Digital to analog convertors And Its

Fabrication

ABSTRACT
Electronics Systems are improving daily and one of the major usage in
electronic systems is digital to analog convertors (DACs).Digital to Analog
convertors basically converts digital quantity to a proportional analog quantity.
There are many types of DACs in the market. Here several DACs are discussed in
brief for the understanding of basic DAC working and their application.

Before some basic information of DACs, one must know that DACs rely on
an input Reference Voltage to calculate the Output Signal. Each sample is
converted from binary to analog, in between 0 and Vref for Unipolar, or Vref and
Vref for Bipolar. Also to be mentioned that we have to consider and take care of
the sampling frequency. Sampling frequency is the number of data points sampled
per unit time. A higher sampling frequency decreases the sampling period,
allowing more data to be transmitted in the same amount of time. Sampling
frequency must be twice the frequency of the sampled signal to avoid aliasing, per
Nyquist criteria.

Also to be mentioned that output is piecewise function. Here by applying

some method we are converting the digital quantity to analog quantity, so output
will not have exact shape of waveform as the original analog waveform but it
matches the characteristics of analog output. For the compensation we can use
filter at the output side of the convertor.

We will also see the applications and error occurs while performing the
practical application of R2R digital to analog convertor, Weighted type Digital to
analog convertor, Capacitance type digital to analog convertors, current type
digital to analog convertors. From below basic concept of DACs and their brief
working and advantage and disadvantages are discussed.

What Is Need Of DAC?

Use of Electronic equipments are increased these days,
though electronic systems contains many parts, digital to analog convertors are
used widely in electronic systems and equipments. Various applications like
amplifier, video encoder, calibration, displays are work on the bases of seawares
and binary systems. So conversion of digital quantity to analog quantity is
required. There are many types of DACs are available which accomplish the
various tasks based on different applications. In this project we will see different
types of DAC, their fabrication process and their working.

R2R Ladder Type of DAC:

R2R ladder type DACs are also known as binary-weighted input DAC. This type
of DAC uses fix amount of resistors. But the resistors value should be very
precise. This can be considered as disadvantage of R2R type of DAC. So the
manufacture of this DAC is simple but we have to take the precise value of
resistors. Of course, we could take our last DAC circuit and modify it to use a
single input resistance value, by connecting multiple resistors together in series.

fig(i)

fig(ii)

The above two figures shows the diagram of R2R type of DAC.
WORKING:
As mentioned, DAC converts digital quantity to analog
quantity by applying digital input at the MSB and LSB. Here we are using R2R
type of DAC and the reference value taken as 2R same as one of the reference
value at voltage divider circuit.

The output of the circuit is defined as, here Rf is R reference(2R)

Where, B1, B2, B3=the given digital inputs

n=number of stages (number of

binary inputs)

Here in fig (i), we have taken only two inputs for the simplicity in understanding,
we can take any many inputs as we want but we have to take the accurate value of
resistors. But for this combination we get the possible values for the fix value of
supply is explained in the below table.
Here we can see that, for increasing amount of binary supply we get the output in
terms of (0/4), (1/4), (2/4), (3/4).

DRAWBACKS OF R2R types of DAC:

If you increase the number of bits more than 8 the accuracy of the R2R is
decreased.
Sometimes due to inaccuracy in the resistance value voltage is not divide
properly and output is not accurate.

Binary Weighted Type DAC

The binary-weighted-resistor DAC shows the characteristics of the inverting
Op Amp circuit. In this type of DAC, the output voltage is the inverted and sum of
all the input voltages. If the input resistor values are set to multiples of two: 1R, 2R
and 4R, the output voltage would be equal to the sum of V1, V2/2 and V3/4.thus
input voltage resistors and output voltage has inverting proportionality. Here, V1
corresponds to the most significant bit while V3 corresponds to the least significant
bit.

By this explanation of working, this DAC Is also known as summing

amplifier.

fig(iii)
 fig(iv)

The above calculations are for the output of the

weighted type DAC. It shows the inverse proportionality between Output value
and resistance value.

If we refer Fig(iv) for the understanding of the operations, we have 4 combinations

of input , by applying different type of inputs we can have the following results.

Here we are taking Vref as 5 V, R as 0.5 k and Rf as 1 k and we have the following
results.
 By referring this table we can have co relation between the digital and
analog quantities.

DRAWBACK OF WEIGHTED TYPE DAC:

The problem of the weighted resistor is that the accuracy of your DAC, will
depend on the accuracy of your resistors. It would be very difficult for the
resistors to all be exactly as you want and depending on their tolerances they
may have a larger/smaller value which would affect the outcome.
If you convert values which are only step apart, and you would start at zero
and go up to the max, you would expect the steps on the output to be equal
in size, so that it essentially rises monotonically. Due to variations in your
DAC or other factors you may not have equal steps and so the rise may not
be monotone.
Applications of DACs:

DACs are used in many digital signal processing applications. Some applications
are discussed below.

Audio Amplifier

DACs are used to produce DC voltage gain with Microcontroller commands.

Often, the DAC will be incorporated into an entire audio codec which includes
signal processing features.

Video Encoder
The video encoder system will process a video signal and send digital signals to a
variety of DACs to produce analog video signals of various formats, along with
optimizing of output levels. As with audio codecs, these ICs may have integrated
DACs.

Display Electronics
The graphic controller will typically use a lookup table to generate data signals
sent to a video DAC for analog outputs such as Red, Green, Blue (RGB) signals to
drive a display.

Data Acquisition Systems

Data to be measured is digitized by an Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) and
then sent to a processor. The data acquisition will also include a process control
end, in which the processor sends feedback data to a DAC for converting to analog
signals.

Calibration
The DAC provides dynamic calibration for gain and voltage offset for accuracy in
test and measurement systems.

Motor Control
Many motor controls require voltage control signals, and a DAC is ideal for this
application which may be driven by a processor or controller.

Data Distribution System

Many industrial and factory lines require multiple programmable voltage sources,
and this can be generated by a bank of DACs that are multiplexed. The use of a
DAC allows the dynamic change of voltages during operation of a system.

Digital Potentiometer
Almost all digital potentiometers are based on the string DAC architecture. With
some reorganization of the resistor/switch array, and the addition of an I2C
compatible interface, a fully digital potentiometer can be implemented.

Software Radio
A DAC is used with a Digital Signal Processor (DSP) to convert a signal into
analog for transmission in the mixer circuit, and then to the radios power
amplifier and transmitter.