BIOLOGY FINALS STUDY GUIDE

Finals Study Guide

Koby Krinsky

Ecology
3.1

Ecology: The scientific study of interactions among organisms and between

organisms and their physical environment

The biosphere consists of all life on Earth and all parts of the Earth in which
life exists, including land, water, and the atmosphere
Interaction within the biosphere produce a web of interdependence between
organisms and the environments in which they live
o Organisms respond to their environments and can change their
environments, producing an ever-changing biosphere

Levels of Organization:
Population: a group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in
the same area
Community: an assemblage of different populations that live together in a
defined area
Ecosystem: all the organisms that live in a place, together with their physical
environment
Biome: a group of ecosystems that share similar climates and typical
organisms
Biosphere: our entire planet, with all its organisms and physical
environments

Biotic and Abiotic Factors: the biological influences are called biotic factors.
Physical components of an ecosystem are called abiotic factors
Biotic Factors: any living part of the environment with which an organism
might interact, including animals, plants, mushrooms, and bacteria
Abiotic Factors: any nonliving part of the environment, such as sunlight,
heat, precipitation, humidity, wind or water currents, soil type, etc.
The difference between abiotic and biotic factors is that abiotic factors can be
influenced by the activities of organisms and vice versa
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In addition, trees and shrubs affect the amount of sunlight the shoreline
receives, the range of temperatures it experiences, the humidity of the air,
and even the chemical conditions of the soil.

Ecological Methods:
Regardless of their tools, modern ecologists use three methods in their work:
o Observation
First step in asking ecological questions which may form the
first step in designing experiments and models
o Experimentation
They can be used to test hypotheses.
An ecologist may set up an artificial environment in a
laboratory or greenhouse, or carefully alter conditions in
selected parts of natural ecosystems
o Modeling
Since many ecological events occur over long periods of time
or over large distances, they are difficult to study directly
Ecologists make models to help them understand these
phenomena

3.2

At the core of every organisms interaction with the environment is its need
for energy to power lifes processes.

Primary Producers: the first producers of energy-rich compounds that are later
used by other organisms
Organisms need energy for growth, reproduction, and metabolic processes
Sunlight is the ultimate energy source
Autotrophs: Plants, algae, and certain bacteria can capture energy from
sunlight or chemicals and convert it into forms that living cells can use
o Autotrophs are called primary producers
o They store energy in forms that make it available to other organisms
that eat them, and are therefore essential to the flow of energy
through the biosphere
o The most common primary producers harness solar energy through
the process of photosynthesis
o Photosynthesis: captures light energy and uses it to power chemical
reactions that convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and
energy-rich carbohydrates.
Adds oxygen to the atmosphere and removes carbon dioxide



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Plants are the main photosynthesis producers on land.

Chemosynthesis: the use of chemical energy to produce carbohydrates

Consumers:
Organisms that rely on other organisms for energy and nutrients are called
consumers
Heterotrophs: organisms that must acquire energy from other organisms by
ingesting in some way
o Are also called consumers
Consumers are classified by the ways in which they acquire energy and
nutrients
Carnivores: carnivores kill and eat other animals, and include snakes, dogs,
cats, and river otters
Scavengers: animals that consume the carcasses of other animals that have
been killed by predators or have died of other causes
Decomposers: feed by chemically breaking down organic matter. The decay
caused by decomposers is part of the process that produces detritus
o Detritus: small pieces of dead and decaying plant and animal remains
Herbivores: obtain energy and nutrients by eating plant leaves, roots, seeds,
or fruits.
Omnivores: animals whose diets naturally include a variety of different foods
that usually include both plants and animals
Detritivores: feed on detritus particles, often chewing or grinding them into
smaller pieces. Commonly digest decomposers that live on, and in, detritus
particles

3.3

Energy moves from the eaten to the eater

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Energy flows through an ecosystem in a one-way stream, from primary

producers to various consumers
Food Chain: a series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating
and being eaten
o Image above is an example of a food chain in the Everglades
Phytoplankton: In the image above, primary producers are a mixture of
floating algae and attached algae
o Producers are then eaten by small fishes
In the image, the top carnivore (alligator) is four steps removed from the
primary producer
Food Web: In most ecosystems, since feeding relationships are much more
complicated than the relationships described in a single, simple chain
because many animals eat more than one kind of food.

Each path through a food web is a food chain

A food web, like in the image above, links all of the food chains in an
ecosystem together
The decomposition process releases nutrients that can be used by primary
producers. They break down dead and decaying matter into forms that can
be reused by organisms, similar to the way a recycling factory works

Zooplankton: Small, swimming animals. Example is Krill

All of the animals in this food web depend directly or indirectly on
shrimplike animals called Krill
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Trophic Levels and Ecological Pyramids

Pyramids of energy show the relative amount of energy available at each
trophic level
A pyramid of biomass illustrates the relative amount of living organic matter
at each trophic level
A pyramid of numbers shows the relative number of individual organisms at
each trophic level in an ecosystem
Trophic Level: each step in a food chain or food web
o Primary producers always make up the first trophic level
o Various consumers occupy every other level

Ecological pyramids: show the relative amount of energy matter contained

within each trophic level in a given food chain or food web
o Three different types of ecological pyramids:
Pyramids of energy
No limit to the number of trophic levels in a food web or
the number of organisms that live on each level
Only a small portion of the energy that passes through
any given trophic level is ultimately stored in the bodies
of organisms at the next level (Image to the left above)
Expend much of the energy they acquire on life
processes such as respiration, movement, growth, and
reproduction
Most of the remaining of the energy is released into the
environment as heat
About 10% of the energy available within one trophic
level is transferred to the next trophic level
Pyramids of biomass
Biomass: the total amount of living tissue within a
given trophic level
The amount of biomass a given trophic level can
support is determined by the amount of energy
available
Greatest biomass is at the base of the pyramid
Pyramids of numbers
The shape of the pyramid of numbers is similar to the
shape of the pyramid of biomass for the same
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ecosystem, with the numbers of individuals on each

level decreasing from the level below it
Thousands of insects may graze on a single tree. The
tree has a lot of biomass, but represents only one
organism
o The pyramid of numbers may be turned upside
down, but the pyramid of biomass usually still
has the normal orientation

3.4

Recycling in the Biosphere

Matter moves through the biosphere unlike the one-way flow of energy.
Matter is recycled within and between ecosystems
Biogeochemical Cycles: elements pass from one organisms to another
among parts of the biosphere through closed loops called biogeochemical
cycles
o Powered by the flow of energy
o Involve biological processes, geological processes, and chemical
processes
Biological Processes:
o Consist of any and all activities performed by living organisms
o Processes include eating, breathing, burning food, and eliminating
waste products
Geological Processes:
o Include volcanic eruptions, the formation and breakdown of rock, and
major movements of matter within and below the surface of the earth
Chemical and Physical Processes:
o Include the formation of clouds and precipitation, the flow of running
water, and the action of lightning
Human Activities:
o Human activities that affect cycles of matter on a global scale include
the mining and burning of fossil fuels, the clearing of land for building
and farming, the burning of forests, and the manufacture and use of
fertilizers

The Water Cycle

Water continuously moves between the oceans, the atmosphere, and land
Water molecules typically enter the atmosphere as water vapor when they
evaporate from the ocean or other bodies of water
o Water can also enter the atmosphere by evaporating from the leaves
of plants in the process of transpiration
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If the air carrying it cools, water vapor condenses into tiny droplets that form
clouds
o When the droplets become large enough, the fall to Earths surface as
precipitation
On land, some precipitation flows along the surface in what scientists call
runoff, until it enters a river or stream that carries it to an ocean or lake
When precipitation is absorbed into the soil, it is called groundwater
o Groundwater can then enter plants through their roots, or flow into
bodies of water

Nutrients Cycles
Every organism needs nutrients to build tissues and carry out life functions.
Like water, nutrients pass through organisms and the environment through
biogeochemical cycles
The three pathways, or cycles, that move carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous
through the biosphere are especially critical for life
Nutrients: the chemical substances that an organism needs to sustain life
Oxygen participates in parts of the carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous cycles
by combining with these elements and cycling with them through parts of
their journeys
Oxygen gas in the atmosphere is released by one of the most important of all
biological activities: photosynthesis
Carbon Cycle:
o Carbon is a major component of all organic compounds, including
carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
o Continually exchanged through chemical and physical processes
between the atmosphere and oceans
o When organisms die, decomposers break down the bodies, releasing
carbon to the environment
o Geologic forces can turn accumulated carbon into carbon-containing
rock or fossil fuels
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Nitrogen Cycle:
o All organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids, which are used
to build proteins and nucleic acids, which combine to form DNA and
RNA
o Nitrogen gas makes up 78% of Earths atmosphere
o Nitrogen-containing substances are found in soil, in the wastes
produced by many organisms, and in dad and decaying organic matter

o Dissolved nitrogen exists in several forms in the ocean and large

water bodies

o Only certain types of bacteria that live in the soil and on the roots of
legumes can used this nitrogen form directly
o Nitrogen Fixation: a process in which a bacteria converts nitrogen
into ammonia
o Denitrification: a process in which other soil bacteria obtain energy
by converting nitrates into nitrogen gas, which is then released into
the atmosphere
o A small amount of nitrogen gas is converted to usable forms by
lightning in a process called atmospheric nitrogen fixation

o Humans add nitrogen to the biosphere through the manufacture and

use of fertilizers. Excess fertilizer is often carried into surface water or
groundwater by precipitation
Phosphorous Cycle:
o Forms a part of vital molecules such as DNA and RNA
o Not abundant in biosphere
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o Phosphorous in the form of inorganic phosphate remains mostly on

land, in the form of phosphate rock and soil minerals, and in the
ocean, as dissolved phosphate and phosphate sediments

Nutrient Limitation
Nutrient availability relates to the primary productivity of an ecosystem such
as if ample sunlight and water are available, the primary productivity of an
ecosystem may be limited by the availability of nutrients
Primary Productivity: the rate at which primary producers create organic
material
Limiting Nutrient: the nutrient whose supply limits productivity
Nutrient Limitation in Soil:
o Growth of crop plants is typically limited by one or more nutrients
that must be taken up by plants through their roots
o Micronutrients such as calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, and
manganese are necessary in relatively small amounts, and are
sometimes included in specialty fertilizers

Nutrient Limitation in Aquatic Ecosystems

o In the ocean and other saltwater environments, nitrogen is often the
limiting nutrient
o In streams, lakes, and freshwater environments, phosphorous is
typically the limiting nutrient
o Sometimes an aquatic ecosystem receives a large input of a limiting
nutrient
For example, runoff from heavily fertilized fields
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Result of runoff can be an algal bloom

If there are not enough consumers to eat the algae, an
algal bloom can cover the waters surface and disrupt
the functioning of an ecosystem

3.5

Succession
Ecosystems change over time, especially after disturbances, as some species
die out and new species move on
Ecological Succession: a series of more-or-less predictable changes that
occur in a community over time
Primary Succession: succession that begins in an area with no remnants of
an older community
o Volcanic explosions can create new land or sterilize existing areas
o Retreating glaciers can have the same effect, leaving only exposed
bare rock behind them

o Pioneer species: the first species to colonize barren areas

Example of an ecological pioneer that grows on a bare rock is
lichen
Overtime, lichens convert atmospheric nitrogen into
useful forms for other organisms, break down rock, and
add organic material to form soil
Secondary Succession: sometimes, existing communities are not completely
destroyed by disturbances. In these situation, secondary succession occurs
o Proceeds faster than primary succession, in part because soil survives
the disturbance.
As a result, new and surviving vegetation can regrow rapidly
Succession occurs because every organism changes the environment it lives
in
o One model of succession suggests that as one species alters its
environment, other species find it easier to compete for resources and
survive
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3.6

Biomes:
Biomes are described in terms of abiotic factors like climate and soil type,
and biotic factors like plant and animal life
Latitude and the heat transported by winds are two factors that affect global
climate
In the image below, air expands and cools, causing the moisture in the air to
condense and form clouds

As the air sink on the downwind side of the mountain, it expands, warms, and
absorbs moisture
Each biome is associated with seasonal patterns of temperature and
precipitation that can be summarized in a graph called a climate diagram
o A climate diagram shows the average temperature and precipitation
at a given location during each month of the year.
Tropical Rain Forest
o Get a lot of rain each year
o Canopy: tall trees that form a dense, leafy covering
o Understory: another layer that is formed by shorter trees in the shade
below
o Abiotic Factors:
Rain forests are hot and wet year-round
They have thin, nutrient-poor soils that are subject to erosion
o Biotic Factors:
Plant life
Animal life
Tropical Grassland/Savanna/Shrubland
o Receives more seasonal rainfall than deserts but less than tropical dry
forests
o Grassy areas are spotted with isolated trees and small groves of trees
and shrubs
o Compacted soils, frequent fires, action of large animals prevent some
areas from turning into dry forest
o Abiotic Factors:
Warm with seasonal rainfall
Soil is compact and are frequent fires set by lightning
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o Biotic Factors:
Plant Life
Animal Life
Desert
o Very little precipitation
o Many undergo extreme daily temperature changes, alternating
between hot and cold
o Abiotic Factors:
Little precipitation and variable temperatures
Soils rich in minerals, but poor in organic material
o Biotic Factors:
Plant Life
Animal Life
Temperate Grassland
o Plains and prairies
o Periodic fires and heavy grazing by herbivores maintain grassland
plants
o Warm to hot summers and cold winters, with moderate precipitation
o Fertile soil and occasional fires
o Abiotic Factors
Moderate precipitation, hot and cold seasonal temperatures
Occasional fires
Fertile soil
o Biotic Factors
Plant life
Animal life
Temperate Woodland and Shrubland
o Large areas of grasses and wildflowers that are interspersed with oak
and other trees
o Abiotic Factors:
Hot dry summers and cool moist winters
Thin, nutrient-poor soils and periodic fires
o Biotic Factors:
Plant Life
Animal Life
Temperate Forest
o Mostly made up of deciduous and evergreen coniferous trees
o Coniferous trees: produce seed-bearing cones, and most have needle-
shaped leaves coated in a waxy substance that helps reduce water loss
o Abiotic Factors
Cold to moderate winters and warm summers
Year-round precipitation and fertile soils
o Biotic Factors:
Plant Life
Animal Life
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Tundra
o Permafrost: a layer of permanently frozen subsoil
o During the cool summers, the ground thaws to a depth of a few
centimeters and becomes soggy. In winter, the top layer of soil freezes
again. This cycle repeats annually
o Abiotic Factors:
Soil is poorly developed, with permafrost
Strong winds and low precipitation
Summers are short and soggy, and winters are long, cold, and
dark
o Biotic Factors:
Plant Life
Animal Life

3.7

Density and Distribution

Population Density: refers to the number of individuals per unit area
Distribution refers to how individuals in a population are spaced out across
the range of the population

Growth Rate
A populations growth rate determines whether the population size
increases, decreases, or stays the same

Population Growth
Factors that can affect population size are the birthrate, death rate, and the
rate at which individuals enter or leave the population
Population will increase or decrease in size depending on how many
individuals are added to it or removed from it
A population can grow when its birthrate is higher than its death rate
If the birthrate equals the death rate, the population may stay the same size

DNA
DNA
Contains deoxyribonucleic acid (one less oxygen then ribonucleic acid)
3 major parts
o Phosphate Group
o Sugar
Deoxyribose
o Nucleotide Base
Adenine
Purine
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Thymine
Pyrimidine
Guanine
Purine
Cytosine
Pyrimidine
Purine: larger, double-ring structures
Pyrimidine: single-ring structures
Double helix structure
Found in nucleus
Code for proteins
Gene: sequence of DNA
Histones: proteins holding DNA together
DNA is coiled and supercoiled, so it can fit in the nucleus
Chromosomes: supercoils that are attached to proteins

Chromosomes
23 total pairs in humans
o 22 autosomal chromosome pairs
o 1 sex chromosome
Karyotype: a diagram of chromosomes

RNA
Contains ribonucleic acid
Normally/usually single stranded (not double helix)
3 major parts
o Phosphate group
o Sugar
Ribose
o Nucleotide Base
Adenine
Uracil
Replaces Thymine ONLY in RNA
Guanine
Cytosine
3 major types of RNA
o Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Contains the code for proteins
o Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Contains an anticodon and brings amino acids to the ribosome
during translation
o Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Combines with proteins to make ribosomes
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Protein Synthesis
RNA Polymerase (an enzyme) lands on DNA and then separates the double strand
o RNA copies only one side of the strand
o RNA Polymerase assembles a complementary polymer
T/U is complementary to A
C is complementary to G
o RNA Polymerase moves down the DNA until it reaches a termination
sequence
RNA created is made ready for translation by adding a methyl-guanine cap and a
poly-adenine tail
o Identifies the RNA as mRNA
mRNA is spliced
o Some parts of code are removed (introns)
o Some parts of code remain (extrons)
o Enzyme that splices mRNA are called snRNPs (people say Snurps)

tRNA
Ribonucleic acid that functions as an interpreter in translation.
Each tRNA molecule has a specific anticodon
o Picks up a specific amino acid, and conveys the amino acid to the
appropriate codon on mRNA

mRNA
Ready for translation
Ribonucleic acid that encodes genetic information from DNA and conveys it to
ribosomes, where the information is translated into amino acid sequences

rRNA
Ribonucleic acid that, together with proteins, makes up ribosomes

RNA Synthesis
Transcription
o Initiation involves the attachment of RNA Polymerase to start RNA
synthesis
RNA Polymerase: enzyme that reads DNA template and makes a
copy of it (T A, AU, C G)
Copy made by RNA Polymerase is mRNA
o During elongation, the newly formed RNA strand grows. As synthesis
continues, the growing RNA molecule peels away from its DNA template,
allowing the two separated DNA strands to come back together in the
region already transcribed
o During termination, when RNA polymerase reaches the terminator DNA
(termination signal), the polymerase molecule detaches from the newly
made RNA strand and the gene
RNA Polymerase continues reading and copying until it reaches a
termination signal
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Tells RNA Polymerase to pull off

Translation
o Translation is like a puzzle
o Like transcription, is broken up into 3 steps
Initiation
Elongation
Termination
o The process of initiation brings together the mRNA, a tRNA bearing the
first amino acid, and the two subunits of a ribosome
Step 1: An mRNA molecule binds to a small ribosomal unit. A
special initiator tRNA base pairs with the specific codon, called the
start codon, where translation is to begin on the mRNA molecule.
Step 2: Next, a large ribosomal subunit binds to the small one,
creating a functional ribosome. The initiator tRNA fits into one of
the two tRNA binding sites on the ribosome. The P-Site will hold
the growing polypeptide. The other tRNA binding site, the A-Site,
is vacant until it is ready for the next amino acid bearing tRNA
o Once initiation is complete, amino acids are added one by one to the
previous amino acid. Each addition occurs in a three-step elongation
process.
Step 1: The anticodon of an incoming tRNA molecule, carrying its
amino acid, pairs with the mRNA codon in the A site of the
ribosome.
Step 2: The polypeptide separates from the tRNA in the P site and
attaches by a new peptide bond to the amino acid carried by the
tRNA in the A site. The ribosome catalyzes formation of the
peptide bond, adding one more amino acid to the growing
polypeptide chain
Step 3: Then, the P site tRNA leaves the ribosome, and the
ribosome moves the remaining tRNA from the A site to the P site.
The codon and anticodon remain hydrogen-bonded, and the
mRNA and tRNA move as a unit. This movement brings into the
A site the next mRNA codon to be translated, and the process can
start again with step 1
o Elongation continues until a stop codon reaches the ribosomes A site.
o Stop codons represent the termination stage of translation. The completed
polypeptide is freed from the last tRNA, and the ribosome splits back into
its separate subunits
o The finished product is NOT a protein, its a polypeptide

DNA Synthesis (Replication)

Performed by enzymes
o Helicase: unzips the double strand and allows DNA polymerase to copy
DNA
o DNA Polymerase: makes complementary bases
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Can only copy in 53 prime direction

DNA Replication is Semi-Conservative: two strands of old DNA and two strands
of new DNA
o One strand of new DNA pairs up with one strand of old DNA twice
On leading strand, which is 53 prime direction, RNA Primase gives DNA
Polymerase a starting point and then DNA Polymerase just fills in the rest of the
complementary bases straight through
On lagging strand, which is 35 prime direction, RNA Primase gives a starting
point in random locations which enables DNA Polymerase to then come in and
fill the rest in.
o Okazaki Fragments: pieces that are made by RNA Primase and DNA
Polymerase
DNA Ligase: links together the Okazaki fragments into a single
DNA strand
Topoisomerase: an enzyme that alters the supercoiled form of a DNA molecule

Cell Theory
All organisms are made of cells
Old cells make new cells

Disabilities
Genetic disorders
o Point mutations (substitutions, deletions, insertions in the DNA)
Chromosomal abnormality (deletions, substitutions, etc. of an entire part of the
chromosome)
Aneuploidy
o Having an abnormal number of chromosomes
o Caused by nondisjunction
Mutations and inbreeding
o Most often are recessive when causing a gene to be defective, but the
likelihood of pairing two deleterious (defective) recessive genes with
inbred offspring is higher than mating with a diverse population

Extra Terms To Know

Diploids: in an organism that reproduces sexually; a cell containing two
homologous sets of chromosomes; one set inherited from each parent
Haploids: a cell with a single chromosome set
o Only has one member of each homologous pair
Gametes: egg and sperm
Sex chromosomes: the X and Y chromosomes
Autosomes: all other chromosomes that arent the sex chromosomes
Chromatin: the complex of DNA and proteins that makes up eukaryotic
chromosomes; often used to refer to the diffuse, very extended form taken by
chromosomes when a cell is not dividing
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Binary fission: means of asexual reproduction in which a parent organism, often

a single cell, divides into two genetically identical individuals of about equal size

General Overview of Important Matter

DNA RNA PROTEIN
1. In transcription (DNA RNA), the mRNA is synthesized on a DNA
template. In eukaryotic cells, transcription occurs in the nucleus, and the
mRNA is processed before it travels to the cytoplasm
2. Translation (RNA protein) can be divided into four steps, all of which
occur in the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells. When the polypeptide is complete,
the two ribosomal subunits come apart, and the tRNA and mRNA are
released. Translation is rapid; a single ribosome can make an average-sized
polypeptide in less than a minute. Typically, a mRNA molecule is translated
simultaneously by a number of ribosomes. Once the start codon emerges from
the first ribosome, a second ribosome can attach to it; thus, several ribosomes
may trail along on the same mRNA molecule.
3. As it is made, a polypeptide coils and folds, assuming a three-dimensional
shape (tertiary structure). Several polypeptides may come together, forming a
protein with quaternary structure.

Images

DNA Replication
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Purine vs Pyrimidine

DNA Nucleotide

Translation Initiation
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Translation Elongation

Cell Division: Mitosis and Meiosis

Chromosomes
23 total pairs in humans
o 22 autosomal chromosome pairs
o 1 sex chromosome
Karyotype: a diagram of chromosomes

Cell Cycle
As the cell goes through the cycle, cyclin is gathered up. When cyclin
combines with CDK, it makes MDF which is the thing that allows mitosis to
occur
G1 Phase: growth 1
o Cell grows
o Chemical enables the cell to enter into the S Phase
G0 Phase: cells that do not divide go to G0 phase, which is a resting phase
S Phase: growth 2
o Synthesizes/replicates DNA
o Chromosomes are replicated
G2 Phase: where organelles/molecules that are required for cell division are
produced
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M Phase: Mitosis
o Prophase
DNA condenses into chromosomes and becomes visible
Centrioles move to opposite of nucleus and help organize the
spindle
Spindle forms and DNA strands attach at centromere
Nucleolus disappears and nuclear envelope dissolves
Chromosomes begin to move toward center
o Metaphase
Chromosomes align in the center
Spindle fibers attach to the centromere
o Anaphase
Centromeres are separated and move towards each centriole
Anaphase does not begin until chromosomes are perfectly
lined up in the center of a cell
o Telophase
Chromosomes spread out into a tangle of chromatin
Nuclear membrane reforms around cluster of chromosomes
Spindle breaks apart, and a nucleolus becomes visible in each
daughter nucleus
Cytokinesis begins
o Cytokinesis: the division of the cytoplasm
Animal Cell
Cell membrane is drawn in until the cytoplasm is
pinched into two equal parts
Each part contains its own nucleus and organelles
Plant Cell
Cell membrane isnt flexible enough to draw inward
because of the cell wall
Instead, a cell plate forms from the inside and is placed
between the divided nuclei that develops into cell
membranes
A cell wall then forms in between the two new
membranes
Cell is split by a division plate that forms from the inside

Meiosis
o Gamete Production
One cell forms 4 gametes
o 2 division
Reduction division (first division)
Mitotic division (second division)
o Prophase 1
DNA condenses
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Synapsis: homologous chromosomes come together to form

tetrads
Tetrads: homologous pairs that come together
o Metaphase 1
Tetrads align along the middle of the cell
o Anaphase 1
Homologous pairs separate
o Telophase 1
Cell splits into two cells
Goes directly into Prophase 2
o Prophase 2
DNA is already condensed, so there isnt really a Prophase 2
o Metaphase 2
Chromosomes align along the middle of the cell
o Anaphase 2
Sister chromatids separate
o Telophase 2
Gametes are formed
Cancer: caused when the rate of cell division is uncontrollable

Diploids: in an organism that reproduces sexually; a cell containing two

homologous sets of chromosomes; one set inherited from each parent
Haploids: a cell with a single chromosome set; only has one member of each
homologous pair
Gametes: egg and sperm
Sex chromosomes: the X and Y chromosomes
Autosomes: all other chromosomes that arent the sex chromosomes
Chromatin: the complex of DNA and proteins that makes up eukaryotic
chromosomes; often used to refer to the diffuse, very extended form taken by
chromosomes when a cell is not dividing
Spindle: fanlike microtubule structure that helps separate the chromatids
Chromatid: each strand of a duplicated chromosome

Cell Cycle:
G1 Phase
S Phase
G2 Phase
M Phase
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Prophase in Mitosis

Metaphase in Mitosis

Anaphase in Mitosis

Telophase in Mitosis
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Genetics
Genetics
Gregor Mendel
o Did experiments with pea plants and breeding
Dominant vs. Recessive and Phenotypes vs. Genotypes
o Each offspring has two of each gene, one from the mother and one from the
father
o Certain genes (alleles) are phenotypically displayed (occurring in the
organism)
These are considered dominant
o The recessive gene is not phenotypically displayed, but is still part of the
genotype
Punnett Squares
o Find all possible combinations for the gametes of the mother and father
o Put them on their respective places on the square
o Put the mother and father gamete genotypes together to simulate fertilization
and to be able to determine the percentages of the genotypes and phenotypes
of the offspring
Heterozygous vs. Homozygous
o Homozygous means having two of the same genes: PP or pp
There are two types of homozygosity: homozygous dominant (PP) and
homozygous recessive (pp)
o Heterozygous means having two different genes: Pp
Dihybrid and Trihybrid Crosses
o Monohybrid Cross (Pp x Pp)
3:1 ratio: 3 dominant, 1 recessive
25% homozygous dominant
50% heterozygous
25% homozygous recessive
o Dihybrid Cross (PpZz x PpZz)
9:3:3:1 ratio
56.25% dominant/dominant
18.75% dominant/recessive
18.75% recessive/dominant
06.25% recessive/recessive
Incomplete Dominance
o In the case of the heterozygous genotype, the dominant and recessive
phenotypes blend together to make an organism phenotypically in between the
dominant and recessive phenotypes
Example: red chicken crossed with white chicken (RR x rr) produce
100% Rr chickens which turn out to be phenotypically pink (between
white and red)
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Codominance
o The phenotypes are expressed at the same time
Example: blood type is codominant in that a person homozygous for
type A and a person homozygous for type B have a 100% chance to
produce offspring with both type A proteins and type B proteins (type
AB)
Genetic Disorders
o Point mutations (substitutions, deletions, insertions in the DNA)
o Chromosomal abnormality (deletions, substitutions, etc. of an entire part of
the chromosome)
o Aneuploidy
Having an abnormal number of chromosomes
Caused by nondisjunctions
Failure of tetrad to split in meiosis I resulting in an extra
chromosome in one gamete and a lack of a chromosome in
another gamete
Failure of chromosome to split in meiosis II resulting in an
extra chromatid in one gamete and a lack of a chromatid in
another gamete
o Mutations and Inbreeding
Most often are recessive when causing a gene to be defective, but the
likelihood of pairing two deleterious (defective) recessive genes with
inbred offspring is higher than mating with a diverse population
Sex Linked Genetics and Pedigrees
o Sex Linked
Males are XY
Females are XX
Therefore traits expressed on the Y chromosome can only
affect males

Phylogeny
Abiogenesis
The formation of living cells from organic, non living compounds
Hypothesized to only have occurred once
Evidence for Abiogenesis:
o Oparin: demonstrated that lipids spontaneously form coacervates
o Miller and Urey: attempted to replicate early earth conditions and
discovered that all essential compounds for life were created
o Fox: showed that amino acids, when subjected to heat, will spontaneously
from polypeptide compounds
o Margulis: her serial endosymbiotic theory of eukaryotic cell development
revolutionized the modern concept of how life arose on Earth
Evidence for early life:
o Stromatolites: formed by cyanobacteria building up on preexisting
rocks/sand
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Classification of Species
3 domains: Eukarya, Archaea, Bacteria
We can classify things and how theyre related by testing DNA
o Bacteria and Archaea:
Archaea was the first domain of which bacteria and eukarya
formed out of
Prokaryotes (All below)
No nucleus
No membrane-bound organelles
Single celled
Very small
Performs asexual reproductions (binary fission)
Contains photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria
Chemosynthesis: production of sugar from hydrogen
sulfide
Cyanobacteria made the first oxygen in the atmosphere
o Eukarya
Protists, fungi, plants, animals
Contain membrane bound organelles
Eukaryote evolution:
Multicellularity
Endosymbiosis
o Archaea evolved and formed a relationship with a
bacteria which eventually became used as a
mitochondria
Evidence: mitochondria have their own
DNA

Protists:
Theyre a kingdom which is broken up into many different
parts and since it is broken up, there should be more than
one kingdom
Eukaryotes
Contain organelles and a nucleus
Most are unicellular, but some form colonies, and some are
truly multicellular
Divided into 3 groups:
o Protozoa, algae, fungus-like protists
o Amoebas:
Unicellular
Move about using cellular extensions called
pseudopodia
o Sporozoans:
Animal parasites
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Life cycles with both sexual and asexual

stages that often require two or more
different host species for completion
Animalia:
Deuterostomia:
Humans are deuterostomes
Deuterostomes belong to a larger group within the
Animalia called the Bilateria, because they are bilaterally
symmetrical with a left and a right side to their bodies.
o Chordata:
o The Chordata is the animal phylum with which
everyone is most intimately familiar, since it
includes humans and other vertebrates.
o All share characteristics:
Pharyngeal Slits: a series of openings that
connect the inside of the throat to the outside
of the "neck"
Dorsal nerve cord: a bundle of nerve fibers
which runs down the "back". It connects the
brain with the lateral muscles and other
organs.
Notochord: cartilaginous rod running
underneath, and supporting, the nerve cord.
Post-anal tail: an extension of the body past
the anal opening.

Vertabrata:
We, humans, are vertebrates
Most animals we can see or know of
are vertebrates
Have a vertebral column
o Tetrapoda:
o Four-legged vertebrates
o Amphibians, reptiles
(including dinosaurs and
birds) and mammals are the
major groups of the
Tetrapoda
o Tetrapods include all land-
living vertebrates, such as
frogs, turtles, hawks, and
lions. The group also
includes a number of animals
that have returned to life in
the water, such as sea turtles,
sea snakes, whales and
dolphins, seals and sea lions.
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Synapsida
Mammalia
Lophotrochozoa:
o Bilaterally symmetrical
o Has a ring of hollow tentacles
o Specified by its larvae
Ecdysozoa:
o Bilaterally symmetrical
o Molts
Marsupalia:
o Give birth to an immature baby which they have to
nurse in a pouch
o Example: Kangaroo
Eutheria:
o Born with/through placenta
Monotremata:
o Lay eggs
Multituberculates:
o Gave birth to tiny, undeveloped pups
o Are extinct
Primates:
o Placental mammal
o We are primates, and also monkey, gorillas, etc.

Plants
A kingdom under Eukaryota
More information in next section

Fungi:
Eukaryotic
Almost all multicellular
Cell wall made of chitin
Most fungi have a filamentous structure and are
multinucleate
Lack chloroplasts and are therefore heterotrophic
Lack a digestive system and are absorptive feeders
o Absorptive feeding is the process of taking up small
organic molecules from the environment

Big Bang Theory

Occurred 13.7 billion
One way that demonstrates that the Big Bang is real is because the universe is still
expanding (red shift), and it would have to of have had a starting point where it
began to get bigger from there
Earth formed 4.6 billion years ago.
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Cells first appeared about 3.8 billion years ago (they were
Archaea/prokaryotes)
The Big Bang created an incredibly hot Universe a fraction of the size of an atom.
It immediately started to cool and expand, for a brief moment growing at a
tremendous rate, in a process called inflation. In less than a millisecond, the first
matter was created but, for thousands of years, the Universe was dominated by
radiation.
Dark Matter
o proves gravity, which proves the big bang
o 27 percent of matter in the universe
o 68 percent is dark energy
o 5 percent is normal matter
It was not an explosion, it was an expansion of an atom
Galaxies are moving away from us which proves the big bang

Primordial Earth
Early Earth Conditions
o formed 4.6 billion years ago
o Gases, dust, rocks collided and stuck together, forming larger bodies,
which in turn attracted more matter, eventually to form earth
o Constantly expanding
o First atmosphere was largely water vapor, nitrogen, oxides, carbon
dioxide, methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and hydrogen sulfide
Constant lightning, volcanic activity and ultraviolet radiation
o As the earth cooled the water condensed into oceans

Other Stuff
Clade: a group of organisms believed to have evolved from a common ancestor
Multicellularity: simply defined as a condition or state of having composed of
more than one cell performing different functions and having different
characteristics