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Chapter 2 : The Structure of the Atom

A Matter

1. Matter is anything that ______________ and has ____________.


2. Matter exists in three states _______________, ________________ and _______________

3. Matter is made up of tiny and discrete particles.

4. Matter can be divided into _________________ and ____________________.

5. Elements are particles made up of the _______________ type of atoms only.

6. Compounds are particles made up of atoms of __________ or ______________ element.

7. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can participate in a chemical reaction.

8. An ion is a positively-charged or negatively-charged particle.

9. Particles in matter are in motion.

10. Diffusion occurs when particles of a substance move in between the particles of another subtance.

11. Diffusion of matter occurs most rapidly in gases, slower in liquids and slowest in solids, due to the
different arrangement and movement of particles in the three states of matter.

The kinetic theory of matter.


(diagram)

i) The change in heat changes the state of matter.


ii) When a substance is heated, the particles gain kinetic energy and move faster.
iii) When a substance is cooled, the particles loss their kinetic energy and move slower.

State of Matter Solid liquid gas


Characteristic
Arrangement of particles are packed closely are packed closely Very far apart and in a
together in an orderly together but not in random motion
manner orderly manner
Forces of attraction Strong forces Strong forces but Weak forces
weaker than the forces
in a solid
Movement of particles Particles vibrate and Particles vibrate, Particles vibrate,
rotate about their rotate and move rotate and move
fixed positon throughout the liquid. freely. The rate of
They collide against collision is greater
each other than in liquid
Shape / volume - has a fixed volume - has a fixed volume Does not have a fixed
and shape and follows the shape shape of volume
of the container
1
compressibility Cannot be compressed Cannot be compressed Can be compressed
easily easily
Do it yourself 2.1

1.Figure 1 below shows the heating curve of a pure substance at room temperature and pressure.

Temperature/oC U

S T

119 Q R

Time / minute

Figure 1

(a)Describe the movement of the particles of the pure substance at stage PQ of the curve ?

(b)Draw a diagram to show the arrangement of particles of the substance at stage QR in the box below.

(c)Explain why the pure substance is not water ?

(d)Samples of the pure substance at stage RS and TU are taken. Compare the movement of the particles of the
substance at these two stages.

(e)After heating at 500oC, the substance is cooled. Draw and label the cooling curve.

2
2. P Q
Ice water Salt solution

Apply Saturate it then Boil it, then cool


heat U Apply T cool the solution S R the vapour
heat

salt water
water steam

(a)Name the process in

P: Q:

R: S:

T: U:

(b)What will occur if matter undergoes a change of state ?.

(c)Compare the intermolecular distance and the packing of particles in the solid state and the liquid state.

3
B The Atomic Structure

The historical development of atomic models.

Scientist Atomic Models

1. John Dalton

- imagined the atom as a small indivisible ball similar to a very tiny ball

2.J.J. Thomson

- described the atom as a sphere of positive charge which contains a few


negatively-charged particles called electrons.

3. Ernest Rutherford

discovered proton
the positive charge and most of the mass of the atom are concentrated in a
small, central region called the nuclues
electrons move in a space that is larger than the space occupied by the nucleus

4.Neils Bohr

proposed that the electrons in an atom move in shells around the nucleus

4
5.James Chadwick
Subatomic Symbol Relative Charge Location
particle mass
Proton p 1 +1 In the nucleus
proved the existence of neutrons, the neutral particles
In orbitsinaround
the nucleus. Neutrons
Electron e 1/1840 -1
contribute approximately to half the mass of an atom.
the nucleus
Neutron n 1 0 In the nucleus

Protons, neutrons and electrons are subatomic particles of an atom.

i) Atoms are electrically neutral.


ii) The number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.
iii) The proton number of an element is the number of protons in its atom.
iv) The nucleon number of an element is the total number of protons and neutrons in its atom.
Therefore,

Nucleon number = proton number + number of neutrons


v) Each element has its own proton number.
vi) Each element is given a name and a symbol

Proton Element symbol Proton Element symbol


number number
1 Hydrogen H 11 Sodium Na
2 Helium He 12 Magnesium Mg
3 Lithium Li 13 Aluminium Al
4 Beryllium Be 14 Silicon Si
5 Boron B 15 Phosphorus P
6 Carbon C 16 Sulphur S
7 Nitrogen N 17 Chlorine Cl
8 Oxygen O 18 Argon Ar
9 Flourine F 19 Potassium K
10 Neon Ne 20 Calcium Ca

An atom of an element can be written as A


X

5
Z

Where A is the nucleon number,


X is the symbol of an element,
Z is the proton number.

Do it yourself 2.2

Complete the table below.

27 19 23
Symbol of atom Al F Na
13 7 11
Proton number

Nucleon number

Number of protons

Number of electrons

Number of neutrons

Complete the table below

Element number of protons Number of neutrons Symbol of atoms


(symbol
)
Lithium
(Li)
Neon
(Ne)
Zinc
(Zn)

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2.3 Isotopes and Their Importance

1. The isotopes of an element are the atoms of that element which contain a same
number of protons, but a different number of neutrons. SPM

2. Isotopes of some element

Element Isotopes
Hydrogen 1 2 3
1H 1H 1H
1 proton 1 proton 1 proton
0 neutron 1 neutron 2 neutrons
Carbon 12 13 14
6C 6C 6C
6 protons 6 protons 6 protons
6 neutrons 7 neutrons 8 neutrons
Oxygen 16 17 18
Field 8O 8 O applications
Isotopes 8O
8 protons 8 protons 8 protons
Medical 8 neutrons 9 neutrons
Gamma rays from cobalt- 60 are used to kill
10 neutrons
Sulphur 32 cancer
34 cell without surgery in patient. This
16 S S
treatment
16 is known as radiotherapy.
16 protons 16Medical
protonsinstrument are sterilized using gamma
-
16 neutrons 18rays.
neutrons
Bromine 79 81
Radioactive
35 Br 35 Br materials such as iodide-131 are
35 protons injected
35 protons into patients to detect malfunction of
thyroid glands. -
44neutrons 46 neutrons
Archeology Radioisotope carbon -14 is used to study the
age of ancient artifacts.
3. Carbon -14 is used to study the passage of
Agricultural carbon in photosynthesis of green plants.
The uses
of Industrial Isotope sodium-24 is used to detect leakage of
underground pipes.
isotopes in daily life

7
4. The electron arrangement of elements with proton number 1 to 20.
( must know how to memorize)

2.4 Electron Arrangements / Electron Structures

First shell: 2 electrons

Second shell: 8 electrons

Third shell: 8 electrons

Last electron/s in the last outermost shell, we


called as valence electron.

Nucleus ( contains protons and nucleus)

Element Number of Number of Number of Number of Electron Number of


neutrons protons electrons nucleon arrangement valence
electrons
Hydrogen
Helium
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon

8
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminum
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulphur
Chlorine
Argon
Potassium
Calcium

Chapter 3: Chemical Formulae and Equations

Subtitle 3.1: Relative Atomic Mass and Relative Molecular Mass How to measure mass
of an atom?
Concept:
We can determine the mass of an atom relative to a standard atom

Standard atom
1. hydrogen
2. oxygen
not use any more
Hydrogen
becauseasgasseous form helium atom
standard atomto handle
are difficult

A Helium atom is 4 times heavier compare to a hydrogen atom.


Helium is said to have relative atomic mass of 4
3. carbon-12
Solid & easy to
handle
Also used as
standard for mass
spectrometer
1/12 of one How many helium
atom atoms are
carbon-12 here?????

Important !!! Check to:


Define: page 176 of text book
Look at Ar of all
Relative atomic mass, A r
- of an element is the average mass of one atom of the element when
compared with 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12
9
elements listed in
periodic table

from periodic table:


Ar of Nitrogen atom
is 14.
Relative atomic mass of an element The average mass of a
= The average mass of one atom of an element nitrogen atom is 14
1/12 x the mass of an atom of carbon -12 times larger than 1/12
of a carbon-12 atom.
Define
Mr of Water
Relative molecular mass, Mr
Molecule is 18
-of a molecule is the average mass of the molecule when compared with
The average
1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12
mass of one water
molecule is 18 times
Relative molecular mass of an element larger than 1/12
= The average mass of one molecule of a carbon-12 atom
1/12 x the mass of an atom of carbon -12

Important!!!!
Relative mass does not have any unit.

Numerical problems Get Ar value from


A. About Relative Atomic Mass periodic table

1. How many times is copper atom heavier than two helium atom?
Solution:
Mass of a copper atom = Ar of copper
Mass of 2 helium atom 2 x Ar of helium
= 64
2x4
= 8 times

2. How many magnesium atom have the same mass as two silver atoms ?
Solution:
Lets the number of magnesium atoms = n
Mass of n magnesium atoms = mass of 2 silver atoms
So, n x Ar of magnesium = 2 x __________
n x 24 =

Do It Yourself

1. How many times is one atom of silicon heavier than one atom of lithium

10
2. Calculate the number of atoms of lithium that have the same mass as two atoms
of nitrogen

Form 4 text book


3.Quick review
The mass of one atom Y is A times larger than the mass of one nitrogen
page 30
.Calculate the relative atomic mass of Y.

B. About Relative Molecular Mass

To determine Relative Molecular Mass, Mr

Molecular Relative Molecular Mass


substance
Get Ar value from
Carbon dioxide, Ar of C + ( 2 x Ar of O) = 12 + (2 x 16 ) = 44 periodic table
CO2

Nitrogen gas, N2 2 x Ar of N = 2 x 14 = 28

Relative formula mass is used to replace Mr for ionic substances

Ionic substance Relative formula mass

Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH Ar of Na + Ar of O + Ar of H


= 23 + 16 + 1 = 40

Aluminium sulphate, Al2 (SO4)3 2 x Ar of Al +3 ( Ar of S + 4 x Ar of O )


=

Hydrated copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4. Ar of Cu + Ar of S + 4 x Ar of O +


5H2O 5 ( Mr of H2O)
=

Do it yourself

11
1. Calculate the relative molecular mass of

a) Bromine, Br2 c) Ammonia, NH3

b) Methane, CH4 d) Glucose, C6H12O6

2. Calculate relative formula mass of

a) Zinc oxide, ZnO c) Copper(II) hydroxide, Cu(OH)2

b) Magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO)3 d) Hydrated sodium carbonate,


Na2CO3.10H2O

Form 4 practical
book
Try this 3.1
page 17

B. The Mole and the Number of Particles

Definition of mole

The word pair and dozen represent a fixed number of objects.

12
In chemistry, we use the unit mole to measure the amount of substance. The symbol of mole is mol.
1 mol of substance = the number of particles in 12 g of carbon-12.
= 6.02 x 1023 particles.

The value of 6.02 x 1023 is called as the Avogadro constant (NA).


To determine the number of moles or the number of particles:

Number of particles = Number of moles 6.02 x 1023 Practical Book


Activity 3.2, page 17
Number of particles
Number of moles = Example
6.02 x 10 23
1:
i. 1 mol of iron atom = 6.02 x 1023 iron atoms
ii. 1 mol of hydrogen molecule = 6.02 x 1023 hydrogen molecules
iii. 1 mol of sodium chloride = 6.02 x 1023 formula units of sodium chloride

Example 2:
A closed glass bottle contains 0.5 mol of oxygen gas, O 2.
i. How many oxygen molecules, O2 are there in the bottle?
ii. How many oxygen atoms are there in the bottle?

Solution:
i. Number of oxygen molecules = 0.5 x 6.02 x 1023
= 3.01 x 1023

ii. 1 oxygen molecule, O2 has 2 oxygen atoms.


Therefore, number of oxygen atoms
= number of oxygen molecules 2
= 3.01 1023 2
= 6.02 1023

Example 3:
Find the number of moles of molecules in a sample containing 9.03 10 23 molecules of carbon dioxide, CO2.

Solution:
9.02 10 23
Number of moles =
6.02 10 23
= 1.5 mol.

Do it yourself

13
[Avogadro constant = mol-1]

1 Define a mole?

A mole is the amount of substance which has the same number of particles as there in 12 g carbon -12.

2 Calculate the number of atoms in 2 mol carbon.

Number of atoms = 2 6.02 x 1023


= 1.2 1024 atoms.

3 How many ions are there in 1.5 mol sodium chloride, NaCl?

1 formula unit sodium chloride, NaCl has 2 ions which are 1 sodium ion and 1 chloride ion.
Thus, number of ions = number of formula units x 2
= 1.5 6.02 x 1023 2
= 1.806 1024 ions.
4 Calculate the number of moles of bromine molecules which consists 1.5 10 22 of bromine molecules.

Number of moles = 1.5 1022


6.02 1023
= 0.025 mol.

5 How many atoms are there in 2 mol of ammonia, NH3?

1 ammonia molecule, NH3 has 4 atoms which are 1 nitrogen atom and 3 hydrogen atoms.
Thus, number of atoms = number of molecules x 4
= 2 6.02 x 1023 4
= 4.8 1024 atoms.

C. The mole and the mass of substances

Molar mass is

Unit of molar mass is g mol-1 or grams per mole.

The molar mass of a substance = the mass of 1 mol of the substance


= the mass of NA number of particles
= the mass of 6.02 x 1023 particles

Example:

Element/ Compound Relative mass Mass of 1 Molar mass


mol
Lithium, Li 7 7g 7g mol-1 *122
Iron, Fe 56 56g 2222
Magnesium oxide, MgO 24+16=40 40g mol-1
*2
Carbon dioxide, CO2 12+16x2=44

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*1 : The value of molar mass of an element is equal to its relative atomic mass
*2 : The value of molar mass of a compound is equal to its relative molecular or formula mass

Formula: Number of moles = mass

Relative atomic mass

(or relative molecular mass or relative formula mass)

Example:

1. Calculate the number of moles found in 20g of magnesium oxide, MgO.


(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; O, 16)

Solution:

Number of moles = mass


Relative formula mass
= 20
24 + 16
= 0.5 mol

2. Calculate the mass in gram found in 0.2 mol of magnesium oxide, MgO.
(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; O, 16)

Solution:
Number of moles = mass

Relative formula mass

Mass = number of moles x relative formula mass


= 0.2 x (24 + 16)g
= 8g

3. How many magnesium ions are there in 30g of magnesium oxide, MgO.
(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; O, 16. Avogradro constant: 6.02 x 10 23)

Solution:

The relative formula mass of magnesium oxide, MgO = 24 + 16


= 40
Therefore, the molar mass of magnesium oxide, MgO = 40g mol -1

Number of moles of 30g magnesium oxide, MgO =


mass of MgO

15
Relative formula mass of MgO
= 30g
40 g mol-1
= 0.75 mol

The number of formula units of MgO = 0.75x 6.02 x 10 23


= 4.515 x 1023
Each formula units of MgO has 1 magnesium ions.

Therefore, the number of magnesium ions = the number of formula units of MgO x 1
= 4.515 x 1023 x 1
= 4.515 x 1023

4. Calculate the mass in gram of 3 x 1022 units of magnesium oxide, MgO.


(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; O, 16. Avogradro constant: 6.02 x 10 23)

Solution:
Number of moles = number of particles
NA
Mass = number of particles
Relative formula mass NA

Mass = number of particles x relative formula mass


NA
Mass of 3x1022 units of magnesium oxide, MgO= 3 x 1022 x (24+16)
6 X 1023

= 0.05 X 40
= 2g

Do It Yourself

1. Calculate the number of moles found in 9.5g of magnesium chloride, MgCl 2.


(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; Cl, 35.5)

2. Calculate the mass in gram found in 0.3 mol of magnesium chloride, MgCl 2.
(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; Cl, 35.5)

16
3. How many chloride ions are there in 19g of magnesium chloride, MgCl 2.
(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; Cl, 35.5. Avogradro constant: 6.02 x 10 23)

Form 4 TextBook
4. Calculate the mass in gram of 3 x 1022 units of magnesium chloride, MgCl2 . Work This Out 3.2
(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; Cl, 35.5. Avogradro constant: 6.02 x 10 23) Page 35

Quick Review C
Page 35

E. Chemical Formulae

A chemical formula is a representation of a chemical substance using letters for atoms and subscript
numbers to show the numbers of each type of atoms that are present in the substance.

Examples : (a) Glucose

Show the symbols for


carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen C6 H12O6
Show the numbers of
carbon, hydrogen and
(b) Sodium hydroxide oxygen

Show the symbols for


magnesium, oxygen
and hydrogen. Mg (OH)2
Show the numbers of
magnesium, oxygen
and hydrogen.

(1) Empirical Formulae

(i) The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each
element present in the compound.

(ii) Steps in determining the empirical formula of a compound.


i. find the mass of each element in the compound
ii. convert the masses to the numbers of moles of atoms
iii. find the simplest ratio of moles of the elements

Example : 2.24 g of iron combines chemically with 0.96g of oxygen to form an oxide. What is the empirical
formula of the oxide ?
[ Relative atomic mass: O, 16; Fe, 56 ]

17
Element Iron, Fe Oxygen, O
Mass (g) 2.24 0.96

Number of moles of atoms 2.24 = 0.04 0.96 = 0.06


56 16
Ratio of moles 0.04 =1 0.06 =1.5
0.04 0.04
Simplest ratio of moles 12=2 1.5 2 = 3

The empirical formula of the oxide is Fe2O3.

Do it Yourself

1. The table below shows the relative atomic mass and the mass of elements V and O in an oxide.
Element V O
Relative Atomic Mass 56 16
Mass(g) 5.6 2.4

What is the empirical formula of this compound ?

element V Oxygen, O
Mass (g) 5.6 2.4
Number of moles of
atoms
Ratio of moles

Simplest ratio of moles

The empirical formula of the oxide is

2. Copper (II) iodide constains 20.13% of copper by mass. Find its empirical formula. [ Relative atomic
mass : Cu,64 ; I, 127 ]

Based on its percentage composition, 100g of copper(II) iodine contains 20.13g of copper. So, taking
100g of the compound.

element K Cl
Mass (g)
Number of moles of
atoms
Ratio of moles

Simplest ratio of moles

The empirical formula of the oxide is .

3. A potassium compound has a percentage composition as the following


K, 31.84% ; Cl, 28.8% ; O, 39.18%
What is the empirical formula of the potassium compound ? [ Relative atomic mass : O, 16;
Cl,35.5; K, 39 ]

18
Based on its percentage composition, 100g of compound contains 31.84g of potassium, 28.98g of
chlorine and 39.18g of oxygen. So, by taking 100g of the compound:

element K Cl O
Mass (g)
Number of moles of
atoms
Ratio of moles

Simplest ratio of
moles

1 mole of potassium atoms combines with 1 mole of chlorine atoms and 3 moles of oxygen atoms.Therefore,
the empirical formula of the potassium compound is KClO 3.
Form 4 TextBook
Work this out 3.7
(2) Molecular Formulae Page 42

(i) The molecular formula of a compound gives the actual number of atoms of each element present
in a molecule of the compound.

(ii) The molecular formula of a compound is a multiple of its empirical formula.

Molecular formula = ( Empirical formula )n

(iii) Relating empirical formula to molecular formula

Compound Empirical formula Molecular formula n


Water H2O H2O = (H2O)1 1
Ethene CH2 C2H4 = (CH2)2 2
Ethane CH3 C2H6 = (CH3)2 2
propane CH2 C3H9 = (CH3)3 3
glucose CH2O C6H12O6 = (CH2O)2 6

(iv) Calculation involving molecular formulae

Example :
The empirical formula of a compound is CH. Its relative molecular mass is 78. Find its molecular
formula. [ Relative atomic mass : H, 1; C, 12 ]

Let the molecular formula be (CH)n.

The relative molecular mass = n[ 12 + 1 ]


= 13n

However, its molar mass is 78.


Therefore, 13n = 78
n = 78/13
=6

Hence, the molecular formula of the compound is (CH) 6 or C6H6.

19
Do it yourself

1. A carbon compound has an empirical formula of CH 2 and a relative molecular mass of 70. Find the
molecular formula of the compound. [ Relative atomic mass : H, 1; C, 12 ]

Hence, the molecular formula of the compound is (CH 2)5 or C5H10.


2. 2.07 g of element Z reacts with bromine to form 3.67g of a compound with an
empirical formula of ZBr2. Find the relative atomic mass of element Z. [ Relative atomic mass: Br,
80 ]

element Z Br
Mass (g)

Number of moles of
atoms

Simplest ratio of moles


(from the emp for given)

Based on the empirical formula ZBr2 , the ratio of


atoms of Z : Br is 1 : 2
FORM 4 Textbook
herefore, Work this out 3.8
2.07 : 0.02 = 1 : 2 Page 44
z

2.07/0.02z =

z = 207

The atomic mass of the element Z is 207.

(3) Ionic Formulae

(i) Ionic compounds are compounds consisting of anions and cations.

(ii) The formulae of some common cations

Cation ( positive ion ) Formula of cation Charge of cation


Sodium ion Na+ +1
Potassium ion K+ +1
Silver ion Ag+ +1
Hydrogen ion H+ +1
Ammonium ion NH4+ +1

20
Copper (II) ion Cu2+ +2
Calcium ion Ca2+ +2
Magnesium ion Mg2+ +2
Zinc ion Zn2+ +2
Barium ion Ba2+ +2
Iron (II) ion Fe2+ +2
Copper (I) ion Cu+ +1
Tin (II) ion Sn2+ +2
Lead (II) ion Pb2+ +2
Aluminium ion Al3+ +3
Iron (III) ion Fe3+ +3
Chromium (III) ion Cr3+ +3

(iii) The formulae of some common anions

Anion ( negative ion ) Formula of anion Charge of anion


Fluoride ion F- -1
Chloride ion Cl- -1
Bromide ion Br- -1
Iodide ion I- -1
Hydroxide ion OH- -1
Nitrate ion NO3- -1
Nitrite ion NO2- -1
Hydride ion H- -1
Oxide ion O2- -2
Phosphate ion PO43- -3
Carbonate ion CO32- -2
Sulphate ion SO42- -2
Chromate (VI) ion Cr2O72- -2

(iv) The chemical formulae of ionic compounds are electrically neutral because the total of positive
charges are equal to the total of negative charges

(v) The chemical formula of an ionic compound can be constructed as the following :
i. identify and write down the formula of its cation and anion
ii. determine the number of cations and anions by balancing the positive and
negative charges.
iii. Write the formula of the compound
iv. The number of cations and anions are written as subscript numbers.

Magnesium chloride

Magnesium ion, Mg2+ Chloride ion, Cl-

1 magnesium ion, Mg2+


Total of positive charges
=1 (+2) 21
=+2
2 chloride ions, Cl-
Total of negative charges
= 2 (-1)
= -2

MgCl2

Do it yourself

1. magnesium chloride

2. aluminium oxide

Form 4 Textbook
3. aluminiuim hydroxide
Work This Out 3.9
Page 46
4. sodium sulphate

(4) Naming of chemical compounds

1. Chemical compounds are named systematically according to the guidelines given by the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).
2. For ionic compounds, the name of the cation comes first, followed by the name of anion.

cation anion Name of ionic compound


Sodium ion Chloride ion Sodium chloride
Magnesium ion Oxide ion Megnesium oxide
Aluminium ion Oxide ion Aluminium oxide
Zinc ion Sulphate ion Zinc sulphate

3. Transition metals can form more than one ions, Roman numerals ( such as I, II, III ) are used to
differentiate the ions.
Fe2+ - iron (II) ion
Fe3+ - iron (III) ion

4. For simple molecular compounds, the name of the first element is maintained. However, the name of
the second element is added with an ide .
Examples : HCl hydrogen chloride
HF - hydrogen flouride

5. Greek prefixes are used to show the number of atoms of each element in a compound.
Examples : CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
CCl4 carbon tetrachloride / tetrachloromethane
SO3 sulphur trioxide

22
6. Table below shows the meaning of the prefixes.

prefix meaning prefix meaning


Mono- 1 Hexa- 6
di- 2 Hepta- 7
Tri- 3 Octa- 8
Tetra- 4 Nona- 9
Penta- 5 Deca- 10

Form 4 Textbook
Work This Out 3.10
Page 47
F. CHEMICAL EQUATION

A) Qualitative aspect of chemical equation

A chemical equation is a shorthand description of a chemical reaction.


The starting substances are called reactants.
The new substances formed are called products.

The reactants are written at the left-hand side of the equation.


The products are written at the right-hand side of the equation.

A chemical equation also shows the states of each substance.

Symbol Physical states of substances


s Solid
Liquid
g Gas
aq Aqueous solution

Example :

Reactants Products
C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)
Zn (s) + Cl2 (g) ZnCl2 (s)

Do It Yourself 3f

Identify the reactants, products and the state of each substance. Present your answer in the form of a table.

1. HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (i)

2. CuCO3 (s) CuO (s) + CO2 (g)

3. HCl (g) + NH3 (g) NH4Cl (s)

Solution :

23
Reactants Products
1
2 Form 4 Textbook
Work This Out 3.11
3
Page 49

B) Writing chemical equation

A chemical equation must be balanced. There must always be the same number of atom of each element on
each side of the equation.

Example :

Magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid, HCl to produce magnesium chloride, MgCl 2 and hydrogen gas,
H2. Write an equation to represent the reaction.

Write the equation in words. The reactants are written on the left whereas the
STEP 1 products are written on the right.

STEP 2 Write the correct chemical formula for each reactants and products.

Balance the equation. You just need to adjust the coefficients in front of the chemical
STEP 3 formulae and not the subscripts in the formulae.

STEP 4 Put the state symbols in the equation.

Solution :

STEP 1 Magnesium + hydrochloric acid Magnesium chloride + hydrogen gas

Reactants Products
STEP 2 Mg + HCl MgCl2 + H2

STEP 3 Mg + 2HCl MgCl 2 + H2

STEP 4 Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Do It Yourself 3.f B

Write a chemical equation for each of the following reactions.

24
1. A solution of silver nitrate is added to a solution of sodium chloride. A precipitate of silver chloride and a
solution of sodium nitrate are produced.

2. Nitrogen gas reacts with hydrogen gas to produce ammonia gas.

3. When solid lead (II) carbonate is heated strongly, it decomposes into solid lead (II) Form 4 Textbook
Work This Out 3.12
oxide and carbon dioxide gas is released.
Page 50

C) Quantitative aspect of chemical equation

The coefficients in a balanced equation tell us the exact proportions of reactants and products in a chemical
reaction.

Example :
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l)

The equation tell us that 2 moles of hydrogen reacts with 1 mole of oxygen to produce 2 moles of water.

Or

The equation tell us that 2 molecules of hydrogen reacts with 1 molecule of oxygen to produce 2 molecules of
water.

D) Numerical problems involving chemical equation

Stoichiometry is a study of quantitative composition of substances involved in chemical reactions.


We can always make use of the stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical equation to solve various numerical
problems.

Generally the steps involved in stoichiometric calculations are as follows.

STEP 1 Write the balanced equation of the reaction.

STEP 2 Compare the mole ratio.

STEP 3 Identify the information given and you want to find.

STEP 4 Calculate the number of moles.

Example :

Copper (II) oxide, CuO reacts with aluminium according to the following equation.

3CuO (s) + 2Al (s) Al2O3 (s) + 3Cu (s)

25
Calculate the mass of aluminium required to react completely with 12 g of copper (II) oxide, CuO.
[Relative atomic mass : O, 16 ; Al, 27 ; Cu, 64]

Solution :
3CuO (s) + 2Al (s) Al2O3 (s) + 3Cu (s)
3 mole 2 mole

The number of moles of 12g of Copper (II) oxide, CuO = 12 g


(64 + 16) g mol-1
= 12 g = 0.15 mol
80 g mol-1

Based on the chemical equation, 3 mole of Copper (II) oxide, CuO requires 2 mole of aluminium. Therefore,
the number of aluminium required by 0.15 mole of Copper (II) oxide, CuO

= 0.15 mole x 2 mole = 2 mole


3 mole

Thus the mass of aluminium required

= 0.1 mol x 29 g mol-1 = 2.7 g

Do It Yourself 3f (D)
1. 2K (s) + Br2 (g) 2KBr (s)

How many moles of potassium are needed to reacts with 0.5 mole of bromine gas ?

Solution :
2K (s) + Br2 (g) 2KBr (s)
2 mole 1 mole

Information : ? mole 0.5 mole

Based on the equation, 1 mole of bromine gas reacts with 2 moles of potassium.

Therefore, 0.5 mole of bromine gas will react with

2 x 0.5 = 1 mole of potassium.

2. 1.35 g of aluminium reacts with excessive copper (II) oxide powder to produce aluminium oxide powder and
copper. Find the number of copper atoms produced.
[Relative atomic mass : Al, 27 ; Avogadro constant : 6.02 x 1023 mol-1]

26
3.
Zn (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) Zn(NO3)2 (aq) + H2 (g)

What is the mass of zinc needed to produce 2.4 dm3 of hydrogen gas at room conditions ?
[Relative atomic mass : Zn, 65 ; Molar volume 24 dm3 mol-1 at room conditions]

More Exercises:

1. CuCO3 CuO + CO2

In this reaction, 3.1 g of copper(II) carbonate are heated in a laboratory. Find :

(a) the mass of copper (II) oxide that being produced.


(b) the volume of carbon dioxide gas produced at s.t.p

2. CaCO3 CaO + CO2

In this reaction, 300 cm3 gas carbon dioxide are produced at room temperature, when calcium carbonate
are heated. Find:
(a) the mass of calcium carbonate used.
(b) mass of calcium oxide produced.

3. 2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2

When 0.23 g of sodium is added to water, the metal will react vigorously at the surface of the water, find

27
(a) the mass sodium hydroxide produced.
(b) volume of hydrogen gasses being produced at temperature room.

4. 2Mg + O2 2MgO

A strip of magnesium has a weight of 1.2 g are being burn with sufficient oxygen to produced magnesium
oxide. Find:
(a) the mass magnesium oxide being produced.
(b) the mass of oxygen that needed for this reaction.

5. C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O

Propane gas was burned in oxygen follow as equation above. If 3.36 dm 3 of carbon dioxide gas are
produced in this reaction at s.t.p, find
(a) the mass of propane burned
(b) volume of oxygen gas that reacted

6. 2Al + 3CuO Al2O3 + 3Cu

1.35g of aluminium powder and copper (II) oxide was heated strongly in laboratory to produced aluminium
oxide and copper. Find
(a) the mass of copper (II) oxide reacted
(b) the mass of aluminium oxide produced.
(c) the mass of copper produced.

28
Chapter 4.

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS


A. Historical Development of the Periodic Table

Scientist like to find patterns. In the 18th and 19th


centuries, scientist discovered many elements. The
elements found were classified through many stages
of hard work by scientist. This led to the development
of the Periodic Table of Elements that we use today.

Here is the history of


Periodic Table of Elements.

Antoine Lavoisier
First chemist who classify the element into 4 group.
The 4 group consisted of gases, metal, non-metal and metal oxide.
Element in the group is classify into metal and non-metal.

Group I Group II Group III Group IV

29
Oxygen Sulphur Arsenic Potassium oxide
Nitrogen Phosporus Bismut Barium oxide
Hidrogen Carbon Cobalt Silicon(IV) oxside
Light Chlorin Lead Magnesium oxide
Heat Fluorin Zinc Aluminium oxide
Nikel
Stanum
Argentum

Johann W. Dobereiner

Classify the element with same chemical properties into a few group
Each of group consisted from 3 element called triad.
He found that the relative atomic mass of the element in the middle of
each triad is approximately equal to the average atomic mass of other
two elements.
Triad law show the relationship between the relative atomic mass of
elements with it chemicals properties.
This law cannot be use to most of the other element.

Average atomic
Lithium Sodium Potassium
Element in triad mass
Li Na K
Li and K
7 + 39 = 23
Relative atomic 2
7 23 39
mass

Chlorine Bromine Iodine Average atomic


Element in triad
Cl Br I mass Li and K
35 + 127 =
Relative atomic
35 80 127 2
mass
81

Ca Sr Ba (40 + 137) 2 = 88
Li Na K Cl Br I
7 23 39 35 80 127

John Newlands
Arranged 62 known elements in order of increasing nucleon
number (atomic weights ) in horizontal rows.
He noted that after interval of eight elements similar
physical/chemical properties reappeared.
He was the first to formulate the concept of periodicity in the
properties of the chemical elements.
He proposed the Law of Octaves:

Elements exhibit similar behavior to the eighth


element following it in the table.

He was not successful because;


i. Was only accurate for the first 16 elements (from
hydrogen to potassium)
ii. There were no gaps allocated from the elements yet 30
to be discovered.
Lothar Meyer

Determine the volume of an atom of an element.


Formula;
Volume of an atom
= mass of one mole-atom of the element
Density of the element

He plotted a graph of volume of atoms of elements against their relative atomic


masses to produce meyers atomic volume curve.
From the graph he found elements occupying the corresponding positions of
the curve exhibit similar chemical properties. example

(a) Li, Na, K, Rb : located at the peak of


the curve

(b) Be, Mg, Ca, Sr : located after the


maximum point

Like Newlands, Meyer showed the properties of the elements recured


periodically.

Dimitri Mendeleev

Arranged the elements in order of increasing


atomic weights and properties.
He left gaps for elements yet to be discovered.
He arranged the element that have the same properties in
group.

31
Henry Mosely

He was able to derive the relationship between x-ray frequency and number of protons. and
obtained a straight line graph.

When Moseley arranged the elements according to increasing atomic numbers and not atomic
masses, some of the inconsistencies associated with Mendeleev's table were eliminated.
The modern periodic table is based on Moseley's Periodic Law (atomic numbers/proton number).
He suggest proton number determine the position of elements in periodic table.
He arranged elements in periodic table in order of increasing proton number.
He also left gaps for the elements yet to be discovered.

32
Henry Mosely Periodic Table

What is the basic principle applied


in arranging the elements in the
Periodic Table today?

Arrangements of elements in the


Periodic Table

Elements in the Periodic Table are arranged in an increasing order of proton number.

33
Elements with similar chemical properties are placed in the same vertical column.
There are 18 vertical column of elements in the Periodic Table. Each column is called group. The
vertical columns are known as Group 1 to Group 18.
There are 7 horizontal rows of elements in the Periodic Table. Each of these horizontal rows of
elements is called a period. The horizontal rows are known as Period 1 to Period 7.

Do you know how the electron


arrangement of the atom of an element
related to its group and period?????

1. The number of valence electrons in an atom decides


the position of the group of an element.

The number of
1 2 3+10 4+10 5+10 6+10 7+10 8+10
valence electron
Group in The
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Periodic Table

2. The number of shells occupied with electrons in its


atom decides the period number of an element.

Example 1;

40 Number of proton = 20
20
X Number of electron = 20
Number neutron = 20
Electron arrangement = 2.8.8.2
The number of valence electrons = 2
The number of shells =4

Group in the Periodic Table = 2


Period in the Periodic Table = 4

Example 2;

34
16 Number of proton =8
Y Number of electron = 8
8
Number neutron =8

Electron arrangement = 2.6


The number of valence electrons = 6
The number of shells =2

Group in the Periodic Table = 16


Period in the Periodic Table = 2

Example 3;

40 Number of proton = 18
Z Number of electron = 18
18 Number neutron = 22
Electron arrangement =
The number of valence electrons =
The number of shells =

Group in the Periodic Table =


Period in the Periodic Table =

Hw: WTO 4.3 pg. 62 no. 1,2,3

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

B. GROUP 18 ELEMENTS

GROUP 18

http://periodictable.com/

35
1.The elements in Group 18 are
Helium 2
Neon 2.8
Argon 2.8.8
Krypton 2.8.18.8
Xenon 2.8.18.18.8
Radon2.8.18.32.18.8

1. They are also known as noble gases, which are chemically unreactive. Noble gases are
monoatomic.

2. Helium has two valence electrons. This is called duplet electron arrangement.

3. Other noble gases have eight valence electrons. This is called octet electron
arrangement.
4. Duplet and octet electron arrangements are very stable because the outermost occupied
shells are full.

5. All nobles gases are inert which means chemically unreactive.

Why noble gases exist as monoatomic


gases and are chemically unreactive?

BECAUSE THE OUTERMOST OCCUPIED


SHELLS ARE FULL

Physical Properties of Group 18 Elements


1. Group 18 elements have very small atom.

2. They are colourless gases a room temperature and pressure.

3. They have low melting and boiling point.

4. They have low densities.


Elements/ Electron Atomic Melting Boiling Density
symbol arrangement radius (nm) points (C) points (g cm-3)
(C)
Helium 2 0.050 -270 -269 0.17
Neon 2.8 0.070 -248 -246 0.84
Radon 2.8.8 0.094 -189 -186 1.66
Krypton 2.8.18.8 0.109 -156 -152 3.45
Xenon 2.8.18.18.8 0.130 -112 -107 5.45
Radon 2.8.18.32.18.8 - -71 -62 -
Table 1: Physical Properties of Group 1 Elements

36
4. From Table 1, when going down the group, atomic size and density increase.
5. When going down the group, melting points and boiling points decrease

Uses of Group 18 elements

Helium
Used to fill airships and weather balloons, because the gas is very light.
The divers oxygen tank contains a mixture of helium (80%) and oxygen (20%).

Neon
Advertising lights.
Television tubes.
Airport landing bulb to help aero plane landing safely.

Argon
To fill light bulbs, it can last longer
To provide inert atmosphere for welding at high temperature.

Krypton
Used in lasers to repair the retina of the eye.
To fill photographic flash lamps.

Radon
Used in treatment of cancer.

Xenon
Used in bubble chambers in atomic energy reactors.

Hw: QR B pg. 65 no. 1,2

C. GROUP 1 ELEMENTS
GROUP 1

http://periodictable.com/

37
6. The elements in Group 1 are

Lithium 2.1
Sodium 2.8.1
Potassium 2.8.8.1
Rubidium 2.8.18.8.1
Caesium 2.8.18.18.8.1
Francium 2.8.18.32.18.8.1

7. They are also known as alkali metals which react with water to form alkaline
solutions.

8. All Group 1 elements have one valence electron in their outermost occupied shells.

Physical Properties of Group 1 Elements


1. Group 1 elements are soft metals with low densities and
low melting points as compared to other metals such as iron
and copper.

2. They have silvery and shiny surfaces.

3. They are good conductor of heat and electricity.

Elements/ Electron Atomic Melting Boiling Density


symbol arrangement radius points (C) points (g cm-3)
(nm) (C)
Lithium, Li 2.1 0.15 180 1336 0.57
Sodium, Na 2.8.1 0.19 98 883 0.97
Potassium, K 2.8.8.1 0.23 64 756 0.86
Rubidium, Rb 2.8.18.8.1 0.25 39 701 1.53
Table 1: Physical Properties of Group 1 Elements

6. From Table 1, when going down the group, atomic size and density increase.

7. When going down the group, melting points and boiling points decrease

Chemical Properties of Group 1 Elements

Lithium, sodium and potassium have similar chemical properties


but differ in reactivity.

Let us carry out this Experiment!


Practical Book Experiment 4.1, page 35
Activity 4.3, page 38

38
1. Alkali metals react vigorously with water to produce alkaline
metal hydroxide solutions and hydrogen gas.

[Video]

Chemical equation;

2Li + 2H2O 2LiOH + H2


Lithium Water Lithium Hydrogen
hydroxide gas

2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2


Sodium Water Sodium Hydrogen
hydroxide gas

2K + 2H2O 2KOH + H2
Potassium Water Potassium Hydrogen
hydroxide gas

2. Alkali metals react rapidly with oxygen gas, to produce white solid metal oxides.
Chemical equations;

4Li + O2 2Li2O
Lithium Oxygen Lithium
gas oxide
4Na + O2 2Na2O
Sodium Oxygen Sodium

39
gas oxide

4K + O2 2K2O
Potassium Oxygen Potassium
gas oxide

3. Alkali metals burn in chlorine gas to form white solid metal


chlorides.

Chemical reaction;

2Li + Cl2 2LiCl


Lithium Chlorine Lithium
gas chloride

2Na + Cl2 2NaCl


Sodium Chlorine Sodium
gas chloride

2K + Cl2 2KCl
Potassium Chlorine Lithium
gas chloride

4. Alkali metals burn in bromine gas to form metal bromides.

For example,

2Li + Br2 2LiBr


Lithium Bromine Lithium
gas bromide

2Na + Br2 2NaBr


Sodium Bromine Sodium
gas bromide

2K + Br2 2LiBr
Potassium Bromine Potassium
gas bromide

5. Therefore, alkali metals have similar chemical properties.

40
Why alkali metals have similar
chemical properties?

Alkali metals have one valence electron in their outermost occupied shells.

Each of them reacts by donating one electron from its outermost occupied shell to form
an ion with a charge of +1, thus achieving the stable electron arrangement of the atom of
noble gas.

Li Li+ + 1e-
2.1 2

Na Na+ + 1e-
2.8.1 2.8

K K+ + 1e-
2.8.8.1 2.8.8

6. The reactivity of Group 1 elements increases down the group.

Why The reactivity of Group 1


elements increases down the group?

Going down Group 1, the atomic size (atomic radius) increases.

The single valence electron in the outermost occupied shell


becomes further away from the nucleus

Hence, the attraction between the nucleus and the valence


electron becomes weaker

Therefore, it is easier for the atom to donate the single valence


electron to achieve the stable electron arrangement.

41
Safety precautions in handling Group 1 elements
Alkali metals are very reactive. Safety precautions must be taken when handling alkali
metals.

The elements must be stored in paraffin oil in bottles


Do not hold alkali metals with your bare hands
Use forceps to handle them
Wear safety goggles
Wear safety gloves
Use a small piece of alkali metal when conducting experiments

Hw: QR C pg. 69 no. 1,2,3

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