Design methods to control violent pillar failures in room-and- pillar mines R. Karl Zipf Jr. and C. Mark ‘Synopsis ‘The sudden, violent collapse of large areas of room and-pillar mines poses a special hazard for miners aad ‘mine operators. This type of failure, termed a ‘cascad- ing pillar failure’ (CPF), occura when one pillar in = ‘mine layout (als, transferring its load to neighbouring pillars, which causes them to fall, and +0 forth, Recent ‘Cxamples ofthis kind of fllure in coal, metal snd non- ‘metal mines in the U.S.A. wre documented, Mining ‘Whether fallure occurs in slow, non-violent manner or ina rapid, violent manner is governed by the local ‘ine stifiness sablity eiterion. This stability criterion i used as the basis for three design approaches to con trol cascading pillar failure in room-and-pillar mines—the containment approach, the prevention ‘pproach and the fall extraction mining approach. ‘These design approaches are illustrated with practical examples for coal mining st shallow depth. Cascading pillar fale (CPF) in room-and-pilar mines can io by many other naret,ruch a “progressive pillar fare’ $assive pillar cllape’,“dmioraype flue” or pillar ru Inthis ind of fasure when one plat collapses the load that it cared transfers rapidly to Re neighbour, causing them to fail and so forth. This failure mechanism can lead to the pid collapse of very large mine areas. In mld cases only @ few tens of plas might fl in exreme eases, however, hi dreds, ven thousands, of pillars can ful. (CPF can have caustophic effects on a mine and some- times hese effects pose a greater risk to health and safer han the underlying ground-contral problem. Ursa, the CPE induces a devastating sis blast a5 consequence of the dix placement of air fem the collapse area. An aif Bast can ‘rapt the ventilation system totaly by destroying ventiton stoppings, seals and fan housings. Flying debris can senousty ‘npr oF hl mining personnel. ‘The CDF aight alo fracture a large volume of rock in the pias and immediate roof and ‘oot kn coal mines and certain other mines this can lead to ‘the sudden release of lage quantities of methane gas into the mine atmosphere; a methane explosion might result fom che Cre. CCEF ig atthe far end of the spectrum of unstable pillar failure. Atthe other end ae slow squeezes’ that develop over days to weeks and, because of their slow progress, do not ‘pose an immediate danger 9 mining personnel. There is ample warning tie for men and machinery to get out ofthe ‘way of the failure Ina CPF, however, dhe fre progresses so rapidly chat men and equipment cannot be evacuated in ‘time. Significant seismic energy is related as «consequence Manserpt fist ecied. by the Lauion of Mining and ‘Metaargy on 10 February, 1997; revied mans etre 09 (Orsober, 1997 Paper ablated in Tras buam in Mcal (Se ‘Minn indy 108, Sepember December" 1997. ©The Insoneson of Ming nd Metal 197 ofthe apd fare and collapse (CPF should not be confused, however, with coal-mine ‘bumps and rockburts In some cases the damage can appeat simile, but the underiying mechanics ere completely difer- ent, Ax willbe shown Inter, the mechanics of CPP depend on the applied verocal sre and the portale, srsn-ef- ‘ening, behaviour of the plas. Ih a CPF pilars shed their ‘pple load rapidly and have very ite residual steengh after falure. The collapse itself may release significant seismic ‘nergy, but otheraee the mine is seismically gic, Aer 8 CCDF the opening inthe affected mine workings have wal? closed completly Tn contrast, coul-mine bumps and rockbursts occu ia ses- ically aceive mines. Research has shown that coal-mine thumps and rockburst are seismic events induced by mining hat denage enderground mine working. Bumps and hort ae dus a subset ofa much larger set of mining induced sir ‘mic evens! Only some ofthese seismic events damage mine veorkings; fortunately, most do not. The mechanisms by which a mining-induced seismic event can lead toa damaping foalmine bump or rockburst i sl a sigficant revearch area After a bump oe ockbust dhe affected mine workings may or may not be completely closed. For example, in the coalmine bump described by Boler and co-worker? the ‘ine workings femained open even though the pillars were Aestoyed doing the bump event Because CPF difer from a coabmine bump or rockburt, the design approaches to contol their occurence also dill. The design recommendations developed here app to CPE snd not t bump or burst-prone mines ;cading pillar failure examples Unfortunately, CPF has oscumred in room-and-ilar cosh metal and nonvenetal eines, The mort infamous example ib the Coalbeooke colliery in South Alcs, where 437 miners Denshed wheoebinie aha sae gaara cea ‘aes on 21 January, 1960. Table 1 sursmanzes the mining dimensions of 13 examples of rapid pillar collapse in US. val mines. All occured during the 1960 and 1990s nd happened suddenly or without sigiGeant warning. Most resulted in i blasts and damage ro the vention syste “Table 2 gives the mining dimensions of sx room-and-pilar ‘metal and non-metal mines in the US.A. where fare Secured in all probability by the CPF mechanism, The col- lnpae aeat can be huge, Forranatsy, some of thee flares gave advance warning. Atte lead zine mine slang fom pillars and root falls began four weeks prior to the ma ea lapse.) Ar the copper mine considerable rock noise and smaller failures precede the min collapse by five days? At the copper-aiver mine itis not known if nature provided a warning® Evidendy, the wona mine collapsed without warn ing"® Rock noise and other failure warings preceded the Silica mine colapse by tree weeks” The presence or absence fof warning atthe salt mines not known,!© Most of these ‘cllapes induced a stantial sr bla; damage c the vent Javon systems was limited, however, t0 bent aidoors and = few downed stoppings, except at the trona mine, where entensive damage fo the venation system resulted‘Table 1 CPF examples in US. coal mines cue State Pilarsae, ARMPS — Wilfrado Collapse ares, Collapse sae, Damage from sr blast = safer face = I B ws Sui? 15000 10015040 Stopping a wok 21000 1405150103 Stoppigs G woo kes ‘00 {00%180 Mima ap ow 125 18000 poxiso = eB wo ben re edo 2403290 Major ‘Table 2 CPF examples in US. metal and non-metal mines State Depth, Pllarsize, WHfralo Eatraction, Collapse area, Collapse sie, Damage fom alr Bast = 2 * = = Podamine 7K Oa 32000 0360 Minimal CoAgmine MT 300 9x90 OS Moco soxi20 Tromimne WY 3900 4x2) he Teopoe Fan 2100 Mar ‘Te mine dimensions summarized in Tables 1 and 2 can ‘cover a wide range of mining practice. However, mines that Ihave had a CPF have several important commonaltes. It several the pillars thomas must be the weak fink in he roof pila floor stom. Extraction ratios are usually more than 0%. Whare the tafty factor of pillar involved fn fllre can be estinated iar usually been close to 1. The widtb-o- Iheight (172 racio of panel pillars is always les than 3 for coabmine falures, usually much less than 1 in the metal mines and may be less than 2 inthe non-metal mine failures, Substantial barr pillar with WH ratios of mote than 10, are usually absent fom the par of the mine where the CPF fccuns. For coabmine falures the stability factor for the pila is ess than 15 according tothe Mark-Biniawsti ilar Strength formula in the Analysis of Reweat Mining Pilar Stability (ARMPS) method.” Further descriptions of the ARMPS method appear here under “Practical design cxampler. Typical, the roof rock i si and mastive and an bridge wide spans without caving, Most importantly, ‘hough, fr collapte events tac caused significant damage the collapse area isa least 15 000 ex, with a minimum dimen- ‘on of a east 100 m Mechanics of cascading pillar failure ‘Te simple explanation of CPF given above indicates that apd load transfer away from fang pillars an important part ofthe fallure mechanism. The undrtvng mechanics of CCEF are, however, more complex. The nature of the pillar falure process depends on the relative mechanical properties ofthe rock mare and the pill. The most importa rrue tural charnteritic tthe postfire sifess and strength of the remanr plas. Slender pillars with alow IT ato shed Toad rapidly when they fa. The wansfered weight can over load adjacent pills, anda rapid ‘domino’ falure of adjacent pillars can ensue. Pillars chat are squatter with a lege WIP ato, rettn mos of ther lod even ater fire, Such pile wilaqueere slowly, rather dan collapsing ‘Laborstory data from the work of Dat? illsrate this behaviout. As shown in Fig 1, beyond a WH rato of about 8 {he behaviour of the Iboratory-sale specimens i nearly els- ‘eplaricy meaning that they shed litte load aftr future Some data on the postfire behaviour of ful-cale coal lars are also avaiable. As shown in Fig. 1(), beyond a WE tio of about # the post-alure modulus of fll scale coal Jars Pecomes positive and their Behaviour ie elastic-plastic. ‘Agni, such coal pillars do not shed thei load rapidly when they fal ‘On the bats ofan analogy between a laboratory test specs nen and 4 mine pillar Salanon'® developed a citeion to predict whether the falure process occurs in a stable, nom Solent manner of in an unstable, violent manner; Fig. 2 lustre chi wll-Rnown enterion ‘Stable, non-wolent pillar fare ocours when Kis! > IKol o snd unstable, volenr pila failure occurs whee Kiss! < Kel ® where Kiss it local mine siness and Kp x posture ff nest at any point along the load convergence curve for the pillar AS Tong as equation 1 is saisied, CPF is unlikely ©STRESS, MPa fo} 50 POSTFAILURE MODULUS, MPa WIDTH / HEIGHT RATIO. © Fig (@) Complete sees cures for Indian col specimens, ‘owing inceng veda roergh snd postfare module ih Increasing WHT rai!) pstlare modal of ca! plas ‘es coal specimens and ort samples ed cee Das? ‘wre Biel" Kak ci, Wagoer* ied mangle, 90 Herd, ming, tll an c-means) occur; however, equation 2 said, CPF is possible Kiss depends on dhe modulus of the immediate roof, oor ane pillar materials and the layout of pillars mine open ings and ‘barier pills. Numerial methods, such a8 the boundary-clement’ method,” can be applied wo calculate Kiyys. Tae posture stiffen, Kp, depends onthe size and Wil rst ofthe pillar. Some field measurements ofthe post- CONVERGENCE ‘CONVEROENGE Fig 2 Unt, vet fre ven nal, nom-ilne fue (a) ea manele ss han post ate ifs ino fading Su fing systems fallure sess, Key ext for flhacale coal pillars, a show fn Fig. 106, Unfortunately here pau of sar data for fullscale pillar in roormand-pillar metal end nos-met] 'Bs shown in Table 1, CPF in room-and-pillar coal mines occurs only when the 17H rao of the affected pillars i es than about 3 oF 4. Fig. 1 explsin th observation Ky ‘becomes postive, i the postfnlute behaviour changes fom strain-soflening to elastic-plastic, at TH rato of abou 3 fr 4. At that point CPF becomes a physical impossibility because the local sine siffess stability eeiterion is necesae Ay always said Similan, for metal and non-metal mines Table 2 shows that CPF only occurs in coorwand pillar mines that have pillars of low IT ratio (ess than about 1 ce 2). Kp must become positive beyond some ential WH ratio. On the basis ‘ofthe coal observations that raniton may alo occur a the Wir rato range of 4 ack-anslyis of numerical simulations may provide dhe only rote to extimate Ky for ceain hinds of fll eae pillars. Zig” followed ths appeoach to calculate Kp and Kgs and ‘hen evaluate the local mine stiffness stability erteron, The ‘behaviour of dhe compute simulations changes depending on wacthce the mode! sates or volts this ability erteron From a health and safes standpoint i is fortunate, however, ‘hat rock mechanics engineers have few examples of CPF from which to conduct buckanalyses of the post-falure ‘behaviour of ul-sale mine pila, Design principles for control of cascading pillar failure Most pillar design procedures merely consider the peak strength of the play shown a: 4 in Fig. 3. dhe applied ‘Stree othe pila caches this level ts ably factor | Sinulay if he applied stress on the pila is half the peak strength, shown a8 in Ti, 3 it tabi factor 2. There 4 great economic incentive 1o design pillar with a low stabi in factor n that sth stably factor decreases the exteact.on sito ineeanes. Therefore, the most econemic pillar designs ‘in terms of source recovery are necessary Wey close to ‘bur sll on the pre-fiure side ofthe complete load-conver: gence curve forthe pillar. Beraune ofthe inherent vanabiity In pillar strength, however, i i immporant to consider what happens toa particule oomand-pilar mine plan fsomse of the pillars should exceed the peak strength at A and proceed {nto the postfaure aide aC "Enginers have known for some time sbout the postfire ‘behaviour of socks and the implications of this behaviour for imine sfey. However, iis another matter 10 translate that Inowiedge into efficient and economic mine desis for the certaction of bedded deposi by roontand pilar cr other mining techniques, ‘Three diffrent approaches to. mineLOAD CONVERGENCE Fg. 3 Complete load-efomaton cave for pill Peak sen S00 Lato ds prose rt oA psctare design ae propose to control CPE— tent loads fom he tibutary area formula and abutment Toads from gob ares in font and tothe sides ofthe acuve Inining zone. The strength ofa pili determined wid the ‘Mark Bieniswst formula for rectangular plas given by Se =s(e savosal ° nese Sis ins coal strength of 6.2 MPa, Wi pllar width, His plas height and Li pillar length A database of 130 case histories has becn collected. from room-and-pilar mines ‘hroughout the U.S.A, to very ARMPS. With a sabilty fac: tor of 1.5 only two of the 130 case histories experienced pillar failure. For a ability factor greater than 2.0 none ofthe cases showed future. Pilla splicing —a containment approach Fender kit fom pilacspliting operations appear to be porental candidates for failure even at shallow depths. For ‘xaimpley 3m x 12 m fenders ina dm seam have stability ‘etot of 2.0 at omly 36.m of cover. I sir blasts and massive collapse are not to rest fom paral pillaring, the sizeof the gob areas munt be minimized. To separate the gob areas ows of unepit development pillars can be left as a barter. ‘This strategy is analogous tothe way eubmarines are "com ‘pertmentaized Its based on two assumption: Kimiting the pan above the mined-out area render a bridging failure of the strong overburden les key and minimizing the size of the gob area would reduce the power ofan air blast resulting fama collapse hat di occu. “Table 1 shows that no major collapses have been docu: mented where the gob area war salle than 15 000 m2. In the five cases where the gob area was berween 15 000 and 19.000 m? about 60% ofthe incident resulted in mor dam age. Alo, none of the damaging incidents has occurred where the minimum dimension of the mined-ovt area wat less than 100m. On the bass ofthese data acceptable dimensions for 2 pilla-spliting operation might be a muximum area of 12 000'm? and a maximum with les than 90. For ear ple: on the assumption of 18 m > 18m centres and a Dine-entry system, with four ows split, the mined-out zea ADORED EET! ° os os Cet om Cy Os SOCSSRe SO ooo soomee sou _2 S00ee—e000s sO0sseeeo COSSSSe000s SOOMSBeRO! OOSSSSSOCOs sOOsSses0 = cI = EI rl Et Et a © son OCSSSes0008 SOOSSSeS00! 0s oot ooo0000G} Coen eee! oo000 a. 7 Poubleplarapiing pan fr scl: co sing 6 m Arte ens and 12m wade par () mien syste, 9 Om ‘of unepl plan for baer (8) nie anry sem, thre ross of ‘ipl pila for buses) scents te, to own a nap tas toe Base) saeney stem, sve ows of ans pias frwould have #minimom dimension of 72 m and an ‘out 11 000 m (Fig. 7(2) and ()- Foe the same pillar size ina siv-enty system, with five rows spl the minimum dimension would be 90 m and the area would be about 10000 m? (Fig. 710 and (). “The nest question i how many unspi rows should be left ‘berween these mined-out areas. The goa sto leave enough ofa barrier hat the fre of one gu area does aot spread to adjacent asus, ARMPS wes used to evaluate the losing fn unsph plas between two mined-ou areas, The program ‘was mosifed so chat two ‘Font gobs could be applied tothe tnspl pillars. The analyses were un with abutment anges of 50% which msmes that none of the load i cared By the 0b, buts wansfeced instead to the base. the fist set of analyses ro rows of use pills were used ab the barr. An ARMPS stably factor of 1.5 was Fig 9. Suggested sid coal barr width een wo areas where pals have Bees pt assumed to prevent the collapse of one gob area fom rigger ing the collapse ofan adjacent area. With a sabi factor of 15 only ewo of the 130 case histories with ARMPS showed pillar falure. Thre rows of pillars were used in the second set ‘of analyses, and the required stability factor was reduced (0 1.0 because of the greater stiffs of the barr. Pars on 1m 18m centres were used in al cases ‘Odher parameters that were vvied included the number of roves that mere spit (thre, four and five), the entry aidth (G5 and 6 m), the seam height (2, 25 and 3 em), and the umber of enuies in the secon (ive seven and nine). The feault are presented in the form of graphs (eg. Fit. 8), showing the suggerted maximum depth of cover for etch ‘combination of parameters. In genera for 35m entries ina 2.5m seam, i appear that two rows of unspit plas might bbe an adequate barser at depths fess than about 90 m, and ‘yee rows might be acepuable to about 170 m of cover. Tarrers must als be left between extracted panels These can be unsplit development pills or solid coal. IF unspit evelopment pillars ae used, the analysis in Fig, 8 should fpply. For solid coal burners Fig. 9 shows the suggested ‘wih, under the same loading assumprions as before. Fora 2.5-m seam a 17 m old erie ecems appropriate at 75 m of ‘cover ad 23 m might be needed at 120m, Sapp mai dep fo ro and the sows of np pic bars beeen ab tvs wh 5 Sm enter and 125m 12. ple ‘Small-centre mining—a prevention approach Square pillars are generally used in small-centre mining. ‘able I indicates that three collapses have involved 9m square pillars and one involved 12-m square pillars Square pillars can be designed to be collapse-tesistat in two wa "The fist to ietease ther WHT ratio. Since no capes Inve been documented where the 17H rato was greater than 3.0, design WH rato of £0 recommended to provide an adequate margin of safer. Pillar collapses may’also be avoided by maintaining a su- clendy large suabiliy factor. A design ARMPS stability facor of 20 is suggested for locarterm stbiliy. For a stabiie factor greater than 2.0 none of the ARMPS eate histories showed fare. A greater pillar stabiliy factor can be achieved by inceasng the pla width decreasing the extac- ion ratio, or both “These two design criteria have bron combined 10 develop sideline for smal-centre mining. Fig 10 was developed on the assumption of square plas with a stabi factor of 2.0 for 8 WH ratio of 4.0. When 6 m wide entries are used the Iinimum suggested pillar sce ae increased by about 6%. Tt should be noted that these design criteria ae only for control Ting massive pr collpaes At greater depts il sices may hive to be mewased beyond WH =4 to mainain an sldoquate tainty factor. Should piles of Wilf = 4 become ‘overloaded, however, a squeeze would be expected rather than a widden collapse.Fig 10. Surgexed minimum sua pillar sie for 5.5: and 6m creer Discussion and conclusions CPF is a potential problem faced at all room-and-pillar rines. I occurs when one pillar fails suddenly and thereby ‘overstesses the neighbouring pillars causing chem to fai, and 0 forth in very rapid succession, Very large mining areas can collapse via this mechanism within seconds and with hte oF ‘no warning. The collapse itself can pose grave danger 10 ‘nearby mining personnel, In addition, the collapse can induce 4 violent air blast that disrupts or destroys the ventilation system. Further grave danger to miners exists ifthe mine atmosphere becomes explosive or contaminated asa result of the CPF. "The study presented here has documented collapses in coal, metal and non-metal mines that have occurred within the past ewency years in the U.S.A. CPF, also known as “massive pillar collapse’, 'domino-type flue’ or ‘rapid pro- resive pillar collapse, is the likely mechanism behind these ‘major mine failures. The mechanics of CPF are well under- stood. Stran-softening behavious is the essential mechanical Characteristic of pillars that fil rapidly via this mechsnism Pillars that exhibit strain-softening behaviour undergo a rapid decrease in load-bearing capacity on reaching their ultimate strength. The suain-softening behaviour of pillars is in part material dependent; however, i also depends on pillar geom- cry. Plas with 2 low WH rato tend to exhibit a greater degree of strin-softening behaviour than those with a higher Wii ratio, which typealy show elstie plastic or strain-hard- ning matenal behaviour The mechanic of a CPF differ significantly from those of coal-mine bumps and rockburss. In a CD pillars fail vio- lently owing tthe applied vertical load and the post-fallure behaviour ‘of the pillars. Research shows that coal-mine bumps and rockbursts result from nearby mining-induced seismic events that damage susceptible mine workings and structures, The mechanics of how a mining-induced seismic vent damages # mine remains an important research topic ‘Thus, che design recommendations developed herein to com” trol CPF do not apply to coabmine bomps and rockburss For coalmine bump control pillars less than about 10 m wide, Le. yield pillars with WH ratios less than about 3-4, fenerally do not fil explosively in a mining-induced seismic vent, Pillars that are 15-25 m wide, i. abutment pillars With 2 WW ratio ranging from 5 to 8, are most susceptible to explosive flute, Pillars greater than 30 m wide with a Wi ratio greater than 15 generally do no fail explosively 242125 ‘The local mine stiffiess stability criterion developed by Selamon!® provides a means to distinguish between mine lay ‘us that fain a stable, non-violent manner and those which fain an unstable, violent manner via CPF. This stability x= terion suggests three design approaches to minimize the risk of CPF—contsinment, prevention and full extraction. In an ray of pillars that volate the stability enteron the contain- ‘ment approach applies. In this approach low WH-atio panel pillars that violate the stability criterion are surounded by high-17H barrier pillars that can shield the panel pillars from full tributary area stresses and ‘contain’ pane! pillar failure should it initiate, However, if all panel pillars in an arcay fatty the stability cteron of if their stably factor is very high (2), the prevention approach applies. The nane! pillars do not exhibit much strain-softening behaviour because thet. Wi ato is sufficiently high (probably greater than 4). In the full extraction approach the stably issue becomes a moot Point, because complete closure of the openings is assured ‘soon after retreat mining i completed 1r"Salamon M.D. G. Some appticacns of geomechanical mode! Tigi ockburst and elated researc. Keynote aes > Rost a my mes Young RF, Rodan Ba, 199) 2." Holee FM. Billington 5. and Zipf RK. Seismological and ‘nec slance comsraints onthe mechani of etapa inthe Book Clit Coat Mining Dore, Utah, USA Ine. Kock Mask Me Sony 34 1907, 27-, Sevan Ay Bryan JG. and Fouche J Some problems of sere enue and support in plat workings The Mong Enger 12, 4.Tousell I. and Riek C. Documentation and snaiie of « ma Sie tock alu athe Bausch sune Galena, Hl Rap fees 25 Srantata Vand Abe JF. The dieences in underground ‘ins dewatering withthe appicnon of ering or beeing ining ‘method. Mine Wer and she noma 13) 02,1994 20 ©. Davidon, | Ground say evar Troy mime ID No, Bicorier emer, CO: Mine Safer and Heals Administ, 17,15 p. 1 Swanson PL and Bote F. The magnitude 5.5 seismic event {cals of he Satay tons mine: ana of pla oor fate ‘iy U8. Bara of in OF 86-95, 1998, 2p BAe Salty and Health Adminieation Report of technic ‘evcsgaton,sndeqroun’! non meal mine, mine Colle scent, Sahay mine, olay Minerals Ine Green Roe, Sevier COUN ‘Wyoming, February 3, 1995, 1996, 3. Spc Accident soverigaon report—Unimin Specialy Mines, Inc Bick 28 1D No 11-00998. Duluth, MBE Mine Ssfeyand eats Amina, 192), 2p Tot Benk JM, a a. Accel imvartgation report~Akzo Nobel Sui, Ine ID."No. 30.0602 Uhmabargh, PAT Mine Safe tnd ith Admitatrton, 1998), 141 p 1 Mas Cy Chase F Rand Campoli A. A Anis of rereat ‘ining pile say P14 Co. Gnd cnt in mang Wat Veta Ur 1985, 68.7 12" Das MN nfgence of ivi mo on postr bbs tour oc. J'Mn geo in 4 1986, 72-87 Ta “Chase Fi, Zpt RK. tnd Mark CTs muse cla of at plas” cage sons om the Unites Stats InP 1308 Con ‘1 Gnd conta i mining Wot Vga Une, 994 69-20. 14 "Benawah Zn sy srengh and deformation character (sof coal Bont Ge, 2, 1988, 325 40. 15. Wagner Hy Deermiaton of the complete lnd-dforation taracenscs of coal pulls. Ie Pie Sed Tne Coure Hack ‘Mechames Navonal Academy of Scenes, ol 28, 1974 107681 Yeo Wan Heerea, W. Lo nim determination of complete stress-strain crates Of large cal species. 7. A Ime ‘Mon val 95,49, 307-17 11 Shlly'W. Ay, Wolgmet J. and Wang ED. Coal pillar strength and defortapon prediction tough Ihboatry sample est Ing Proc Jan US. ook chan tmp, Cabra ha of ‘Movs, Gli, CO, 1977, 205. 0 285.3 18. Salamon MLD. G, Sali nsbliy and desion of ple srokings Ine 7Rack Mack Nn Se, 197061 19, Zipt RK. Anal and design meods 0 contol cascading Puls are i roomand-lr mince In eons cheng Sg Bunsls ZT cd terse alkema, 1998), 25-64 BURRS E sit ak pe pot Eee 188, 21. ‘Chmse FB. a al Pracscl pects of motte roof support ‘Sage In Pre 150 Cn. Gund ema ning (Gaiden, CO: {Cora Sched af Mize, 1996, 22." Urosek By Zucheli D_ Rand Bester D. A Gob vention ‘lender stems US. coal mines SME Prep 95-78, 1995, 5p. 2a" Tannachiooe AT and Zeank J.C. Occarence and reed ‘in of col mie bumps: hitorcal sew In Poe chon atom of ln land harkech mer Mle He Cas Spec Pal U8. Bawa hin 01-95, 1995, 27-68, 24. “Guana M. Coat pil design for deep condone an opera ‘onal approach Ia Pr Wor Coal lar mach and deg Taamchione AT. oak eds If Gre US. Bar Mime TC 9315, 1502, 216-34 25. "Koctler JR. Longa gnterond evolution and performance at ‘Be Sunny Coal Miner SAE Pup 8-179, 1908 11 p ‘Awchors Ri. Kas ipte rcived a PD. n mining ening in 1988 Penasvania Sate Unversity, U.S.A He worked forte former US ‘rca of Mines ven 1988 unl 1995 before suturing hit eure postion a senior learn mining engineering a he Univer of Queens ‘Adin: Deparment of Mining, Minerals nd Materials Engineering, ‘University of Queensland, Besbane, Quetsland 4072, Austra ‘Christopher Mark recived PRD. in mining engineering in 1987 ‘bom Penzyivania State Unive, U'S.A. He as worked fr the {ormer US Burs of Mines, so the Mining Resch Dwvison of ‘he Nasonal Isat fo Occupations! Solty aed Heals since 1987 spd he ofthe Fire, Explovons and Ground Faure Prevention ‘ranch hase at NIOSH Pebur Reach Laboceoy