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ANATOMY: The study of structure; the composition and organization of living systems
- Microscopic (fine/minute) anatomy: structures that cant be seen with the naked eye.
Cytology the study of cells
Histology the study of tissues
- Macroscopic (gross) anatomy: structures that can be seen with the unaided eye.
Surface anatomy: general form, shape, superficial makings
Regional anatomy: structures in a specific area of the body
Systemic anatomy: one organ system at a time
ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
Anatomical landmarks all descriptions assume Standard Anatomical Position (SAP)
-is a reference point whenever discussing location
- SAP the positions
standing erect and upright,
feet are parallel and flat on the floor
head is level and the eyes look forward
arms are at the side of the body
palms are facing forward
thumbs are pointing away from the body
- Supine: laying on the back face up
- Prone: laying on the stomach face down
Sections or Planes
- Frontal (coronal) vertical (longitudinal) cut
- Transverse horizontal (cross-section) cut
- Sagittal vertical (longitudinal) cut
midsagittal right down the middle
parasagittal not mid-line (i.e. to the side)
Direction or Location
Anterior in from or toward the front
Posterior in back of or toward the back
- Insertion: moves
SMOOTH MUSCLE
- Location: line internal viscera
- Involuntary
- Functions:
- Motility of gastrointestinal tract
* Peristalsis: wave-like contraction / relaxation causing a squeezing action
- Childbirth
- Vasoconstriction / vasodilation
- Structure:
* Organ level: walls of hollow organs
- multi-layered, multi-directional sheets
* Fiber (cell) level: spindle shaped
- mono-nucleated
- non-striated
* Organelle level: myofibrils
- no sacromere arrangement
* Molecular level: myofilaments
-Properties:
- Slow, prolonged, wave-like contraction
- Autorythmic
- Can be stretched without damage
- Resist fatigue
HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM NERVOUS TISSUE
Introduction
- The nervous system is the bodys primary communication and control system.
* Along with the endocrine system, the nervous system controls and adjusts the activities of
other systems by way of chemical communication.
- The nervous system has relatively swift but brief effects
- The endocrine system has slower but longer-lasting effects
Nervous System: Anatomical (Structural) Organization (Fig. 13.1)
- Two Structural subdivisions:
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
- brain and spinal cord
- processing and coordinating
- intelligence, memory, learning, emotion
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- neural tissue outside the CNS: nerve trunks leading to/from the brain and spinal
cord
- provides sensory information to the CNS
- carries motor commands to peripheral tissies
Nerve Cells
- Nervous tissue is mostly cells
* Very little intercellular material
- Two distinct cell types form nervous tissue:
* Neurons = nerve cells = nerve fibers
- Excitable cells
- Transfer and process information in the nervous system
* Neuroglia, or glial cells
- Non-excitable cells
- Support, protect, isolate neurons
Characteristics of Neurons
- Neurons have a high metabolic rate
- Neurons have extreme longevity
- Neurons typically are non-mitotic
Neuron Structure (Fig 13.3)
- A typical neuron has a cell body and processes, called dendrites and an axon.
- Cell body (soma) serves as the neurons control center, and is responsible for receiving, processing,
and sending nerve impulses
* May be smooth or star-shaped
* Contains:
- Single, large round nucleus
- Clusters of ribosomes
- Microtubles extending into axon
- Many Mitochondria
* Where soma are concentrated:
- They form ganglia in the PNS
- They for nuclei in the CNS
- Processes
* Extensions off of the cell body that conduct electrical impulses
* Types:
- Dendrites: short, highly branched externsions
* carry impulses toward the cell body
* dendrites are often called receptors
- Axon: long, slender, single extension (may be highly branched at the end)
* carry impulses away from the cell body
* insulated by neuroglia
* Axon branches end in bulbs or knobs called: terminal filaments
HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
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HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
- Sacral plexus (Fig 14.12)
* L-5 + S-1 - > 4
* Innervates hip region, posterior thigh, calf, and foot
* Includes sciatic nerve, which branches into:
- Tibial nerve
- Common fibular (or peroneal) nerve
Reflexes
- Rapid, automatic, involuntary reactions of muscles or glands to a stimulus
- Awareness of the stimulus occurs after the reflex action has been completed, in time to correct or
avoid a potentially dangerous situation
- Components of a Reflex Arc (Fig 14.14)
* Always begins at a receptor in the PNS
* Communicates with the CNS
* Ends at a peripheral effector (muscle or gland)
- Reflex testing in a clinical setting
* Reflexes can be used to test specific muscle groups and specific nerves or segments of the
spinal cord
* Consistently abnormal reflex response may indicate damage to the nervous system or
muscles
* A reflex response may be normal, hypoactive (slow), or hyperactive (exaggerated)
Cranial Nerves (Fig 16.22 and Table 16.12)
- Components of the PNS that connect to the brain rather than the spinal cord
* There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves
* Cranial nerves are numbered using Roman numerals
- Pass through various foramina in the skull
- May be sensory, motor, or mixed
- All innervate the head or neck
* Except the Vagus Nerve (X) (10)
CRANIAL NERVES
- 1. (I) Olfactory (special sensory)
* Origin: nasal cavity
* Function: smell
- 2. (II) Optic (special sensory)
* Origin: retina of eye
- Forms optic chiasma
- Terminates in occipital cortex
- 3. (III) Oculomotor (motor)
* Function: Eye movements, eyelid and iris movements
- 4. (IV) Trochlear (motor)
* Function: Eye movements
- 5. (V) Trigeminal (mixed; sensory and motor)
* Branches:
- Ophthalmic (sensory): orbital structures, nasal cavity, skin of forehead, superior
eyelids, eyebrows, part of the nose
- Maxillary (sensory): inferior eyelids, upper lip, gums, teeth, cheek, nose, palate,
and part of pharynx
- Mandibular (mixed):sensory from lower gums, teeth, lips, palate, tongue, and
motor to muscles of mastication
- 6. (VI) Abducens (motor)
* Function: eye movements
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HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
- 7. (VII) Facial (mixed)
* Functions:
- Sensory from taste receptors on anterior 2/3 of the tongue
- Motor to muscles of facial expression; lacrimal and salivary glands
- 8. (VIII) Vestibulocochlear (special sensory) (also called acoustic or auditory nerve)
* Origin: receptors of the inner ear (vestibule and cochlea)
* Function: balance and equilibrium (vestibular branch); hearing (cochlear branch)
- 9. (IX) Glossopharyngeal (mixed)
* Functions:
- Sensory: taste on posterior 1/3 of tongue and pressure on the throat
- Motor: swallowing and salivation
- 10. (X) Vagus (mixed)
* Functions to/from chest and abdomen:
- Sensory: visceral pain
- Motor: control of heart, lungs, and g.i. tract
- 11. (XI) Accessory (motor)
* To/from muscles of the neck and upper back
- 12. (XII) Hypoglossal (motor)
* Functions: tongue movements
(Mnemonic for cranial nerves)
Oh Once One Takes The Anatomy Final, Very Good Vacations Are Had
Regeneration of PNS Axons
- PNS axons are vulnerable to
- A damaged axon can regenerate, however, if at least
- PNS axon regeneration depends upon three factors:
* The amount of damage
* Neurolemmocyte secretion of growth factors
* The distance between
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, EFFERENT (motor) DIVISION, AUTONOMIC RESPONSE SYSTEM (ANS)
Introduction
- Routine, involuntary adjustments in physiological systems are made by the ANS (Autonomic
Nervous System)
* The ANS regulates body temperature and coordinates cardiovascular, respiratory,
digestive, excretory, and reproductive functions
* The ANS adjusts internal water, electrolyte, nutrient, and dissolved gas concentration in
body fluids
- Maintains homeostasis: stable internal body environment
Somatic NS (SNS) Vs. Autonomic NS (ANS)
- SNS and ANS are both part of the Peripheral NS (PNS)
* SNS operates under our conscious control
* ANS functions are involuntary
- SNS
* Uses somatic sensory neurons to conduct stimulus information from a sensory receptor,
such as a tactile receptor in the skin
* Somatic motor neurons innervate skeletal muscle fibers
- ANS also utilizes sensory and motor neurons
* Visceral sensory neurons provide input to activate the ANS
* The ANS is Visceral Motor only
- It is composed entirely of motor neurons
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HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
- The ANS differs from the somatic nervous system in the arrangement of the neurons connecting
the CNS to the effector organs:
* The ANS features two neurons between the CNS and peripheral effector
- A preganglionic neuron and a ganglionic neuron
* The preganglionic neurons (visceral motor neurons located in the CNS) send their axons,
called preganglionic fibers, to synapse on the ganglionic neurons, whose cell bodies are
located outside the CNS, in autonomic ganglia
- Ganglia: collections of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS
* Axons from the ganglionic neurons are called postganglionic fibers because they carry
impulses away from the ganglion
- Postganglionic fibers innervate peripheral tissues and organs, such as cardiac and
smooth muscle, adipose tissue, and glands
Two Divisions of the ANS (17.1)
- Sympathetic
* Usually excitatory
* Fight or flight response
- Parasympathetic
* Usually inhibitory
* Rest and digest response
- Dual Motor Innvervation
* Every effector is supplied with one sympathetic and one parasympathetic fiber
- Have antagonistic effects (opposite effects)
* Exceptions, receive only sympathetics:
- Adrenal glands
- Sweat glands
- Arrector Pili muscles
- Most blood vessels
Sympathetic Division (Fig 17.2)
- Thoracolumbar (T1-L2)
- Chemical neurotransmitter: Norepinephrine
- Fibers are termed: adrenergic
- Short preganglionic fibers, long postganglionic fibers (Fig 17.10)
- Axons branch profusely, allowing each neuron to influence a number of visceral organs so
they can mobilize simutaneously
- Generally excitatory
* Preparation for emergency or physical stress
* Effects:
- Increases HR (heart rate)/ BP (blood pressure) (vasoconstricts blood vessels)
- Dilates pupils
- Raises respiratory rate and volume (dilates bronchioles)
- Stimulates sweating
- Increases alertness
- Decreases digestive activity
- Decreases urine output
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HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
- Sympathetic Chains (Fig 17.3a, 17.4)
* Each is located immediately lateral to the vertebral column
* A sympathetic chain looks much like a beaded necklace:
- The string of the necklace is composed of bundles of axons
- The beads are the sympathetic chain (or paravertebral) ganglia, which house
sympathetic ganglionic neuron cell bodies
* There are 12 pairs of thoracic and 3 pair of lumbar ganglia receiving preganglionic neurons
* Rami are axon bundles that link the spinal nerves with the sympathetic chain
- White rami contain short, myelinated, preganglionic fibers
* Branch from spinal nerves to enter chain ganglia
- Gray rami contain long, unmyelinated, postganglionic fibers
* Branch away from chain ganglia and re-merge with spinal somatic nerves
* Splanchnics: myelinated, preganglionic fibers passing through (i.e. not synapsing)
paravertebral ganglia to innervate abdominal organs
- Form 3 peripheral (collateral) ganglia in the abdominal cavity (Fig 17.3b)
Parasympathetic Division (Fig 17.7)
- Craniosacral
- Chemical transmitter: acetylcholine
* Termed: cholinergic
- Long preganglionic fibers, short postganglionic fibers (Fig 17.10)
- Generally suppressive
* Help maintain quiet activity; metabolic recovery
* Effects:
- Decreases HR (heart rate) / BP (blood pressure)
- Constricts pupils
- Normalizes respiratory rate / volume (constricts bronchioles)
- Increases digestive secretions and smooth muscle activity
- Stimulates urination and defacation
- Note: no effect on blood vessels
- Fibers do not merge with nor travel in spinal nerve trunks
- Cranial Fibers (Fig 17.8)
* Arise in the brain and travel with 4 cranial nerves:
- Oculomotor (III)
- Facial (VII)
- Glossopharyngeal (IX)
- Vagus (X)
* Form 4 ganglia in head near visceral effector
* Postganglionic fibers end in: iris, salivary glands, heart, bronchioles, g.i. tract, gall bladdder
- Sacral Fibers (Fig 17.8)
* Exit from ventral roots at S-2 through S-4, then travel independently to ganglia
* Ganglia (terminal ganglia), near visceral effector, not paravertebral
* Postganglionic fibers end in pelvic viscera: colon, bladder, genitalia, and reproductive
tract
Control of ANS by CNS
- Hypothalamus
* Coordinating center
* Controls ANS actions of medulla
* Controls thermoregulation, food and water intake
- Medulla
* Controls respiration, heart activity, blood pressure and g.i. secretions
- Cerebral cortex
* Certain psychological states (biofeedback, yoga) can influence hypothalamus, and
therefore, the ANS
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HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, GENERAL AND SPECIAL SENSES
Introduction
- A sensory receptor is a modified, specialized cell, cell process, or complex organ that monitors
conditions in the body or external environment
* A sensory receptor is sensitive to a specific type of stimulus
- The sensory information arriving at the CNS is called a sensation
- Two functional classes of receptors:
* General senses: temperature, pain, touch, stretch, pressure
- Distributed throughout the skin and organs
* Special senses: taste, smell, vision, equilibrium, sound
- Housed within complex organs in the head
Types of Receptors
- three types of receptors based on stimulus location
- Exteroceptors: detect stimuli from the external environment
* Mechanoreceptors: touch, pressure
* Thermoreceptors: temperature
* Nociceptors: pain
* Special senses are considered exteroceptors because they usually interpret external
stimuli
- Photoreceptors: light
- Chemoreceptors: taste, smell
- Interoceptors: also called visceroceptors (Fig 18.4, 18.5)
* Detect stimuli in internal organs (viscera):
* Are primarily stretch receptors in the smooth muscle of these organs
* Also report on chemical change, temperature
- Proprioceptors
* Located in muscles, tendons, and joints
* Detect body and limb movements, skeletal muscle contraction, stretch, and position, and
changes in joint capsule structure
THE EYE: Vision
- Visual receptors (photoreceptors) in the eyes detect light, color, and movement
- Accessory structures (Fig 18.19, 18.20):
* Extrinsic skeletal muscles (6)
* Lacrimal gland
- Located in superio-lateral orbit
- Excretes lacrimal fluid (tears)
* Composed of: water, salts, bacteria-destroying enzyme
* Function: Keeps the exposed surface moist, clean and lubricated
* Exits by way of: nasolacrimal duct
* Conjunctiva
- Outer, transparent, mucous-membrane
- Covers inner surface of eyelids and anterior of eye
- lubricates, moistens, and detects foreign objects
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HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
Three Tunics or Layers (Fig 18.21, 18.22a)
- Fibrous (outer) layer
* Sclera
- White, DICT (dense irregular connective tissue)
- Supports, protects, shapes the eye
* Cornea
- Transparent, convex collagen fibers
-Anterior 1/6 of the orb
- Serves for preliminary focus, called refraction
- Vascular (middle) layer
* Choroid
- Vascular, darkly pigmented (w/melanin)
- Contains ciliary
- Absorbs light, preventing scatter and reflection
* Ciliary body
- Anterior portion to/continuous with choroid
- Serrated ring of ciliary (smooth) muscles, covered by ciliary processes (epithelial
folds)
- Focus lens by way of fine, transparent fibrils called suspensory ligaments:
attached around circumference of lens
* Lens
- Avascular, pliable, thick, transparent, biconvex
- Changes shape via action of ciliary muscles for refraction
* Iris
- Anterior most portion of middle layer
- Attached to ciliary muscles; between cornea and lens
- Contains circular and radial smooth muscles (Circular constricts and Radial Dilates)
- Creates opening called pupil, that allows passage of light
- May be pigmented with melanin
- Nervous (inner) layer
* Retina
- Photoreceptive layer or rods (light) and cones (color)
- Maintained by branches of central artery
- Includes:
* Macula lutea center of retina
* Central fovea inside macula; highest cone cell density
* Optic disc (blind spot) at optic nerve; no rods or cones
* Optic nerve
- Protected by meninges; exits eye
Cavities and Chambers of the Eye (Fig 18.22b)
- The internal space of the eye is subdivided by the lens into two separate cavities (or segments)
* Anterior cavity
* Posterior cavity
- The anterior cavity is:
* the space anterior to the lens and posterior to the cornea
- The iris of the eye subdivides the anterior cavity further into two chambers
* Anterior chambers is between the iris and cornea
* Posterior chamber is between the lens and the iris
- The anterior cavity contains aqueous humor (Fig 18.24)
* Produced continuously by processes of ciliary body
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HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
- Cochlea (Fig 18.17)
* 3 parallel tubes within cancellous bone
* The scala vestibuli is continuous with the scala tympani
* The scala tympani
- Contains perilymph fluid
- Conducts fluid pulsations from the oval window (connecting the stapes of the
middle ear) to the round window
* The scala media (cochlear duct)
- Lies between the other two scala
- Filled with endolymph fluid
- Houses the spiral organ (organ of Corti)
- The roof of the scala media, separating it from the scala vestibuli, is the vestibular
membrane
- The floor of the scala media is called the basilar membrane
* supports the organ of Corti
* Spiral organ (organ of Corti) (Fig 18.17e)
- Extends the length of the scala media
- Sensory hair cells mounted along the basilar membrane
- Hairs embed in overhanging techorial membrane
- Vibration of basilar membrane -- >
* Movement (bending) of hair cells -- >
* Converted into electrical impulses -- >
* Carried to brain via the cochlear division of the vestibulocochlear nerve
(VIII)
* Hearing (Fig 18.18)
- Sound vibrations travel from the tympanic membrane through the ossicles -- >
- Stapes oscillates against the oval window -- >
- Waves in the parilymph of the scala vestibuli -- >
- Waves then carry to the scala tympani -- >
- Basilar membrane vibrates up and down -- >
- Hair cells in the spiral organ move with the basilar membrane, but overlying
tectorial membrane does not move -- >
- Hair cells bend, releasing neurotransmitters -- >
- Excite cochlear nerve fibers, which carry the information to the brain -- >
- Fluid pulsation are dampened at the round window
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HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
THE HEART
Introduction
- The blood must stay in motion to maintain homeostasis
* The heart contracts to keep blood moving
- The volume of blood pumped by the heart can vary widely, between 5-30 liters per minute
- The heart is a small organ; approximately the size of a clenched fist
- The heart is located between the left and right pleural sacs within the thoracic cavity
* In a space call the mediastinum (Fig 21.2)
Layers of the Heart
- Pericardium (outer layer) (Fig 21.2, 21.3)
* External serous membrane (simple squamous epithelium & areolar CT and DICT (outside))
- Parietal pericardium
* Continuous with the thoracic wall and pleura of the lungs
- Visceral pericardium or epicardium
* Adheres directly to the heart
* Function:
- Produces serous fluid to reduce friction
- Myocardium (middle layer) (Fig 21.3, 21.7)
* Cardiac muscle (Fig 21.3)
- Thicker on the left side, to assist systemic circulation
* Function:
- Pumps blood
- Endocardium (inner layer) (Fig 21.3)
* Simple squamous epithelium
- Calledendothelium
* Lines all heart chambers and valves (connected by areolar CT)
* Function:
- Decreases friction of blood cell against heart walls
Heart Chambers (Fig 21.7)
- Atria (Right and Left)
* Receiving chambers for incoming venous blood
* Superior; divided by interartrial septum
*Calledauriclesontheoutsideoftheheart
* Prenatal connection called foramen ovale
- For blood to bypass lungs (prenatal only)
- Becomes fossa ovale after birth
- Ventricles (Right and Left)
* Pumping chambers for ongoing arterial blood
* Inferior; divided by interventricular septum
Heart Valves (Fig 21.7, 21.8, 21.9)
- Prevent back flow of blood
- Continuous with endocardium
- 2 sets:
* Atrioventricular (AV)
- Between atria and ventricles
- Right = tricuspid Left = bicuspid or mitral
- Flaps restrained by chordae tendineae (only the AV valves are restrained)
- Connect to papillary muscles
* Anchor cusps in closed position,sotheydontblowopenduring
ventricular contraction
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HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
* Semilunar (SL)
- Right = pulmonary; between R ventricle and pulmonary trunk
- Left = aortic; between L ventricle and aorta
- Attach directly to vessel walls (no papillary muscles)
- Seal by overlapping of 3 cusps
Cardiac Cycle (Fig 21.11)
- Atrial Relaxation
- Blood enters both atria
Ventricular Contraction (systole)
- Blood leaves ventricles
- AV valves close
- SL valves open
Followed by:
- Atrial Contraction
- Blood leaves both atria
Ventricular Relaxation (diastole)
- Blood fills ventricles
- AV valves open
- SL valves close
Major Vessels Associated with the Heart (Fig 21.6, 21.7, 21.10)
- Inferior Vena Cava
* Vein entering lower right atrium
* Receives blood from lower extremities and abdomen
- Superior Vena Cava
* Vein entering upper right atrium
* Receives blood from head and upper extremities
- Coronary Sinus
* Vein entering lower right atrium
* Collects Venus blood from coronary veins
- From myocardium
- Pulmonary Arteries, L/R
* From R ventricle to lungs
* Fetal connection with aorta = ductus arteriosus
- Fetal bypass of the lungs
- Becomes ligamentum arteriosus after birth
- Pulmonary Veins (4)
* From lungs to atrium
- Aorta (aortic arch -- > thoracic aorta)
* Leaves L ventricle
* 5 initial branches:
- R & L Coronary arteries; first branches of the aorta to myocardium
- R Brachiocephalic artery
- L Common Carotid artery
- L Subclavian artery
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HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
Blood Flow Through the Heart
- Deoxygenated blood enters the R atrium by way of the Superior and Inferior Vena Cava and the
Coronary Sinus -- >
- Passes through the tricuspid valve -- >
- R ventricle -- >
- Passes through the pulmonary SL valve -- >
- R & L Pulmonary arteries -- >
- Lungs, where blood reoxygenates -- >
- 4 pulmonary veins -- >
- L atrium -- >
- Passes through bicuspid valve -- >
- L ventricle -- >
- Passes through aortic SL valve -- >
- Aorta -- >
- Heart muscle and systems
Coordination and Control of the Heart (Fig 21.12)
- Cardiac muscle cells have an intrinsic ability to generate and conduct impulses
- Pacemaker = sinoatrial (SA) node
* Superior portion of R atrium
* Sets contractile pace for both atria
- Receiver = atrioventricular (AV) node
* On floor of R atrium
* Accepts electrical excitation from atria; passes them to:
- Transmitter = atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His)
* Spreads excitation through ventricular walls via the conduction myofibers (Purkinje fibers)
- Travel through the apex of the heart, where the contraction starts, and moves
superiorly
Innervation of the Heart (Fig 21.13)
- Innervated by the autonomic nervous system
- Sympathetic nerves (T1 T5)
* Increases heart rate and force of contraction
- Parasympathetic nerves (Vagus)
* Decreases heart rate and force of contraction
VESSELS AND CIRCULATION
Introduction
- The cardiovascular system is a closed system that circulates blood
- There are two circuits within this system (Fig 21.1)
* Pulmonary circuit supplies the lungs
* Systemic circuit supplies the rest of the body
- Blood is pumped into both circuits simultaneously
Blood Vessels: Arteries (Fig 22.1, 22.2, 22.9)
- Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart
* Except the pulmonary artery
- Three tissue layers (Tunics)
* Tunica interna (innermost)
- Composition: simple squamous epithelium (endothelium) over elastic connective
tissue
- Function: forms smooth surface to decrease friction of blood cells on vessel walls
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HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
* Tunica media (middle)
- Composition: elastic fibers and circular smooth muscle
- Function:
* Vasocontriction (contraction)
* Vasodilation (opening)
- Regulated by: sympathetic fibers of the ANS
* Tunica externa (outermost)
- Composition: fibrous connective tissue
- Function: protects, strengthens, anchors vessels to surrounding structures
Blood Vessels: Veins (Fig 22.1, 22.1, 22.20)
- Carry deoxygenated blood toward heart
* Except pulmonary vein
* Sustain a lower pressure than arteries, therefore are collapsible
- Three tissue layers (Tunics) that are thinner than arterial layers (but same histology)
* Tunica interna
- Less connective tissue than arteries of similar size
* Tunica media
- Less smooth muscle than arteries
* Tunica externa
- Slightly thicker than arteries
- Venous valves (Fig 22.5)
- Two endothelial flaps
- Prevent backflow, especially in veins below the heart
* Found in veins where blood is carried away against the force of gravity
* None in the thoracic or abdominal cavities
Blood Vessels: Capillaries (Fig 22.3)
- Microscopic vessels carrying blood between arterioles and venules
- One cell layer: Tunica interna
* Composition: simple squamous epithelium (endothelium)
*Function:permitsdiffusionofO/CO,nutrients,andwastesto/fromadjacenttissuecells
* Approximately the same diameter as a RBC (red blood cell) to allow RBCs to pass single file
- Capilary beds (Fig 22.4)
* Branching networks of capillaries to permeate tissue cells
* Precapillary sphincters
- Layer of smooth muscle wrapped around a capillary at the entrance of a capillary
bed
- Controls the amount of blood entering that tissue
*OpenswithincreasedtissueCO
*CloseswithdecreasedtissueCOorsympatheticstimulation
- Pulmonary circulation (Fig 22.7, 22.8)
* Circuit through the lungs
* For reoxygenation of the blood and elimination ofCO
* Pulmonary trunk
- Exits the R ventricle and branches into R & L pulmonary arteries, carrying
deoxygenated blood to both lungs
- Branches become smaller and smaller - >
* Capillary network
- Surrounds alveoli (air sac) within the lungs
- PicksupOandreleasesCO- >
* Pulmonary veins (4, 2 right and 2 left)
- Carry reoxygenated blood from both lungs to L atrium
Systemic Circulation (Fig 22.7)
- Circuit to
* Deliver oxygen / nutrients throughout the body to all organs 4
* Return CO(andotherwasteproducts)totheheartandlungs
HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
Hepatic portal circulation (Fig 22.26)
- Circuit from organs of the digestive tract to the liver
- Functions:
* Stones, modifies, or detoxifies substances from the g.i. tract
* Adds plasma proteins and glucose to blood
- (Hepatic) Portal vein receives blood from:
* Splenic vein
* Gastric vein
* Superior mesentaric vein
* Inferior mesenteric vein
- Returns blood to systemic circulation via hepatic veins - > inferior vena cava
BLOOD
Introduction
- Specialized type of connective tissue
- Suspension of
* Plasma: non-living, fluid portion
* Formed elements (Blood cells): living cells and cell fragments
- 5-6 liters of blood in adult man
- 4-5 liters of blood in adult woman
Functions of Blood (in general)
- OandCOtransportandexchange
- Nutrient and waste transport
- Hormone transport
- Thermoregulation
* When blood is diverted to/from skin to control heat loss/gain
- Antibody circulation
* Providing immunity and infection fighting
- Coagulation
* Blood clotting
Composition of the Blood (Fig 20.1, Table 20.2)
- Plasma
*90%water
* Cell nutrients
- Simple sugars, amino acids, lipids
* Wastes
- Urea, ammonia
* Hormones
* Blood gases
- OandCO
* Plasma proteins: produced in the liver and added through the hepatic-portal circulation:
- Albumin - > maintains osmotic pressure (water balance)
- Globulins - > antibodies and element transport
- Fibrinogen and Prothrombin - > blood clotting
- Red blood cells (RBCs) (Fig 20.2)
* Called erythrocytes
* Small, non-nucleated, biconcave
- For efficient diffusion
* Contain hemoglobin
- heme = red, iron-containing pigment
*CarriesO
- globin = protein
*CarriesCO
* Normal levels: 4.3 5.8 million/mm
- Hematocrit:%agebloodvolumethatisRBC(normal=44%) 5
HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
- White blood cells (WBCs) (Fig 20.5)
* Called leukocytes
* Have nuclei and other organelles
* Normal levels: 4,000-7,000 per mm
* Two types:
- Granular leukocytes
* Neutrophils: bacterial phagocytes
- Enzymes in lysosomes destroy bacterial cell walls
* Eosinophils: combat parasitic infection and allergens
- Release digestive enzymes
* Basophils: release anticoagulants and histamine
- Increases permeability of capillary walls > swelling to dilute
toxins of bacteria
- Agranular leukocytes: form in thymus or bone marrow at birth, then distributed
to lymph tissue
* Monocytes: move outside capillaries as macrophages
- To ingest foreign cells and debris
* Lymphocytes: produce antibodies for immunity
- Most important cells in the immune system
- Platelets (Fig 20.6)
* Formed in red bone marrow
* Hemocytoblast (precursor/stem cell) -- >
Megakaryocyte -- >
Fragments are called Platelets
- Assist in blood clotting
Red Blood Cell Formation
- Called erythropoiesis
* Stimulated by erythropoietin: a hormone from the kidney
- ReleaseistriggeredbydecreasedOintissues
- Develop in red bone marrow (Fig 20.8)
* Hemocytoblast (precursor/pluripotential stem cell) -- >
Erythroblast, (hemoglobin forms -- >
Reticulocyte, (nucleus expelled) -- >
Erythrocyte (mature RBC)
Red Blood Cell Destruction
- Takes place in liver or spleen
- Macrophages phagocytize worn or damaged cells
- Globin returns to circulation
- Heme is broken down:
* Iron is recycled or stored
* Bilirubin is secreted in bile
Leukocyte Production (Fig 20.8)
- Granular types formed in red bone marrow
* Hemocytoblast -- >
Myeloblast -- >
Eosinophil / Basophil / Neutrophil
6
HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
Blood Disorders
- Anemias: diminished capacity to transport oxygen via erythrocytes
* Hemorrhagic; blood loss
* Iron deficiency; decreased hemoglobin
*Pernicious;immatureRBCsduetolowB
* Aplastic; bone marrow malfunction
* Sickle cell; genetic hemoglobin defect
- Leukemia: cancer of lumph tissue or bone marrow
* Excessive immature or old leukocytes crowding out healthy blood cells
- Mononucleosis
* Viral infection causing high levels of lymphocytes
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Interoduction
- The lymphatic system is an accessory to the circulatory and digestive systems.
- The lymphatic system includes (Fig 23.1):
* Lymphatic capillaries and vessels
* Lymph
* Lymphocytes
* Lymphatic tissues and organs
- Including lymph nodes
Functions
- Produce, maintain, and distribute lymphocytes (agranular WBCs)
- Filter and returns lost tissue fluid (lymph) to the bloodstream
* Thus maintaining normal blood volume
- Provide an alternate route for the transport of hormones, nutrients, and waste products
- Receive fatty food products from the small intestine
Lymphatic Capillaries (Fig 23.2)
- Blind (closed at one end), simple endothelial tubes
* Originate in peripheral tissues
* Found adjacent to blood capillaries within loose CT (connective tissue)
* Highly permeable
- Uneven distribution
* None in CNS, epidermis, cartilage
- Act as one-way valves
* When interstitial fluid pressure rises, the margins of the endothelial cell membranes push
into the lymphatic capillary luman and allow interstitial fluid to enter
- Lacteals
* The small intestine contains special types of lymphatic capillaries called lacteals
* Lacteals pick up not only interstitial fluid, but also dietary lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins
* The lymph of this area has a milky color due to the lipid and is called chyle
Lymphatic Vessels (Fig 23.3)
- Lymphatic capillaries merge to form lymphatic vessels, which deliver lymph to the venous system
- Very thin
* Composed of the same 3 tunics as blood vessels, but thinner, and more permeable
- Contain many valves
* To help direct the flow of lymph (toward heart only)
- Travel between connective tissue and skeletal muscles
* Contraction of which help the lymph travel
- Lymph vessel destination (23.4)
* Thoracic duct
- Enters bloodstream at junction of the left subclavian/jugular vein
- Drains entire left and lower right side of the body
* Right lymphatic duct
- Enters bloodstream at junction of the right subclavian/jugular vein 7
- Drains upper right side of the body only
HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
Lymph
- Consists of:
* Interstitial fluid (reabsorbed tissue fluid)
- Has filtered through the blood capillary walls and entered the loose CT
surrounding the capillaries
- Similar to blood plasma, but with a lower concentration of proteins
* Lymphocytes
- Cells responsible for the immune response
- Produce antibodies
- Most important cells in the immune system!
* Macrophages
* Platelets and fat globules
Lymphocytes are the primary cells of the lymphatic system, and they are responsible for specific immunity
(via antibody production).
- They respond to the presence of:
* Invading organisms, such as bacteria and viruses
* Abnormal body cells, such as virus-infected cells or cancer cells
* Foreign proteins, such as the toxins released by some bacteria
- Types of Lymphocytes (Fig 23.6)
* T-lymphocytes (also called T-cells)
* B-lymphocytes (also called B-cells)
* NK cells (natural killer cells)
* All migrate through the lymphatic tissues and monitor them for the presence of
antigens
* Identified according to the tissue or organ where they mature:
- T-lymphocytes mature in the Thymus
- B-lymphocytes mature in the Bone Marrow
- NK-cells mature in the Bone Marrow
Lymph Nodes (Fig 23.9)
- Small (<1in), been-shaped organs along lymphatic pathway
- Abundant in cervical, axillary, and inquinal (groin) regions
- Contain macrophages to filter antigens, bacteria, foreign debris, and cell fragments
- Produce lymphocytes
- May become infected, inflamed, tender
Tonsils (Fig 23.8)
- Not directly in lymph flow
- Palatine, pharyngeal (adenoids), lingual
- Manufacture lymphocytes
- Guard oral and nasal entrances to remove pathogens that enter pharynx in air or food
Thymus (Fig 23.16)
- Not directly in lymph flow
- Two lobes within mediastinum, superior to heart
- Manufactures / distributes active T-lymphocytes
- Retrograde development
Spleen (Fig 23.17)
- Not directly in lymph flow
- Largest lymphatic organ in body; ovoid shape
- Located in upper left quadrant of the abdominal cavity, inferior to the diaphragm, posterior to the
stomach
- White pulp = source of lymphocytes that manufacture and release antibodies
* To destry blood-borne antigens
- Red pulp = stored or developing erythrocytes
- Phagocytizes old, defective erythrocytes, platelets, bacteria
- Site of hematopoiesis in fetus 8
HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Introduction
- Pulmonary Ventilation (Breathing)
* Movement of air in and out of the lungs
- Respiratory processes
* External respiration:O/COexchangebetweenalveoliandpulmonarycirculation
- Accomplished by organs of respiratory system
* Internal respiration:O/COexchangebetweensystemicbloodandtissues
- Accomplished by organs of the circulatory system
* Cellular respiration: production of ATP within cells
- Respiratory system can be divided into: (Fig 24.1)
* Upper respiratory system
* Lower respiratory system
Upper Respiratory Anatomy
- Microanatomy (histology) (Fig 24.2)
* Mucous membrane consisting of ciliated, pseudostratified columnar epithelium
- Goblet cells: secrete mucus to trap airborne particles
- Cilia: move particles
- This membrane is susceptible to viral and bacterial infection
- Smoking increases mucus production and paralyzes cilia
- Gross Anatomy (Fig 24.4)
* Nares or nostrils
* Nasal cavities (2)
- Drainage site of lacrimal and sinus canals
- Divided by nasal septum:
* Includes: perpendicular plate, vomer, hyaline cartilage
* Nasal conchae
- Filter, warm, and humidify incoming air
- Make up lateral walls of nasal cavities
* Paranasal sinuses
- Moisten, cleanse nasal cavities
* Olfactory receptors
- Connect to olfactory bulb via cribriform plate of ethmoid bone
* Pharynx (throat)
- Common to respiratory and digestive systems
- Connects the nasal cavities and mouth proximally with the larynx and esophagus
distally
- Three subdivisions:
* Nasopharynx: posterior to nasal cavity
- Receives auditory tubes and contains pharyngeal tonsils
(adenoids)
* Oropharynx: posterior to oral cavity
- Contains palatine and lingual tonsils
* Laryngopharynx: posterior to the epiglottis
Lower Respiratory Anatomy (Gross)
- Larynx (voice box) (Fig 24.5, 24.6)
* Organ of voice production
* Diverts food into the esophagus
9
HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
* Cartilage components:
- Thyroid cartilage (Adamsapple):hyalinecartilage
* Largest, shield-shaped
- Epiglottis: elastic cartilage
* Spoon-shaped
* Covers glottis during swallowing
- Cricoid cartilage: hyaline cartilage
* Inferior to thyroid cartilage
- Arytenoid cartilages (2): hyaline cartilage
* Horn-shaped; posterior
*Membrane components: (Fig 24.7)
- Vestibular folds: attach laterally to vocal cords for support
- Vocal cords: mucosal folds with elastic fibers
- Attach between arytenoids and thyroid cartilages
- As air from lungs moves across folds, they vibrate, providing sounds of
speech
- Glottis: opening between vocal cords
* Muscle components:
- Intrinsic muscles
- Open/close glottis; control tension on vocal cords
- Extrinsic muscles
- Move larynx up or down with swallowing
- Sternothyroid, thyrohyoid
- Trachea (windpipe) (Fig 24.9)
* Medial airway inferior to larynx
- Travels through neck into mediastinum within thoracic cavity
* 4-5long,flattenedposteriorly
- Posterior is composed of smooth muscle allowing for expansion of esophagus;
contraction of trachea during coughing / sneezing
* Lumen supported by 16-20 C-shaped hyaline cartilages
- Joined by fibrocartilage CT (connective tissue)
- Very mobile and flexible
- Prevents collapse
* Bifurcates distally into two primary bronchi (R & L)
- Lungs (Fig 24.10)
* Right: 3 major lobes
* Left: 2 major lobes
* Protected and lubricated by pleurae
- Visceral and Parietal
- Serous membrane
- Bronchial Tree (Fig 24.9, 24.11, 24.13)
* 2 primary bronchi divide -->
* Secondary (lobar) bronchi (3R & 2L) -->
* Tertiary bronchi
- All 3 above are lined with ciliated columnar epithelium with few cartilage rings
surrounded by smooth muscle
- Branching continues until the tubes become smaller than 1 mm in diameter, and
are then called bronchioles
* Terminal bronchioles ( .5mm)
- Cartilage rings are replaced by smooth muscle
- Simple columnar epithelium
* Respiratory bronchioles (.4mm)
- Simple squamous epithelium
- Lead to: alveoli 10
HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
* Alveoli (.25mm)
- Simple squamous epithelium clustered air sacs
- Surrounded by capillary networks for exchange of gases and nutrients
- 150,000,000 per lung
Breathing Mechanics (Fig 24.16)
- Inspiration
* Contraction (lowering/flattening) of diaphragm (*) -->
* Thorax expands -->
* Lowered intrathoracic pressure -->
* Atmospheric air drawn in via airways
(*) synergists: external intercostals and sternocleidomastoids
- Expiration
* Relaxation (raising) of diaphragm (*) -->
* Thorax shrinks -->
* Increased intrathoracic pressure -->
* Air forced out through airways
(*) synergists: internal intercostals and abdominals
Respiratory System Disorders
- All produce hypoxia (tissueOdeficit)
- Impairment of alveoli
* Pneumonia
- Fluid and WBC infiltration into alveoli
* Emphysema
- Consolidation of alveoli and lost elasticity
* Tuberculosis
- Bacterial infection causing fibrosis of lung tissue
* Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS)
- Collapse of alveoli at birth due to low surfactant
* Surfactant = a phospholipid secretion that coats the inside of alveoli
- Impairment of other respiratory structures
* Asthma
- Allergic constriction of the bronchioles
* Pleuritis (pleurisy)
- Inflammation of the pleura
* Pneumothorax
- Airway into thorax --> collapsed lung
- Impairment of pulmonary circulation
* Pulmonary edema
- Fluid accumulation in alveoli due to weak left ventricle and high pulmonary blood
pressure
11
1
Urine Flow
- Collecting ducts -->
- Minor calyx -->
- Major calyx -->
- Renal pelvis -->
- Ureters -->
- Urinary bladder -->
- Urethra
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Introduction
- Endocrine Gland
* Ductless gland secreting a chemical product, called a hormone, directly into the blood for action on
specific target organ(s)
- Sometimes the target organ is another endocrine gland
* Target organs contain target cells to which the hormone binds, causing the organ to react
* Most endocrine cells are epithelial in composition, but some are neural, muscular, or CT (connective
tissue)
- The endocrine system and the nervous system often work together to bring about homeostasis
* Both use specific communication methods and affect specific target organs
Overview of the Endocrine System (Fig 19.1)
Hypothalamus (Fig 19.2)
- Secretes regulatory hormones that control the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary
* Can stimulate or inhibit
- Produces 2 hormones stored in the posterior pituitary
* Oxytocin
* Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
- Controls sympathetic output to the adrenal medulla
Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis) (Fig 19.3, 19.4, Table 19.1)
- Located in the sella turcica
* Connects superiorly to the hypothalamus
- 2 lobes:
* Adenohypophysis (anterior)
- Composed of glandular epithelium
* Neurohypophysis (posterior)
- Composed of neuroendocrine cells
- Neurohypophysis: 2 stored hormones, produced in the hypothalamus
* Oxytocin
- Smooth muscle stimulant
- Especially affecting:
* The uterus during labor
* Ducts of the breasts to eject milk
* Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
- Causes increased water reabsorption at the nephrons
- Causes systemic constriction (increasing Blood Pressure, BP)
- Adenohypophysis: 7 synthesized hormones
* Growth Hormone (GH)
- Stimulates skeletal and muscular development
- Raises blood sugar levels
* Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)
- Influences production of some adrenal cortex hormones
* Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
- Influences secretion of thyroid hormones
* Prolactin (PRL)
- Initiates and maintains milk production (lactation)
* Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
- Increases melanin synthesis in skin
Gonadotropins
* Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
- Develops follicle cells in ovaries --> Ova
- Develops seminiferous tubules in the testes --> Sperm
* Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
- Stimulates ovary --> progesterone and estrogen
- Stimulates testes --> testosterone
Pineal Gland
- Gross anatomy and location
* Cone-shaped, pea-sized
* Attached to the posterior wall of the 3rd ventricle
- Microanatomy
* Neuroendocrine cells --> Melatonin
- Helps regulate circadian rhythm (sleep/wake cycles)
* Inhibits release of pituitary gonadotropins, affecting the onset of puberty
- Pineal dysfunctions:
* Hyperfunction --> delayed puberty
* Hypofunction --> premature puberty
Ovaries
- Gross anatomy and location
* Ovoid, 1-2" in length
* In pelvic cavity, secured to uterus
- Microanatomy
* Follicle cells --> Estrogens(*)/egg
* Corpus luteum (follicle cell remnants) --> estrogens and progesterone(*)
(*) Help maintain female reproductive tract
Testies
- Gross anatomy and location
* Ovoid, 1-2" in length
* Outside pelvic cavity within scrotum
- Microanatomy
* Seminiferous tubules --> sperm
* Interstitial cells --> testosterone --> helps maintain male reproductive tract and libido
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Introduction
- The human reproductive system produces, stores, nourishes, and transports functional male and female
gametes
* Sperm and ovum
* Fertilization produces a zygote
- The reproductive system also produces sex hormones that affect the structure and function of all other
systems
Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System (Fig 27.1, 27.3, 27.7)
- Internal organs: Testes
* Primary male gonads (reproductive organs)
* Gross anatomy
- Tunica vaginalis: serous membrane
- Epididymis: sperm reservoir upon testes
- Spermatid cord: cable-like structure that passes into the pelvic cavity through the inguinal
canal, containing:
* Spermatic vein, artery, lymphocytes, nerves
* Vas deferens: sperm transport tube from epididymis to ejaculatory duct entering the
prostate gland
- Cremaster muscle: skeletal muscle surrounding cord and testes
* Reflex muscle to outside temperature changes
* Microanatomy of testes (Fig 27.4)
- Seminiferous tube
* Divided by septa
* Produce sperm
* Activated at puberty by FSH
- Interstitial cells
* Produce testosterone
* Activated at puberty by LH
- Internal accessory reproductive Glands (Fig 27.8)
* Seminal vesicles (2)
- Poserior to bladder
- Produce 60 % of seminal fluid
* Mostly fructose
- Secrete into the ejaculatory duct (along with the vans deferens), emptying into the prostatic
urethra
* Prostate gland
- Inferior to urinary bladder, surrounds prostatic urethra
- Contributes 30 % of seminal fluid
* To enhance sperm motility
9