulator. When there is a dead end or there is a sharp corner in transmission line, the
line has to sustain a great tensile load of conductor or strain. A strain insulator must have
considerable mechanical strength as well as the necessary electrical insulating properties.
 Stay Insulator

For low voltage lines, the stays are to be insulated from ground at a height. The insulator used in
the stay wire is called as the stay insulator and is usually of porcelain and is so designed that in
case of breakage of the insulator the guy-wire will not fall to the ground.

Shackle Insulator or Spool Insulator

The shackle insulator or spool insulator is usually used in low voltage distribution network. It
can be used both in horizontal and vertical position. The use of such insulator has decreased
recently after increasing the using of underground cable for distribution purpose. The tapered
hole of the spool insulator distributes the load more evenly and minimizes the possibility of
breakage when heavily loaded. The conductor in the groove of shackle insulator is fixed with
the help of soft binding wire.