Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A Problem-Solving Approach ! *
Unemployment, 5.2
Heights, 7.4
Unions, 5.2, 5.5, 5.R, 6.1, 6.2
Herbicides, 2.6
http://www.archive.org/details/finitemathematicOOwhee
Finite Mathematics
A Problem-Solving Approach
Ruric E. Wheeler Samford University
Please note this annotated Instructor's Review Copy has been prepared for
review purposes only. We plan to subject this edition to another rigorous era
check to insure the accuracy of the student edition. Final bound books of the
Student Edition will be available for adoption May I. 1991. To order this text
through your bookstore, use the following ISBN: 0-03-046939-2. For further
information on this title, contact your local Saunders representative or the
Saunders Regional Office nearest you. Eastern Regional Office:
1-800-551-BOOK; Western Regional Office: -800-TH E-TEXT.
1
Sydney Tokyo
Copyright 1991 by Saunders College Publishing, a division of Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to Copy-
rights and Permissions Department, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., Orlando, Florida
32887.
The cover illustration is a computer-generated image of a recently discovered surface of constant mean
curvature. This is a surface that locally minimizes area, subject to a volume constraint. The best-known
example is was the only known example. The new
the round sphere, and for a very long time the sphere
was discovered by H. Wente; further discoveries were made by
surface, one of an infinite family of tori,
U. Abresch and others. The example seen on the cover, with four lobes, is cut in half like an orange so
that one can see the inside. The numerics, using the Abresch representation, and computer graphics were
prepared by Y. Fang and J. Hoffman, respectively, at the Center for Geometry, Analysis, Numerics and
Graphics. University of Massachusetts, Amherst.
ISBN 0-03-046939-2
dent. In addition to being readable, how does this text differ from the typical
book serving these students? The answer can be summarized in four main
points.
Problem Solving. The ability to analyze problems and translate them into
mathematical language is an important and, for the average student, a diffi-
cult skill. This book begins with a section on problem solving and encour-
ages the student to use problem-solving procedures throughout. Thought
processes and algorithmic procedures are introduced to improve problem
solving.
Future Usability. Often students ask, "Why should I study mathematics?"
One goal of this book is to answer this question for students who are major-
ing in business, economics, the social sciences, or the life sciences. We
answer the question in three ways. First, every section of this book contains
numerous applications, classified as "Business and Economics" or "Social
and Life Sciences." Second, the last section of each chapter. "Extended
Application," contains either a case study using the material of the chapter
or an example from a textbook in business, economics, or the social and life
sciences using the chapter material. (Knowing material will be covered in a
later course encourages students to study and learn.) Finally, CPA, CMA,
Preface
and actuarial exam questions are scattered throughout the exercise sets to
indicate that knowledge of the material is important in professional growth.
These are denoted by the word "Exam."
Ample Review. The only prerequisite assumed for this course is high school
algebra. However, since algebra is easily forgotten due to lack of use, the
first chapter contains ample review of basic topics of algebra. For classes
that do not need this review, we suggest studying Sections 1 and 4 of Chap-
ter 1 and then Chapter 2.
Student-Based Approach. First and foremost, this book is student oriented.
A distinct effort is made to base each new concept on the student's prior
experience or prior knowledge from the textbook. Thus, the book appeals to
intuition rather than to a formal approach.
Organization
Pedagogical System
OVERVIEWS Each section begins with an overview, which quickly summarizes the sec-
tion's goals and relates the section to previous study or experience. If the
section's objectives are not covered in the discussion, they are listed at the
end of the overview.
STUDENT AIDS Thought boxes are provided to assist students through the critical stages of a
problem. For example:
Page 97:
Need a
here .4 -3 -1 Use -4R, + fc
Page 219:
= r- =
r .08
=
l -r .02
k 4
PRACTICE PROBLEMS Simple problems are presented prior to the exercise set to check for under-
standing. Often the steps leading to a solution are given to provide additional
information before the student attempts the exercise set.
NOTES Throughout the text you will find "NOTE" in the margin to indicate an
unusual thought or to call attention to possible student errors.
CALCULATOR NOTES Also found throughout the text are suggestions for using a calculator. Often
the steps for obtaining the answer using a calculator are enumerated.
Preface
VISUAL AIDS Someone has worth a thousand words. For this reason the
said a picture is
END-OF-CHAPTER At the end of each chapter is a short test on the chapter material to assist the
TESTS student in evaluating comprehension. All the answers to these problems are
given in the back of the book.
EXAMPLES The textual material of this book is augmented by more than 300 solved
examples. Every new idea is illustrated with an example.
Calculator Approach
Supplements
Finite Mathematics for Business and the Social and Life Sciences comes
with a complete set of ancillaries that will provide invaluable help to students
and instructors.
Student Solutions Manual and Study Guide, also by Henry Smith. This sup-
Preface
plement for the student contains the answer to every other odd-num-
bered exercise. In Professor Smith's unique system, new concepts are
keyed to answers to exercises in the text.
Prepared Tests by Leslie Cobar of the Univesity of New Orleans. Professor
Cobar has prepared five tests for each chapter and two final exams
more than 1500 questions in all.
MathPath Tutorial Software by George W. Bergeman is available for Finite
Mathematics on an IBM disk. Professor Bergeman has written new
modules unique to this text. The software is keyed to each chapter.
Acknowledgments
Ruric E. Wheeler
Samford University
December 1990
Contents Overview
1
xiw Contents Overview
6
Contents
2 Linear Algebra 61
7 Statistics 407
Linear Models
Experience has shown that a mastery of this chapter is fundamental for good
work in this course and for the application of mathematics to business,
economics, and the social and life sciences. Generally, students learn mathe-
matical manipulations more easily than the application of mathematical con-
cepts. However, unless you can apply the mathematical techniques of this
book to meet real needs in business, economics, or the social and life sci-
ences, this course will not have fulfilled its purpose. To accomplish this goal,
we will study the forming of models in this chapter. To assist in forming
models to represent real situations, we will introduce a number of problem-
solving techniques that will assist in converting verbal statements into math-
ematical shorthand or terminology. In this chapter we will emphasize linear
models, and a picture of the linear mathematical model will be shown as a
graph on a coordinate system. Master these concepts as you begin your
study of this book.
Overview Most college freshmen enter their first mathematics class with more expertise in mathematical
computation than in problem solving. In this section, you will be introduced to some problem-
solving suggestions that have been helpful to others. A few will be illustrated by "trick" prob-
lems; yet, these suggestions can be used in a multitude of applications. You will study
Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
How many?
How much?
What was?
Who is?
Who has?
What is to be found?
EXAMPLE 1 On their way back to the university, Joy, Beth, and Dill took turns driving.
Joy drove 50 miles more than Beth; Beth drove twice as far as Dill. Dill only
drove 10 miles. How many miles is the trip back to the university? (List
some questions you would ask in order to understand the problem.)
SOLUTION Understanding the problem: Do you know how far anyone drove?
(Yes, Dill drove 10 miles.) How many more miles did Joy drive than Beth?
(50).What is the relationship between the number of miles driven by Beth
and the number driven by Dill? (Beth drove twice as far as Dill.) What are we
trying to find? (The distance back to the university. )
Although asking questions similar to the ones in the preceding example
an understanding of a problem, some additional suggestions
will usually give
may be helpful.
Understanding the 1. Read and reread the problem; look up words you don't know.
Problem 2. Identify what you are trying to find.
Once you have carefully summarized the information given in the prob-
lem, the suggestion "Identify what you are trying to find" enables you to
find the answer easily for simple problems such as the following.
1. A farmer has 17 calves. All but 9 die. How many does he have left?
2. Refinery I produces 200 barrels of high-grade oil a day. Refinery II pro-
duces twice as much per day as refinery I. How much do both produce in
.v days? (Exercise Set 1.1, Exercise 13)
EXAMPLE 2 A farmer has 17 calves. All but 9 die. How many does he have left?
SOLUTION Did you get 8? Be careful! What is the unknown? How many
calves are living? What are the data? Originally, the farmer had 17 calves
(irrelevant!). All but 9 died (important!). Hence, 9 are living>
1. Dan buys only blue and brown socks. He keeps all his socks in one
drawer, and in that drawer he has 8 blue socks and 6 brown socks. If he
reaches into the drawer without looking, what is the smallest number of
socks he must take out to be sure of getting 2 of the same color?
2. Vehicles of the Acme Trucking Company average 10 miles per gallon of
fuel in the city and 15 miles per gallon in the country. A truck with fuel
capacity of 50 gallons registers 8 gallons. How much fuel must be pur-
chased to fill the tank for a 3000-mile trip? (Exercise Set 1.1, Exercise 4)
EXAMPLE 3 The daily cost of producing lawn mowers at theApex Corporation is a fixed
cost of $5000 plus a variable cost of $100 times the number of mowers
produced that day. What is the cost of producing m mowers?
SOLUTION The variable cost is $100 times m mowers, or 100m. But this must
be added to a fixed cost of $5000. The cost C = $5000 + $100m>
Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
SOLUTION
(a) 9^ + 6
(b) 3x - 8
(c) 0.10C + $3000^
Sentences that can be identified as either true or false are called state-
ments. Each of the following is a statement:
+ is not equal to
> is greater than
< is less than
Precise definitions for the terms "less than" and "greater than" will be
given later in this chapter. Your intuitive understanding of these symbols
will be sufficient for this section.
x + 4 = 1
x + 1 < 10
SOLUTION
(a) 15 + x = 23
(b) z - 3 > >
Later in this chapter we complete Polya's third step, "Carry out the
plan," by solving the linear models we have created.
Polya's last step, "Look back," is a must, not only for problems in this
book, but for those in life as well. In this step you determine if your answer
makes sense relative to what is given. Mathematically speaking, we call this
checking to see if our solution satisfies given conditions.
Practice Problems > 1. A mining company owns two mines. Big Knob produces 40 tons of ore a
day; Little Creek produces 20 tons. Big Knob operated x days last week
and Little Creek operated y days. Write an expression for the amount of
company produced last week.
ore the
2. Roebuck Power Company charges $5 per month for service plus $. 10 for
each kilowatt-hour used. Mike Smith's electric bill was $30. Write an
equation to find how many kilowatt-hours of electricity he used.
Answers !o practice problems are found on page 7.
Exercise Set 1.1 In Exercises 1-4, make certain to gallons. Regular gasoline sells
strip the problem of irrelevant de- for $1.08 a gallon. What is the
tails. cost of a full tank of gasoline?
9. Three times a number divided by 11. Six more than twice a number is
Applications
(Business and Express the following as mathemati- for revenue R in terms of x units
Economlcs) cal statements or sentences. sold. Hint: Revenue = (price per
unit) (number of units sold).
13. Production. Refinery I produces
200 barrels of high-grade oil a 18. Cost Equation. In the manufac-
day. Refinery II produces twice turing of the x units in the pre-
asmuch per day as refinery I. vious exercise the fixed cost is
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 23. Diet. Food I contains 30 protein acre. What is the labor require-
and food II con-
calories per unit ment for w acres of wheat and c
tains 20. Abdul eats x units of acres of corn? What is the cost
food I and y units of food II. of fertilizer and other costs for w
How many protein calories does acres of wheat and c acres of
he get? corn?
and corn requires 3. Fertilizer there are 20,000 fish in the lake,
and other costs amount to $40 how many will there be in /
Answers to \> 1. 40* + 20y tons of coal were produced last week.
Practice Problems 2. The equation 5 + 10.v = 30 relates the number of kilowatt-hours
. ,v to the
monthly electric bill.
Overview You use numbers every day, but you seldom think about what kinds of numbers they are. Yet,
numbers will be important to you throughout life. In this section the real numbers (the kind you
will use in this course) will be described, and number lines will be introduced to aid your
understanding of the concept of real numbers. The four fundamental operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division) will be presented so as to help you in solving equations
throughout this book. A quick review of these operations will be presented for negative num-
bers and fractions. In addition we will review the basic concepts and terminology of set theory in
Definition: A Set A set is a collection of objects or symbols possessing a property that enables one to
Definition: xEA means x is an element of set A.x (.A means x is not an element of set A.
Element of a Set
2}, or {2, 3, 1}. In fact, two sets are said to be equal if they contain exactly the
same elements. If A = B, then A and B have exactly the same elements.
EXAMPLE 7 Glenda, Cathie, and Marcia are the only counselors in the admissions office.
They constitute the set A = {Glenda, Cathie, Marcia}. Cathie G A; Linda
A. Can you identify other elements of set Alt
{1, 2, 3,4, 5, . . .}
Definition: An Empty Set A set that contains no elements is called the empty, or null, set and is denoted by either I
or{ }.
Definition: A Subset Set A is said to be a subset of set fl, denoted by A C 8, if and only if each element of A is
an element of S.
For example, if-P = {1,4, 7} and Q = {4, 7, 1}, then/5 C Q since each element
of P is an element of Q.
Since all dogs are animals, the set of dogs is a subset of the set of
animals. Moreover, the set of dogs is a proper subset of the set of animals,
since there are animals that are not dogs.
Definition: Set A is said to be a proper subset of set S, denoted by A c B, if and only if each element
A Proper Subset of A is an element of B and there is at least one element of 6 that is not an element of A.
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 2
The region outside set A and inside the universe (J represents the
complement of A, denoted by A'.
Definition: The complement of set A is the set of elements in the universe that are not in set A.
Complement of a Set
If the universe consists of all bonds, and if A consists of all bonds that
have interest rates exceeding 8%, then the set of all bonds bearing interest of
8% or less is the complement of A. In Figure 3 the shaded region outside the
circle but inside the rectangle represents A'.
FIGURE 3
SOLUTION
Real numbers
Irrational numbers
itegers
1
Fractions that
cannot be simplified
to integers
Negative Whole
integers numbers
Positive integers
(or natural
numbers)
FIGURE 4
You will use these numbers in your study of this book, often without
thinking of the name of the numbers you are using. However, numbers such
as
{1,2,3,4.. . .}
(which is 2J). Irrational numbers are usually classified as numbers that are
not rational. In this book, we will work with numbers such as V3 and V7,
which are irrational, tt is an irrational number, and so is a nonrepeating
decimal number such as 3.131131 113 (Note that the l's increase by
. . . .
number - V10 and the rational numbers 2 and 6.5 are shown in Figure 5.
12 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
sIlO
-4 h H
I I I
\ I I I-
FIGURE 5
Now with your calculator multiply two numbers in one order and then
reverse the order. Did you get the same answer? You have illustrated the
commutative property of multiplication, ab = ba.
CALCULATOR NOTE With your calculator add 41 +27. Then add 33 to this sum, (41 + 27) + 33.
Now, can you find the sum of 41 + (27 + 33)? That is, add the sum of 27
to 41
and 33.
Try 4100270330
Did you get the same answer? You have illustrated that when adding more
than two numbers you may arrange the numbers in any order for addition.
In general we state the associative property of addition as a + (b + c) =
(<(!/') c. In a like manner, the associative property of multiplication is
stated as a(bc ) = (ab)c.
Now with your calculator, illustrate the distributive property of multi-
plication over addition, a(b + c) = ab + ac and (b + c)a = ba + ca. For
example, add 42 + 37. Then multiply the answer by 53, 53(42 + 37).
Now multiply 53 times 42 and 53 times 37 and add the results. Did you
get the same answer?
Zero is called the additive identity because a + = + a = a. Like-
wise, 1 is the multiplicative identity since I a = a 1 = a.
42 + (-42) =
These two numbers are said to be additive inverses. In general, a and -a are
additive inverses. Likewise, a and \la (where a + 0) are multiplicative
inverses since a{\la) = 1. Ma is often written as a '.
CALCULATOR NOTE Did you have trouble getting -42 into your calculator? Try 42 1
+/- |
. Do you
see a -42 on the display?
Definition: x if x >
Absolute Value -x if x <
Definition: Addition and 1. To add two signed numbers with the same sign, add their values and affix their
Signed Numbers
-2 + -5= -(2 + 5)
2. To add two signed numbers with unlike signs, find the difference in their absolute
values. Affix to the answer the sign of the number whose absolute value is the largest.
-2 + 5 = +(5-2) = 3
-7 + 4 = -(7 - 4) = -3
3. The product (or quotient) of two numbers with unlike signs is negative.
-3-2 = -6and4 + -2 = -2
4. The product (or quotient) of two numbers with like signs is positive.
NOTE x should not be read as "negative v."' since x can be cither a positive or
negative number; that is, jr can
be positive if x is negative. For instance,
if x = -5, then -v is 5. Read x as the "additive inverse of" or "the
NOTE Always do multiplications and divisions in the order they occur in the prob-
lem, before additions and subtractions. This is the order in which most
calculators will perform the operations.
(b) -(-6) = 6
(c) 5 + (-9) = -(9 - 5) = -4 1
9 is larger than 5 |
/l\ 3 l
2 5
= = _
(O-j 7 (~3/W T5
1+2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 21
We then use 21 as the denominator and each year in reverse order as the
numerator (that is, year 1 would be 6/21) to find the depreciation by multiply-
ing the resulting fraction by the initial value of the asset.
16 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
(a) V3
(b) I
(c) 0.125
Foundations: Sets and the Real-Number System 17
17. -8 [- - 4)
18. -11 | - 3
|
(6-5)
19.
18 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
37. Profit. A merchant sells a suit 38. Use the sum-of-digits method to
for $87, thereby gaining a profit find the yearly depreciation of
of 30% of cost. What was the an office computer valued at
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 39. Muscle Efficiency. Sometimes the muscle is contracted. Find a
algebraic expressions are used value for E when / = 0, 0.5, 4s,
Answers to C> 1. 4(3 + 2) = 4(5) = 20. 4(3) + 4(2) = 12 8 = 20. Thus, 4(3 + 2) = 4(3)
Practice Problems + 4(2).
2. The answer is 2.
Overview This section should be a review of solving equations and inequalities. However, a knowledge of
this material is essential in the chapter on matrix theory and the chapter on linear programming.
Check: 2(7) - 1 = 13
13 = 13
the result is true. Thus, 7 is said to satisfy (or to be a solution of) the equation
2x 1 = 13. In general, we have the following definition.
Solving Equations and Inequalities 19
Definition: Solution of an If an equation (or inequality) involves only one variable and there is a number that, if
Equation or Inequality substituted for that variable, makes the equation (or inequality) a true statement, then
that number is called a solution of the equation (or inequality).
Two equations are said to be equivalent if and only if they have the
same solutions. The following operations produce equivalent equations.
Addition and For any real numbers a, b, and c, if an equation a = b is true, then
Multiplication Properties
1. a c = b c is true.
2. ac = be is true.
3. ale = blc is true if c # 0.
3.v = 6
x = 2
6 + 5 = 11
11 = 11
EXAMPLE 14 Solve ^ -3 = 1.
(i
3+3=1+3 Pro perty 1
2" 4
2@- 2- Property 2
x = 8
20 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
Check: 2- 3=1
4-3=1
1 = 1
SOLUTION
.v = 1 |
Subtract 2
When -(.v + 2) = 3
-x - 2 = 3
-x = 5 |
Add 2
x = 5 Multiply by 1
|1 + 2| = |3|
= 3
SOLUTION This time we need to get all terms involving x on one side of the
equation. First we simplify each side.
3* - 2(2* - 5) = 3U - 2)
3x - 4x + 10 = 3.v - 6
-x + 10 = 3.v - 6
-4jt + 10 = -6
-4a- = -16 Add -10 to both sides]
12 - 6 = 3
2
6 = 6
SOLUTION
L
Pr
= 2 =
Pr
t Divide by Pr =0|
Check: I = Pr (j-)
I = I
SOLUTION
y - b = mx [Subtract b \
y-b _ Divide by m
Check: v = m \
:
+ b
y = (y - b) + b
y = y
The procedures used in solving the preceding equations can be used for
calculator solutions.
SOLUTION
12.87912 , .
(a)v = 4 12
^l2^ = -
12.87912 = 12.87912
74.16 = 74.16
:: CALCULATOR NOTE Using the parentheses keys on a calculator, you can solve a linear equation
keeping everything within the calculator without writing down intermediate
steps. For example, we can solve
as follows:
Try this on your calculator and see if you get 35 . 1 7857 43 Note the algebraic
1 .
operations performed:
_ 84.3 + 14.2
* ~ 16.1 - 13.3
552.1819 552.1807
Note that the check is accurate to five digits. (You rounded your answer to
five digits.)
jjl CALCULATOR NOTE The reciprocal key is also very useful in solving equations. To solve 14.3.V =
17.1 - 8.3.v, note that
Solving Equations and Inequalities 23
v = 17.
(14.3 + 8.3)
the number. Did you get 0.75664? Now check your answer.
The procedures used for solving inequalities are almost the same as
those used for solving equations. However, let us first define less than and
greater than.
Definition: Less Than If a and b are any real numbers, then a is said to be less than b, denoted by a < b, if and
only if b - a is positive; that is, if and only if there exists a positive number c such that a +
c = b.
The concepts of less than and greater than are easy to illustrate by
points on a number line. For example, .r < 4 is represented by all the points
on a number line to the left of 4. The graph would contain an open circle at 4.
The graph of v < 4 includes all of the preceding points and the point x = 4. In
Figure 6(a), x = 4 is indicated by a closed circle; x > 9 is represented by all
points to the right of 9; and 2 < x < 5 (this means 2 < x and for the same x,
x < 5) is represented by all points between 2 and 5 on the number line. Figure
6(b). Note that the open circles indicate that 2 and 5 are not values of .v.
4 i-
(b)
FIGURE 6
24 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
TABLE 1
Interval
Solving Equations and Inequalities 25
SOLUTION
^ < 6 I
Add 2 to both sides
Consider all real numbers less than 18. By reversing our steps we discover
that these real numbers satisfy x/3 - 2 < 4.
x < 18 I Given I
"zz < 6 |
Divide both sides by 3
The solution set for x/3 - 2 < 4 consists of all real numbers less than 18 or*
in ( oo, 18). The graph of this answer is shown in Figure 7>
'
I I l I I l
SOLUTION
-3x < 5 Add -2 to both sides
5 -1
x > Multiply both sides by
-3
The solution set consists of all real numbers greater than -f or x in (-^, *>).
FIGURE 8
'
-2-f
I
'
-
-10
\ 1
12
1 \
26 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
a or x < -a. That is, |jc| < 6 means -6 < x < 6, and |.v| > 4 means either x <
-4 or x > 4. This concept is used to solve inequalities such as the following.
SOLUTION
Solving Equations and Inequalities 27
35. -1 ^ x + 5 < 6
18. '= + 3 < 4 - -
-< 3 * + 2>^
36
So/uf /or the variable indicated. 5
3?> 5 s
<2a+1>
< 8
(2jr + 5)
21. y = mx + b; b 38. -2 < . <
2
22. v = mx + b\
39. Ijc - 21 < 7
23.5 = -;
-
-; r 40. |x-5|<-l
(1 r)
44.
28 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
Overview Students often have difficulty solving word problems. Wouldn't it be great if there were a magic
formula that would make all word problems easy? Unfortunately, such a formula doesn't exist.
There is, however, a procedure to help you formulate equations for word problems, and after a
brief introduction to models, we will practice using it. Using a calculator will also help you to
EXAMPLE 25 Cost Analysis. and prices are analyzed over a short pe-
In business, costs
riod in terms of the manufacturing costs. (Of course, over a long period there
are many economic variables: inflation, supply, demand, etc.) Usually the
manufacturing costs consist of fixed costs (which remain constant over the
short term) and variable costs (such as labor, materials, distribution, etc.),
which depend on the number of items produced. From this discussion, write
an expression for the total cost (C) if the fixed cost is $2000 and the variable
cost is $1.20 per item produced. From this linear model, determine the cost
of producing 1000 items.
C = 2000 + 1.20*
C = 2000 + 1.20(1000)
= $3200
EXAMPLE 26 Supply and Demand. Supply (5) and demand (>) expressed as price in dol-
lars per item for a given commodity are often given as a linear model in terms
of the number of items .v produced (or demanded). For example, consider a
demand expressed as p = (400 - 5x)l2 and a supply as p = 5x12.
(a) Which has a larger price, D or 5, when x is 10?
(b) 20?
(c) 50?
(d) 60?
(e) For what x are supply and demand equal? (The common value of supply
and demand is called the equilibrium price. Set the expression for S
equal to the expression for D and solve for x.)
Solving Problems with Linear Models 29
SOLUTION
30 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
EXAMPLE 27 Susan has $10,000 invested, a portion at 8% and another at 10%. If her
annual interest is $920, how much does she have invested at each rate?
SOLUTION Guess that she has $8000 invested at 10%. Then she would have
$10,000 - $8000 = $2000 invested at 8%. Her guess
total interest for this
would be
You now have a linear equation representing the verbal problem. We solve
.02.* = 120 |
Divide by .02 |
x = 120/. 02
x = $6000
Did your guess and calculator approach assist in writing the equation?
Let's try this process again.
EXAMPLE 28 A will provides that an estate is to be divided among a wife and two children.
First the wife is to receive $10,000. From what remains, the wife is to receive
twice as much as each child. If the estate is valued at $50,000, how much
does each receive?
SOLUTION We begin by guessing that each child receives $5000. Do you see
that the wife receives $10,000 +2($5000)? Thus, the total received by the
Solving Problems with Linear Models 31
Quickly you can see the answer of $30,000 is much less than the total estate
Now replace the guess $5000 by $.v for the amount that each child
of $50,000.
receives.
wife child 1 child 2
$10,000 + 2x + x + x
The answer is the wife receives $30,000 and each child receives $10,000.
Now verify that the answer satisfies the facts. Each child receives
$10,000 and the wife, $30,000. Does the wife receive $10,000 plus double
what a child receives? The answer is yes. Does the sum of the allotments
equal $50,000? The answer is again yes because
Practice Problem > 1. Mark has $20,000 invested, part of which is invested at 10% and part at
8%. If his interest is $1760 a year, how much does he have invested at
each rate? Guess the amount invested at each rate and compute the
interest to get a feel for the problem. Then set up an equation and solve
for the answer.
Answer to practice problem is found on page 33.
Exercise Set 1.4 Work Exercises I through 6 by first Tom many books as
has twice as
guessing an answer. With a calcula- Joe. Together they have 75
tor, determine whether your guess is books. How many does each
too large or too small; then substi- boy have?
tute an unknown for your guess.
A rectangle has a length 3 inches
1. Carol is twice as old as Ed. Ed is less than 4 times the width. If its
10 years younger than Carol. perimeter is 38 inches, what are
How old is Ed? the dimensions of the rectangle?
32 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
Applications
(Business and 8. Electricity. Mr. Smith's elec- decision on which coffee is the
Economics) tric billwas 6 times Mr. Jones' best buy; so he buys 1 pound of
bill. The two bills totaled $84. each brand and spends $5.08.
What was the cost of each man's How much does a pound of each
bill? brand cost?
15. Profit. Fred Moss wants to sell 17. Supply and Demand. The sup-
shirts for $14.50. If he marks up ply for a certain brand of coffee
his items 35% over wholesale is given by p = %x (where .v is the
Applications (Social
and Lite Sciences) 18. leisure Time. If you spend 65% 1980. then
of your leisure time reading,
y = 1.5/ + 430
how much leisure time do you
have if you spend 13 hours a Solve for t in terms of y and then
week reading? find when the school can expect
a 450 verbal score. Will this ac-
tually happen? Why or why not?
19. Temperature. F = f C + 32
relates temperature in degrees 21. Protein. One serving of Wheats
Celsius temperature in de-
to cereal contains 4% of the recom-
grees Fahrenheit. Solve for C in mended daily allowance of pro-
terms of F. tein. If one serving of Wheats
contains 8 grams of protein,
what is the recommended daily
20. SAT Scores. The average SAT allowance for protein?
verbal scores at a high school
have been increasing since new 22. Voting. In a presidential elec-
graduation requirements were tion, only 54% of the registered
inaugurated in 1980. y repre- If voters voted. If 42 million went
sents the average verbal score to the polls, how many regis-
Overview In this section, we introduce the rectangular (or Cartesian) coordinate system and learn to draw
the graphs of both linear equations and linear inequalities. It has been said that a picture is
worth a thousand words. Certainly managers, economists, and scientists often use graphs to
show ideas, rather than using equations. We must be proficient not only in interpreting graphs
34 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
but also in drawing graphs. This section is the foundation of graphical procedures emphasized
in this book.
II
FIGURE 10
Expressing Ideas with Graphs 35
FIGURE 11
SOLUTION For example, we choose to plot p along the vertical axis and q
this
along the horizontal axis. Now 2), (0, ), and (-1,0) are solutions of p
( 1 , 1
=
q + 1. If we represent these ordered pairs on a rectangular coordinate
system, we note (Figure 12) that a straight line contains all three points. We
might say that two of the points determine the line and the third point serves
as a check.
Pi
FIGURE 12
36 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
The y coordinate of the point where the line crosses the y axis is called
the y intercept. The x coordinate of the point where the line crosses the x
axis is called the x intercept. To find the y intercept, set x = in the equation
of a line and solve for y. To find the x intercept, set y = and solve for x. In
Figure 11 the x intercept is 4 and the y intercept is 4. In Figure 12 the q
intercept is -1 and the p intercept is 1.
EXAMPLE 30 Find the x intercept and the y intercept of the graph of 2 x - 3y = 6, and use
these to sketch the graph of the equation.
2x - 3 = 6
x = 3 \x intercept]
v = -2 y intercept
FIGURE 13
EXAMPLE 31 Graph x = 4.
SOLUTION The x intercept is 4. Since x = 4 for each point on the graph, the
graph is parallel to the y axis, as seen in Figure 14.
Expressing Ideas with Graphs 37
FIGURE 14
fies both the demand equation and the supply equation. Supply is said to
equal demand.
320 - Ax
P =
Further, suppose the supply equation is p = 20.v. Find the point of equilib-
rium for these by graphing both the demand equation and the supply equa-
tion on the same coordinate system.
320 - Ax
Use.v = 4,p = 80 and x = 6,p = 120 to graph p = 20.v as shown in Figure 15.
The intersection of the two graphs is at x = 5,p= 100. Thus, the equilibrium
price is $100. If the number of units is more than 5, the supply will exceed the
demand. If the number of units is less than 5, the demand will exceed the
supply.
38 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
Price
p= 20.v (supply)
(6. 120)
$120-
110"
100"
90-
Point of equilibrium
80--
70--
60--
50-
40--
30--
20--
10-
-\ 1
h
FIGURE 75
As shown in Figure 16, a line divides the coordinate plane into two
parts called half-planes. Just as the points on a line are described by the
equation of the line, the points in a half-plane are described by means of an
inequality.
FIGURE 16
Expressing Ideas with Graphs 39
v - 2.v - 1 =
shown in Figure 16. If (.v, y) is any point on the line, it will satisfy the
equation y - 2.x - 1 =0. If (*, y) is any point above the line, then it satisfies
y - 2x - 1 >
For example, (-1, 2) is above the line, and (-1, 2) satisfies the inequality
2 - 2(-l) - 1 = 3 >
In a similar manner, (0, 0) is in the solution set of
y - 2x - 1 <
since - - 1 < 0. This agrees with the fact that the half-plane below the
line consists of all points that satisfy
y - 2x - 1 <
Thus, an inequality using less than or greater than represents a half-plane,
and the corresponding line (< replaced by =) represents the boundary of the
half-plane. The following steps assist in finding the graph of an inequality.
Graphing Inequalities 1. Treat the inequality as an equation and plot points as if to graph the line.
2. If the relationship in the inequality is < or >, draw the line with dashes since the points
on the line are not solutions of the inequality but rather are on the boundary. If the
relationship is s or > draw a solid line since the points on the line are solutions.
3. By testing a point on each side of the line in the inequality, determine which side of the
line represents the set of solution points. (The origin is often a convenient point to
4. Shade the side of the half-plane that was found to contain the solution points.
solution 1 . Four points on the line represented by 3.v + 2_v = 5 are given in
Table 2.
TABLE 2
X
40 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
3. Determine which side of the line consists of points (x, y) such that 3x +
2y < 5. Select any point, say (3, 3), that is to the right of the line. Does the
inequality become a true statement if this point is substituted for the jc and
y values? Test it. Is 3(3) + 2(3) less than 5?
Therefore, points to the right of the line are not solutions of the inequal-
ity. Now test any point to the left of the line. Substitute the point ( 1 ,
- 1
1 < 5
4. Shade the half-plane to the left side of the broken line, forming the graph
in Figure 17>
S
\ 4.
\
\;
2-
H h
1 \2 3
\
\
\ 3x + ly = 5
FIGURE 17
SOLUTION 1. The ordered pairs in Table 3 help to determine the line repre-
senting y = x + 1
Expressing Ideas with Graphs 41
TABLE 3
X
42 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
x = -1 to x = 4.)
(e)
(|) x + y = 2y - 1
x < 4.
a straight line through any two
of these points and observe the 10. Graph w < 2x - 4 for -1 <
results. x < 3.
Applications
(Business and 16. Cost and Revenue. A revenue 17. Simple Interest. Draw a graph
Economics) function is given as R = 100.x. of the amount of money owed if
The cost function is defined by $200 is borrowed at 8% simple
C = 1000 + 80jc. Draw R and C interest for different periods.
on the same coordinate system Use the equation
and determine for what produc-
tion there is or is not a profit. A = $200(1 + 0.08/)
Expressing Ideas with Graphs 43
18. Depreciation. Let x in the equa- 20. Supply and Demand. Suppose
tion y = -60a- + 10,000 repre- the supply S (price per unit) for
sent months and y represent the the item in Exercise 19 is given
dollar value of a machine less by
depreciation.
5.v
=
(a) Prepare a table of values for
=
P T
-y 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30,
(a) What is the price when .v =
35, 40.
3; when x = 9?
(b) Sketch the graph of the
(b) Graph this equation on the
equation, letting x assume
all real values greater than
same coordinate axes you
used in Exercise 19.
or equal to 0.
(c) Find the equilibrium point.
(d) When is the supply greater
than the demand?
19. Supply and Demand. Suppose
the demand D (price per unit) for 21. Supply and Demand. The de-
a certain item varies with the mand D and supply 5 for a cer-
number of units x so that tain commodity are given by
(a) What is the price when (a) Graph the equation involv-
x = 0? ing Dand the equation in-
(b) What is the price when volving 5 on the same coor-
x = 4? dinate axes.
(c) What happens to the price (b) Find the equilibrium point.
when x = 10? (c) When is the supply less than
(d) Graph the equation. the demand?
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 22. Height. Weight Chart. The desirable weight for a woman
Metro Health Club considers the who is 63, 66, or 69 inches tall.
following weights to be desirable
for women who are either 60 or
23. Population. The population of
72 inches
Montevallo seems to be increas-
tall.
ing linearly. In 1980, the popula-
Answer to >
Practice Problem
Overview We have studied the solving and graphing of linear equations. Just as important is the ability to
develop an equation that accurately describes a situation. So in this section we develop equa-
tions of lines from data representing real-life situations. We define the slope of a line and use
this concept to find the graph of the line and also to find the equation of the line. In addition, we
learn to find the equation of a line through two points. This section is very important in your
accumulation of strategies to solve application problems.
(6.4)
(3, 2)
H 1 1 1
h
FIGURE 19
P 2 U 2 .v 2 )
FIGURE 20
Definition: Slope of a Line The ratio of the rise to the run of a line segment is called the slope of the line containing
the segment and is designated by the letter m. Thus, the slope of the line through P-,
/2~yi
x, *x 2
x2 -x.
Since the ratio of therise to the run is always constant, the slope of a
line is always the same no matter which two points are selected to compute
the slope.
If P 2 is to the right of P, , x2 - x t
will necessarily be positive, and the
slope will be positive or negative as y 2 - y\ is positive or negative. Thus,
positive slope indicates that a line rises to the right; negative slope indicates
that it falls to the right. That is, a slope of 2 means y increases by 2 when .v
Since
y2 - yi -(yi - y2 _ ) \'i
- y2
X2 - -V| -Ui - X2 ) X[ - x2
P2 be to the right of P, is not necessary, and the order
the restriction that in
This segment is parallel to the x axis. The slope of the line segment from
(2, 1) to (2, 4) is
or undefined
V
Slopes and Linear Equations 47
y
T-v +
T
By letting in = -aid and b = -eld, the expression becomes
y = mx + b
Note also that m= in the equation. Since (0, 0) and (1,2) are points
FIGURE 23
If (.V| , vi) is a fixed point on a given straight line, and (.v, y) is any point
on the line, then the slope from (.v,, v,) to (.v, v) is
V| = m(x - .V|)
48 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
Since the coordinates x and y are variables denoting any point on the line,
the equation y- y\ = m(x - x\) represents the relationship between x and y.
Thus, the equation of the line with slope in passing through the fixed point
{x\ , y{) is y y\ = m(x - x\). A linear equation written in this form is said to
be in point-slope form. If the slope and one point of the line are known, then
the equation of the line can be easily obtained.
Point-Slope Form
EXAMPLE 36 Find the equation of the line through (2, 1) with a slope of 3.
SOLUTION
y - y\ = m(x - x t )
y - 1 = 3(x - 2)
y = 1 + 3* - 6
y = 3.v - 5
As a special case, the fixed point may be chosen to be the point where
the line crosses the y axis (the y intercept). The coordinates of this point are
usually written as (0, b). Then the equation of the line becomes y = + b, mx
the equation discussed earlier. The b in this equation is the value of y when
x = 0, or the y intercept.
Slope-Intercept Form If a line has a slope of m and a y intercept of b, then the equation of the line is given by
y = mx + b
EXAMPLE 37 If the slope of a line is 3 and the y intercept is 2, what is the equation of the
line?
Sometimes, instead of being given a point and the slope, you are given
two points along the line. The two-point method of finding the equation of a
line consists of using these two points to determine the slope of the line and
then using the point-slope formula to establish the equation.
EXAMPLE 38 Find the equation of the line containing the points (2, 3) and ( 1, 4).
Slopes and Linear Equations 49
SOLUTION The two points can be used in either order to find the slope of the
line. One way is
4-3 I
The slope along with either of the fixed points can now be used to determine
the equation of the line; that is,
y - 3 = (~)(x - 2)
y-4 = (x+ 1)
1-1
FIGURE 24
50 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
5-2 3
y x = 3
5-- (3.5)
4--
3--
2-- -(3,2)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1--
-2--
FIGURE25
of one line is the negative reciprocal of the other, then the two lines are
perpendicular.
y = 2x - 3
y-y, =m(x-x 1 )
y = mx + b
y = b
x = b
Practice Problems > 1. For P,(l, 2) and P2 (4, 4), find y2 - y, , the change in v, and ,v 2 - jci , the
change in x.
2. Find the slope of the line through (-1, 2) and (3. -2).
3. Find the equation of the line that crosses the y axis at (0, -5) and has a
slope of 2.
6. Find the y intercept of the line containing the points (2, 1) and (4, -2).
1.
52 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
12. y = 3x + 2
(a) The line contains the two
13. y + 2x - 1 = points (1, -3) and (4, 5).
(a) x = 2, and y = -3
Find an equation of the line through
(b) x = 3, and y = 5
each of the following pairs of points.
35. Find the y intercept of the line
25. (1, 1), (2, 5)
that passes through the point (3,
26. (-1, 1), (2, 5) -2) with a slope of 2.
Slopes and Linear Equations 53
36. What is the slope of a line with a 39. In Exercise 23, find the equation
y intercept of -3 that passes of the line perpendicular to the
through the point (-4, 1)? given line through the point (2,
3).
37. In Exercise 21, find the equation
of the line parallel to the given 40. For Exercise 24, find the equa-
line through the point (2, 3). tion of the line through (2, 4)
perpendicular to the given line.
38. In Exercise 22, find the equation
of the line parallel to the given
line through (-1, -3).
Applications
(Business and 41. Depreciation. The decrease in per year, find its value at the
of time in years, and C the origi- (a) Let t = in 1980; find an ex-
nal cost of an item. At the end of pression for the amount of
1 year, the item depreciates in sales S in terms of time /.
slope m is called marginal cost. 45. Profit Function. Given the profit
In revenue equations, such as function P = 25* + 72,
R = mx + c, the slope m is
(a) What is the slope?
called the marginal revenue. In
(b) Interpret the slope.
profit equations, such as P =
(c) What is the P intercept?
mx + d, the slope m is called the
= (d) What is the marginal profit?
marginal profit. that C Given
(e) Interpret the marginal profit.
400 + 3x and R = 7x+ 100, find
the marginal cost, the marginal
revenue, and the marginal profit.
Hint: P = R - C.
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 46. Pollution. In a certain indus- gin and t as the time in hours
trial city, it is believed that the after 7:00 a.m. to find the linear
pollution count increases lin- equation representing the pollu-
early from 7:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m. tion count in terms of time. Pre-
At 8:00 a.m., the pollution count dict the pollutioncount at 11:00
is 140. At 10:00 a.m., the count a.m. and at 1:00 p.m.
is 200. Use 7:00 a.m. as the ori-
3. The equation is y = 2x - 5.
4. y = -x + 1
5. y = -2
6. The y intercept is 4.
Extended Application
Budget Lines 1
At the ends of many of the chapters of this book is presented material from
advanced textbooks, applying the concepts you are studying. Here we con-
sider an application of lines, slopes, and inequalities as found in a microeco-
nomics textbook. The only purpose of this example is to show you that what
you have learned can be used in later courses.
In real life, there are many goods from which a consumer can choose.
In this study a consumer uses only two goods. (A study of only two goods is
1
Varian, Hal R. Intermediate Microeconomics: A Modern Approach, 1987, W. W. Norton and
Company. New York, pp. 21-25.
Summary and Review 55
much more general than it seems, and provides much valuable information.)
The number pair (.v, y) is called a consumption bundle, where .v represents
the amount of good 1, and y the amount of good 2, the consumer chooses.
Let/?, be the price per unit of good and p 2 the price per unit of good 2. p\x
1
spent on good 2. Let M be the amount of money the consumer has to spend.
Then the budget constraint is
P\.x + p2 y M
The following graphs of the line p,.v + p2 y = M introduce the properties of a
budget set and provide an interesting application of slopes and lines, as well
V
56 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
|.v| = x if v <
Xl ~ X\
x + (-y) = x - y if
-x + (-y) = -U + y)
Properties of Inequalities
(a) 6.v
58 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
Chapter Test
Simplify g +
-f){
4. Find the slope of the line that contains (2, 5) and (-1, 6).
\2x + 41
9. Solve = 5.
11. If you spend 20% of your monthly income on food, what is your monthly
income if you spend $300 on food?
60 Chapter 1 Problem Solving and Linear Models
12. A woman has an annual income of $13,000 from two investments. She
has $30,000 more invested at 10% than she has invested 12%. How much
does she have invested at each rate?
14. Find the y intercept of the line containing (1,2) and ( 1, 6).
Linear Algebra
In this chapter you will be considering one of the most useful tools of man-
agers and scientists. With the increased use of computers and
large quanti-
the computer. One such tool was to arrange the data in the
form of a matrix.
Business executives, government agencies, social scientists, and life
scien-
as
ax +
Overview In this section you will learn that a matrix is a very simple, yet enormously valuable, concept. We
introduce the concept with an inventory matrix. (Just think how many companies and stores
keep inventories!) You will learn to do basic operations on matrices. (This is sometimes called
matrix algebra.) Also, we illustrate in this section why matrices provide a convenient and con-
cise way to store data and thus why they are used so frequently in computer applications. In this
2 1
2 1 4 2 3
3 2 [10 3 1]
3 2 7 1 5
4 5
EXAMPLE 2 Suppose Pizitz Department Store has 3 warehouses to store equipment for
sports. Suppose there are 10 tennis rackets, 17 baseball bats, 11 footballs,
and 5 pairs of handball gloves in warehouse A. In warehouse B, there are 12
tennis rackets, 11 baseball bats, 15 footballs, and 7 pairs of handball gloves.
Also, in warehouse C there are 20 tennis rackets, 12 baseball bats, 32 foot-
balls, and 20 pairs of handball gloves. This information could be expressed in
table form as
TABLE 1
Getting Acquainted with Matrices 63
number of rows being given first. In Example 1, the first matrix has two rows
and three columns. It is a 2 x 3 matrix (read "2 by 3"). The second matrix
has three rows and two columns, or is 3 x 2. The third matrix is 2 x 2; the
A matrix with the same number of rows and columns is called a square
matrix. The following are square matrices.
3 7 2
2
5 -3
1
and 4-16
2 1
3x3
A matrix may in general have m rows and n columns and be written as
a\\ an i3 a\ n
2I #22 #23
EXAMPLE 3 2 3 4
A =
1 5 7
-1
When new mathematical objects are introduced, one of the first ques-
tions to be answered is, "When are two of these objects equal?" In our case
64 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
the question would be "When are two matrices equal?" The answer is fairly
easy:
Definition: Equal Matrices Two matrices are equal if and only if they have the same size (same number of rows and
columns) and if all corresponding elements are equal.
EXAMPLE 5
L5 2} U? 2]
These two matrices are equal because they have the same size (that is, they
are both 2 x 3), and all corresponding elements are equal:
14
2 =
EXAMPLE 6 3 2 1 3 2 10
5 2 5 2
These two matrices are not equal because they are not the same size; that is,
is the transpose of
2 3 1
1 2 4
The first column of AT is the first row of A. The second row of A is the
second column of A7 .
Now let's begin our study of matrix algebra with addition. Two matri-
ces can be added if they have the same size. We find the sum of two matrices
by adding corresponding elements.
Definition: Sum of The sum of two matrices A and B of the same size is the matrix with elements that are the
Two Matrices sum of the corresponding elements of A and B; that is, the entry in the /th row and /th
column is a,, + bn .
1 -2 1
and
2 3 1 2
Getting Acquainted with Matrices 65
1 -2 1 1 + (-2) + 1 -1 1
2 3 1 2 2 + 1 3 + 2 3 5
3
66 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
2 3 1] [0 2 3 1
-10 5 -10 5
3 1 2-3 2-1 6 2
2 2-0 2-2 4
Definition: Scalar Product The product of a real number c and a matrix A = [a,
7]
is the matrix [ca,7 ]. That is,
c[a,7 ] = [ca,
7]
EXAMPLE 9 1 -1 2 5-1 5
(-1) 5
2 -5 10
3 4 5-3 5-0 5-4 20
Definition: Negative The negative of a matrix A = [a, denoted by -A, is the product of -1 and A. That is,
7 ],
of a Matrix -A = r-aiil.
EXAMPLE 10 If
2 -1
A = 4 -2
-3 3
Getting Acquainted with Matrices 67
then
-2 1
-4 2
3 -3
68 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
2 31 ro 1
5 lJ L2 1
r-i i 2i
L-2 4 -5J
1. A = U4 1 31
L2 -1 OJ
2. B =
3. C =
Getting Acquainted with Matrices 69
18.
3
19.
20.
70 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
Next State
A B
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 30. Demographics. Can you write a the following matrix.
matrix showing the changes in Offspring
three classifications of employ- R H D
ment? The first row would rep-
.75 .25
resent changes from business to
.25 .50 .25
the three classifications and
.75 .25
would be [.75 .15 .10]. That
is, 75% of those in business re- Assume that an inherited trait is
1 1 Matrix Multiplication
Overview In this section we consider the product of two matrices. Do not confuse matrix multiplication
(multiplying two matrices) with the multiplication of a matrix by a constant as considered in the
preceding section. You will discover that matrix multiplication is a bit more complicated than
addition of matrices and that matrix multiplication satisfies few of the properties we associate
with multiplication. In this section we will study
[3 12 6]
Suppose milk costs $0.65 per quart, cream $0.50 per pint, sugar $0.12 per
cup, and vanilla extract $0.14 per fluid ounce. We write the costs as a
column matrix.
"0.65
0.50
0.12
L0.14J
We desire to multiply the row matrix times the column matrix to get the total
cost of a gallon of ice cream. Your "common-sense" multiplication actually
defines the dot product of two matrices.
2
-1
The answer is a real number that is the sum of the products of corresponding
entries (first element in a row times first element in a column plus second
element in a row times second element in a column, etc.).
Matrix Multiplication 73
Definition: Dot Product The dot product of a 1 x n row matrix and an n x 1 column matrix is defined by
The dot between the two matrices indicates the dot product and distin-
EXAMPLE 13 2
[1 2 3] -1 = 1(2) + 2(-l) + 3(1) = 3
1
Size Size
1 x 3 3 x 1
EXAMPLE 14
[3 2] = 3(-l) + 2(1) = -1
Size Size
1x2 2x1
I , 1
Same
EXAMPLE 15
[2 3 -1 4]
Size Size
1 x 4 3 x 1
L J
Now let's use the ideas of the preceding examples to define the product
of two matrices.
74 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
Definition: Product of The product of the m x p matrix A and p x n matrix B is the m x n matrix AB whose
Matrices element in the /th row and /th column is the dot product of the fth row of A and the /'th
column of B.
and
To obtain our product matrix, we find the element c\ \ in the first row and first
column of the product matrix by finding the dot product of the first row
[3 1 2] of the first matrix (matrix on the left) and the first column
1
4
-2
dot product of the first row of the left-hand matrix with the second column of
the right-hand matrix.
This element goes in the first row, second column of the product matrix:
en = 12. Then we take the dot product of the second row of the matrix on the
left side and the first column of the matrix on the right.
This element goes in the second row, first column of the product matrix:
c 2 = -11. Then we take the dot product of the second row of the left-hand
\
This element goes in the second row, second column of the product matrix:
c2 2 = 15. Thus,
1
3
4
-11
-2
Notice that the product of two matrices is not defined unless the num-
ber of columns of the first matrix is the same as the number of rows of the
second matrix. Another important item to note in the definition is the size of
the matrices involved. A 3 x 2 matrix multiplied by a 2 x 3 matrix gives a
3x3 matrix, whereas, if the order is reversed, the product of a 2 x 3 matrix
with a 3 x 2 matrix gives a 2 x 2 matrix. Thus, the order of multiplication is
important when multiplying matrices.
Matrix A Matrix B
2 x 3 3x2
Must match
Size of product AB
3 1 2 3 12 a 2i = -1
1 + 0-4 + 5(-2)
4 6
-10 5
-2 3
11 15 = -II
3 1 2
1 2 a2 ,
= 4 3 + 6(-l)
4 38
-1 5 = 6
-9 -2 11
Hence, the commutative property does not hold for the product of two
matrices.
In much of the work with matrices in this book, we will use only square
matrices; that is, matrices where the number of rows and the number of
columns are the same. The product of square matrices of the same size
always exists. In particular, we denote the products
76 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
(A) (A) as A 2
n factors
For example, if
2 3
A=
L-4 1
then
2 3] r 2 3
A = -4
2
1 -4 12
1
1
6 = 6
1 = 6 or 1
x = x
1 = x), we define
1
I =
1
Likewise,
EXAMPLE 16 At the Barber Ice Cream Company a matrix lists the various quantities of
milk (in quarts), cream (in pints), sugar (in cups), vanilla extract (in fluid
ounces), and baking chocolate (in ounces) to make a gallon of different
flavors of ice cream (only two of which are listed).
Cream
Vanilla
Chocolate
Milk
3
3
12
1
Sugar
2i
Vanilla
6
1
Chocolate
If milk costs $0.65 per quart, cream $0.50 per pint, sugar $0.12 per cup,
vanilla extract $0.14 per fluid ounce, and chocolate $0.20 per ounce, find the
cost of a gallon of vanilla and the cost of a gallon of chocolate ice cream.
SOLUTION
0.65
0.50
3 12 6
0.12
3.53
3 1 24 1 5 3.89
0.14
0.20
Thus, vanilla ice cream costs $3.53 per gallon to make (not including the cost
of labor) and chocolate ice cream costs $3.89 per gallon.
SOLUTION This set of four equations in four unknowns can be replaced by the
single matrix equation
3 4
1
2
L 1
Since the two matrices are equal, the definition of equality demands
that their corresponding elements be equal. Hence, we obtain the given
system of equations. If
A =
Matrix Multiplication 79
7. AB
24.
8. BA
9. AC
10. BC
11. CB 25.
12. CD
13. B(CD)
14. A(BC)
26.
15. (AB)D
2 1 6
16. [1 3]
1 -1 28.
3 1
17. -4 1
-1 1
2
18. [1 3 -1] 1
3 1
80 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
33. Ax + 3y = 7 X =
6x - y = 10
39. 6x + 3y + lz = 2
34. 3x - y = 7
5x + Ay + z = 5
5x + 2y = -1
2jc - y + z = 6
35. y = Ax + 3
40. y + z = 6
x = 2y - 1
x = 7 - y
36. y + x = 2
x = z - 6
y = A
41. jc = 4
37. x = A
y = 7
x + 2y = 1
z = 9
38. x = 6
y = A
Applications
(Business and
Economics) 42. Stocks. In the previous exer-
Consumer
cise set we had the following ta-
Bonds Mortgages Loans
ble of the purchases of stock by
an investment club. Using matri-
City A
City B
ces, find the total cost of all
City C
stocks.
Matrix Multiplication 81
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 45. Demographics. Find A 2
for Ex- Creek by dumping industrial
ercise 30, Set 2.1, and interpret wastes from 4 manufacturing
the elements of the product as processes. Three pollutants are
the percentages after 2 periods found in the creek. The follow-
of time. ing quantities of pollutants, ex-
pressed in milliliters, are found
46. Genetics. Find A 2
for Exercise
per 1000 liters of water for each
31 Set 2.1, and interpret the ele-
,
process.
ments of the product as traits
from parents to grandchildren.
-5
Answers
Practice Problems
to 1.
r 10 2
'
U 1} I
1
Ml 2 -1 2 1 3 1
1 3 1
82 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
2x-3y= 1
x + y = 3
3.v + y = 3
x + ly = -4
6-3 = 3
2 - 6 = -4
FIGURE 1
Intersection of Lines One of these possibilities must occur for the graph of two lines in a plane:
1. The two lists of solutions contain exactly one common ordered pair,
called the solution of the system.
2. The two lists of solutions are identical.
3. The two lists of solutions contain no common ordered pairs.
EXAMPLE 19 Find the solution set of each of the following systems of equations,
3.v - ly =1 6.x + 2y = 6 6x + 2y = 12
the points of the line) in (b), since all the solutions of one equation are
84 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
SOLUTION
FIGURE 2 (c)
solutions of the other. One equation can be obtained from the other by
multiplying both sides of the equation by a constant.
2(hx + y = 3) gives 6x + 2y = 6
There are no common ordered pairs in (c) since the lines are parallel.
Solving Systems of Equations 85
lOy = 20 or y = 2
4.x + 2(2) = 8
4.x = 4
x = 1
8 = 8
1 = 1
3.v + y = 3 (1)
x + 2y = -4 (2)
-6x - 2y = -6 (1)
x + 2y = -4 (2)
-5x = -10
x=2
Substituting x = 2 into the first equation gives
3(2) + y = 3 or y = -3
The solution is (2, -3), and we can check that this point lies on both lines by
substituting its coordinates into both equations. Note that this is the same
solution as was obtained by graphical procedures.
3x + y = 3 (1)
6x + 2v = 6 (2)
If (jc, y) satisfies
3* + y = 3 (1)
2(3.v + y) = 2 3 (1)
or
6x + 2y = 6 (2)
Hence, any point that satisfies the first equation will satisfy the second
equation. That is, the graphs of the two equations coincide [see Figure
2(b)].
Solving Systems of Equations 87
Ix + y = 3 (1)
6x + 2y = 12 (2)
-6x - 2y = -6 (1)
6x + 2y = 12 (2)
0=6
Adding equations 1 and 2 yields on the left side of the equation and 6 on the
right.Since + 6, no numbers x and y satisfy both equations. Solving for y in
the two equations gives
y = -3x + 3 (1)
H-D-f
The slopes of the two lines are equal and the y intercepts are different, so the
lines are parallel. The solution to the system is the null set.
EXAMPLE 23 Solve
2.33* + 3.01y = 7.72 (1)
using a calculator.
y = 3.71(7.72) - 2.33(3.09)
3.71(3.01) - 2.33(-4.32)
The answer gives accurate results to two decimal places. The solution is
(2.0088, 1.0098).
TABLE 2
Solving Systems of Equations 89
Break-Even Point
When an equation expressing total cost C in terms of * (the number of items
produced) and an equation expressing revenue R in terms of * are graphed
on the same coordinate system, then the break-even point is the intersection
of the two lines. Of course, the break-even point can be found by solving the
system of linear equations by setting C = R.
EXAMPLE 25 A university is offering a special course in crafts for which tuition is $60 per
student. The university has found that the cost of the course is $600 plus $20
for each student who registers for the course. How many students must take
the course for the university to break even?
SOLUTION Let x = the number of students taking the course. Then the reve-
nue equation becomes R = 60*, and the cost equation becomes C = 20* +
600. Setting these two equations equal to each other gives
40* = 600
* = 15
The graph of these two functions is given in Figure 3. The solution (15, $900)
means that the university receives $900 if 15 students take the course. Like-
wise, $900 is the cost for 15 students.
3* + y = 5
* = 2y - 3
Price
90 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
2. Solve
3jc - 2y = 4
Ay - 1 = 6x
Answers to practice problems are found on page 92.
Applications
(Business and 9. Mixture Problem. A candy- 11. Break-Even Point. A producer
Economics) store proprietor wishes to mix knows that shecan sell as many
candy that sells for $3 per pound items at $0.25 each as she can
with candy selling for $4 per produce in a day. If her cost is
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 14. Nutrition. A special diet re- traction and repulsion by first
quires 4 milligrams of iron and feeding mice and then later giv-
52 grams of protein each day. A ing them mild electric shocks
person decides to attain these re- from the same box. With this
quirements by drinking skim procedure the psychologist es-
milk and eating fish. A glass of tablished the following functions
skim milk provides 0.2 milligram where a represents attraction, r
of iron and gram of protein.
1 represents repulsion, and x rep-
One-fourth pound of fish pro- resents the distance in centi-
vides 8 milligrams of iron and 10 meters of the mouse from the
grams of protein. How many box.
glasses of milk and how many
a = - -. x + 70
pieces of fish (| pound) are 4
needed to attain the diet's re-
4
quirements? r = - - x + 200
15. Population. A town has a popu-
Graph the attraction function
lation of 1000. The number of
and the repulsion function on the
men is 80 less than twice the
same coordinate axes, and find
number of women. Find the
the distance where attraction
number of men and the number
equals repulsion. (Hint: Find
of women.
the intersection point of the two
16. Psychological Attraction and Re- lines.) Check your graphical
pulsion. A psychologist has result by setting a = r and solv-
been studying reactions of at- ing for x.
Practice Problems 2. The solution is the null set because the two lines are parallel.
Overview In practical applications, most systems of linear equations involve a larger number of equations
and unknowns. Usually these systems are solved using computers. In this section we introduce
a procedure for solving systems of equations that can be extended to any number of equations
and unknowns.
Our first step will involve forming what we call an augmented matrix. We then perform
permissible matrix operations to put the matrix in a form where the solution is obvious. The
step-by-step procedure we use is called the Gauss-Jordan elimination method.
line usually replaces the equal signs. The last column consists of the con-
stant terms. For example, the augmented matrix for the system
2x + 3y = -5
x - 2y = 8
2 3 -5
1 -2
2x = 7 + 3y
4y = -4 - 3.v
SOLUTION First we write the two equations with the variables occurring in
the same order.
2x - 3y = 7
3x + Ay = -4
2 -3 7
3 4 -4
EXAMPLE 27 Using x, y, and z, write a system of linear equations having the augmented
matrix
94 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
third row.)
Row Operations 1. Interchange two rows (fl, <- fly, or interchange the /'th row and the/'th row).
2. Multiply (or divide) each element of a row by a nonzero constant (cfl, - fl,, or replace
3. Replace any row by the sum (or difference) of that row and any other row times a
constant (can be 1 ) or replace the/th row by a constant times the /'th row added to the
3 -
interchange the rows (/?, -> R 2 ):
3 -
2
The matrix
2
3 -
represents
2x + y = 3
3* - y = 2
while
3 -1
2 1
represents
3* - y = 2
2;c + y = 3
3 2
1 -7
2x - 2>> = 4
and
12* + 8y = 4
2x - 2y = 4
Verify that these two systems have the same solution, namely, x 1.
y= -l.
3. Replace any row by the sum (or difference) of that row and any other row
times a constant. Using the matrix
4 1
3 2
let's replace the second row with the sum of the second row and 2 times
4 1
11 4
4.v + y = 5
3.v + 2y =
and
4* + v = 5
ll.v + 4y = 10
Thus, the row operations as defined produce systems with the same
solution. If by row operations we can get an augmented matrix in the form
1
1
96 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
y = b
and this satisfies the original system of equations. The procedure for trans-
forming an augmented matrix to this form is called Gauss-Jordan elimina-
tion after Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) and Camille Jordan (1838-1922).
EXAMPLE 29 Solve
2x + 3y = -5
x - 2y = 8
by augmented matrices.
2 3 -5
1 -2
In the first two steps we will be working to obtain a matrix that looks like
1 e e, f, g, and h can
g be any real numbers
(Get the 1 first and then the 0.) In the last two steps, we obtain the second
column to look like
1 j and k can be
1 any real numbers
(We will follow the procedure of getting the 1 first and then the 0.)
NOTE We could get a in the upper left corner of this example by interchanging the
1
firstand second rows. Likewise, we could solve this small system more
easily using something other than augmented matrices. However, on this
small system we will practice procedures that will, in general, work on more
complicated problems.
Need a
1 here
i*
Need a
here
Solving Systems of Linear Equations with Matrices 97
Now multiply the first row by - 1 and add to the second row:
-fl, + R : -* R 2
= R 2 -> R2
Need a 1 2
1 2
here 1
3
R-, + R, R,
Thus,
EXAMPLE 30 Solve
1 2
1 3
Solving Systems of Linear Equations with Matrices 99
1 5
" V + y
=
2 2
x +
y = 2
and because the second equation has no solution, the system has no solu-
tion.
6.v - 4y = 2
*/?,-/?
1
1
- 23
Need a
6 -4 + R^
-6R,
T
1
1
23
2 1
*~3-V =
3
x + -y =
Since any pair of values that satisfies the first equation will obviously satisfy
the second, there are infinitely many solutions. For example, let y = /. Then
Summary of Solutions
100 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
[1 1 j 50,0001
L30 20 1,300,000J
Solving Systems of Linear Equations with Matrices 101
1 3-1 -2
4 -1 3
3 -2 -4 -1
x + 3y = 5
x + 5y = 7
I.
102 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
matrices:
22. 2.v 4y = 6
13. Exercise 1 3x 6v = 9
17. Exercise 7
Use a calculator to solve the follow-
18. Exercise 8 ing systems of equations:
Applications
(Business and 27. Production Scheduling. In a 29. Mixture Problem. The Reused
Economics) small furniture-manufacturing Paper Company uses both scrap
plant, 400 hours of labor are paper and scrap cloth to make
available for making tables and their paper. Their best paper re-
chairs and 107 hours are avail- quires 3 tons of cloth and 15 tons
able for finishing (painting or of paper for each run, but their
staining). If it takes 8 hours to good paper requires 1 ton of
make a table and 5 hours to cloth and 12 tons of paper for
make a chair, and if it takes 2 each run. How many runs of
hours to finish a table and 3 their best paper and how many
hours to finish a chair, how runs of their good paper should
many of each can be manufac- be made if Reused Paper has 34
tured using this schedule? tons of scrap cloth and 261 tons
of scrap paper on hand? Assume
28. Investments. The Easy Invest-
Reused Paper wishes to use all
ment Club has $200,000 invested
its scrap paper and scrap cloth.
in bonds. Type A bonds pay 8%
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 32. Nutrition. A dietician plans to drate per unit and food II with 4
combine food A and food B to grams of carbohydrate per unit.
make a meal containing 2000 cal- To keep him from becoming dis-
ories, and 30 units of a combina- couraged with his diet, Abdul's
tion of vitamins. Each ounce of doctor has insisted that he con-
food A contains 200 calories and sume 500 calories at each meal,
5 units of vitamins. Each ounce of which 210 calories must be
of food B contains 250 calories protein. Both foods contain 100
and 4 units of vitamins. How calories per unit, but food I con-
many ounces of each food tains only 30 protein calories per
Answers to t>
Practice Problems l.
104 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
m = n : The number of equations is the same as the number of unknowns.
m> n: There are more equations than unknowns.
m< n: There are more unknowns than equations.
Systems with a large number of equations and variables are very common today because of the
accessibility of high-speed computers.
jc + 2v-3z + 6 =
is an ordered triplet (x, y, z). For example, (-3, 0, 1) is a solution since
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
Systems with Three or More Variables or Three or More Equations 105
x + 2y - 3z = -6
2x - y + z = -1
3.v + 2y + z = 4
2 -
Each of these
needs to be
This needs
to be a 1
106 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
0.2/?,+ /?, - Rt
4R, + R,-^ R,
FIGURE 4
Description Graph
(continued)
108 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
FIGURE 4 (continued)
Description Graph
Matrix
1. The leftmost nonzero element in each row is 1.
2. The leftmost nonzero element in a row has all O's above it and all O's below it in its
column.
3. The first nonzero element in each row is to the right of the first nonzero element in
4. Rows containing all O's are below the rows containing nonzero elements.
1
Systems with Three or More Variables or Three or More Equations 109
The value of c, which usually comes from the last equation, can be anything
and the last equation is satisfied (case 2, Figure 4). Thus, we say the value of
Z is arbitrary, or we can assign any real number as the value of z. For
example, let's assign z = 3. Then
1
x + y + 6 = -3
x + 1 y - 6 = 4
y 2c = 4 or y = 4 + 2c
x + 2c = -3 or x = -3 - 2c
Then .v, v, and z are all expressed in terms of a constant c. The solution can
be expressed as
(-3 - 2c, 4 + 2c, c)
for any real number c. When c = 1, the solution is (-5, 6, 1). When c = 2, the
solution is (-7, 8, 2).
EXAMPLE 39 Discuss the solution of the system of equations when the reduced augmented
matrix is of the form
1
110 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
2x + z - 2/ = -5
4x + y + z - 5? = -6
y + 2z - At = 1
Since the bottom row of the matrix consists entirely of 0's, the value of t is
arbitrary. Let c be a number chosen in any fashion but left fixed for a
moment; then let
Systems with Three or More Variables or Three or More Equations 1 1
3. Find the solution of the system of equations with variables x, y, and z and
augmented matrix
I 2
1 3
1 2
1 3
[1 2 3
LO 1 1 2
ri o
Li o
112 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Systems with Three or More Variables or Three or More Equations 113
x - v + z = 2 (a)
(b) l
2x - y + 2z = 2
(c) 2
3.v + 3v + 3z = 4 (d) 3
(e) x
Applications
(Business and 33. Investments. Jeannette has utes on station I, 5 minutes on
Economics) $9000 invested in bonds paying station II, and 15 minutes on sta-
14%, 16%, and 18% interest per tion III. Each B requires 15, 10,
year. She has $1000 more in- and 5 minutes on I, II, and III,
vested at 16% than at 18%. If respectively; each C requires 20,
she receives $1430 interest each 15, and 5 minutes, respectively;
year, how much money does she and D requires 5,
and 15 min- 10,
have invested in each type of utes, Find the
respectively.
bond? number of batteries of each kind
that can be manufactured in a
34. Investments. Sarah has a total
day if station I is available for
of $12,400 invested in three
740 minutes, station II for 480
types of bonds pay 9%, that
minutes, and station III for 660
10%, and 11%, respectively. She
minutes.
receives $100 more interest from
the 10% bonds than from the 36. Demand Curve. The economist
11% bonds. If the total income at Acme
Corporation has noted
from the bonds during a year is that the demand curve for a
$1250, how much has she in- given product is in the form of a
vested in each type? parabola, p = ax2 + bx + c. The
demand price for 2 units is $1;
35. Manufacture. Safety Battery
that is, p = 1 when x = 2; p = 2
Company manufacturers 4 kinds
when x = and p = \ when x =
1 ;
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 37. Pollution. The pollution count 38. Truffle Flow. The number of
for Clanton on a particular day is cars entering and leaving 4 inter-
600. Assume that this pollution sections of one-way streets has
isproduced by 3 industries: A, been tabulated as shown in the
B, and C. Industry A contrib- diagram. The number of cars en-
utes twice as much to the pollu- tering an intersection must equal
tion count as industry B. It is the number that leave. At B, 250
known that the pollution count + x 4 = 150 + xi Find the equa- .
Definition: Inverse
of a Matrix
116 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
b d
1
AA-
ll 2J lb d\ 1
2a + 3b 2c + 3d
a + 2b c + 2d 1 = P
Lo
1
lJ
So
2a + 3b = 1 and 2c + 3d =
a + 2b = c + 2d = 1
r 2 -31
Check:
Inverse of a Matrix and Its Use 117
118 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
5
Inverse of a Matrix and Its Use 119
2 r
120 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
and
X =
The inverse of
Inverse of a Matrix and Its Use 121
The inverse of
122 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
2x + 3y = 7
3.v + y = 1
3 -2
(a)
4
(b)
(c)
(d)
Inverse of a Matrix and Its Use 123
124 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
Applications
(Business and 17. Investments. The Lake shore 19. Break-Even Analysis. A country
Economics) Investment Club has $100,000 club has been studying its cost of
invested in bonds. Type A bonds operation and has found the
pay 8% interest, whereas type B monthly cost to be C = $6000 +
bonds pay 10%. How much $15x, where x represents the
money is invested in each type number of members. A service
if the club receives $9360 in company states that by remodel-
interest? ing, it can provide a similar ser-
vice for a monthly cost of C =
18. Investments. Jane has money
$10,500 + $10*. Use the inverse
invested through Merrill Lynch
of a matrix to find the break-
at 12% annual interest, a bank
even point, and find the number
investment certificate that pays
of members necessary to under-
10% interest, and a personal
take the remodeling.
loan to a friend at 5% interest.
She remembers that she has 20. Manufacture. A company makes
$16,000 invested and that the 2 kinds of tires. Type I requires
amount with Merrill Lynch is 2 hours on machine A and hour 1
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 21. Herbicides. Three herbicides gallons of each herbicide should
are available to weeds,
kill be purchased?
grass, and vines. One gallon of
22. Diet. A dietician wants to com-
one herbicide contains 1 unit of
bine 2 foods as the main part of a
chemical A, which kills weeds,
meal to get 2600 calories and 70
and 2 units of chemical B, which
units of vitamin C. Each ounce
kills grass. One gallon of the sec-
of food I contains 200 calories
ond herbicide contains 2 units of
and 10 units of vitamin C. Each
chemical B and 3 units of chemi-
ounce of food II contains 400
cal C, which kills vines. One gal-
calories and 5 units of vitamin C.
lon of the third herbicide con-
How many ounces of each food
tains 3 units of chemical A and 4
would be required to obtain the
units of chemical C. It is desired
desired number of calories and
to spread 10 units of chemical A,
the desired units of vitamin C?
16 units of chemical B, and 20
units of chemical C. How many
Input-Output Analysis 125
Answers to [-2 1
Practice Problems
1. A-'A =
AA
126 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
1 1
X] = = X] + r
2
1
-v: = t -vi
X 2.
Leontief input-output matrix must equal (unity) because all of the output is 1
consumed as input.
The expression ai\X\ + 0,2*2 +
+ a m xn represents the total input
requirements of industry i of all the items. For a closed Leontief system, the
number x, of output units of item i by industry /'
must equal the total input
requirements by industry /'
of all the items. Hence,
x\ = aux t
a i2 x 2
x2 = a 2] Xi a 2 ->x-> + a.
x = a\X l
+ a 2 x 2 + + a nn x
flu
128 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
be a column matrix representing the dollar amount paid to each by the others
(italso includes the dollar amount one individual would pay to himself; for
example, the farmer pays himself for the food he consumes). Since the total
amount paid out by each must equal the total amount received by each one.
X\
Input-Output Analysis 129
Instead of
K1U] = [x,] or AX = X I
Closed system |
we now have
la.Mx,} + [di] = M
where A = [a,j] and X = [.v,] are denned as before and d
represents the t
EXAMPLE 49 To illustrate an open Leontief system, let us return to Rural City and assume
that the farmer and the tailor decide to sell some of the items they produce to
a consumer. Suppose the farmer requires one-third of the food
and one-third
tailor requires
of the clothes to produce one unit of the food. Suppose the
unit of the
one-half of the clothes and one-fourth of the food to produce one
clothes. Write these requirements as an open Leontief
input-output matrix.
SOLUTION
Food Clothes
produced produced
Input Farmer
Requirements Tailor
This matrix indicates that in order for the farmer to produce food, he
requires one-third of the food produced and one-third of the clothes pro-
duced. Similarly, in order for the tailor to produce clothes, he requires one-
fourth of the food produced and one-half of the clothes produced. Let x,
represent the number of units of food produced and x 2 represent the number
of units of clothes produced. Suppose d represents the units of food and d 2
x
3 4
130 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
X - AX = D
If I is the identity matrix, this equation becomes
IX - AX = D or (I - A)X = D
If (I - A) _i exists, then
X = (I - A) 'D
l 1
3 4
1 1
3 2
Input-Output Analysis 131
0.7
Input-Output Analysis 133
"HO"
111
134 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
Extended Application
Graph Theory and Matrices
Assigning broadcast frequencies, scheduling work assignments, and
making production runs at a factory are just a few examples of the uses of
graph theory. In this discussion we will show how matrices are useful in
representing graphs. In graph theory, a dot represents a vertex, and a line or
a curve connecting two dots is called an edge. For example, A, B, and C are
vertices, and an edge connects A and B, B and C, but not A and C. Some-
times graphs are used to represent relations between elements of a set. In
this case, there could be a relation from a vertex to itself. Such an edge is
called a loop. A loop appears at V, below.
(1)
(2)
ABC
A
136 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
V, (CPU) 7
V 2 (Memory)
l , (Input) I
4 (Output)
1
Summary and Review Exercises 137
Augmented Matrices
Permissible row operations (94)
Reduced matrix (108)
Gauss-Jordan elimination (96)
Solutions of systems of equations (96)
Inverse of a Matrix
Solution of systems of equations (120)
Input-output analysis (130)
Review Exercises 1. Determine whether or not the 2. Solve the following systems of
following systems have common
solutions, and solve by graphing
and by the addition-subtraction
method:
(a) 3jc + 2y = 1
5x - 3y = 27
(b)
138 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
(a) v, n (a)
(b)
(b) v
Chapter Test 139
8. Solve the following systems of 11. Discuss the solutions of the fol-
(b)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e) 1
(f) 10
I
1
140 Chapter 2 Linear Algebra
2 3"
3. 3
Introduction to Linear
Programming
141
142 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
Overview Mathematical models often contain inequalities that express limitations. For example, the size
of a school building limits the number of students who may attend the school; the amount of
money a person has limits the amount he or she can invest; the quality of steel a company
wishes to produce places conditions on the ingredients; and so on. In this section we will:
2x + y - 1 >
x - y + 1 <
x >
x < 4
y >
y<3
Solving Systems of Inequalities Graphically 143
Zx + v - l =
FIGURE 1
SOLUTION The graphs of the four inequalities are shown in Figure 2. The
solution region associated with each line is indicated by arrows. The inter-
section of the four graphs (or the solutions common to the four graphs) is the
solution region of the system and is shaded>
FIGURE 2
144 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
Note in this definition that the intersection of two boundary lines may
or may not be a corner point. The intersection must be in the solution region.
In Example 1, (0, 1) is a corner point. There are four corner points in
Example 2: (0, 0), (0, 3), (4, 0), and (4, 3).
EXAMPLE 3 Graph the solution region and find the corner points of the system
2x + y < 3
-x + y <
x >
y >
FIGURE 3
Definition: Bounded A solution region of a system of linear inequalities is said to be bounded if one can draw a
Solution Region circle that will contain all points of the solution region. If the solution region cannot be
contained in some circle, it is said to be unbounded.
EXAMPLE 4 Find the corner points and graph the solution region of the system
2x + y < 3
-x + y <
x <
FIGURE 4
intersections of boundary lines but are not corner points because they are
not part of the solution region of the system. Note that this solution region is
unbounded.
EXAMPLE 5 A supermarket mixes its 60% beef and 40% fat. For
regular ground beef as
extra-lean ground beef, the market uses 75%
beef and 25% fat. The store has
up to 225 pounds of beef and up to 125 pounds of fat available to make
ground beef. Write the system of inequalities that expresses these condi-
tions, graph the solution region, and find the corner points.
solution Suppose you guess that the store wants 200 pounds of regular
ground beef and 40 pounds of extra-lean beef. First, we determine whether
we can get this guess from 225 pounds of beef and 125 pounds of fat. The
regular ground beef is 60% beef, so we need
146 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
In a similar manner,
(0.0) L
100 200 300
(312.5.0)
FIGURE 5 Corner points: (0, 0), (312.5, 0), (250, 100), (0, 300)
Solving Systems of Inequalities Graphically 147
Since x and y represent numbers of pounds, we have x > 0, and y > 0. The
solution region is given in Figure 5>
EXAMPLE 6 A doctor has prescribed a diet in which the total number of calories must not
exceed 1200. She insists that twice the number of protein calories added to
the number of carbohydrate calories must equal or exceed 1600. Write these
conditions as a system of inequalities and graph the possible solutions.
SOLUTION Let x represent the number of protein calories and y represent the
number of carbohydrate calories. The conditions are
x + y < 1200
2x +y> 1600
> ,v
> >
The solution region is shaded in Figure 6>
FIGURE 6
Practice Problems > 1. Find the corner points for the system
x + y < 3
3.v - 2y < 4
x >
148 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
x + y < 2
x >
y >
and locate all corner points.
Exercise Set 3.1 Graph the solution regions, find the 11.
corner points, and classify the re-
gions as bounded or unbounded.
1. x
y =: u
2. x < 3
y<2
3. x >0
y>3
4. a:< 2
y >
5. y > x
jc >
6. y
y
7. y > x
a: >
y<3
8. y
y
y
9. y < at
x >
y<3
10. y < a:
y >
y<3
Solving Systems of Inequalities Graphically 149
Applications
(Business and 21. Manufacturing. A manufactur- cal model, graph the solution re-
Economics) er makes two products, valves gion, and find the corner points
and reducers. A valve requires 1 for the investor.
hour on machine A and 2 hours
24. Assignment. The USX Coal
on machine B, and a reducer re-
Company operates two mines
quires 2 hours on A and 2 hours
with different production capac-
on B. Let x be the number of
ities. The following is the output
valves produced in a day and y
in tons of coal per day from each
the number of reducers pro-
mine.
duced in each machine
a day. If
operates up to 8 hours a day,
write the mathematical model
Quality Mine A Mine B
for this manufacturer, graph the
High-grade
solution region, and find the cor-
Medium-grade
ner points.
Low-grade
22. Manufacturing. Rework Exer-
cise 21 if the manufacturer de- For a week, the company needs
cides to operate each of the ma- at least 22 tons of high-grade, 15
chines up to 16 hours a day. tons of medium-grade, and 32
23. Investment. An investor has up tons of low-grade coal. How
to $30,000 to invest in AA bonds many days should the company
orB bonds. The AA bonds yield operate each mine in order to
8%, and the B bonds yield 12%. meet requirements? Shade the
If the investor wishes to invest solution region and find the cor-
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 25. Education. A classroom has boys and girls in a class and find
space for up to 50 students. Let the corner points. (Actually the
.v represent the number of girls solution region will consist of
and y represent the number of only the points with whole-num-
boys. Graph the region that rep- ber coordinates in the solution
resents the possible number of region.)
1S0 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
26. Education. There are 210 stu- 28. Agriculture. George has a 50-
dents in the school referred to in acre farm on which he plans to
Exercise 25. The principal re- plant two crops, wheat and
quests that the number y of boys corn. Wheat requires 2 days of
and the number x of girls in the labor per acre, and corn requires
classroom satisfy the additional 3 days of labor per acre. The
requirement Ix + 3y < 210. other costs amount to $40 per
Graph the set of possibilities acre for wheat and $30 per acre
that would satisfy this condition for corn. George has evaluated
and the space condition of Exer- his assets and found that he has
cise 25. Find the corner points of up to 150 days of labor available
this set. and up to $1800 capital. Let x
represent the number of acres of
27. Education. The teacher in the
wheat planted and y the number
classroom of Exercise 26 insists
of acres of corn. Graph the solu-
that the number of boys in the
tion region and find the corner
classroom be at least 7. Use this
points.
additional restriction to graph
the set of possibilities and find
the corner points.
Answers to Practice > 1. The corner points are (0, 0), (0, 3), (2, 1), and (1$, 0).
Problems 2. The corner points are (0, 0), (2, 0), and (0, 2).
a- + >> = 2
Overview In the preceding section, we learned to locate a solution region. In this section we want to find
the largest and the smallest value of a linear function over the solution region. This study
presents the mathematical background for the graphical solution of linear programming prob-
lems in the next section. In this section we will introduce the following terms associated with
linear programming:
Objective function
Constraints
Finding an Optimal Solution 151
Feasible region
Optimal solution
x + y < 4
5jc + 3y < 18
In addition, since you can work only a positive number of problems (you
cannot work -3 problems),
x >
y >
In linear programming such inequalities as these four are called constraints.
The solution region for this set of constraints is shown as the shaded region
in Figure 7.
FIGURE 7
152 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
Note that the corner points are (0, 0), (^ 0), (3, 1), and (0, 4). (3, 1) is the
point of intersection of * +y = A and 5* + 3y = 18. Note also for this special
problem that only integral values have meaning, so the solution region con-
sists of a finite set of points: {(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (0, 4), (1, 0), (1, 1),
and (3, 1)}.
(1, 2), (1, 3), (2,0), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 0),
Remember problem is worth 10 points and a
that a multiple-choice
true-false question 4 points. If we answer x multiple-choice questions, we
have 10* points. Likewise, y true-false questions produce Ay points. The
total number of points we can attain is
P = 10* + Ay
We want to select x and v so that P is a maximum on our region of solutions.
One way to work this problem is to evaluate P at each of our 14 points in the
region of solutions.
(0,0) p =
(0,2)
(0,4)
(1, 1)
(1,3)
(2, 1)
(3,0)
Finding an Optimal Solution 153
5y, subject to the constraints, let us assign values to C and plot the lines
obtained. When C is assigned a particular value and the graph drawn, any
point (x, y) in the set of feasible solutions that lies on this line would produce
this same cost.
FIGURE 8
y = -2x + CIS
which has a slope of -2 and a y intercept of CIS. Note that for this cost
function, as C increases the y intercept increases, and the line moves up
from the origin. Also note that the last line to contain any values of the
feasible solution, C 5 is the line through the corner point (6, 6). Thus, C
,
C= 10
6 + 5
6
= $90
C= 10
2 + 5
3
= $35
154 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
c2 c, c4 c 5 c 6
FIGURE 9 *
over a feasible region defined by linear constraints. If this function has an optimal solu-
tion, it will occur at one (or more) of the corner points.
P = Ax + 3y
subject to the constraints
x >
y >
5x + 3y < 30
2x + 7>y < 21
Finding an Optimal Solution 155
SOLUTION The constraint inequalities are shown in Figure 10, and the feasi-
ble region of solutions is shaded. The corner points are (0, 0), (0, 7), (3, 5),
x + v = 2.v + v = -4
FIGURE 11
However, let /take on values 6, 12, and 18, and draw the corresponding
lines.
Li
Finding an Optimal Solution 157
subject to
3x + 2y < 15
x + 3y < 12
x >
y >
2. Find the maximum and minimum values of
P = 3x + Ay + 6
2x + 3y < 12
-x + 2y < 1
a: >
y >
Answers to practice problems are found on page 159.
subject to
Maximize x + y >
2* + 3y < 6
P = 35x + 25y
x >
subject to y >
2jc +y = 7
3x + y < 8
x >
y >
158 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
F = I2x - 2y + 20 x + y > 2
2* + 3y < 15
subject to
3.v + y < 12
3x + 4y < 37 a: >
y> 2 y >
y < 4
10. Maximize and minimize
*< 3
x > P = 35jc + 25y
subject to
6. Maximize and minimize x + y > 2
2 < a: + y < 7
7. Maximize and minimize 2a: + y < 9
3a: + y < 12
C= Ix + 2y + 4
>
a:
subject to y >
Ax + 3y > 24 12. Maximize and minimize
3* + 4y > 8
- 35y +
/> = 25jc 100
x >
y> 2 subject to
x + 3y < 21
2a- + 3y > 6
x + 3y < 21
9. Maximize and minimize
2a: + 3y < 24
/> = 25a: + 35y 2a- + y < 16
a:, y >
Graphical Solutions to Linear Programming Problems 159
14. Exam. Lomax Fabricating Co. where x = the units of the first
makes only two products, with product, and y = the units of the
the following two production second product. If the profit
constraints representing two function is Z = $Sx + $4y. the
machines and their maximum maximum possible profit is
Overview Many practical problems in business, economics, life sciences, and the social sciences involve
relationships among variables that can be expressed linearly as inequalities. When this occurs,
we can find a region of feasible solutions and can thus find a maximum or minimum of some
objective function. In this section we examine a large number of application problems which are
called linear programming problems.
Solutions of Linear 1. Introduce the problem variables. (For difficult problems you may want to use the
Programming Problems problem-solving technique of guessing values before assigning variables.)
160 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
2. Express the objective function (that which is to be optimized) in terms of the variables
in the form
P = ax + by
3. Write the problem constraints using linear inequalities (and/or equations). For maxi-
ex + dy s e
ex + dy^e
4. The variables are to be nonnegative
x>0, y>0
5. Find the graph, or the feasible solution region, of the system of constraints.
6. Locate the corner points by solving pairs of adjoining constraints changed to equa-
tions.
7. Evaluate the objective function at each corner point to determine the maximum or
minimum value.
EXAMPLE 11 The parts division of the Central Manufacturing Corporation shapes all axles
tomeet specifications on two machines: A and B. A small-car axle requires 1
hour on machine A and 1.5 hours on machine B. A large-car axle requires 2
hours on A and 1 hour on B. If each machine operates 24 hours a day and the
manufacturer makes a $15 profit on large-car axles and a $10 an axle profit on
small-car axles, find the number of each of the axles that should be produced
for maximum profit.
SOLUTION Let's guess that we make 8 small-car axles (at a profit of $10
8)
and 6 large-car axles (at a profit of $15 6) for a total profit of
P = 10
8 + 15
6
= $170 i
See Table 1
Now replace our guess of 8 small-car axles with x small-care axles and our
guess of 6 large-car axles with y large-car axles. The profit-objective function
becomes
P = $10* + $15y
Graphical Solutions to Linear Programming Problems 161
TABLE 1
Number of each
(guess)
Profit from 10 15 6 = $170
guess
Number of each (variable)
Profit 10.Y I5y Limitation
on number
of hours
Hours needed 1 x hours 2y hours s 24
machine A
Hours needed 1.5.x hours 1 v hours < 24
machine B
Likewise,
The feasible region is plotted in Figure 12, and the corner points are: (0, 0),
(0, 12), (12, 6), (16, 0).
At the corner points, the values of the objective function are
Thus, the maximum profit in one day on the two machines is $210 obtained
by producing 12 small axles and 6 large axles. Note that the minimum value
is $0, which is what one would guess>
162 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
FIGURE 12
TABLE 2
Description
Graphical Solutions to Linear Programming Problems 163
The 10 ounces would give 20(10) units of calcium and the 8 ounces would
give 10(8) units of calcium for a total of
and
x >
y >
and the objective function becomes
C = 6x + 4y \C is cholesterol-
|
prod ucing u nits.
The feasible region of solutions and the corner points are found in Figure 13.
(0. 30)
30
FIGURE 13
164 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
Practice Problem [> 1. A sociologist wishes to maximize the time he can spend on his favorite
research project. He plans 14 morning sessions and 12 afternoon sessions
for a week. The sociologist does not want more than 3 morning sessions
and 2 afternoon sessions during 8 hours, nor more than 2 morning ses-
sions and 4 afternoon sessions during 8 hours. How long should each
session be in order for him to maximize the time spent on his project for
the week?
Answer to practice problem is found on page 169.
Applications
(Business and Manufacturing. A manufactur- (b) Translate to a linear pro-
Economics) er makes two products, type I gramming problem by con-
and type II. Type I requires 4 structing the
hours on machine A and 3 hours (i) objective function and
on machine B; type II requires 2 the
hours on A and 3 hours on B. If (ii) system of constraints.
the machines operate up to 12 (c) Graph the system of con-
hours a day and the manufac- straints, shade the feasible
turer makes a profit of $14 for region, and find all corner
lowing table.
Graphical Solutions to Linear Programming Problems 165
Number of each
(guess)
Profit from
(guess)
Number of each
(variable)
Profit from
(variable) Maximum number of
hours per day
Hours needed,
machine A
Hours needed,
machine B
type I and $200 per unit for type be operated to satisfy the re-
II. quirements at minimum cost?
(a) First understand the prob-
and 100 barrels per day of low-, (c) Find the feasible region and
medium-, and high-grade oil, re- all corners of this region.
spectively. If it costs $3500 per (d) Complete the solution of this
day to operate refinery I and problem.
Number of days
(guess)
Cost of operation
(from guess)
Number of days
(variable)
Cost of operation = C
(variable) Minimum
requirements
Low-grade oil
Medium-grade oil
High-grade oil
166 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 11. Agriculture. George has found are gathered, at least 304 hours
that he can make $250 per acre are required for processing.
profit for each acre of wheat he Each instructor can process data
plants on his 50-acre farm (see for 8 hours and each graduate
Exercise 28 in Set 3.1). He can assistant for 4 hours. If instruc-
make $225 per acre profit for tors cost $10 per hour and gradu-
each acre of corn he plants. ate assistants cost $7 per hour,
Write his total profit as a linear find thenumber of each the uni-
function of the acres planted, versity should use for minimum
and use the corner points found cost. Assume that the university
in Exercise 28 to help George uses the same instructors and
decide how many acres of each graduate assistants to gather and
crop he should plant in order to process the data.
maximize his profit.
14. Education. Redo Exercise 13
product A
produced, and v is the (d) I* + l.5v < 4,800,000
number of product B produced. (e) I* \ 1.5? < 600,000
The objective function is
21. Exam. For 19,Exercise
the
(a) [0.50* + 32.00v
constraint function for machine
(b) 8.50* + 24.00v
capacity is
(c) 27.50* 4 75.00v
(a) 6* + 24? < 200,000
(d) 19.00* + 51.00?
(b) 0.5* + 2? < 200,000
ie) [7.00* + 43.00?
(c) (0.5 + 1)* + (2 + 1.5)? <
20. Exam. For the preceding prob- 200,000
lem, the constraint function for (d) 0.5* + 2? < 600,000
labor is Lv _L5?
(e) < 800,000
(a) I* + 1.5? < 200,000
(b) 8* + I2y < 600,000
Answer to Practice 1. Let * be the length in hours of morning sessions and ? the length in hours
Problem of the afternoon sessions.
3* + 2? s 8
2* + 4? < 8
* > 0, ? >
T = 14* + 12?
The morning sessions should be 2 hours long, and the afternoon sessions
1 hour long, to maximize the time spent on the project.
170 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
Overview In the preceding sections we considered the geometric method of solving linear programming
problems. Practically speaking, this procedure is useful only for problems involving two, or at
most three, variables. However, our study of geometric procedures provides an excellent back-
ground for the study of the algebraic procedures that are needed for linear programming
problems involving more than three variables. In this section, we introduce an algebraic ap-
proach called the simplex method. This procedure makes use of our knowledge of row opera-
tions on matrices. Such a procedure is readily extended to any number of variables, and with
computers linear programming problems involving hundreds, and even thousands, of variables
Slack variables
Basic feasible solutions
Pivot operations
Maximize
subject to
Standard Maximization A linear programming problem is said to be a standard maximization problem if it can be
Problem written in the following form:
Maximize
subject to
172 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
Although we omit the details, it should be fairly obvious that the sys-
tem of inequalities (1) and the system of equations (2) are equivalent in the
sense that if x = a and y = b is any solution of (1), then there are values of
the slack variables so that x = a, y = b, r = c, and s = d is a solution of (2).
That is, x = 2, y = 4 satisfies (1) and x = 2, y = 4, r = 14, and s = 17 satisfies
(2). Conversely, if x = a, y = b, r = c, and s = d is a. solution of (2) then
x = a, y = b is a solution of (1).
Next we write the objective function
P = lOx + 15y
in a form with all the variables on the left and on the right.
IOjc - 15y + P =
We then have the following system of equations:
x + 2y + r = 24
l.5x +y + s = 24
-\0x - I5y + P =
Each solution of this system is a set of numbers
x, y, r, s, P
Now unknowns, an infinite number of
recall that for three equations in five
solutions may by assigning values to two of the variables and solving
exist;
for the other three, you can obtain a solution (provided that a solution
exists). When we set two of the variables equal to and solve for the other
three, the answer is called a basic solution. In general, with m equations and
n unknowns where n > m, we set n - m variables equal to zero and solve for
the remaining in variables to get a basic solution.
Definition: Basic Feasible When a linear system consisting of m equations and n unknowns such that n >m is
Solution associated with a linear programming problem, any basic solution of the system that has
no negative values is called a basic feasible solution. The n - m variables set equal to
in obtaining a basic solution are called nonbasic variables; the m variables for which we
solve are called basic variables.
EXAMPLE 14 Maximize
P = Ax + 3y
subject to
5x + 3y < 30
2x + 3y < 21
x, y s=
A Graphical Introduction to the Simplex Method 173
Maximize
P = Ax + 3y
subject to
5x + 3v + r = 30
2x + 3y + s = 21
x, y, r, s S:
x =
174 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
points. Since the objective function does not contain r and s, evaluating the
objective function at the basic feasible solutions is equivalent to evaluating
the objective function at corner points. Thus, we can obtain the maximum
value of the objective function by evaluating at the basic feasible solutions:
.v = p = 4 + 3-0 = (3)
P = 4 + 3 7 = 21
(5)
P = 4
6 + 3 = 24
(6)
P = 4
3 + 3 5 = 27
(8)
Thus, the maximum value of P is 27. This suggests, without proof, the
following fundamental theorem.
A Graphical Introduction to the Simplex Method 175
X
5
2
(9)
176 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
make the pivot element 1 and to make other entries in the column containing
the pivot element (called the pivot column) 0.
Definition: Pivot Pivot operations are row operations (other than interchanges) performed on a matrix to
Operations make the pivot element 1 and to make all other entries in the pivot column 0.
EXAMPLE 15 Perform a pivot operation on the following simplex tableau with pivot ele-
ment 3 (circled) to obtain a second matrix. Write the system of equations
represented by the second matrix.
SOLUTION
Need a g/?l - R\
Need a
L-14 0J
A Graphical Introduction to the Simplex Method 177
subject to
3x + 2y
5x + y
x, y
2x + y < 7 x + y < 7
3x + y < 8 2* + y < 9
3jc + y < 12
12. Maximize
7. Maximize P = 25.x + 35y
P = 35jc - 25y subject to
subject to x + 3y < 21
2x + 3y < 15 2* + 3y < 24
3* + y < 12 2jc + y < 16
13. Maximize
P = 25x + 35y
8. Maximize
subject to
P = 25* - 35y
2x + 3y < 6
subject to + 3y < 21
jc
2x + 3y < 24
2jc + 3y < 15
2* + y < 16
3x + y < 12
14. Maximize
P= 25* + 35y
9. Maximize
subject to
P = 35x + 25y
<
x + y 2
subject to x + y < 7
2jc + y < 9
x + y < 7
3* + y < 12
2* + y < 9
3x + y < 12 15. Listed below are all the basic
solutions for the system
+ y + r =
2x 7
10. Maximize + y + s =
3x 8
-35* - 25y + P =
P = 25* 4- 35y
For each basic solution, identify
subject to
the nonbasic variables and the
x + y < 7 basic variables; then, classify
2* + y < 9 each basic solution as feasible or
3jc + y < 12 not feasible.
A Graphical Introduction to the Simplex Method 179
(a) x =
180 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
25. X
~1
26.
The Simplex Method of Maximization 181
subject to
3x + 2y + r = 4
5x + y + s = 8
x, y, r, s ^
V
3
5
182 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
Maximize
P = 14* + 12y Objective function
subject to
X
3
2
The Simplex Method of Maximization 183
Procedure for Finding the Choose as the pivot column the variable column that has a negative number in the
Pivot Element bottom row that is the largest number in absolute value. If the negative number in the
last row with the largest absolute value occurs in two or more variable columns,
choose any one of these columns as the pivot column and proceed to the next step.
Divide each positive element above the dashed line of the pivot column into the right
column entry in the same row of the positive element. If the pivot column has no
positive elements above the dashed line, then there is no solution.
Choose as the pivot row the row for which the quotient obtained in step 2 is smallest.
If two or more quotients are the same, choose any one of these rows as the pivot row.
The pivot element is the element in both the pivot row and the pivot column and is
Note that the pivot element is always positive and is never on the bottom
row.
Our next step will be to perform appropriate matrix row operations
such that our pivot element will be and the remaining elements in the pivot
1
column will be 0.
v r s P
Need a 1
[NeedaOj-
rr -> 2
2
4
10
10 -2R + X
/?;-/?; (2)
X
184 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
4r + s + P = 40
The Simplex Method of Maximization 18S
bx + 5y < 960
lO.v + lly < 1760
SOLUTION
Step 1. Introduce slack variables and write the resulting equations.
6.v + 5y + r = 960
lftr + \\y + s = 1760
V
186 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
X
The Simplex Method of Maximization 187
2. Maximize 7. Maximize
P = 2x + 3y P = 35.v, + 25.v 2
subject to subject to
x > x, >
y > x2 ^
X + y < 4 2.vi + jc 2 ^ 7
3x + 2y < 9 3.xj + a: 2
< 8
3. Maximize
8. Maximize
P = 5x + 4y
P = 35*, + 25x2
subject to
subject to
jc>
y > -v, >
.r + >> < 4 X2 3=
P = 4x + 3y
9. Maximize
subject to
P= jc + 8y + 9z
x >
y
> subject to
jc + y < 4
3.v + 2y < 9
jc>0
5. Maximize v>0
P = 25x + 35y
z^O
5* - 2y - 3z <
subject to -3* + y + z ^
> -5x + 3y + 4z < 200
;t
y >
2.v + y < 7
2* + y < 8 10. Maximize
P = x - 3y + 2z
6. Maximize
subject to
P = 25.v + 35y
x >
subject to >
y
x >
y > .y + 6y + 3z < 6
2x + 3y ^ 15 .v + 2y + 4z < 4
3* + y < 12 jc - y + z < 3
188 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
P = 2x + 9y + 5z
subject to
* >
v s
z >0
3*+ 2y - 5z < 12
-x + 2y + 3z = 3
* + 3y - 2z < 2
12. Maximize
P = 7.3* + 5.2y
subject to
x >
y >
1.3* + 2.4y < 25
3.5* + 4.6? < 30
The Simplex Method of Maximization 189
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 22. Agriculture. A farmer has avail- The old process releases 12
able 200 acres on which to plant grams of pollutant A and 30
either wheat or corn or both. grams of pollutant B into the air
The planting costs (seed, fertil- for each liter of chemical pro-
$150 per acre for
izer, etc.) are duced. The new process re-
corn and $60 per acre for wheat. leases 5 grams of pollutant A
The farmer has only $16,500 and 15 grams of pollutant B for
capital to spend on planting each liter produced. The com-
costs. If the anticipated income pany makes a profit of $0.40 for
is $420 per acre for corn and each liter produced by the old
$250 per acre for wheat, how process and only $0.18 for each
many acres of each should be liter produced by the new pro-
Problems
X
Minimization Using the Dual Problem 191
Overview In our use of the simplex procedure in the preceding sections, our constraints have satisfied
conditions that we classified as standard maximum linear programming problems. In this sec-
tion, we consider problems that do not satisfy these conditions. First, we want to consider
problems where we minimize the objective function. Associated with each maximum problem is
a minimum problem called its dual. Similarly, each minimum linear programming problem has a
corresponding maximum problem, also called its dual. To solve a minimum problem, we simply
use the simplex method to solve the dual maximum problem. In this section, we will study
Maximize
192 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
EXAMPLE 17 Minimize
C = 2y, + 5y 2
subject to
3y, + 2y 2 > 8
yi + 4y 2 s= 6
yi^Q
SOLUTION
Minimum Problem Maximum Problem
min C = 2y + 5y 2 t
max P = 8*1 + 6*2
subject to subject to
3yi + 2y 2 &
3
3a:,
2*i
+ x2
+ 4*2 =s 5
=s 2
y
yi , y2 s *| , x2 >
Coefficient Coefficient
Matrix Matrix
Thus, the tableau for the given minimum problem is the tableau for the dual
maximum problem.
(D
2
Minimization Using the Dual Problem 193
Practice Problems > 1 . Write the simplex tableau for the standard maximization problem in order
to solve the following:
Minimize
C= 2y, + 5v 2
subject to
3y, + 2y 2 > 8
y, + 4y 2 > 6
2y, + },>4
y\ , y2 a o
*1
Minimization Using the Dual Problem 19S
5. Exercise 1
6. Exercise 2
7. Exercise 3
8. Exercise 4
*l
10.
196 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
25;v, + 35 v: = C 25.v i
+ 35 y 2 = C
subject to subject to
vi + y2 > 2 2y, + 3y 2 a 6
2.v, + 3y 2 ^ 15 2y, + 3y 2 > 15
3yi + y2 s 12 3.vi + y 2 2= 12
y, so y, >
y 2 >0 y2 >0
Applications
(Business and 21. Transportation. A company has tamin B, and 4 units of vitamin
Economics) two warehouses, A and B, and C. Product S costs 15 cents per
two stores, I and II. Warehouse gram, and each gram contains 10
A contains 40 tons of a product units of vitamin A, 6 units of vi-
and warehouse B contains 100 tamin B, and unit of vitamin C.
1
tons of the same product. Store I How many grams of each prod-
needs 50 tons of the product and uct should the company use in
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 24. Nutrition. George Ratshaw is be protein. Each food contains
on a special diet, which requires 100 calories per unit, but food I
Answers to 1. Maximize
Practice Problems
P = 8.v, + 6x 2 + 4.v 3
*l
2
198 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
aix-i + a2 x2 +
+ ax n s b b^O
with objective function
P = Mi + k2 x 2 +
+ Mn
The standard form of a minimization problem involves constraints
ciyi +c 2 y2 + + c n y n ^ cf d>0
with objective function
C = /),/, + h 2 y2 +
+ hyn
In this section we will work problems that do not exactly fit either of these categories. That is, we
will consider mixed-constraint linear programming problems. First we will consider a mixed-
constraint problem geometrically. Then we will use the simplex procedure to solve the problem.
Consider the following example involving both < and s in the con-
straint equations.
EXAMPLE 18 Maximize
P = 4*i + x2
subject to
x\ + x2 ^ 8
-x + x2 s
{
4
x\ , x2 s
SOLUTION Geometrically the feasible solution and corner points are shown in
Figure 15.
Maximum P = 4(2) + 6 = 14
jci + x2 + Si = 8
.V| + x 2 r2 = 4
Mixed-Constraint Linear Programming 199
FIGURE 15
This variable is not a slack variable because we add slack variables to get
equality. The variable r> is called a surplus variable because it is the amount
or surplus by which the left side of the equation is more than 4. Just like
x\ + x2 + s\ = 8
-.V, + x2 - r2 = 4
-4jc, - x2 + P =
X\ 0, x2 = 0, Si = 8, r2 = -4, and P =
This does not satisfy the requirement, r 2 > 0. Therefore, the simplex proce-
dure will not work on this set of equations.
To overcome this difficulty we introduce another nonnegative variable
a 3 such that
x\ + x 2 - r2 + ay = 4
relative to the original set of constraints. It will have a value that will allow r2
to remain positive. We must also introduce this variable in the objective
function, which we write as
X\ + X2 + S] = 8
-X\ + x2 - r2 + a3 =4
-4*i - x2 + Kai + P =
X\ , x2 , S] , r2 , 3 ^
Now setting x\ = 0, x2 = 0, and a 3 = 0, we see that r2 is still negative. To
solve this difficulty we eliminate K under a 3 in the last line of the following
tableau:
-1
Mixed-Constraint Linear Programming 201
modified problem, then deleting a 3 produces the same optimal solution in the
original problem. What happens if a 3 + 0? It can be shown that the original
problem has no optimal solution.
Sometimes one of the inequalities in a system of constraints is replaced
by an equation. Usually when this occurs, one can solve the system by using
the equation without a slack variable. If this does not yield a solution, one
can try introducing surplus and artificial variables.
EXAMPLE 19 Maximize
P = 2jc, + 3* 2
subject to
xi + x2 ^ 4
*i + 2*2 = 6
*i ,.r : >0
SOLUTION The system of equations can be written as
X] + x2 + si = 4
X\ + 2*2 r2 + a) = 6
X|
202 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
Using i in the first row, first column as the pivot element, we get
X, x2
1
SOLUTION Notice that the first inequality constraint is stated as less than or
equal to instead of greater than or equal to as required in order to set up an
initial matrix. To change the sense of the first inequality, multiply each term
by -1. The problem then becomes:
Minimize
7 = 2>-, + 5y 2 + 6)< 3 + 1
subject to
3yi - 2y 2 + 4y 3 > -
y, + 2y 2 + 2y 3 > 2
2ji + 3y 2 + )"3 S 5
The transpose of
204 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
the simplex tableau. Remember that we assumed that all of the elements of
the last column were nonnegative with the possible exception of the element
in the last row and last column. A special starting procedure is required for
problems in which some of the constants in the last column other than the
constant in the last row and last column are negative.
+ 40
*, , *2 S
8*, 5*, =
< *, *2 2=
8*, + 5*2 40 ,
subject to 7. Maximize
8*, + 5*2 = 40 P = 8*, + 4*2
4*i + 3*2 s 12
subject to
*1 , *2 ^
*, + 2*2 ^ 8
4. Maximize
Xi+ * 2 > 2
P = 5*, + 4*2 *i * 2 a ,
subject to 8. Maximize
*, + 2*2 ^ 4 P = 10*i + 8*2
-*i + x2 > -6
subject to
*1 , *2 ^
*, + 3*2 ^ 12
*1 + *2 = 8
*1 , *2 2:
Mixed-Constraint Linear Programming 205
subject to subject to
-X] + 2* 2 s 4 *, + *2 s 8
*, + *2 = 6 3*1 + 2*2 > 6
JCi , *2 S: *i ,x2 >0
10. Maximize 14. Minimize
subject to subject to
-*, + * 2 & -2
16. Exercise 2
*, + *2 > 4
*1 , *2 2: 17. Exercise 3
5
Z = lO*, + 12*2 19. Exercise 5
-*, + 2*2 2: -4
*, + *2 > 6
*i , *2 2:
Applications
(Business and 21. Resource Allocation. USZ Min- pany has contracted to provide a
Economics) ing Company operates two local smelter a minimum of 14
mines, A and B. Each mine pro- tons of high-grade ore per week
duces high-grade ore and low- and a maximum of 6 tons of low-
grade ore. Mine A produces 2 grade ore per week. Determine
tons of high-grade ore and 0.5 the minimum cost to meet this
ton of low-grade ore per day. contract if it costs $4000 per day
Mine B produces ton of each 1 to operate mine A and $3000 a
grade of ore per day. The com- day to operate mine B.
206 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 22. Nutrition (Plants). A fertilizer pounds of each. If there is a
company has available 10 tons profit of 20 cents on each 50-
of nitrate and 8 tons of phos- pound bag of A and a profit of 15
phate to produce two types of cents on each 50-pound bag of
fertilizer.A bag of fertilizer A B, how many of each would be
will have 20 pounds of nitrate mixed for maximum profit if all
and 10 pounds of phosphate, and of the phosphate must be used in
a bag of fertilizer B will have 10 this mixing endeavor?
Extended Application
Marketing
When we buy a new pair of tennis shoes, visit our favorite grocery store, or
drink our evening cola, it is difficult for us to realize how much of the cost of
the purchase represents the cost of advertising. The Oldsmobile Division of
General Motors Corporation spent $38 million on advertising in 1988. In
addition, a medium-sized dealership, Drennen Oldsmobile, spent more than
$480,000 on advertising. To get the most productive advertising for the
money spent, Drennen Oldsmobile applied linear programming techniques
to marketing or advertising. Drennen utilizes three avenues for advertising:
television, newspaper, and radio. Of course, a comprehensive study would
involve many classifications of these three; however, to simplify the problem
for this example, we consider that an advertisement will run during a given
week and no other advertisement will be used simultaneously. In addi-
that
tion, we assume that all television advertising is purchased for semi-
will
prime time ($800 for a 30-second advertisement), that newspaper advertising
:
Laplin, Lawrence. Quantitative Methods for Business Decisions, 4th ed., 1988, Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich. Inc.. Orlando, Florida, p. 207
Extended Application 207
is for a half page ($8000 for a week), and that radio advertising consists of
x + y + z ^ 52 Weeks in a year
X
208 Chapter 3 Introduction to Linear Programming
1
Summary and Review Exercises 209
Chapter Test
2y < 8 - 6x
x, y >
graph the solution region, find
the corner points, and classify
the solution region as bounded
or unbounded.
8. Minimize
C = 5) + 2y 2
subject to
3v, + 2y 2
y, + 4v : > 6
y, + v2 ^ 4
*l
Mathematics of Finance
212
Some Comparisons of Interest Rates 213
Overview Kate deposited $100 in a savings account paying 6% per year compounded quarterly. At the end
of the year, her statement indicated that she had $106 in her account. She believes there is a
mistake. Is she right or wrong?
The phrase compounded quarterly indicates that this problem involves compound inter-
est. What is the difference between compound and simple interest? You will learn the difference
in this section, and you will use both concepts to solve a variety of problems. In this section you
will study:
/ = Prt
EXAMPLE 1 Four hundred dollars is borrowed at 12% simple interest for 3 years. What is
the interest?
SOLUTION
/ = Prt 12% as a
decimal is 0.12
I = ($400)(0.12)(3) = $144
At the end of the term of the loan, the borrower must pay not only the
sum that was originally borrowed, the principal. Hence,
interest but also the
the amount due at the end of the term is given by
A = P + I = P + Prt
A = P(l + rt)
214 Chapter 4 Mathematics of Finance
A = P + Prt
= P(1 + rt)
EXAMPLE 2 A loan of $1000 is made for 6 months at a simple-interest rate of 8%. How
much does the borrower owe end of 6 months?
at the
P = $1000
r = 0.08
= $1040
$1000 $1040
Principal, or Amount, or
present value future value
FIGURE 1
EXAMPLE 3 Compute the present value of $1000 due in 3 months with interest at 12%
annually.
SOLUTION
A = $1000
$1000 = P [l + (0.12)
(-^J r= 0.12
/
-3-
? '/ ^P = $970.8737864
' 12
Some Comparisons of Interest Rates 215
In this chapter, we will round all final answers (but not intermediate steps) to
two decimal places (nearest cent). Hence, the present value is $970.87. The
time diagram for Example 3 is shown in Figure 2>
$970.87 $1000
Principal, or Amount, or
present value future value
I
I
FIGURE 2
EXAMPLE 4 One thousand dollars is borrowed for 2 years. At the end of that time, $1 120
is repaid. What percent of simple interest was charged?
A = $1120
A= P(\ + it) P = $1000
t = 2 years
$1000 $1120
Principal, or Amount, or
present value future value
I I
FIGURE 3 2 years
Let's work the preceding example another way after examining the
time diagram (Figure 3). Note between $1120 and $1000 is
that the difference
the interest.
$120 = $1000(r)(2)
Days in February 28
Days in March 31
Days in April 30
She was comfortable with this computation, but she was quite surprised
when the banker computed her interest:
/ = Pit
1 = ($300X0.075) {)
I = $6.94
The banker pointed out that the fraction Mo indicated the portion of the year
that she would have the money. Bankers often compute interest on the basis
of a 360-day year. In the days prior to widespread use of calculators, this
convention made computations easier. Today some bankers use a 365-day
year and some a 360-day year.
Compound Interest
We have learned that simple interest / is found by using the formula / = Prt,
where P represents the principal, r the rate, and t the time. When interest is
computed by this formula, the principal always remains the same. If the
interest is added to the principal at the end of each interest period, so that
the principal is increased, the interest is said to be compounded. The sum of
the original principal and all the interest is called the compound amount, and
the difference between the compound amount and the original principal is
the compound interest. A comparison of simple and compound interest is
given in the following example.
EXAMPLE 5 Find the simple interest on $1000 for 3 years at 6%. Then find the compound
interest on $1000 for 3 years at 6%, compounded annually.
solution First we summarize the problem on a time diagram (see Figure 4).
I I I 1
FIGURE 4 I 2 3 years
Some Comparisons of Interest Rates 21
compute both year by year. At the end of the first year, the interest for both
will be
/ = $1000(0.06) = $60
For compound interest, this amount is added to the principal, and the new
principal becomes $1000 + $60 = $1060. Interest for the second year is
/ = $1060(0.06) = $63.60
Now, how do you get the principal for the third year?
TABLE 7
218 Chapter 4 Mathematics of Finance
TABLE 2
Period
Some Comparisons of Interest Rates 219
= $2000(1 + 0.03)
20
= $3612.22
use this formula to change the direction of our thinking. Consider the ques-
tion, "How much principal must we invest now at 8% per year compounded
quarterly in order to have the $6000 we need to buy a used car in 4 years?"
When the question is asked in this way, the principal for which we are
searching is called the present value. Thus, we are looking for the present
value of the compound amount $6000 due in 4 years at 8% per year com-
pounded quarterly.
J
FIGURE 1 4 years
A = $6000
A = P[l r = 0.08
+l )
=4
k
$6000 = P(\ + 0.02) 16 n = kt= (4)(4) = 16
$6000
P = 16
(1.02)
EXAMPLE 8 How much money should be deposited in a savings and loan association
6% compounded quarterly in order to
paying have $3000 in 5 years?
$3000
FIGURE 8 5 years
220 Chapter 4 Mathematics ot Finance
SOLUTION
A = P\l +
i = .06/4 = 0.015
n = kt = = 20
(4)(5)
$3000 = P{\ + 0.0 15) 20
$3000
(1.015) 20
P = $2227.41
2 = (1.04)"
CALCULATOR NOTE Let's use the |y' key of your calculator and the very useful mathematical
|
tool of "guessing and then checking" to get an approximate answer. Try any
number for /;. Suppose you select a 5.
1.040 5=1.217 1
Much too small]
1.04 010=1.480 |
Still too small]
1.04 17 = 1.948
1.04 18 = 2.026
Thus, in 18 interest periods (or 9 years) the principal will have more than
doubled.
Practice Problems i> 1. Steve Jones borrows $5000 to complete his senior year at Roebuck Col-
lege. If the bank charges 8% simple interest, how much will Steve owe in
3 years?
2. In 5 years, you will need $10,000 as a down payment on a condominium.
How much must you deposit today if the Secor Savings and Loan will pay
you 8% simple interest?
Some Comparisons of Interest Rates 221
3. You borrow $1000 and the Easy Loan Company requires that you pay
$1240 in 2 years. Which simple-interest rate is the loan company charg-
ing?
4. You want to borrow $10,000 for 6 years. What is a better interest rate:
(a) 8j% simple interest or
(b) 8% compounded quarterly?
Answers to practice problems are found on p. 223.
Exercise Set 4.1 1. Compute the simple interest (b) $3000 at 6% compounded
when the principal, rate, and semiannually for 6 years
time of the loan are given. (c) $3000 at 6% compounded
(a) P = $500, r = 0.08, t = 2 quarterly for 6 years
years
7. Compute the amount to be re-
(b) P = $300, r = 0.13, t = 4
paid when the principal, simple-
years
interest rate, and time of the
(c) P = $500, r = 0.10, t = 5
loan are given.
years
(a) P = $4000, r = 0.11, t = 2
2. What is the amount to be repaid years
in (a), (b), and (c) of Exercise 1? (b) P = $3000, r = 0.12, t = 6
months
3. Find the interest and the amount
(c) P = $100, r = 0.08, t = 3
of a loan for $3000 borrowed for
years
2 years at 16% simple interest.
8. Find the simple-interest rate on
Find the compound interest and
the loan when the principal, the
compound amount for the invest-
amount repaid, and the term of
ments in Exercises 4 through 6.
the loan are given. Hint: Use a
4. (a) $5000 at 12% compounded 360-day year.
annually for 3 years (a) Principal, $3500; amount re-
(b) $5000 at 12% compounded paid in 2 years, $4130.
semiannually for 3 years (b) Principal, $1000; amount re-
10. $6000 due in 5 years 3 months if Solve each formula for the indicated
money is worth 8% compounded variable.
semiannually
13. / = Pit (r)
21. Loans. Some lending institu- 25. Savings. How much should
tions have a minimum amount of parents invest for their daughter
interest they must collect on any at 12% interest compounded
loan. An institution with a mini- semiannually in order to have
mum charge of $5 will expect to $5000 at the end of 20 years?
receive $5 interest on the loan,
26. Cash Value. A lot is sold for
even though actual interest
$750 cash and $600 a year for the
charges are only $3. How long
next 3 years. Find the cash value
must $1000 be borrowed at 8%
of the lot if money is worth 6%
interest to reach the minimum
compounded semiannually.
service charge of $5? (Use a
banker's year of 360 days in the
computation.)
Effective Rates, Continuous Compounding, and Geometric Progressions 223
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) The effects of inflation can be ob- (a) 3%
tained using the formula for com- (b) 4%
pound interest where i becomes the (c) 5%
inflation rate per period. (d) 6%
27. Inflation. Find the cost of the 31. Population Growth. The popu-
following items in 10 years at an lation of a city of 60,000 is ex-
(d) A $14.65 hourly labor rate. 32. Fish Population. The number of
28. Inflation. Rework Exercise 27 fish in a lake expected to in-
is
Practice Problems 2. A = P(l + rt), or 10,000 = P{\ + .08 5), or 10,000 = P(\A0): P =
$7142.86.
3. / = 1240 - 1000 = 240. Then / = Pit, or 240 = 1000(f)(2), or 240 = 2000/-.
f = 0.12 = 12%.
4. (a) A = 10,000(1 + 0.0825 6) = $14,950.
Overview Effective rates and continuously compounded rates are useful extensions of our discussion on
We have not yet established how to compare the interest rates prom-
ised by two institutions. For example, if the bank down the street offers an
224 Chapter 4 Mathematics of Finance
interest rate of10% compounded 5 times a year and the bank 12 miles across
town 12% compounded 3 times a year, should we undertake
offers a rate of
the long drive? To compare the two rates, we need to introduce the notion of
an effective rate of interest. The effective rate of /% per period compounded
k times a year is the simple-interest rate that gives the same amount due at
the end of year as the rate per period compounded k times a year. That is,
1 i
P(l r 1) = P(l + 0*
I + r = (1 + if Divide by P
r = (1 + 0* - 1
Definition: Effective A rate of / per period compounded k times a year produces an effective annual rate of
Annual Rate
Effective rate = (1 + /)* - 1 / = rlk
SOLUTION
Effective rate = (1 + 0.015)
4 - 1
= 1.0614 - 1
i =-3* = 0.015
= 0.0614 k = 4
EXAMPLE 11 For a savings account, which is the better rate, 12.5% compounded semian-
nually, or 12% compounded monthly?
solution To compare the two rates, we first find and compare the effective
rates:
The effective rate for 12.5% compounded 2 times a year is greater than 12%
compounded 12 times a year>
Effective Rates, Continuous Compounding, and Geometric Progressions 225
Interest
226 Chapter 4 Mathematics of Finance
Interest
$8.50 T
Interest on $100 invested
for 1 year at 8% compounded
as shown
$8.00
FIGURE 9
CALCULATOR NOTE If there is no \7\ or [e^\ button on your calculator, you can usually obtain the
value of e 3 by
3 |
INV |
[TnT] [^"1
3 1
2nd |
fln7| f=1
or
2.71828 7 3 [=1
[y ]
EXAMPLE 12 Find the compound amount obtained from an investment of $2000 com-
pounded continuously for 5 years at 6%.
= 2000? 03 = $2699.72
Geometric Progressions
The next two sections involve a sequence of payments or deposits that draw
interest. In the preceding section, we learned that to accumulate a payment
with compound interest we multiply by the factor (1 + /)". To find the sum of
such terms, we introduce what is known as a geometric progression.
A geometric progression is characterized by the fact that each term is
obtained from the previous term by multiplying by the constant r, called the
common ratio. Thus, the sum of a geometric progression can be written as
~
S = a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 +
+ ar n x
EXAMPLE 13 Determine whether the following is a geometric progression, find the first
12 + 36 + 108 + 324 +
S = a + ar + ar 2 + + ar"' 1
S n = a + ar + ar 2 + + ar"~ l
rS n = ar + ar 2 + + ar" '
+ ar"
S n rS n = a ar"
(1 - r)S = a(\ - r
n
) Factor out an a and S
If r 1, dividing by 1 - r gives
Sum of a Geometric The sum S n of the first n terms of a geometric progression with first term a and common
^
Progression ratio r + 1 is
a(1 - r")
Sn = or Sn =
1 -r
228 Chapter 4 Mathematics of Finance
EXAMPLE 14 Find the sum of six terms of the following geometric progression:
6 + 12 + 24 +
r = 126 = 2 or r =
24
= 2
11
a(r" - 1)
5 =
r - 1
2 - 1
= 378
SOLUTION Notice that S is now the sum of five terms of a geometric progres-
sion whose first term is 100 and whose common ratio is 1.06; hence,
_ a(r" - 1) _ 100[(1.06) 5 - 1]
*5
r-\ 1.06-1
1.06
. To verify, multiply the first term by and see
1.06
if you get the second
100
1.06 L (1.06)
5 Use
1 (1 - /")
i, = a
1.06
,
1 - r
100 1 - (1.06)
1.06 1 .06 - 1
1.06
1 - (1.06)" 5
= 100
0.06
= 421.24
230 Chapter 4 Mathematics of Finance
1
Use
Sn = a(l - r")
S
1 - r
YTl) =
(l + o (i - (l + - 1
compounded continuously?
Answers to practice problems are found on page 231
Exercise Set 4.2 Identify whether the following are 5. a, a + r, a + 2r, a + 3r, .
2
7. a, a(l + , ad + 0\
-1
8. a, o(l + , fld + 0" 2 ,
3. 12, 9, 6, 3, 0, -3,
a(l + 0"'i
3 3
4. 12, 3, -r.TT,
4 16
Applications
(Business and Find the effective rates equivalent to (d) Monthly
Economics) the nominal rates for Exercises 9- (e) Daily
12. (f) Continuously
What is the amount after 10
9. 8% compounded semiannually
years?
10. 6% compounded semiannually
14. Find the compound amount for
11. 24% compounded monthly (a) $3000 at 12% compounded
continuously for 5 years
12. 12% compounded monthly
(b) $6000 at 15% compounded
13. $1000 is invested at 12% com- continuously for 6 years
pounded
15. Find the effective rate corre-
(a) Annually
sponding to 10% interest com-
(b) Semiannually
pounded continuously. (Hint:
(c) Quarterly
Amount of an Annuity: Sinking Funds 231
You must adjust the formula 18. How many years will it take
given.) money to double if 8% interest is
compounded daily?
16. Approximately how many years
will it take money to double at 19. What is the effective rate of 8%
10% interest compounded con- compounded daily?
tinuously?
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 20. Fish Population. Suppose the many fish should the lake con-
instantaneous rate of growth of tain 6 years from today? (Hint:
the fish population in a lake is AT = I00e l0
-
Find N and
>.
10% per year. If you stock the round to the nearest whole num-
lake with 100 fish today, how ber.)
Overview In this section we are interested in a sequence of equal payments made at the ends of equal time
intervals. Deposits (of equal amounts) in a savings account at the end of each quarter fit our
pattern. For example, suppose you deposit $500 at the end of each quarter in a savings and loan
that pays interest at 8% compounded quarterly. You might wish to know if you have enough
money in this savings account at the end of 5 years to purchase the automobile of your dreams.
At the end of this section we will investigate how money accumulates by studying sinking funds.
An
annuity is a sequence of equal payments made at equal time inter-
vals. For the formula we will develop, these payments, denoted as R, are
made at the ends of equal successive payment periods, and the interest
periods are the same as the payment periods. The sum of all payments R,
plus their interest, is called the amount of an annuity as illustrated in the
following example:
EXAMPLE 19 Suppose at the end of each year you receive $100 and invest it at 6% com-
pounded annually. How much would you have at the end of 5 years?
SOLUTION Let 5 represent the amount of the annuity at the end of 5 years.
Since the firstpayment of $100 is not received until the end of the year, it will
232 Chapter 4 Mathematics of Finance
accumulate interest for 4 years as seen in Figure 10. Likewise, the second
payment will accumulate interest for 3 years, and so on. Hence,
$100(1.06)
4
$100(1.06)
3
$100(1.06)
2
$100(1.06)
$100
FIGURE 10
$/?(i +/)"-'
7
$/?d +i)"'
3
$/?(l + i)
2
$(1 +/)
$/?0 +i)'
$/?
$R $/? $/?
I I I
FIGURE 11
$S = $R + $R(l + i) + $R(l + i)
2
+ $^(1 + if
+ +$/?(! + i)"-
2
+ $R(l + /)"-
(l + 0" - i
S = R
Amount of an Annuity: Sinking Funds 233
S = R
where S = amount of the annuity, fl = periodic payment of the annuity, / = rate per
period, and n = number of payments (periods). (Payments are made at the end of each
period.)
(1 + /)" - 1
EXAMPLE 20 Kate deposits $300 at the end of each year in a savings account that pays 8%
interest compounded annually. How much money does she have just after
the fifth deposit?
5
$300 $300 $300 $300 $300
I _| I I I
FIGURE 12 4 5
SOLUTION Remember that S gives the amount just after a payment is made.
Hence, it can be used to solve the problem.
((I + i) - V i = 0.08
S = R n = 5
R = $300
((I + 0.08)
5
- 1'
S = $300
V 0.08
= $1759.98
EXAMPLE 21 Mark deposits $1000 in the First Savings and Loan at the end of each quarter
for 10 years. How much money does he have at the end of 10 years if the
savings and loan pays 12% interest compounded quarterly?
5
$1000 $1000 $1000 $1000 61000
I I I I _l
FIGURE 13 10 years
234 Chapter 4 Mathematics of Finance
SOLUTION
'd + /)"- r
S = R /
=
4
(1 + .03)
= $1000
.()}
= $75,401.26
Amount of an Annuity: Sinking Funds 235
EXAMPLE 23 Mr. Wilkins wishes to create a sinking fund to pay off his loan, which will
amount to $1259.71 in 3 years. If his sinking fund pays 12% interest com-
pounded semiannually, what is his semiannual deposit into the sinking fund?
$1259.71
$R $R $R
_l_
FIGURE 15 3 years
6
CALCULATOR NOTE Compute (1.06) ; subtract I; divide by 0.06; take reciprocal; multiply by
1259.71.
R = $180.60
TABLE 3
236 Chapter 4 Mathematics of Finance
Practice Problems > 1 . Ifyou deposit $100 a month in a savings and loan paying 6% compounded
monthly, how much money do you have at the end of 5 years?
2. A self-employed person is setting up a defined-benefit retirement plan
with a goal of having $100,000 in the plan at the end of 5 years. What
amount must be deposited in the fund each month if the fund accumulates
interest at 9% compounded monthly?
Exercise Set 4.5 With a calculator, compute each of 9. R = $2000, r = 12% com-
the following. Interpret what you pounded monthly, n = 4 years
have found.
10. R = = 14.5% com-
$5000, r
- '
5. R = $100, i = 6%, n = 10
to invest a certain sum of money
at the end of each year for 6
6. R = $1000, i = 8%, n = 12 years. The investment will earn
Find the amount of each of the fol-
compounded annually. At
the end of 10 years, the busi-
lowing annuities. Payments or de-
posits aremade at the end of each nessperson will need $100,000.
interest period.
How should the person compute
the required annual investment
1. R = $100, r = 6% compounded
semiannually, n = 10 years
8. R = $1000, r = 9% compounded
quarterly, n = 5 years
Amount of an Annuity: Sinking Funds 237
$100.000 (1.06)
(a) (c) $100,000
1
- (1.06) 0.06
0.06
1
- (1.06)
(d) $100,000
$100,000 0.06
(b)
(1.06)'" - 1
0.06
Applications
(Business and 13. Investments. Juan is to receive 16. Sinking Fund. Compute the
Economics) $1000 at theend of each year for quarterly deposit Mr. I. O.
5 years. If he invests each year's Yeung must make to a sinking
payment at 8% compounded an- fund that pays 12% interest com-
nually, how much will he have at pounded quarterly to pay off a
the end of his 5 years? loan of $5000 due in 4 years.
Construct three lines of a sched-
14. Investments. Suppose you de-
ule for this fund.
posit $500 each 6 months in a
credit union that pays 8% inter- 17. Sinking Fund. What deposit
estcompounded semiannually. must be made to a sinking fund
How much would you have after that pays 12% interest com-
5 years? pounded quarterly to pay off a
loan of $1500, due in 4 years, at
15. Retirement Account. John Size-
more deposited $2000 per year
8% interest compounded annu-
ally? Construct three lines of a
in a retirement account. Make a
schedule for this fund.
table showing how his money
accumulates for the first 5 years 18. Sinking Fund. What deposit
and then find how much he will must be made to a sinking fund
have at the end of 20 years if his that pays 8% compounded quar-
bank pays terly to pay off in 5 years a loan
(a) 8% compounded annually of $3200 at 12% interest com-
(b) 10% compounded annually pounded semiannually?
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 19. Inflation. If inflation holds 20. Fish Population. You place
steady at 4.2% per year for 5 1000 fish in your lake each year
years, what will be the cost in 5 for 5 years. If the fish increase at
years of a $10,000 car today? a rate of 5% per year, how many
How much will you need to de- will you have at the end of 5
posit each year in a sinking fund years?
earning 8% per year to purchase
the new car in 5 years?
238 Chapter 4 Mathematics of Finance
'( 1.0075)"
2. $R = $100,000
.0075
$R = $1325.84
Overview In the previous section we found the value of periodic deposits just after the last deposit. Now
we are interested in finding the value of the periodic deposits one payment period before the
first deposit. For example, we need to know how much money must be invested now in order to
provide periodic payments for a number of periods in the future. In this section, we will
EXAMPLE 24 Compute the present value of an annuity of $100 per year for 5 years at 6%
compounded annually. In other words, find the amount of money that must
be invested now at 6% compounded annually so that payments of $100 per
year can be made from this investment for 5 years.
$100(1 +0.06)" 5
Present Value of an Annuity and Amortization 239
Thus,
$P = $100(1.06)-' + $100(1.06) :
+ $100(1.06)- 3
4
+ $100(1.06) + $100<I.06r s
Before finding the value of the preceding expression, let's follow the
same pattern for a general case. Consider $R payments at the ends of pay-
ment intervals for /; intervals. The rate per interest period is The value at /'.
$m\ + i)
240 Chapter 4 Mathematics of Finance
EXAMPLE 25 Compute the present value of an annuity that pays $100 each month for 4
years at 12% interest compounded monthly.
SOLUTION
k= 12
FIGURE 18 3 '
4 years
n = kt = 12
4 = 48
(1 - oir '
= $ioo[i--
0.01 R = $100
7 48
|j|
CALCULATOR NOTE Compute 1.01 [y ] [] [^] [] [+] 1
P] [T| .01 fx] 100 p]
P = $3797.40
EXAMPLE 26 Kamilla purchased a refrigerator for $150 down and $30 a month for 12
months. If the interest charge is 12% compounded monthly, find the cash
price.
Present Value of an Annuity and Amortization 241
242 Chapter 4 Mathematics of Finance
payment less interest ($88.85 - $10 = $78.85) gives that part of the payment
that is applied to the debt. So, at the beginning of the second month, the debt
is $1000 - $78.85 = $921.15. Can you find this on the first line of Table 4?
Now see if you understand the second line.
Practice Problems > 1, Jodi agrees to pay $500 down, $200 per month for 5 years for her new
automobile. If the finance rate is 12% compounded monthly, what is the
cash value of her car?
2. You purchase a house for $100,000, pay 20% down and amortize your
debt with monthly payments for 30 years. What is your monthly payment
if your loan charges 9% compounded monthly?
3. Show three lines of the amortization schedule in Practice Problem 2. That
is, show how the payments contain both interest and payment on the
principal.
Exercise Sel 4.4 With a calculator, compute each of (b) $500 per quarter for 6j years
the following. Interpret what you at 8.5% interest com-
have found. pounded quarterly
(c) $600 per half year for 5 years
1
- (1.06)-
1. 50 at 8% interest compounded
0.06
semiannually
1 - (1.01)-
2. 50 Find the present value of the fol-
0.01
lowing annuities:
- (1.08)-' 4 (a) $100 per month for 8 years at
3. 200 12% interest compounded
0.08
monthly
(1.12)- 7 \
$500 per month for 3 years at
-
(b)
4. 1
6000 6000
(a) (c)
(1.06)' (1 - (1.06)-
0.06 0.06
(1.06)
10 - 1 1
- (1.06)
(b) 6000 (d) 6000
0.06 0.06
Applications
(Business and 10. Payments. Compute the month- (a) What is her equity after 30
Economics) ly payment necessary to finance payments? (Hint; $60,000
a used car for $3500 at 12% in- less the present value of a
= $9491.01
1 - (1 + 0.0075)- 360 ]
J
$80,000 *[ 0.0075
R = $643.70
244 Chapter 4 Mathematics of Finance
3.
Outstanding Principal
1
Equations of Value and Perpetuities 245
$/? $( + /)"
12
I
I I I I I
(a)
3 n
$R = + iY"
$/?(!
(1 + /)"
$
(b) I I L
$R $R $R $R
I I I I I
(c)
FIGURE 27 o 1
The preceding ideas will be used in what we will call equations of value.
In an equation of value, you select a given date. Then you accumulate
(multiply by ( 1 + /)") or discount (multiply by ( I + /)") all obligations to this
date, as studied in Section 4.1. Likewise, you accumulate or discount all
payments to this date. When you set equal the value of the obligations and
the value of the payments on this date, you have an equation of value.
EXAMPLE 28 Ari owes $10,000. He wants to pay this debt by making payments of $1000
each end of each year for 6 years. Then, at the end of 6 years, he will
at the
make a payment of $x to retire the remaining debt. If money is worth 8%
interest compounded annually, what is the size of the $jt payment Ari will
make at the end of 6 years?
6 years
FIGURE 22
solution We choose the 6-year mark as the time to compare the debt and
the payments. At the end of 6 years the debt has a value of $10,000(1 +
6
0.08) . At the end of 6 years the $1000-a-year annuity has a value of
$1000
(1
'qq
~ *
Sum of the annuity
| |
[ 8 ]
Of course, x has a value of x at the 6-year mark. Thus, the equation of value
at the 6-year mark is
246 Chapter 4 Mathematics of Finance
{L ] l
10,000(1 + 0.08)
6
= 1000 Q + x Debts equal
]
[ 0S payments at
x = $8532.81 the 6-year
mark
Thus, the one additional payment at the end of 6 years that will retire
the debt is $8532. 81.
6-year mark
8)
10,000 = iooo + *n.08)- 6
P ~oo8 ]
An annuity whose first payment is made some time after the end of the
first period is called a deferred annuity.
EXAMPLE 30 A car was bought on January 1 with the agreement that there would be 36
monthly payments of $100, the first of which would be due on April 1. Find
the equivalent cash price if interest is 12% compounded monthly.
Pd.OD^lOO p-y 6
]
P must be
accumulated for
P = $2951.43 two periods.
Equations of value are useful when the payment and interest periods
do not exactly fit our definition of an annuity.
EXAMPLE 31 Amanda pays $400 rent each month, payable in advance. What would be her
equivalent yearly rent at 12% interest compounded monthly if she paid it in
advance?
solution The $400 payment does not belong in the annuity because
at time
for an annuity you must have payment, interval then payment,
interval then
and so forth. As seen in Figure 24, we can use an equation of value including
an annuity within it. At time 0, the equation of value can be written as
- (1 - lr
1
Without the first
P = 400 + 400(
0.01 $400, there are only
1 1 payments of $400
$4547.05
in the annuity.
p
$400 $400 $400
I
I |__
FIGURE 24 1 2 11 months
Pi = R or P=-
i
EXAMPLE 32 The Cenco Company is expected to pay $3.00 every 6 months on a share of
its stock. What is the present value of this stock if money is worth 6%
interest compounded semiannually?
S0LUT.0N R = $3M =
p = $10Q
Often, the payment periods and the interest periods for a perpetuity
may not be the same. When this happens, the present value may be found by
the following formula.
248 Chapter 4 Mathematics of Finance
Present Value of The present value of a perpetuity that yields the payment R at the end of n interest
(1 + /)" - 1
EXAMPLE 33 Find the present value of the Cenco Company's stock, which is expected to
pay $3.00 every 6 months, if money is worth 8% interest compounded quar-
terly.
R
P = -
(1 + /)" 1
$3.00
(1.02)
2
- 1
= $74.26
Practice Problems !> 1. To pay for his car, Aaron is to give his brother $1000 at the end of each
year for 6 years. Aaron make the first two payments. At the end of
fails to
3 years, Aaron is going to borrow money to pay off his debt to his brother.
If it is agreed that he should pay interest at 8% compounded annually,
how much should Aaron pay his brother at the end of 3 years?
2. Mr. Smith plans to retire in 1 year. He wants to place in a trust fund,
bearing interest at 9% compounded semiannually, enough money to re-
ceive $9000 every year forever (starting 1 year from today). How much
money must he place in the bank?t>
Exercise Set 4.5 Find the present value of the follow- 3. $10,000 a year, interest at 8%
ing perpetuities: quarterly
Applications
(Business and 9. Stock Dividend. The Go Far If money is worth 12% inter-
Economics) Company is expected to pay est compounded semiannually,
$6.00 every 6 months on a share what will be the amount of the
of its stock. What is the present last payment?
*?*?
,
^
TV set
that c a* h lce of $ 337 26
if interest is 12% compounded
Is s0 Jf
5
/ c
down and $30 a f '
monthly
month for 12 months. What is
19. Stock Dividend. A stock pays the compound interest rate
$4.00 every 6 months. What is monthly?
the present value of the stock if
(1 8)
Answers to Practice [ 1. 1000(1. 08) 2 + 1000(1.08)' + 1000 + lOOof- n ,^ 1 = $5823.50
DrnKlnmr L 0.08 J
Problems
9000
2 - P = =$97 ' 799 51
-
(1.045)^-l
Extended Application
Decisions and the Cost of Money
A printing company currently has the opportunity to purchase either of
two
printers to be operated for the next 5 years. The higher priced machine is
expected to have lower operating costs and thus will generate more profit,
and the lower priced machine may have to be overhauled after 3 years. If not
overhauled, it may break down and become unusable. The firm's cost of
money is 10 percent compounded yearly. The expected profit from each
machine is shown in the table. The rows indicate initial cost and profit under
various assumed conditions. Figures are in thousands of dollars.
Summary and Review Exercises 251
1. No breakdown or overhaul
IS 16 15 12 II
+ 2 3 4 5
50 = $5.88
1.10 '
With overhaul
16 15 16
3 4 5
50 = $2.16
1.10 (1.10)- (I.IO) (1.10) (1.1 0)
With breakdown
IS 16 15 12
+ 2
- 50 -$0.95
1.10 (l.IO) (1-I0) 3 (1.10)-
It isseen that the present value of profit of the more expensive ma-
chine. $6.07. is greater than any other present value. Of course, an analysis
/ = Prt
A= P{\ + rt)
252 Chapter 4 Mathematics of Finance
Compound amount:
A = P(l + if
Present value:
A
(1 + 0"
Amount of an annuity:
(1 + /)" ~ 1
A = R
i
I - (1 + Q-"
P = R
i
R
P = -
(1 + i) 1
a(r" - 1)
Sn =
r - 1
where the first term is a and each term is obtained from the preceding terms
by multiplying by the constant r + 1.
Review Exercises 1. Find the simple interest due on a vestment of $4000 at 8% com-
loan of $5000 at 12% interest for pounded quarterly for 10 years.
3 months.
5. Find the effective rate equiva-
2. Find the compound interest and lent to 12% interest com-
compound amount for an invest- pounded semiannually.
ment of $4000 at 6% interest
6. Find the present value of $4000
compounded semiannually for
due in 5 years at 6% interest
10 years.
compounded semiannually.
3. Find the interest on $3000 at
7. Compute the present value and
12% simple interest for 6
the amount of an annuity of $400
months.
a year for 10 years at 8% interest
4. Compute the compound interest compounded annually.
and compound amount for an in-
Summary and Review Exercises 253
11. What should be the semiannual 17. Find the compound amount the
deposit to a sinking fund estab- Native Americans would have if
lished to pay off a loan of $300 at they had invested $24 for 300
6% interest compounded annu- years at 8% interest com-
ally in 3 years if the fund pays pounded annually.
6% interest compounded semi-
annually?
18. A department store charges 2%
interest per month service
12. You wish to borrow $10,000 to- charge on unpaid balances. As-
day and $5000 5 years from now. sume that no payments are made
You plan to repay these loans for year and compute the ap-
1
find the present value of the an- duce an annual income of $6000
nuity
254 Chapter 4 Mathematics ot Finance
Chapter Test
2. How much money will you have in the bank at the end of 3 years if you
deposit $500 at the end of each month for the 3 years? You draw 12%
interest compounded monthly.
3. If $1000 accumulates to $1200 in 6 months, what simple-interest rate is
being charged?
4. You borrow $2000 from the E-Z Loan Company. How much do you pay
back in 2 years if they charge 12% compounded monthly?
5. On a new automobile you agree to pay $100 every 6 months for 5 years.
Ifyou are charged interest at a rate of 8% compounded semiannually,
what is the cash value of the automobile?
6. You place your savings in a bank that pays a simple-interest rate of 5%.
If you have $2400 at the end of 4 years, how much did you deposit?
11. Paul secures a loan of $10,000. At the end of 1 year he repays $2000. At
the end of 2 years he pays $3000. At the end of 4 years he agrees to pay
payments made semiannually starting at the end
off the debt with 6 equal
of 4 years. bank charges 8% compounded semiannually, find the
If the
payments necessary to pay off the loan.
Counting Techniques and
Probability
Archaeological artifacts indicate that many of the early peoples played some
version of dice either for recreation or to determine the will of the tribal
deity. As more elaborate games were developed, the players began to ob-
serve certain patterns in the results, but they did not have the language of
probability to describe and analyze them. Over time, outstanding mathemati-
cians established probability as a legitimate field of inquiry, but the applica-
tion seemed to be for gamblers' games of chance.
As time passed, it became clear that probability was much more than
just a technique for gamblers. Physicists now use probability theory when
studying various gas and heat laws as well as in the theory of atomic physics.
Biologists apply the techniques of probability in genetics, the theory of
natural selection, and learning theory. Managers in government and industry
use probability techniques in decision-making and accounting processes.
Furthermore, probability is the theoretical basis of statistics, a discipline
that permeates most fields of study today.
In this chapter, you will come to understand the basic concepts of
probability. Counting techniques, such as the fundamental principle of
counting, tree diagrams, permutations and combinations, and additional set
terminology are used to assist you in computing probabilities.
256
The Language of Probability 257
Overview One of the significant characteristics of our increasingly complex society is that we must deal
with questions for which there is no known answer but instead one or more probable (or
improbable) answers. Statements like "I am 90% confident that the mean weight is between 76.2
grams and 78.6 grams," "This cancer treatment has a 0.6 chance of leading to complete remis-
sion," and "The candidate has a 20.4% chance of winning the election" are common in conver-
sations today. A necessary skill for our times is the ability to measure the degree of uncertainty
tainty. As the language of the undetermined and the uncertain, probability is an important tool
in many phases of our uncertain modern life. In this section we learn about:
Experiments
Outcomes
Sample space
Uniform sample space
Events
Properties of probability
Classical definition of probability
outcome has the same chance of occurring as another. Likewise, the out-
comes in the second experiment (getting a 1, 2. 3, 4, 5, or 6 in the roll of a
die) are equally likely>
EXAMPLE 3 Consider the experiment of drawing one card from six cards marked by
numbers through 6 and observing the number on the card. The set of
1
possible outcomes is
{1.2,3,4,5.6}
258 Chapter 5 Counting Techniques and Probability
EXAMPLE 4 In another experiment with the six cards, we might observe whether the
number is even or odd. Thus, the possible outcomes of this experiment are
{even, odd}
Notice that associated with the experiment of drawing a card are sev-
eral sets that classify the outcomes (Table 1).
TABLE 1
Although the classifying sets are different, notice that they share cer-
tain properties. Ineach example, the set of outcomes classifies completely
or exhausts the possibilities of what can happen if the experiment is per-
formed. The number on the card is either even or odd; one of the numbers 1
2,3,4,5,6 must appear on the card; and the number on the card either is less
than or equal to 3 or is greater than 3. Moreover, the members of a set of
outcomes for an experiment are distinct; that is, they do not overlap.
Definition: Sample Space A sample space (denoted by S) is a set of outcomes of an experiment constructed in such
a way that
The letter listed first in each pair indicates the result of the first flip, and the
letter listed second gives the result of the second flip.
Another way to tabulate the same outcomes is to list the number of heads
that occur:
{0, 1,2}
The outcomes of this sample space are not equally likely. The chance that
heads occur is not the same as the chance that head occurs.|> 1
inclusive.
Properties of Probability A probability rule on a sample space must satisfy two properties.
inclusive.
0<P(A)<1.
P(S) = 1
EXAMPLE 6 In the repeated tossing of a fair coin, one states intuitively that P(T) = \ and
/>(H) = i Notice that these probabilities satisfy the properties
Definition: Uniform If each outcome of the sample space is equally likely to occur, the sample space is called
m times
Equal Probabilities In a uniform sample space with m outcomes, each outcome has probability Mm. This is
sometimes written
P(A)
n{S)
EXAMPLE 7 Eight identical balls numbered 1 to 8 are placed in a box. Determine the
sample space and a probability rule describing the experiment of randomly
drawing a particular ball from the box.
EXAMPLE 8 Notice in Figure 1(a) that the sample space consisting of {A, B, C, D} is a
uniform sample space. Thus, P(A) = P(B) = P(C) = P(D) = \. In Figure
1(b) the sample space is not a uniform sample space. Why not?
A
'
/
The Language of Probability 261
FIGURE 2
262 Chapter 5 Counting Techniques and Probability
EXAMPLE 12 Consider the experiment of tossing two coins. What is the probability of
tossing two heads? At this juncture, we must be careful. We have discussed
two sample spaces for this experiment:
in which we do not observe which coin has a head and which coin has a tail.
the ordered pair indicates which coin has a head and which coin has a tail.
Note that we cannot apply the definition of probability on the sample space
in the first case, because it is not a uniform sample space; however, the
definition is applicable to the second sample space. Now let A be the event of
tossing two heads. Using the second sample space,
Pi A) = n(A)
n(S)
Practice Problems D> 1. Write a set of outcomes for an experiment associated with the following
spinner.
second candy is drawn and eaten. What is a sample space for the experi-
ment?
Consider again the experiment of drawing a card from a set of six cards
numbered through 6.
1
(a) List three events associated with this experiment that involve only
one element.
(b) List three events that involve more than one element.
Consider the two following spinners. If both spinners are activated, find
the probability of spinning a total of 5 points.
The Language of Probability 263
8. What is the probability of stop- 16. A box contains 3 red balls and 4
ping on a multiple of 3? black balls. The balls are not dis-
tinct from one another. Let R
9. What is the probability of stop-
represent a red ball and B a
ping on an even number or a
black ball. Tabulate a sample
multiple of 3?
space if
10. What is the probability of stop- (a) One ball is drawn at a time.
ping on an even number or an (b) Two balls are drawn at a
odd number? time.
(c) Three balls are drawn at a
11. What is the probability of stop-
time.
ping on a number less than 3?
(d) Are these sample spaces uni-
12. A card is drawn from an ordi- form?
nary deck. What is the probabil-
17. Three coins are tossed, and the
ity of getting
number of heads is recorded.
(a) A heart?
Which of the following sets is a
(b) An ace?
sample space for this experi-
(c) The jack of spades?
ment? Why do the other sets fail
(d) A red card?
to qualify as sample spaces?
(e) A red ace?
(a) {1,2,3}
13. A multiple-choice question has 5 (b) {0, 1,2}
possible answers. You haven't (c) {0, 1, 2. 3,4}
studied and hence have no idea (d) {0, 1,2,3}
The Language of Probability 265
18. A box contains four balls num- 20. One card is drawn from each of
19. A box contains 4 black balls, 7 21. Two coins are tossed. What is
Applications
(Business and 23. Quality Control. A shipment is 24. Executive Boards. An executive
Economics) believed to contain 100 good ar- board of a corporation is made
ticles, 5 articles with minor de- up of 5 members whom we shall
fects, and 3 articles with major call A, B, C, D, and E. A com-
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 25. Drug Analysis. A medical re- drugs, V, W, X, Y, and Z, for
search institute is experimenting concentrated research.
with possible cures for cancer. (a) List the sample outcomes
Dr. Stewart, the scientist in where Z is 1 of the chosen
charge of the experiment, ini- drugs.
tially selects 3 of 5 possible (b) List the sample outcomes
266 Chapter 5 Counting Techniques and Probability
Answers to Practice 1. The set of possible outcomes of spinning and then observing the color
where the needle stops is {red, black, white, green}.
2. S = {(C, C), (C, B), (C, P), (B, C), (B, B), (B, P), (P, C), (P, B)}.
3. (a) Some possible events involving one element are: observing a 1; ob-
serving a 2; observing a 3; and so on.
(b) Events containing more than one element are: observing a number
observing an odd number; observing a number divisible
less than 4;
by 2; and so on.
4. S = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1,4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 1) . . . (2, 6) (3, 1) . . .
n(S) = 4
6 = 24
E= = 4
.
{(1,4), (2, 3), (3,2), (4,
P(5 points)
,
= n{E)
= -=-
4 1
1)} n(E)
A poor way of assigning probabilities to outcomes in a sample space is subjective judgment; yet
subjective judgment is often the only tool accessible in certain situations. Hence a sales man-
ager might project that "We have a probability of j of getting the XYZ contract," and the
ubiquitous man on the street might prophesy that "The probability of Dan Quick's being elected
is m" Generally, such assignments are merely measures of the strength of a person's belief
from previous experience. If this experience actually uses a relative-frequency concept, the
number assigned for a probability could be close to the actual probability.
In this section, we shall study a rule for assigning probabilities based on empirical data.
Then we will consider counting procedures that assist in assigning probabilities. We need to
understand:
Relative frequency
Empirical probability
Tree diagrams
The fundamental principle of counting
Empirical Probability and the Fundamental Principle of Counting 267
EXAMPLE 13 A fair die is rolled 10,000 times. Table 2 itemizes the number of times a 1 has
occurred at various stages of the process. Notice that as TV becomes larger,
the relative frequency stabilizes in the neighborhood of 0.166 = |. Thus, we
are willing to assign the probability
/>(!) =
|
Using the sample-space definition of probability, we note that 5 {1,2,
3.4, 5,6}and = {1}. Thus,
n(E) _ 1
P(\) ~
n(S) 6
TABLE 2
Definition: Empirical
Probability
268 Chapter 5 Counting Techniques and Probability
EXAMPLE 14 A loaded die (one which outcomes are not equally likely) is thrown 7000
in
times with the results shown in Table 3. Determine a rule for assigning a
TABLE 3
Empirical Probability and the Fundamental Principle of Counting 269
Counting Procedures
EXAMPLE 16 The college chorale is planning a concert tour with performances in Dallas,
St. Louis, and New Orleans. In how many ways can they arrange their
itinerary?
FIGURE 3
Whenever a task can be done in two or more stages and each stage can
be done in a number of ways, a tree diagram provides a good illustration of
the choices involved and serves as an aid in determining the number of ways
the whole task can be accomplished.
Now let's consider again the chorale in Example 16.
EXAMPLE 17 The members of the chorale decided to sing first in New Orleans, next in
Dallas, and finally in St. Louis. Now they must decide on their modes of
transportation. They can from the campus to New Orleans by bus or
travel
plane; from New Orleans to Dallas by bus, plane, or train; and from Dallas to
St. Louis by bus or train. The tree diagram in Figure 4 indicates the different
modes of transportation. The first part of the trip can be made in 2 ways, the
second part in 3 ways, and the last part in 2 ways. Notice that the number of
ways of transportation that can be chosen is 2 3 2 = 12 ways.
270 Chapter 5 Counting Techniques and Probability
FIGURE 4
The Fundamental 1, If two experiments are performed in order with n, possible outcomes of the first
Principle of Counting experiment and n 2 possible outcomes from the second experiment, then there are
n-i -n 2
n,n 2 n 3 -
. . . -n k
SOLUTION There are 26 letters to choose from for each of the 3 letter places,
and there are 10 digits to choose from for the digit places. By the fundamen-
tal principle of counting, the number of combinations is
26
26
26
10 10
10 = 17,576,000
EXAMPLE 19 If a couple plans to have 3 children, what is the probability that exactly 2 will
be boys? (Assume that it is equally likely for a child to be a boy or a girl.)
Empirical Probability and the Fundamental Principle of Counting 271
SOLUTION The tree diagram in Figure 5 indicates 8 paths, or ways that the
couple can have 3 children. Each of these is equally likely. So the sample
space consists of 8 equally likely outcomes. By counting, you note that 3 of
these have exactly 2 boys, or the event can happen in 3 ways. Therefore,
/^exactly 2 boys) =
FIGURE 5
EXAMPLE 20 A card is drawn from deck of 52 cards. Then the card is replaced, the deck
a
is reshuffled, and a second card is drawn. What is the probability of an ace
n(E)
/"(ace followed by a king)
272 Chapter 5 Counting Techniques and Probability
group C?
(b) What is the probability that an employee selected at random has no
opinion?
(c) What is the probability that an employee selected at random is in
A?
group
2. How many different color combinations can you have for a two-toned car
(top one color and body another color) using red, white, and black paint?
(Use a tree diagram.)
3. A coin is tossed twice. Draw a tree diagram to illustrate the possible
outcomes.
4. A box contains and 7 white balls. A ball is drawn, its color is
5 red balls
noted, and a second ball drawn. How many ways can 2 balls be drawn?
is
Exercise Set 5.2 l. There are 6 roads from A to B how many ways could you pur-
and 4 roads between B and C. chase a meal?
(a) In how many ways can Joy
4. Hue and May play in a Ping-
drive from A to C by way of
Pong tournament. The first
B? player to win 4 games wins the
(b) In how many ways can Joy tournament. Make a tree dia-
drive round trip from A to B gram showing the possible ways
to C and return to A through in which the tournament can
B? turn out.
2. Kate wants to buy an automo-
5. A die is tossed and a chip is
bile. She has a choice of 2 body
drawn from a box containing 3
styles (standard and sports
chips numbered 1, 2, and 3.
model) and 4 colors (green, red,
How many possible outcomes
black, blue). In how many ways
can be obtained from this experi-
can she select the automobile?
ment? Verify your answer with a
3. A restaurant offers the following tree diagram.
menu.
6. By means of a tree diagram, ana-
Beverage
lyze the number of possibilities
Main Course Vegetables
in tossing a coin 4 times.
Beef Potatoes Milk
Ham Green beans Coffee 7. In how many ways can 2 speak-
Fried chicken Green peas Tea ers be arranged on a program?
Shrimp Asparagus
8. In how many ways can 3 speak-
ball? drawn?
11. Four coins are tossed. What is
15. Exam. Ousley Heating and
the probability of getting
Cooling has established the fol-
(a) Four tails?
lowing distribution of monthly
(b) Exactly 2 tails?
service calls over the last four
(c) At least 3 heads?
years.
(d) Exactly 1 head?
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences)
Empirical Probability and the Fundamental Principle of Counting 275
22. Politics. Suppose that in a local ee's age and the number of on-
election only 2 parties are repre- the-job accidents. The following
sented, D and R. Draw a tree di- table summarizes the findings.
agram illustrating 4 consecutive
elections and determine how Number ot Accidents
10''
ctice
1. (a) /'(employee is in group C) = j
5U "
Problems
. . 210
(c) ftemployee is in group A) = -r-
2. Six ways 3.
There are 12
11 = 132 ways of drawing two balls so n(S) = 132. There
are 5
7 = 35 ways of drawing a red ball and then a white ball.
35
/"(red ball followed by a white ball) = -prx
276 Chapter 5 Counting Techniques and Probability
Overview The fundamental principle of counting can be used to derive two extremely important special
cases for counting techniques: permutations and combinations. Both of these concepts are
useful not only in solving complicated probability problems but also in other types of applica-
tion problems. The main things to remember are that the order of arrangements is important for
permutations and that combinations do not involve the order of arrangements.
{A, B, C, D}
and list them two at a time:
{AB, AC, AD, BA. BC, BD, CA, CB, CD, DA, DB, DC}
Note that AB is listed and so is BA. Likewise, BD and DB are listed. In this
listing the order is important. When order is important, arrangements of
objects are called permutations.
Definition: Permutations The ordered arrangements of r objects selected from a set of n different objects (r ^ n)
SOLUTION The permutations of four objects implies that they are taken 4 at a
time. First we draw a tree diagram (Figure 6).
CDBDBCCDADACBDADABBCACBA
DCDBCBDCDACADBDABACBCAAB
FIGURE 6
Counting Techniques Using Permutations and Combinations 277
The can be chosen in four ways. After this occurs, the second
first letter
letter can be selected in three, or the first two letters can be selected in 4 3
ways. Then the third letter can be selected in two ways, or the first three
letters can be selected in 4 3 2 ways. Finally, the fourth letter can be
letters.
In general.
of n Objects
n(n - 1)(n - 2) . .
. -3-2 1
CALCULATOR NOTE Please note that on most calculators, there is a key [Tj. [vT], or [n\]. Use this
key to verify that 8! is 40.320 and 10! = 3,628,800.
EXAMPLE 23 Six workers are assigned 6 different jobs. In how many ways can the assign-
ments be made?
{Tomoko, Tom, Maria, Jim}. Thus, the answer to the problem is P(6,4), the
number of permutations of 6 things taken 4 at a time. Use the fundamental
principle of counting and note that the position of president can be filled in 6
ways. After this occurs, the position filled in 5 ways,
of vice-president can be
or the 2 positions can be ways. Then the secretary can be
filled in 6
5
selected in 4 ways, or the 3 positions in 6 5 4 ways. Finally, there are only
3 people left to be selected for treasurer. Hence, the number of ways that all
4 positions can be filled is 6 5 4 3, or
P(6A) = 6
5
4
3
6
5
4
3
2!
P(6,4) =
2!
the example.
Number of Permutations
CALCULATOR NOTE Some books use !', instead of P(n,r). Also, some calculators have a \P r \
4CZD2H
seem
Counting Techniques Using Permutations and Combinations 279
Number of Permutations If we have a set of n objects to be arranged when there are n, of one indistinguishable
(Indistinguishable type, n 2 of a second indistinguishable type, continuing until there are n k of the /rth
Objects) indistinguishable type, then the number of possible permutations of the n objects is
ni! n2 \ nk \
where
n-\ + n2 + + nk = n.
4!
12
2! 1! 1!
as shown previously.
Combinations
Let's turn our attention now to the arrangement of elements without regard
to order. Let's list four letters {A, B, C, D} two at a time without regard to
order
These selections of four letters taken two at a time are called combinations
and denoted by C(4,2).
EXAMPLE 25 The first-year class is to elect 4 class officers from 6 class members who
qualify. How many sets of class officers are possible?
{M, T, J, R}, {M, T, J, B}. {M, T, J, C}, {M, T, R, B}, {M, T. R, C},
{M, T, B, C}, {M, J, R, B}, {M, J, R, C}, {M, J, B, C}, {M, R, B, C},
We see that
C(6.4) = 15
Let's obtain the answer another way. Take each combination of offi-
P(6,4) = C(6,4)
P(4,4)
Thus,
C(6,4) = P(6A)
Counting Techniques Using Permutations and Combinations 281
There are 13 hearts. The number of ways in which 5 cards can be drawn from
these 13 is C(13,5) = 1287.
1287
P(a\\ hearts) = - .0005
2,598,960
C(96,3)C(4,2)
P(E) 0.01
C( 100,5)
Practice Problems t> 1 . In how many ways can a president, a vice-president, and a secretary be
selected from 10 people?
2. Find the number of arrangements of the letters in toot.
3. A box contains 4 red balls and 6 other balls. Two balls are drawn. What is
la) (d)
36 18
23,
549
(e)
649
ders are submitted at one time. (d) What is the probability that
In how many ways can 2 orders no defective tires will be
be submitted to a local firm and 2 among the 3 selected?
to an out-of-state firm?
27. Organizational Management.
26. Quality Control. In a quality- Among the 30 employees in the
control check at the Acme Tire Espy Corporation, there are 20
Company, 3 tires are randomly women and 10 men; there are 18
selected and inspected from employees, and
pollsters, 6 sales
each lot of 20 tires produced. 6 management employees.
Suppose a lot contains 4 defec- Three employees are chosen to
tive tires and 16 good tires. form a committee. In how many
(a) In how many ways can 3 ways can a committee be se-
tires be selected from 20? lected to have
(b) How many different selec- (a) Two women and man? 1
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 28. Dispensing Drugs. The order of be performed using different
administering 5 different drugs is groups of 3? (A rat may be in
important. different groups of 3 rats.)
(a) In how many ways can all 5
30. Medicine. Assume there are 8
drugs be administered?
classifications of blood types. In
(b) In how many ways can 3 of
samples of 5, how many possible
the 5 drugs be administered?
samples exist so that all classifi-
29. Experimental Design. Ten rats cations are different and no 2
are selected for an experiment. samples have exactly the same 5
Each trial run is to involve 3 rats classifications?
at a time. How many trials can
,.,
W,3) = ^= 720
2!2!
C(4,2)
3. P(2 red) = =
"
2_
C(10,2) 15
Probability for the Union of Events 285
Overview Consider the following problems. A card is drawn from a standard deck of cards. What is the
probability that it is either an ace or a spade? Of the first-year students who entered Samson
University last year, 12% failed first-year English, 16% failed mathematics, and 6% failed both
English and mathematics. An admissions counselor would like to know what percentage failed
English or mathematics. In both of the preceding examples the first event has parts in common
with the second event. In the first example, the ace of spades is common. In the second
example, those who fail both mathematics and English are common. The new notations intro-
duced in this section will help us find solutions to problems like these. We will study
Definitions: Intersection 1. The intersection of two sets A and 6 (denoted by A n 8) is the set of all elements
and Union of Sets common to both A and B.
2. A and B are any two sets,
If the union of A and 6, denoted by A u S, is the set
EXAMPLE 28 Let A represent a committee of {Joe, Dave, Sue, John, Jack} and B represent
a second committee of {Sue, Edward, Cecil, John}. The intersection of these
two sets, A n B is {Sue, John}. The union of these two sets is
then
FIGURE 7
Definitions: And, Or, and 1 The event A u B (A or 8) is the collection of all outcomes that are in A or in B or in both
Complement A and B.
2. The event Af~\B(A and 6) is the set of all outcomes that are in both A and B.
3. The complement of an event A, denoted A', is the collection of all outcomes that are in
EXAMPLE 29 In the rolling of a fair die, what is the probability of getting either an odd
number or a 4?
Probability for the Union of Events 287
n(0 U F) 4 2
P(0 U F) =
n(S) 6 3
F/GUflE 8
Thus,
4
= 3 1
" +
6 6 6 >
EXAMPLE 30 In the rolling of the same fair die, what is the probability of getting either an
even number or a 4?
n(E U F) _ 3
P(E U F) =
n(S) ~ 6
(b)uF
F/GUfl 9
288 Chapter 5 Counting Techniques and Probability
6 6
What is the difference between the problems in the two previous exam-
ples? For P(0 U F), F and O had no points in common. For P(E UF), and
F overlapped. This discussion suggests the following definition and property
of probability:
Mutually Exclusive Events 1. Events A and B are mutually exclusive if they have no outcomes in common.
2. If events A and B are mutually exclusive, P(A U 8) = P(A) + P(B)
EXAMPLE 31 From a standard deck of cards, we draw one card. What is the probability of
getting a spade or a red card?
P(SP)
13
52 =
26
52
Now let's return to the preceding example, where we noted that P(E U
F) = f, P(E) = h and P(F) = I Why is P{E U F) = P() + P(F)? These
events are not mutually exclusive. The outcome 4 is in both E and F, and is
thus counted twice in P(E) + P(F) (see Figure 9(a)). The probability that 4 is
in both E and F is
P(E fl F) =
We can generalize this concept by realizing that in set theory the num-
ber of outcomes in event A or in event B is the number in A plus the number
Probability for the Union of Events 289
in B less the number in A n B, which has been counted in both A and B (see
Figure 10). Thus,
FIGURE 10
EXAMPLE 32 Of the freshmen at Hard College last year, 12% failed English, 8% failed
history, and 4% failed both English and history. What percent failed English
or history?
P(H) = .08
P{E n H) = .04
= .16
-P(y\nc)-P(Bnc) + P(/\nBnc)
In Figure
1 1 note that A B, and C contain the shaded region 3 times (in
, ,
FIGURE 11
EXAMPLE 33 A survey of 100 first-year students taking social science courses at Lamor
University gave the following information as diagrammed in the given figure:
55 were taking history (H), 45 were taking psychology (P), 25 were taking
sociology (S), 12 were taking history and psychology, 10 were taking history
and sociology, 8 were taking psychology and sociology, and 5 were taking all
three social sciences. Each student is enrolled in at least one of the social
science courses.
r
Probability for the Union of Events 291
55
n(H) = 55 P(H) =
1(
n(P) = 45 P(P) =
j^
n(H n S) = io P(//n S) =
^j
n(pns) = 8 P(Pns) = -nr Fk
100
5
n(H n pns) = 5 P(Hnpns) Too
- P(P n S) + P(H n p n S)
_ 55 ^5_ 25 12 10 8 5
~ + +
100 100 100 100 100 100 100
SOLUTION
P(H) =
^ Q
P(P) =
Wn/0 = |
P(H U P) = P(H) + P(P) - P(H n P)
55 45 12 88 22
+ =
~ 100
" 100 100 100 25
5 1
-=l-
6
-
6
In general, let's divide all the events in the sample space into two
mutually exclusive sets A and A' as shown in Figure 13. The set A' is called
the complement of A in relation to the sample space 5.
FIGURE 13
Note that
Thus,
Probability of a If A is any event in the sample space S, and if set A' denotes the complement of A, then
Complement
P[A') = '\-P{A) or P[A) = 1-P{A')
EXAMPLE 35 What is the probability of not getting an ace when drawing a card from a
standard deck of cards?
= 1-^ = 12
52 13
P(E) PIE)
P(E') 1-P()
P(E') 1-P(C)
P() P()
SOLUTION
P(6) 1-lW-g
Odds =
P(6) 1/6 _ 1
1 - P(6) 5/6 5
At times we are given the odds for an event and from the odds we
obtain the probability that the event will occur.
P() = -r-
m
and P(E') =
y
v
'
m +n '
rr\ + n
EXAMPLE 37 The odds that it will rain today are 1 to 3. What is the probability that it will
rain?
1 1
P(R) =
1 + 3
Exercise Set 5.4 1. If A and B are events with 7. If A and B are events in a sample
Pi A) = .6, P(B) = .3, and space such that P(A) = .6,
P(A n B) = .2, find P(A U B). P(B) = .2, and P(A n B) = .1,
compute each of the following:
2. In Brooks College, 30% of the
(a) P(A')
freshmen failed mathematics,
(b) P(B')
20% failed English, and 15%
(c) P(A U B)
failed both mathematics and En-
(d) P(A' U B')
glish. What is the probability
that a freshman failed mathe- 8. If A and B are events with P(A
matics or English? U B) = |, P(A D B) = i, and
P(A') = 5, compute the follow-
3. An experiment consists of toss-
ing:
ing a coin 7 times. Describe in
(a) P(A)
words the complement of each
(b) P{B)
of the following.
(c) P(B')
(a) Getting at least 2 heads
(d) P(A' U B)
(b) Getting 3, 4, or 5 tails
Applications
(Business and 11. Marketing Survey. A recent 10% expect higher interest
Economics) survey found that 60% of the rates and a recession
people in a given community 3% expect higher interest
drink Lola Cola and 40% drink rates, higher inflation,
other soft drinks; 15% of the and a recession
people interviewed indicated
What is the probability that a
that they drink both Lola Cola
bank president selected at ran-
and other soft drinks. What per-
dom
centage of the people drink ei-
(a) Would forecast no recession
ther Lola Cola or other soft
or no increase in interest
drinks?
rates?
12. Forecasting. In a survey of the (b) Would forecast no increase
presidents of leading banks by in inflation and no increase
an economics consulting group, in interest rates?
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 14. Prediction Relative to Children
and Divorce. In a survey, fami-
lies were classified as C, chil-
dren, and C", no children. At the
same time, families were classi-
fied according to D, husband
and wife divorced, and D', not
divorced. Out of 200 families
surveyed, the following results
were obtained.
296 Chapter 5 Counting Techniques and Probability
n{B) = 30 n(A n C) = 6
n(C) = 10 n(B D C) = 8
n(A n B n C) = 5
to Practice t> 1.
Conditional Probability and Independent Events 297
Overview When dealing with an uncertain situation, we might expect that as more information is obtained,
the probabilities would change. Alternatively, we might say that as more information is available,
the sample space is modified. Suppose, for instance, that the top executives for the PG&Y
Corporation are evaluating their chances of obtaining a large fabrication contract. They feel that
PG&Y, the Gomez Corporation, and Leary Enterprises are equally likely to win the bidding.
Hence, in their minds, the probability is \ that they will win the contract. Then comes information
that Gomez has withdrawn from the bidding. Excitement reigns at PG&Y because in this modi-
fied sample space, the probability of success for PG&Y is reevaluated at I Could this be true?
You will be able to answer this question when you study
Conditional probability
P(AnB)
[
P[A\B)=
P(B)
Independent events
P{Ar\B) = P(A)-P(B)
given B." We consider in this section two procedures for computing condi-
tional probability. In the first procedure, the information is used to obtain a
new sample space reflecting the fact that event B has occurred. This proce-
dure is demonstrated by the next four examples.
FIGURE 14
298 Chapter 5 Counting Techniques and Probability
20
P(E\M)
60
TABLE 5
Group X
Conditional Probability and Independent Events 299
^
Then show that (e) P(A\C) = ^JlP
P(C)
and (f) P(D\B) =
P(B)
SOLUTION
300 Chapter 5 Counting Techniques and Probability
p(A n B')
Circled
\ + W n A') =
\
P(B' n A')
probability under A'
in the second row.
is the
P(B' n A') =
12 Ci rcled]
, . 1 7 = 2 Correct
Check: T2
+
T2 3
Thus,
F(A|5) = P(A n B) = Ve
=
"
2
/>() ~ 1/4 3
P(A) ~ !/3 2
= P(A' n B') n
_ /}}_1
P(A'\B')
P(B') ~ 3/4 ~ 9
Multiplication Rule The probability that both of two events will occur is equal to the probability that the first
event will occur multiplied by the conditional probability that the second event will occur
when it is known that the first event has occurred:
P(Ar\B) = P(A)P(B\A)
P[AnB) = P{B)-P(A\B)
We quickly observe that this rule gives a procedure for computing the
probability of A and B, something that has been missing from our repertoire
of skills. However, it should be noted that this relationship is helpful only if
EXAMPLE 42 A basket contains 2 red balls and 2 white balls. A ball is drawn and its color is
noted. Then a second ball is drawn. What is the probability that both balls
are red?
SOLUTION Let /?i be the event of drawing a red ball on the first draw. Then
P(R0 =
^
To find P(R 2 \R\), where R 2 represents a red ball on the second draw, we
consider only the outcomes after R\ has occurred. Since the red ball has not
been replaced, there are 3 balls in the basket, and 1 of these is red. Thus,
P(R 2 \Ri) =
|
P{A\ nA n...nA ; {)
= P(A t ) P{A 2 \A0 >
/ (A 3 |A, n A-d . . .
P(A k \A ]
D A2 D . . . fl Ak- t)
EXAMPLE 43 A card is drawn from a deck of cards. Then the card is replaced, the deck is
P(K2 \A X)
= P(K2 )
_
~
'
52 52
= .0059
EXAMPLE 44 A basket contains 2 red balls and 2 white balls. A ball is drawn, inspected,
and returned to the box. Then a second ball is randomly drawn. What is the
probability of drawing 2 red balls?
SOLUTION Let Ri represent getting a red ball on the first draw and R 2 repre-
sent getting a red ball on the second draw. Since the ball was returned after
the first draw, R {
and R 2 are independent events.
Practice Problems > 1. A class has 10 boys and 2 girls. If 3 students are selected at random, what
is the probability that be boys? all will
2. If you toss a coin and draw a card from a deck of cards, what is the
probability of getting a head and drawing an ace?
(b) P(A\B)
(c) P(B')
(d) P(A U B)
12. A candy jar contains 6 pieces of 15. Exam. What is the probability
peppermint, 4 pieces of choco- that a 3-card hand drawn at ran-
late, and 12 pieces of butter- dom and without replacement
scotch candy. A small boy from an ordinary deck consists
reaches into the jar, snatches a entirely of black cards?
piece, and eats it rapidly. He re- 1 . 3
(a) (d)
peats this act quickly. 17
(a) What is the probability that
he eats a peppermint and (e)
then a chocolate?
(b) What is the probability that
he eats 2 chocolates?
(c) What is the probability that
he eats a chocolate and then
a butterscotch?
Conditional Probability and Independent Events 305
Applications
(Business and 16. Investments. Of 100 business- that the probability that A is de-
Economics) people polled, 50 have invest- fective is .01, and the probability
ments in common stocks, 35 that B is defective is .05. (Hint:
have investments in bonds, and Since A
and B are fabricated in
25 have investments in both different plants, whether A is
stocks and bonds. What is the good or defective is independent
probability that a person chosen of the quality of B.)
at random from the businesspeo- (a) What is the probability that
ple polled both components are defec-
(a) Invests in common stocks tive?
and not in bonds? (b) What is the probability that
(b) Invests in bonds and not in both components are good?
common stocks?
(c) Does not invest in stocks or
18. Quality Control. You know that
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 20. Genetics. In a study of genet-
ics, a class used a sample of 100
people to obtain the following
information:
306 Chapter 5 Counting Techniques and Probability
21. Genetics. According to the ge- spring being type AA, type aa,
netic theories ofMendel, a par- and type Aa.
ent with genes of type AA can (a) AA mates with AA
.
D ,
c ., ...
Bb genes. Suppose there is a lit-
.
.
Extended Application
Decision-Tree Analysis
recording studio, has just signed a contract with a four-person rock group
called the Fluid Mechanics. A tape has been cut, and Ponderosa must decide
whether or not to market the recording. If the record is to be test marketed,
then a 5000-record run will be made and promoted regionally; this may result
in a later decision to distribute an additional 45,000 records nationally, for
which a second pressing will have to be made. If immediate national market-
ing is chosen, a pressing of 50,000 records will be made. Regardless of the
test-market results, the president may decide either to enter or not to enter
the national market.
A Ponderosa record is either a complete success or a failure in its
market. A recording is successful if all records pressed are sold; the sales of
a failure are practically nil. Success in a regional market does not guarantee
success nationally, but it is a fairly reliable predictor.
1
Lapin, Lawrence, Quantitative Methods for Business Decisions, 4th ed., 1988, Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich, Inc., Orlando, Florida, pp. 535-537.
Extended Application 307
success or failure of the recording still remains unknown, and the possible
308 Chapter 5 Counting Techniques and Probability
events are reflected on the decision tree as branches on the terminal event
forks at nodes /and g.
If the initial choice at decision point a is "don't test market," then a
further choice must be made at the act fork represented by decision point e:
Review the following terms to ensure that you understand their application
to probability:
- - 3-2-1
P(A HB) = P(B) P(A\B)
n\ = n(n l)(/i 2)
P(n, n) = n\
C(n, r)
r\{n - r)\
Permutations
A?|!/)2-
Chapter Test
3. A box contains 3 red balls and 4 white balls. What is the probability of
drawing 2 white balls
(a) If the first ball is replaced before the second one is drawn?
(b) If the first ball is not replaced?
8. A box contains 6 red and 4 black balls. Three balls are drawn at random.
What is the probability of getting 2 red balls and 1 black ball?
10. Consider a family of 3 children. Find the probability that all 3 children
are the same sex.
11. The probability that John will live at least 20 more years is 5. The
probability that Marie will live at least 20 more years is i. Find the
probability that neither will live at least 20 more years.
12. If P(A) = .70, P(B) = .30, and P(A D B) = .20, find P(B' U A).
Probability
The topics of probability introduced in the preceding chapter are used in this
chapter to solve other types of problems and to introduce special applica-
tions of probability. In the section on finite stochastic processes, special
attention is given to the mutually exclusive ways events can occur in order
to find the probability of a compound event. Problems involving the condi-
tional probability of an event, which depends on the occurrence of an earlier
event, were considered in the last section of the preceding chapter. In this
chapter we reverse the problem and try to find the probability of an earlier
event conditioned on the occurrence of a later one. You will no doubt be
surprised at the number of applications of this type of probability (solved by
Bayes' formula). Bernoulli (or binomial) probability is especially useful in
genetics, biomedical research, and quality control. Random variables and
probability distributions are introduced in order to correctly define a much-
used term of probability, expectation, or expected value. At the end of the
chapter, we introduce Markov chains, in which matrix theory and probabil-
ity are combined to discuss physical systems and how they evolve over time.
Overview From a box containing 6 red balls and 4 black balls, 2 balls are drawn. What is the probability of
Note that the problem did not ask for the probability of a red ball followed by a black ball.
In this section we introduce a type of probability problem that we classify as a finite stochastic
313
314 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
process. The term "stochastic" is derived from a Greek word meaning "guess." In this section
we wish to analyze experiments in which probabilities for each outcome need not be fixed but
take on different values based on what events took place before the trial under consideration.
Applications of finite stochastic processes extend all the way from the genetic theories of
this section, and this procedure should be helpful in the application of an important formula in
P(A n B 2 = P(A
t ) { ) P(B 2 \A X )
EXAMPLE 1 From a box containing 6 red balls and 4 black balls, 2 balls are drawn. (This
is equivalent to drawing 2 balls one at a time without replacement.) What is
solution This event can happen in two mutually exclusive ways: a red ball
followed by a black ball or a black ball followed by a red ball. Thus,
~ '
+
10 9 10 9
=
' 90 =
~ 15
Finite Stochastic Processes 315
balls from the box. Of course the second and third branches give the desired
probability for this problem.
Probability
P(R,) P(R \R 2 t
)
= t%
PiR,) P{B 2 \R t ) = -k
ne,)
p(R 2 \bo = to
PiB,) P{B 2 \B,) = TT5
FIGURE 1
EXAMPLE 2 Box I contains 3 red and 4 black balls; box II contains 4 red and 5 black balls.
A ball is drawn from box I and placed in box II; then a ball is drawn from box
SOLUTION The first experiment involves drawing a from box I with two
ball
possible outcomes: R t
, a red ball, or B { , a black ball. The second experiment
involves drawing a ball from box II after a ball has been drawn from box I
and placed in box II. Four possibilities exist, as indicated in Figure 2. There
are two mutually exclusive paths for getting a red ball on the second draw: a
red ball on the first draw and a red ball on the second draw, or a black ball on
the first draw and a red ball on the second draw. The probability of a particu-
lar path is the product of the probabilities along the path. Therefore,
P(red ball on the second draw) = P(R t ) P(R 2 \Ri) + P{B^) P(R 2 \B t )
~ '
+ ' ~ 70
7 10 7 10
Probability
P{B,) P(R 2 \B t )
EXAMPLE 3 Two cards are drawn from a standard deck of cards. What is the probability
of getting an ace and a king?
SOLUTION 1 There are two mutually exclusive ways this event can occur. We
can get an ace on the first draw and a king on the second, A n K2 or a king { ,
P(A n K) = P[(A, n k u {K n a
2) x 2 )]
= P(A, n k + P(K, n a
2) 2)
_ 4_ _4_ 4_ 4_
~ '
+ '
52 51 52 51
= .012
13
51
C(4, 1)
C(4, 1)
P(A n K) =
' '
On your calculator
Finite Stochastic Processes 317
FIGURE 3
Thus,
+ [P(C')
F(positive x-ray|C')]
= .04(.90) + .96(.05)
= .084
EXAMPLE 5 Suppose that, in a shipment of 100 items, 4 are defective. Items from the
shipment are drawn one at a time and tested. The testing will continue until 2
defective items are discovered. What is the probability that 2 defective items
will be discovered on or before the third draw?
SOLUTION In Figure 4, note that the last path stops when 2 defective items
are discovered. Why? The probability that 2 defective items may be found
on or before the third draw is
P{G t ) P(D 2 \G ]
) P(Z),|G, n D 2) + P(D X ) P{D 2 \D )X
+ />(),)
P(G 2 \D,) P(D 3 |>, n G 2)
_4_ 96 3
+ = .0036
100 99 98 100 99 100 99 98
FIGURE 4
318 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
Practice Problems > 1. Box 1 contains 6 red balls and 4 blue balls; box II contains 2 red balls and
6 blue balls; box III A ball is drawn
contains 6 red balls and 2 blue balls.
from Box I. If it is red, itbox II and a ball is drawn from box
is placed in
II. If it is blue, it is placed in box III and a ball is drawn from box III.
What is the probability that a blue ball is drawn on the second draw?
2. Three machines. A, B, and C, produce 50%, 25%, and 25%, respectively,
of all the items produced in a given area of a factory. It has been found
that defective items make up about 5% of the items produced from ma-
chine A, 3% of those from machine B, and 1% from machine C. If an item
is selected out of a day's production from the three machines, what is the
9. P(D'\A)
10. P(D\B)
n. P(D'\C)
12. P(A n D)
14. P(C n D)
15. P(A n D')
16. P(A n D)
Find the probabilities, given the
probabilities on each branch of the
17. A new low-flying missile has a
probability of .9 of penetrating
tree diagram.
the enemy defenses and a proba-
bility of .7 of hitting the target if
18. Two dice are tossed. What is the (c) One card is odd and the
possibility that the first die other is even?
shows a 3 and the second die an
22. A box contains 2 coins, one of
even number? What is the prob-
which has two tails. A coin is
ability that one die shows a 3
selected at random and tossed.
and the other shows an even
What is the probability of getting
number?
a tail?
19. Two dice are rolled one after the
a head occurs
23. In Exercise 22 if
other. What is the probability
on the first toss, the second coin
that the one die shows an even
is tossed. If a tail occurs on the
number and the other an odd
first toss, the same coin is
number?
tossed. What is the probability
20. Box A contains 3 red chips and 4 of getting a tail on the second
black chips. Box B contains 5 throw?
red chips and 2 black chips. A
24. Urn A contains 5 red and 3 white
chip drawn from box A and
is
marbles; urn B contains 3 red
placed in box B, and then a chip
and 2 white marbles; urn C con-
is drawn from box B. What is
tains 2 red and 1 white marble.
the probability that the chip is
Two coins are tossed. If two
black?
heads appear, a marble is drawn
21. Box A contains 6 cards num- from urn A; if one head appears,
bered 1 through 6, and box B a marble is drawn from urn B; if
contains 4 cards numbered 1 no heads appear, a marble is
through 4. A card is drawn from drawn from urn C. One marble
box A. If it is even, a card is is drawn by this process. What
then drawn from box B; if it is is the probability that it is red?
odd, a second card is drawn
25. Two cards are drawn from a
from box A. What is the proba-
standard deck of cards. What is
bility that
the probability of getting an 8
(a) Both cards are odd?
and 9 in any order?
(b) Both cards are even?
Applications
(Business and 26. Unions. An election to accept ees, 20% of the clerical workers,
Economics) or reject a union is held for all and 5% of the laborers will vote
the employees of the Harrison to reject the union. What is the
Corporation. Of the employees, probability that the union will be
30% are salaried, 35% are cleri- rejected?
cal workers, and 35% are labor-
27. Employment Risks. At CBF En-
ers paid on an hourly basis. Be-
terprises, 60% of the workers
fore the election it is expected
are men. From a personnel
that 80% of the salaried employ-
320 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
Applications (Social
and Lite Sciences) 31. Medicine. The probability that on a random selection of adults
a healthy person has a tempera- in this city, what is the expected
ture 0.5 degree above normal is percentage of adults indicated as
.10. The probability that a sick having this disease?
person has a temperature 0.5 de-
33. Mortality. The probability that
gree above normal is .80. Of any
John will live at least 20 more
randomly selected sample of
years is i, and the probability
people, 90% are healthy. What
that Maria will live at least 20
is the probability that a ran-
more years is |. Find the proba-
domly selected individual has a
bility that
temperature 0.5 degree above
normal? (a) Both will live at least 20
more years.
32. Medicine. The probability that
(b) At least one will live at least
a blood test will show a disease
20 more years.
if it exists is .96. The probability
(c) Only John will live at least
that the blood test will indicate
20 more years.
the disease if it does not exist is
(d) Neither will live at least 20
.02. It is believed that 5% of the
more years.
adults in a small city have this
disease. If blood tests are made 34. Genes. An animal with BB
Bayes' Formula 321
Overview In this section we are given conditional probabilities in one direction, and need to find condi-
tional probabilities in the opposite direction. That is, P(A\B) may be given or computed, when
the objective is to find P(B\A). Typical problems involve looking at the outcome of an experi-
ment and then asking for the probability that the outcome was due to a particular cause. Such
problems are usually solved by using Bayes' formula (introduced in this section). We introduce
the problem with two boxes, 8, and B 2 each
, containing some red balls and some white balls.
Suppose the probabilities of selecting box 6, and box 8 2 are given. A ball is randomly selected.
If it is red, what is the probability it came from box B, ?
contains 2 white balls and red ball. A box is selected in such a manner that
1
FIGURE 5
322 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
P{B n R) =
t
-- = -
2 3 1
Also,
1
P(B n R) I Third branch
2 '
3 3
Now,
r = (R n A,) u (R n b 2 )
So
are mutually
2 3
I _
U exclusive
~ '
+ I ' "
3 4 3 3 18
P(R fl ,)
P(B t
\R)
1/2 __9_
11/18
~ 11
So when a red ball is drawn, the probability that it came from B\ is tV-
Now let's consider the same problem without a specific number of red
and white balls and without specific probabilities for drawing each box. The
corresponding tree diagram is seen in Figure 6.
PiR\B t
)
P{W\B 2 )
Bayes' Formula 323
The formula for finding the probability that, if a red ball is drawn, it came
from box B\ can be formulated in the following manner. First note that in
Figure 6
R = (B, n R) U (B n 2 R)
are mutually
exclusive
P(B n }
/?) = P(|)
P(/?|#i) First branch
So
P(R n BO = P(B X
) P(R\B { ) First branch
P(R n bo
Pi BAR) =
PIR)
m n fl 2 )
= P(B : )
P(R\B 2 ) Third branch
P(B n 7?)
P(B 2 \R) =
2
and
P(R)
P(B 2 ) P(R\B 2
P(B 2 \R) =
)
Substitution
PiBO P(R\B f
) + P(B 2 ) P(R\B 2 )
P(Bt\R)
PWt) P(R\B t
) + P(B 2) P(R\B 2 + P(Bi) ) P(R\BJ
Likewise,
P(B 2 ) P(R\B 2 )
P(B 2 \R)
P(B X
) P{R\B<) + P(B 2 ) P(R\B 2 + P(B>) ) P(R\B,)
324 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
and
P(B,) P(R\B } )
P(Bi\R)
P[B\) P(R\Bi) + P(B Z ) P(R\B 2 + P(Bi) ) P(R\B y )
Bayes' Formula Let 6/ (/' = 1, 2 n) with probabilities P{B t ) be a finite set of disjoint events whose
union is the sample space. Let A be an event that has occurred when the experiment was
performed, where A is a subset of the union of the S,. Then
P(B/|/I) =
P{B,)-P(A\B,) + P(B 2 )-P(A\B Z )
+ P(B n )-P(A\B n )
SOLUTION
Bayes' Formula 325
then P will divide from the numerator and denominator, giving the following:
(i) P(A\0 =
P(A n q (a) Find the probability of get-
P(C)
ting a red ball.
(j) P(A\D)
(c) Find the probability of get-
(k) P(B\C) ting a green ball.
(1) P(B\D)
(d) If a red ball is drawn, find
the probability that it came
Use the following tree diagram from box I.
and Bayes' formula to find each (e) If a white ball is drawn, find
probability. the probability that it came
from box I.
and 2 black chips. A box is se- the probability that it came from
lected at random and a chip is box B?
drawn. If the chip is red. what is
Applications
(Business and 8. Salaries. Of the employees of ity that the customer came from
Economics) the JNT Corporation. 5% of the area I? Area III?
men and 7% of the women have
salaries in excess of $40,000.
11. Quality Control. A dealer re-
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 14. Medicine. The probability that person is selected and given the
a person has disease D is P{D) = lie-detector test.
.1. The probability that a medi- (a) If the test indicates he is
Patty has the disease if the medi- tes, a particular blood test
.02
2. P(F\D) = -
08 + .02
Overview A new drug is being tested that causes side effects in 6% of the patients. What is the probability
of no side effects if the drug is tested on 20 patients?
Bernoulli Trials and the Binomial Distribution 329
This problem illustrates a general category of probability problems that are concerned
with situations in which an experiment is repeated many times. For example, we might desire to
find the probability of 5 heads in the toss of a coin 10 times, or to find 1 defective item in a
sample of 20. Probability problems of this nature are called problems with repeated trials, or
Bernoulli trials [after Jacob Bernoulli (1654-1705), who contributed significantly to the field of
probability). In each problem, some outcome is designated as a success, and any other result on
a single trial is considered a failure. The probability of success must remain constant from trial
to trial. In order to extend the Bernoulli probability concept to binomial probabilities (or the
binomial distribution), we must first define a random variable and then a probability function of
a random variable.
does not occur. In tossing a die we either get or do not get a 6. What do these
outcomes have in common? In each experiment there are only two out-
comes: one which we call a success, and its complement, which we call a
failure.
EXAMPLE 9 Suppose we toss a coin 4 times and are interested in the probability of
exactly 2tails. Discuss the relationship between tosses in this experi-
ment.
Definition: Bernoulli Trials Repeated trials of an experiment are called Bernoulli trials if
1. There are only two possible outcomes (success or failure) on each trial.
2. The probability of success p remains constant from trial to trial. (The probability of
failure is q = 1 -p.)
3. All trials are independent.
Fnsnsns or fsss
Now
P(S) = P(6) =
^
and
P(F) = 1 - P(S) = 1
- \ =
I
The trials are independent, so
5
=
~ 1
I I
' ' '
-=~
6 6 6 6 1296
EXAMPLE 11 Consider the experiment in Example 10, but this time find P(SFSS).
= P(S)
P(F)
P(S) P(S)
= = _5_
~ [6 I I [
'
6
'
6
'
6
~ 1296
We note from the two preceding examples that, for two of the possibili-
ties for obtaining three 6's out of four tosses of a die, the probability remains
constant as tAb- In fact, the probability of three S's and one F in any order is
tAb. Since these possibilities are mutually exclusive, to find the probability
of three 6's in four tosses, we add the probabilities of the individual possibili-
ties. How many Now
you could get a success on the
possibilities are there?
first toss (Si) or on the second We can have
(S 2 ), third (S 3 ), or the fourth (S 4 ).
only three successes. In how many ways can we select a combination of
three successes from a possibility of four? The answer is the number of
combinations of four things taken three at a time, or C(4, 3). Therefore,
5
F(three 6's in 4 tosses) = C(4, 3) t^kt
= ili ~ JL
" 1296 = 324
Bernoulli Trials and the Binomial Distribution 331
Probability of x Successes The probability of exactly x successes (and n - x failures) in a sequence of n Bernoulli
Definition: Random A random variable is a function or rule that assigns numerical values to the elements of a
Variable sample space.
EXAMPLE 14 Toss a pair of dice and define the random variable X to take on values that
are the sum of the two numbers on top. What are the possible values of this
random variable?
TABLE 1
Variable
Bernoulli Trials and the Binomial Distribution 333
is sis, and the probability that a 3 occurs is $g. This introduces the concept of
the probability distribution of a random variable.
Definition: Probability Let X be a finite random variable. The probability distribution function of X is a function
Distribution Function of a or rule p(x,) defined for 1 < / < n by
Random Variable
p(x,) = P(X = x,)
/'(-v.,
pUi
FIGURE 7
EXAMPLE 15 Graph the probability distribution function of the random variable in Exam-
ple 14.
shown in Figure 8.
Properties of a Probability A probability distribution function (sometimes called probability density function) of a
Distribution Function discrete random variable satisfies
1. 0<p(x,)<1 (i = 1,2 n)
2. p(x-i) + p(x 2 + )
+ p(x) = 1 where x-, , x2 x n are all the possible values
-\ 1 1 -v
9 10 11 12
FIGURE 8
probability. The sum of all the p(x,) is 1 because the probability of getting
either a 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1 , or 12 in tossing two dice is 1
EXAMPLE 16 Consider again rolling a die 4 times where getting a 6 is a success. Find the
probability of getting x successes, and tabulate the values of the variable and
corresponding probabilities of the discrete probability distribution.
SOLUTION
(\Y(S\
P(x successes in 4 tosses) = C(4, x)[t) (rj
TABLE 2
X
Bernoulli Trials and the Binomial Distribution 335
Practice Problems f> 1. A coin is tossed 6 times. What is the probability of obtaining more than
one head?
2. A family decides to have exactly 4 children. What is the probability of
exactly 2 girls and 2 boys?
Answers to practice problems are found on page 337.
Exercise Set 6.3 Find C(n, x)p"q n " for the given val-
ues of n, x, and p.
1.
336 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
Applications
(Business and 17. Sales. A company has found (a) Exactly 1 is defective?
Economics) that 25% of all customers con- (b) Exactly 3 are defective?
tacted will buy its product. If 10 (c) At least 1 is defective?
customers are contacted, what (d) Fewer than 3 are defective?
is the probability of more than 2
19. Quality Control. In the manu-
sales?
facture of a certain item, under
18. Quality Control. Suppose that normal conditions 4% of the
10% of the items produced by a items have a defect. If 10 items
factory are defective. If 6 items are selected from an assembly
are chosen at random, what is line, what is the probability that
the probability that exactly 9 will be defective?
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 20. Fertility Drug. The probability fects in 6% of the patients. What
of multiple births for women us- is the probability of no side ef-
ing a certain fertility drug is fects if the drug is tested on 20
20%. Ten women take the fertil- patients?
ity drug. What is the probability
23. Divorce. The probability that a
of more than 2 but fewer than 6
couple in Colorado will get a di-
of the women having multiple
vorce within the next 10 years is
births?
I. Six couples living in Colorado
21. Drug Effectiveness. A drug form a dinner club. What is the
manufacturer claims that a par- probability that at least one of
ticular drug is effective 90% of the couples in the club will get a
the time. A physician prescribes divorce in the next 10 years?
the drug to 10 patients and 6 re-
24. Politics. Two-thirds of the par-
spond to this treatment. What is
ticipants at a state Republican
the probability of 6 or fewer suc-
convention are conservatives. If
cesses if p = .9? What conclu-
7 members of the convention are
sion is the physician apt to
chosen at random to serve on a
draw?
committee, what is the probabil-
22. Side Effects. A new drug is be- ity that the conservatives will be
ing tested that causes side ef- the majority?
Expected Value and Decision Making 337
->-'-'-
2. ^(exactly 2 boys and 2 girls) = C(4, 2) (-) (-) = -
Overview Probabilities by themselves do not always supply all the information that is useful when making
a decision in an uncertain situation. Many decisions in business and science are made on the
basis of the outcomes of specific desires. For example, what a businessperson stands to gain or
lose in a transaction is important in making a decision. The tool used to discuss such expected
gain or loss is expected value. It was originally developed for games of chance, and we will
discuss several games of chance in this section. In addition we will use a formula for finding the
expected value, or expectation, for the binomial distribution discussed in the previous section.
100 - = 50 times
If we spin a spinner with 10 equal sections 1000 times, we would expect the
spinner to stop on any given section
1000
-jjj
= 100 times
average number of heads is 1.5. This is true even though 1.5 heads never
happens in a single toss.
(a) What is the expected value if the lottery costs nothing to enter?
SOLUTION
(a) Since
/>($25,000) = 7^77-^ ^
/>($5000) =
950,000 '
950,000
m,000, =
95^000
4
W > =
949 993
9^000
the expected value is
{$25 - m 95o!o00
+ i$5 m 9^000 + ,$,0 0)
95(0)00
= 041
not operate fair games; instead, they operate games in which the player has
an expected value that is negative. That is, the player can expect to lose
money on repeated playing of the game.
Consider a game in which a player pays $2 for the privilege of playing.
Suppose her probability of winning $10 is T n and her probability of losing is
!
ttt. Actually, if she wins, her winnings are $10 - $2 = $8 because she pays $2
to play. If she loses, she will lose $2. The expected value of the game is
Thus, if the player should continue to play the game, her average earnings
would be -$l. That is, she would lose, on the average, $1 per game.
It should be clear that expected value would be helpful in making
decisions involving uncertainty. One method
choosing a course of action in
is to choose the action that gives the largest expected value. We will see
throughout the remainder of this chapter how expected value plays a role in
monetary situations and in various social-science problems.
340 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
EXAMPLE 20 Students over the years have observed that Professor Ab Stract is never on
time and yet never misses class. Records kept by students in the back row
indicate the probabilities shown in Table 4.
TABLE 4
Minutes Late
Expected Value and Decision Making 341
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 21 Consider rolling a die 4 times, where getting a 6 is a success. Find the
expected number of successes.
solution In Example 16, the following table defined the probability distribu-
tion function. The last column will be used to find the expected value.
TABLE 5
X
342 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
x (defects) P(x)
C(6, 0)(.001)"(.999)
6
.99402
l
np = 6(.001) = .006
SOLUTION
E(x) = np p = .0001 n = 100.000
= 100,000(.0001)
= 10
Practice Problem 1. Alfa Car Insurance Company insures 200,000 cars each year. Records
indicate that during the year the company will make the following liability
payments for accidents.
500,000 .0001
100,000 .001
50,000 .004
30,000 .01
5,000 .04
1,000 .06
.8849
What amount could the company expect to pay per car insured?
2. Outcome
344 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
Find the expected value for the ran- 15. Records show that 0.2% of the
dom variable whose probability taxicabs in New York City have
function is graphed in Exercises accidents each day. If a com-
Applications
(Business and 18. Contracts. The Ronco Corpora- (b) Estimated profit $1000, cost
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 25. Mortality Table. According to a devises a scheme that costs $1
mortality table, the probability per questionnaire, but she thinks
that a 20-year-old woman will she will get an 80% return.
live 1 year is .994; the probabil- Which scheme should she use
ity that she will die is, of course, for minimum expected cost?
.006. She buys a $1000, 1-year
28. Unemployment. The probability
term life-insurance policy for
that asteelworker will remain
$20. What is the expected loss or
employed during the next year is
gain of the insurance company?
.866. Each steelworker who
(Assume no interest for the
loses his job is eligible for $2000
year.)
in unemployment benefits from
26. Mortality Table. The probabil- his state. How much money
ity that a man, age 40, will live should the state have in its
Overview In this section, matrix theory and probability theory are combined to focus on a new application.
In the first section of this chapter we introduced stochastic processes, processes or experi-
ments in which outcomes depend on previous outcomes. If the outcome of an experiment is
dependent only on the outcome immediately preceding it, the process is called a Markov
process, or Markov chain. Andrei Andreyevich Markov (1856-1922) was a Russian mathemati-
cian who first introduced the study of this type of stochastic process. Weather patterns, the
behavior of animals in psychological tests, population studies, the study of price and market
trends, as well as many other processes can be modeled using this technique. In this section we
will
Write transition matrices for Markov-chain problems
Find steady-state matrices for Markov processes
Determine when a Markov chain is regular
The United Way of Atlanta has determined that 90% of those who
contribute one year will contribute the next year. (This of course implies that
10% do not contribute the next year.) Also, 20% of those who do not contrib-
ute one year will contribute the next year. This information can be repre-
sented by what we call a transition matrix, where C represents those who
contribute and DNC represents those who do not contribute.
Next State
C DNC
C [.9 .1
Present State
DNC .2
Definition: Markov Chain If the probabilities of the outcomes of any trial except the first depend on the outcome of
the preceding trial only, the series of trials is called a Markov chain.
EXAMPLE 23 The following matrix represents the various probabilities of smoking or non-
smoking fathers having smoking or nonsmoking sons.
Sons (Next State)
Smoking Nonsmoking
Smoking .2"
Fathers (Present State)
Nonsmoking
Likewise, if the present state is S 2 then the next state can be S\ or S 2 Note
,
The tree diagram in Figure 9(a) and the transition diagram in (b) show
the possibilities of this experiment.
(a)
Pit
FIGURE 9
348 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
P\\ Pl2
P2I P22
is called a transition matrix for a Markov chain. Such matrices have the
following characteristics.
Definition: Transition A transition matrix of a Markov chain having n states is the n x n matrix
Matrix
Markov Chains 349
EXAMPLE 25 Use the data of Example 24 to find the transition probabilities after 2 free
throws have been shot.
sents the state of having made a free throw and S 2 represents the state of
having missed one.
FIGURE 11
Note that the transition can be made from state 1 to state 1 in two experi-
ments in two ways: through either 5i or S 2 at the end of one experiment. The
same is true for the other transitions, the probability of each being the sum of
two products.
A2 _ \pu(2) p n {2)
L/>2.(2) p 22 (2)J
The preceding example illustrates the following theory:
350 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
Power of a Transition If a transition matrix of a Markov chain is raised to the nth power, the element Pij(n) of
Matrix the nth power of the matrix gives the probability that an experiment in state S, will be in
SOLUTION JL _Z_
12 12
A 2
J_ J_L
A'
IK IX
9 .!
[.634 .366] = |.644 .356] Fourth state
8
[.666 .334]
[x v]
X + - y Multiply matrices
[5
Recall that
Thus,
y + v = 1
Divide by f
3
X = 7T x + y = 1
[0
Markov Chains 353
.28
Properties of Regular
Transition Matrices
354 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
V M = [100 200]
900 1500
Hence, V A, VA VA 2
,
3
. approaches [^g SH- Note also that for
steady-state matrix V,
VA = V
900 1500 f 1 900 1500 1
3 2
5 5.
I k
19. Repeat Exercise 18 for the tran-
12. 1
sition matrix
1 '.2
7 .1
13. 5 .2
2 .4
14.
.4
15.
1
~.7 .3
3 .3 .4
2 .2 .6
1 .5 .4
state 3?
.2 .8"
.7 .3
356 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
ri
3
29.
30.
31.
32.
Markov Chains 357
(c) What is the probability of be- (d) What is the probability of be-
Applications
(Business and 52. Marketing. Two newspapers in (b) If a man is a blue-collar
Economics) town, the Star and the Times, worker, what is the probabil-
are competing for customers. A ity that his grandson is also a
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 56. Genetics. A basic assumption
in a simple genetics problem is
1 1
that the offspring inherits one 2 2
state. Under certain conditions, a stochastic process will give rise to a transition matrix for a
Markov chain with the property that once a given state is reached it is impossible to move out of
that state. Such Markov chains are called absorbing Markov chains and these chains are useful
tools in many fields of study; they are especially useful in the designing of models by research
scientists. In this section we will
4
Absorbing Markov Chains 361
_
i
362 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
1
Absorbing Markov Chains 363
EXAMPLE 34 Write in canonical form the transition matrix of the following absorbing
Markov chain.
364 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
states.
3. The sum of the entries in the /th row of the fundamental matrix gives the expected
number of transitions of a system that begins in the /th state before reaching an
absorbing state.
times that a system that begins in the /th nonabsorbing state will be in the /th nonab-
2
366 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
and second absorbing states, ff and f| are the probabilities that the
first last
nonabsorbing state will go into the first and second absorbing states.
-II-
FIGURE 13
A mouse is just as likely to leave a state as to stay in the state. The mouse
can enter state 4 but cannot get out. Set up a transition matrix and find the
expected number of transitions, or states the mouse will occupy, with the
mouse starting in each state before reaching absorbing state 4. If the mouse
is released in state 2, in state 1, or in state 3, find the expected number of
5, 52 S,
Lo o 1
S4 5: 5, 5,
\ o \
i
_o
4
III
4
\
4
4"
2_
Thus,
1 o"
M
Absorbing Markov Chains 367
quarterback will pass. Let's use our pass defense and rush." The offensive quarterback tries to
guess what the defense is going to do. He says, "They're probably thinking I'll pass. I'll call the
draw play up the middle." Notice that each opponent is trying to anticipate what the other will
do and then act accordingly. This type of strategy is present in most games, but it also occurs in
many daily activities and decisions. John Von Newmann, in the 1920s, was one of the first
people to research the theory of games. Since the theory of games and linear programming are
closely related, it was not until World War II, when linear programming was developed, that the
section we study
Zero-sum games
Optimum strategies
game
Value of a
Expectation
EXAMPLE 39 The board of education of a small city is planning to build a new school in
either location I or location II. The county board of education decides to
counter thisby building a new school in either location III or location IV.
Neither system wishes to lose students, but a careful study indicates the
following outcomes.
If the city builds in location I and the county builds in location III, the
city will gain 600 students from the county. If the city builds in location I and
the county builds in location IV, the city will gain 800 students from the
county. If the city builds in location II and the county builds in location III,
the city will lose 400 students to the county. If the city builds in location II
and the county builds in location IV, the city will gain 900 students from the
county. Where should the boards build their schools in order to be assured of
gaining the largest number or losing the smallest number of students?
County Builds
III IV
I 600 800
City Builds
-400 900
where the entries represent the net change in students from the viewpoint of
the city. Note from the first row of the matrix that the city will always gain
students from the county if it builds in location I. Hence, the city should
build in location I. Knowing this, the only choice left for the county is to
minimize the number of students it will lose to the city. Hence, the county
should build in location III>
X
[2-13
4 -5 2
Introduction to Game Theory 371
if X should select the first row andY the third column, then X would win
three units. If Y selects the second column when X selects the first row, Y
would win one unit.
Consider a two-person game defined by the matrix
Y
2 5
-1 -2
Notice that the game is biased against player Y sinceX would probably
select the first row so that she would never lose; however, since Y is in-
volved in the game, he will do his best to make his loss as small as possible.
loss for a time, attempts to minimize this loss. X selects the first row,
because she wins with this row regardless of Y's selection. To minimize his
loss, Y must select the first column.
In each of the preceding examples each player has a fixed number
of options available on each play, and on each play the gain of one player is
the loss of the other player. Such games are called two-person zero-sum
games.
Definition: Zero-Sum A game is a zero-sum game if the sum of the gains and losses of the players is always
where q\ + q2 + + qm =\
Strategies A strategy in which one p, and one a, are 1 and all other p, and g, are is called a pure
Actually a pure strategy is one in which X plays the same row and Y
plays the same column repeatedly. Of course, X would like to win as much
as possible, and Y would like to keep X from winning.
372 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
Definition: Optimum The strategies used when X and Y play their best are called optimum strategies.
Strategies
By "playing their best" we mean that X plays so that she can win as
much as possible, regardless of what Y does; similarly, Y plays so that he
can keep X's winnings as small as possible, regardless of what X does.
Definition: Value of a The value won by X (or by Y) when both X and Y play their optimum strategy is called the
Game value of the game. If the value of the game is zero, the game is said to be fair.
A =
21 #22
Definition: Expected The expected value, or expectation, of the 2 x 2 matrix game is:
Value of a Game
Expectation = pi an qh + Pia-\ 2 q 2 + p 2 a2iqi + p 2 a 2 2Q2
[21 22
EXAMPLE 40 Suppose that X decides to use the strategy [\ \ ?] and Y decides to use the
strategy
-1 3 2
4 -3 -2
1 -1
= 2-1
Expectation =
If X were to use the strategy [4 2 ?] repeatedly and Y were to use
Q =
are optimum.
2
[Expectation] = PAQ = [1 0] \
_^
= [2 5]
2 5
[Expectation] = PAQ = [5 |J
-1 -2
2 # value of game
Introduction to Game Theory 375
EXAMPLE 43 Determine whether the following matrix has a saddle point. If it does, find
the value of the game, and determine whether X or Y wins the game.
10 1 ^T~
2 1 i
-4^ 7
6 5
SOLUTION Again we circle the elements that are minimumin each row and
look for circled numbers that are maximum columns. Note that there
in their
are two saddle points for this game, but their values are the same. The value
of the game is 3, and X wins the game by selecting P = [0 1]. Y selects
1
376 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
"0
Introduction to Game Theory 377
Applications
(Business and Competition for Profits. Two Competition. In a separate study
Economics) companies are deciding where to by a consultant for the competi-
locate stores in eastern Tennes- tion in Exercise 8, the following
see. If company A locates in city facts are given. If both locate in
Iand company B in city II, then city I, A receives 20% more of the
company A can expect an annual business than B. If both locate in
profit of $100,000 more than com- city II, B receives 10% more of
pany B's profit. If company A lo- the business than A. If A locates
cates in city and B in city I,
II in city I and B in city II, A re-
then B's profits will exceed A's ceives 5% more business than B.
by $50,000. If both locate in city If A locates in city II and B in city
I, their profits will be equal. If I, B receives 10% more business
both locate in II, then A's profits than A. Write a matrix for this
will exceed B's by $20,000. What competition. Is the game strictly
are the optimum strategies (from determined? If so, give the value
the standpoint of competition) of the game and strategies.
and what is the value of the
game?
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 10. Political Campaign. In the race
for Commissioner of Jefferson
County, Democratic and Repub-
lican candidates can either em-
phasize their campaign in the
City of Birmingham, in the ur-
ban region around Birmingham,
or in the rural region of the
county. The units assigned to
each are gains or losses in units
of 10,000 votes.
378 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
found in the row and column that contain the saddle point. For games that are not strictly
determined, a player may choose strategies according to given probabilities. If the size of the
matrix games is 2 x 2, the probabilities are easily computed. In fact, in this section there is a
well-developed mathematical modeling theory for finding the optimum strategies for the 2 x 2
matrix game. In this section we will study
-3
6
Find the optimum strategies of player X and player Y, and find the value of
the game.
X expects to receive
E (Expectation) = 3p + 6(1 p) = 6 9p
E= 4p + (-2)0 - p) = 6p - 2
We graph these expectations with E on the vertical axis and p on the hori-
zontal. Player X wants to maximize expectations. This maximum occurs
where the two lines intersect. For any other value of p, one of the two
expectations is less. Solving these expectations simultaneously gives
Solving 2 2 Matrix Games 379
FIGURE 14
6 - 9p = bp - 2
P =
Y5
expects
E= 6q + (-2X1 - q) = Sq - 2
Setting 4 - Iq = Sq - 2 gives
</
= 8<7-2
FIGURE 75 E = A-lq
Note that
PAQ [-
Solving 2 2 Matrix Games 381
- d-b \
+ d- b - c) Pi
(fl
a + d a + d b cj
ad be
+ = V
a + d- b - c
both players will be doing their best regardless of what the other does. X can
make the first term zero by making
Pi
a + d - b
d-b
'/i
a + d
ad be
a + d - b
P\
a + d- b - c
then
a- b
Pi
a + d b c
d - c
Pz = 1 - Pi
a + d a + d
where
-3
384 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
There are times when games defined by larger matrices may be reduced
to 2 x 2 games.
Definition: Dominated Sometimes each element of a row of a matrix is as large as or larger than the correspond-
Row ing elements of another row. When this happens, the row with the larger elements is said
to dominate the other row, and the row with the smaller elements is said to be dominated
by the other row.
Of course, X would rather play the row with the larger elements be-
cause X would like to win as much as possible. Thus, the dominated row
may be omitted without affecting the solution of the matrix game. Similarly,
we say one column dominates another if the elements of the dominating
column are as small as or are smaller than the corresponding elements of the
dominated column. Since Y would always choose the column containing the
smaller elements, the dominated column may be omitted from the game. The
dominated rows and columns may be dropped in any order.
1 4 -3
-1 -3 -4
-3 7 5.
each element of the first row, [1 4 - -3], is larger than the corresponding
element of the second row, [-1 -3 -4]; hence, the second row may be
omitted to obtain
1 4
-3 7
4
7
1(5) - (-3K-3) 1
1 + 5 - (-3) - (-3)
Solving 2x2 Matrix Games 385
For the reduced 2x2 game, X's strategy should be [ jj, and Y's strategy
should be
Relative to the original matrix, X's strategy should be [ gj, and Y's
strategy should be
The zero probability indicates that X should never play the second row and
Y should never play the second column.
Practice Problems > 1. Find the optimum strategy for X and Y and the value of the game defined
by
5 2
1 3
2. For the game defined by
12 7
6 5
-4 4
(a) 16 8
[l-l]
(a) 7 6
2
(b)
-3 3
6 3 -3 -3
4 (b) 2 2 2
5 4 -5 8
(d)
12 -3 8 9-5
-2 2 -3 5 6
(O
5 6 7
(e)
[5 1] 10 10 -3
386 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
Solving 2x2 Matrix Games 387
Overview In the preceding sections we discussed the solution of 2 x m or n x 2 games when the games
were strictly determined, or could be reduced to 2 x 2 games by eliminating the dominated rows
and columns. We now utilize graphical means to solve 2 x m and n x 2 games that are not
strictly determined and cannot be reduced to 2 x 2 games by dropping the dominated rows and
columns.
EXAMPLE 49 Find the optimum strategy for X, the optimum strategy for Y, and the value
game by graphical means.
of the following matrix
Y
3 -2
-2 3
solution Recall that, if P is the optimum strategy for X and Q is the opti-
mum strategy for Y, then PAQ = [V], the value of the game. If Y should
play a strategy Q', which is not optimum, and X continues to play an
[p 1 -,][. = [V]
[P 1-P] _ [V]
3/7-
A Technique for Solving n x 2 Games 389
FIGURE 16
V= 1 - 2p and V = 5p - 2
p = f and V = yat>this point. Thus, the optimum strategy for X is [f fj. and
the value of the game is 7-
To find Y, note that the optimum strategy for
the optimum strategy for
X was determined by computed from the first and
the intersection of lines
third columns of the matrix. Omit the second column and consider the 2 x 2
matrix
3 -1
-2 1
1- (-1) 3 - (-2)
= and qi
=
<7i
3 + 1 - (-2) - (-1) 7 3 + 1 - (-2) - (-1)
EXAMPLE 50 Find the optimum strategy for X and Y and the value of the following game:
3
4
-1
-3
390 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
q
1 -q
Then the expectation of Y will be less than or equal to V, and the expectation
will be
[ 3
A Technique for Solving n > 2 Games 391
and the expected earnings for X are f To find the optimum strategy for X,
.
note that the optimum strategy for Y was determined by the intersection of
lines computed from the first and fourth rows of the matrix. Omit the second
and third rows and consider the 2 x 2 matrix
3 1
-3 3
Then
3 - (-3)
P\
= and P*
3 + 3 - (-3) - 1
5
(a) -3 4
-5_
i 3
(b)
10 I 2
(O
(d)
(e)
If)
392 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
\l
Solving Games by Linear Programming 393
x, + x2 + + xm =
v
The objective function to be maximized is
-=/=*,+
1
x2 + + x
x, >
xm >
where ay is an element of the matrix game.
EXAMPLE 51 Use the linear programming techniques to find strategies for the matrix game
-3 4
6 -2
SOLUTION First note that not all the elements in the payoff matrix are posi-
tive. To make all the elements positive, add 4 to each element.
10
Xi + 8.v 2 < 1
Xi > .v 2 >
We desire to maximize
f=X] + x2
X] + 8x2 + V| = 1
10a, + 2.v 2 + y: = 1
X\ X2 Vi V; /
1 8 10 1'
10) 2 10 11
l-i"~TT 'o~iT o
Solving Games by Linear Programming 395
78
= 1_
yi
78
Thus,
P\ = y\V =
Pi = y2V
Player X thus has the strategy [-ft ^J, player Y has the strategy
78
1?
EXAMPLE 52 Use linear programming techniques to find the strategies for the matrix game
2
1
Solving Games by Linear Programming 397
6*, + 2*2 + 5* 3 + y, = 1
*\
398 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
(f)
(g)
(h)
400 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
consultant has indicated the per- Find the optimum strategies for A
centage gain or loss in a sales and B and the value of game.
for each weekly advertisement
choice. Dealership B does not use
direct mail.
Applications
(Social and 7. Agriculture. A farmer in Georgia
Life Sciences) grows peanuts and cotton. The
following matrix gives gross in-
come in thousands of dollars un-
der different conditions.
Summary and Review Exercises 401
of Moody's, Value Line, and other investment services reveals that 60%
believe the market will increase, and 40% believe the market will decrease in
the next year.The table gives the expected payoff (sometimes called ex-
pected monetary value) of buying each of the three stocks.
PAYOFF TABLE
402 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
= d - c
p{x) = C(n, x)p x q n *
P\
d - b =
P2
'/i
a + d - b - c
a c
V=
a + d - b - c
Summary and Review Exercises 403
(a)
404 Chapter 6 Additional Topics of Probability
Chapter Test
Start
4. Eight percent of all residents of Orange County have the flu virus. The
probability that a medical examination will indicate the disease if a per-
son has the virus is .8. and the probability that the examination will
incorrectly indicate the disease is .3. What is the probability that Sue
actually has the flu if her examination indicates that she is sick with the
flu?
11. Find the optimum strategies for the game given in Exercise 10.
-1 1 -3
.53 4
13. Find the optimum strategies for the game given in Exercise 12.
When Aunt Jane asserts that smoking is not harmful to one's health because
Uncle Joe lived to be 88 years of age and smoked two packs of cigarettes
every day of his adult life. Aunt Jane is using a probability or statistical idea.
That is. Aunt Jane organized the data of her experience (Uncle Joe) and then
made a statement on the basis of her data. However, she lacked understand-
ing of what data were needed, how the data should be organized, and what
conclusions were appropriate or inappropriate relative to the data. This
chapter should help you avoid making the same types of mistakes that Aunt
Jane made.
Statistics can be divided into two subdivisions: descriptive and inferen-
tial statistics.
407
408 Chapter 7 Statistics
Overview We are immersed daily in a torrent of numbers flowing in bubbling splendor from our televi-
sions, radios, newspapers, hair stylist, and our favorite Uncle Al. Although data are a part of our
daily life-style, it is evident that we often do not know how to organize, interpret, or understand
the message being conveyed. In this section, we learn to organize and summarize data for better
understanding of statistics.
First, we introduce some basic techniques for classifying and summarizing a set of
observed measurements. Then we will represent the data with graphs. In fact, we will construct:
711034553233662
TABLE 1
421003456314134
A quick glance at this array of numbers tells us very little about what
the data imply about the group of people represented. Closer observation
indicates that the largest number of colds experienced was 7, and the small-
est number was 0. The difference between the largest and smallest entry in
the data is called the range of the data. In this case, the range is 7 - = 7. To
understand better the significance of this list of numbers, we might summa-
rize it in a frequency distribution. To make this summary, we record the
number of students who reported each number of colds.
Frequency Distributions and Graphical Representations 409
SOLUTION From the summary in Table 2 it is easily seen that three colds was
the number most often reported by a child. The summary also shows how
the number of colds was distributed among the 30 students.
TABLE 2
Number of Colds
410 Chapter 7 Statistics
We arbitrarily select six classes for our grouping. Since 17 * 6 is 2.833, the
length of the classes (if the classes are of equal length) must be more than
2.833 in order to include all the data in six classes.Whenever feasible, it is
desirable to have classes of equal integral length. Thus, we arbitrarily select
the following class limits: 1-3, 4-6, 7-9, 10-12, and so on. The grouped
frequency distribution is found in Table 4.
TABLE 4
Class
Frequency Distributions and Graphical Representations 411
SOLUTION
Interval
412 Chapter 7 Statistics
1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986
Year
FIGURE 1
A line graph shows the fluctuations and emphasizes the changes that
have taken place better than a bar graph. The line graph in Figure 2 repre-
sents the distance (in meters) run in 6 minutes by a group of freshmen in a
physical education class. Looking at this graph, we can readily see the
variation in the number who ran given distances in 6 minutes.
745 845 945 1045 1145 1245 1345 1445 1545 1645
FIGURE 2 Number of meters
Sometimes, data are so erratic that a line graph would have little mean-
ing. In this case, a scattergram improves the understanding of the data. A
scattergram consists of data points and a trend line drawn to visually "fit"
the data. Figure 3 shows data relating ACT scores in mathematics and stu-
dents' averages in a class at the end of a semester. A trend line is drawn with
about the same number of points on each side of the line and with points
scattered on each side of the line at both ends of the line. Different lines can
Frequency Distributions and Graphical Representations 413
be drawn visually, but usually most of these lines will have approximately
the same slope. The scattering of the points about a trend line shows how the
data correlate. From Figure 3, there is a positive correlation: as the ACT
mathematics score increases, there seems to be a corresponding increase in
the class average of a student. If the slope of the line were negative, there
would be a negative correlation. For perfect correlation, all points would be
on the same line; that is, there would be no scattering about the line. When
the points are so scattered that it is nearly impossible to draw a trend line,
100-
414 Chapter 7 Statistics
7-
Frequency Distributions and Graphical Representations 415
EXAMPLE 7 Table 9 records the final-examination grades in a class. Represent the data
by a circle graph.
TABLE 9
Final-Examination Grade
416 Chapter 7 Statistics
Practice Problems > 1. For the data in Table 8, draw a histogram on a graphing calculator. Use X
Min: 15, Max: 40, Scl: 5, Y Min: 0, Max: 8, Scl: 2. How does your graph
compare with Figure 4?
2. To draw a ne graph on top of a hi stogram using a graphing calculator,
l i
Exercise Set 7.1 1. In a transportation survey, bus (d) Find the number of mothers
riders on the Friday evening run whose ages were between 19
were asked how many times and 34, including the end-
they had ridden the bus that points.
15-19 mi
20-24
25-29
M
M
30-34 1
35-39 II
Number of
418 Chapter 7 Statistics
interval be 4-14.
(b) What trend can you see in
the data?
7
Frequency Distributions and Graphical Representations 419
477
Applications
(Business and
Economics)
420 Chapter 7 Statistics
1990.
19. Sales. Tabulate a relative fre-
Units Sold
Frequency Distributions and Graphical Representations 421
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 23. Classification of Occupations.
Use a protractor to construct a
pie chart showing the percent-
age of women who work in the
various occupations. These per-
cents are given below.
Professional
422 Chapter 7 Statistics
3. /
7--
4--
2
-
Overview In the preceding section, we used histograms, frequency polygons, and pie charts to summarize
and explain sets of data. Sometimes we need a more concise procedure for characterizing a set
of data. In fact, we want a simple number that estimates the location of the center of a set of
section, we learn that both averages are correct. Sandra found the mean and Sam the median.
One common use of statistics is comparing sets of data with averages (or, more accu-
rately, measures of central tendency). Three measures are in general use the arithmetic
mean, the median, and the mode. The fact that there are these three (as well as others) often
leads to misuses of statistics. One measure may be quoted, and the reader automatically thinks
of another. When a measure is quoted, immediately ask the question, "Which one?" In this
. x, + x2 + x3 +
+ x
Measures of Central Tendency 423
x
_
= t* or
2>
n n
That is,
2 -V = X
/=]
Xi = x, + x2 + + x
EXAMPLE 9 Find the arithmetic mean of 25, 25. 25, 25, 30, 30, 30, 40. 40, 40, 40, 50.
SOLUTION
__ 25 + 25 + 25 + 25 + 30 + 30 + 30 + 40 + 40 + 40 + 40 + 50
x -
j2
Mean, Frequency
. *ifi +x 2 f2 + x 3 f3 +
+ x m f
Distribution
U + f2 + + f
x = ~^ or
"v7
424 Chapter 7 Statistics
CALCULATOR NOTE Most calculators have a statisticalmode that makes it easy to compute
arithmetic means. In the Appendix we will discuss the statistical mode for a
Casio calculator.
EXAMPLE 10 Find the arithmetic mean for the data in Table 10.
SOLUTION TABLE 10
EXAMPLE 11 Consider the set of five measurements 7, 1,2, 1,3. Arranged in increasing
order, they may be written as
1, 1,2, 3,7
Median
Median
So the median is
15 + 10
= 12.5
The third measure of central tendency is called the mode, the measure-
ment that appears most often in a given set of data.
Definition: Mode The mode of a set of measurements is the observation that occurs most often. If every
measurement occurs only once, then there is no mode. If two measurements occur with
the same largest frequency, the set of data is bimodal. It may be the case that there are
three or more modes.
EXAMPLE 13 Baseball caps with the following head sizes were sold in a week by the Glo-
Slo Sporting Goods Store: 7, 7$, 8, 6, 7i, 7, 6i 8i 1\, 8, 1\. Find the mode
head size.
SOLUTION The mode is 1\ it occurs 4 times, more times than any other
size>
as weights, test scores, and prices, provided there are no extreme values
that distort the data. When extraordinarily large or small values are included
in the data median is usually better than the mean. However, the
set, the
mean is the average most often used, since it gives equal weight to the value
of each measurement. The median is a positional average. It replaces rank-
ing numbers. The mode is used when the "most common" measurement is
desired. The most appropriate measure for the price of pizzas in town would
426 Chapter 7 Statistics
EXAMPLE 14 In one series of games against the Dodgers, the Reds won 6 of 7 games by the
following scores (see Table Find the mean, median, and mode of these
11).
TABLE 11
Dodgers I 2 6 1 15 4 2 2
Reds 14 7 2 1 5 3 3
the same as the medians. The median score is more usable than the mean
score.
- _ /i-v, + f2 x2 + + fm xm
fx +h +
Measures of Central Tendency 427
Exercise Set 7.2 1. Compute the arithmetic mean, (c) The mean, median, and
the median, and the mode (or mode are equal.
modes if any) for the given sets (d) The mean and median have
of data. values of 8.
(e) 21, 13, 12,6, 23, 23, 20, 19 5. The mean score of a set of 8
(f) 18, 13, 12, 14, 12, 11, 16, 15, scores is 65. What is the sum of
21 the 8 scores'?
(a) The mean and median are (a) Compute the mean, median,
equal. and mode of the data.
(b) The mean and mode are (b) Which measure is most rep-
equal. resentative of the data?
428 Chapter 7 Statistics
Score Frequency
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
Measures of Central Tendency 429
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 23. Psychology. Find the mean of Number of
the following test scores (scores
are class marks of a frequency
distribution).
50
60
70
80
90
Let
$64.30
20
$148.00
20
_ $64.30
[Dfl 10 [DT] |
ALPHA 1
fw| [EXE] SHIFT [7] EXE Did you get n =
|
|
|
|
.
5;x = 10?
2. jc = W= 23.5
3. Program: [MODE] p x] SHIFT Scl [EXE] 4 [pf] [pf] 14 SHIFT] p] |
1
1
|
1
4. For the median a $15,000 salary is missing. For the mean a $14,000 salary
is missing.
Overview The fact that the mean salary of the Doran Company exceeds the mean salary of the Wargo
Company does not imply that the salaries of the Doran Company are superior to those of the
Wargo Company. Compare four monthly salaries: $8000, $8100, $8100, and $25,000, with a
mean of $12,300; and four salaries: $11,800, $11,900, $12,000, and $12,200, with a mean of
$1 1 ,975. The mean salary of the first company exceeds the mean salary of the second company,
but the lowest salary of the second company is better than all the salaries except the largest
because it is well above the mean of 400. Is it? The answer is no because, on this test, 45% of the
scores are between 450 and 550. To be exceptional on this test, one must score above 500.
The average depth of the Cahaba River is 1 foot. This river should be a nice river in which
to go wading. Wait a minute! There are many shallow areas, but there are also a number of
data. That is, we need a measure to indicate whether the entries in a set of data are close to or
not close to the mean. Thus, in this section we consider as measures of scattering
The range
Variance
Standard deviation
Standard deviation for a frequency distribution
Standard deviation of a probability distribution
i scores
Chebyshev's theorem
There are several ways to measure dispersion of data. The measure of scat-
tering that is easiest to calculate is the range, introduced in Section 1.
EXAMPLE 15 For the set of data, 7, 3, 1, 15, 41, 74, and 35, the range is 73 since
74 - 1 = 73>
432 Chapter 7 Statistics
(b) Compute the difference in each observation and the arithmetic mean, x - x.
- 2
(c) Square each difference, (x x) .
(d) Divide the sum of the differences squared by n - 1, where n is the number of
observations.
SOLUTION
(b) Determine the difference between each x and x = 4. (See the second
column of Table 12.)
(c) Compute the square of each of these differences; that is, compute (x -
x) 2 (the third column of Table 12).
(d) Sum the squares of differences (that is, sum the third column of Table 12)
and divide by n 1=6 1 = 5,
Measures of Variation 433
- 2 - 2 - 2
2
(x, x) + (x 2 x) + (x 3 x) +
434 Chapter 7 Statistics
28
= 5.6
TABLE 13
X
Measures of Variation 435
TABLE 14
X
436 Chapter 7 Statistics
Definition: z Scores A score or measurement, denoted by x, from a population with mean x (or jix and
standard deviation s x (or <r x ) has a corresponding z score given by
x - x x - tl x
z = or z =
; scores are of value in comparing two sets of data with different units. In
many comparisons, the mean and standard deviation of the population are
not known, and the z score is approximated by using the mean and standard
deviation of a sample.
SOLUTION To answer this question, we need to know that the mean score at
school X was 70 with a standard deviation of 12 and the mean score at school
Y was 76 with a standard deviation of 16. The z scores are then as follows:
76
School X:
School Y: z
438 Chapter 7 Statistics
|i - ka (i \l + ka
1
I 1
Mean of a sample
I
I
u .
J
FIGURE 7
EXAMPLE 23 Suppose you know the mean life of a battery is 48 months with a standard
deviation of 6 months. What percentage of the batteries produced should last
between 36 months and 60 months?
(a) 110
(b) 80
(c) 71
(d) 120
(e) 140
(f) 40
Class
440 Chapter 7 Statistics
Applications
(Business and 28. Quality Assessment. The fol-
Manufacturer
29.
The Normal Distribution 441
Score
33
442 Chapter 7 Statistics
One of the fortunate surprises in statistics is that many line graphs and
bar graphs are approximately bell-shaped. In fact, if we modify some line
graphs to indicate probability rather than frequency, the resulting graphs will
closely approximate a smooth, bell-shaped curve called the normal probabil-
ity curve. If this is true, the data involved are said to be normally distributed.
We now plot a bar graph and a line graph for the data given in Table 15
using probability rather than frequency. (See Figure 9.) The height of each
rectangle represents the probability that the variable falls in that interval.
For example, the probability that the variable falls between 19.5 and 24.5 is
.30. However, for a probability curve, we want the area of the rectangle
instead of the height to represent the probability. Since the width of each
rectangle is 5, the area of each rectangle is 5 times the probability. We make
the area of each rectangle equal to the probability by dividing the height of
each rectangle by 5. The resulting graph is drawn in Figure 10. This smooth
curve is an example of a normal curve. Note some interesting properties of
the normal probability curve by studying the approximating bar graph in
Figure 10.
TABLE 75
5-9
The Normal Distribution 443
FIGURE 10
through the mean. The standard deviation of the data is approximately 7.5.
The interval about the mean that extends for one standard deviation on
either side of the mean is the interval from (22 - 7.5) to (22 + 7.5). This
interval from 14.5 to 29.5 contains 20 + 20 + 20 = 20, or 70%, of the data (see
Figure 10). The interval about the mean that extends for 2 standard devia-
tions on either side of the mean is the interval from (22 - 15) to (22 + 15), or
from 7 to 37. Assume that half of the frequency in the first and last class
intervals belong in this range from 7 to 37. Then the interval (mean - 2
standard deviations to mean + 2 standard deviations) contains 2+!, or 95%, of
the data.
FIGURE 11
These properties for the bar graph and the approximating smooth curve
demonstrate the following well-known properties of a normal curve (see
Figure 1 1).
444 Chapter 7 Statistics
Curve 2. The normal curve is symmetric about a vertical line through the mean of the set of
data.
3. The interval extending from 2 standard deviations to the left of the mean to 2 standard
deviations to the right of the mean contains approximately 95% of the area; the
4. If x is a data value from a set of data that is normally distributed, then the probability
that x is greater than a and less than b is the area under the normal curve between a
and b.
has perfect symmetry. Because of this characteristic, the mean and median
of the distribution have the same value
namely, 0. The range is not defined,
because there are values occurring as far out as you wish to go that is, the
curve never intersects the z axis.
FIGURE 12
The area underthe standard normal curve is Thus, to find the proba- 1 .
Z\ and Z2 (the shaded region in Figure 12). Table in Appendix B gives the 1
area under the normal curve less than or equal to z = Zi and greater than or ,
equal to z = 0. That is, the area indicated by the horizontal shading in Figure
12 is given in Table 1 at z Z\ The area from z = to z = Z\ is the same as
the probability that z is less than or equal to z\ and greater than or equal to 0,
or P(0 < z ^ Z\). The table stops at z = 3.09, because the area under the
curve beyond z = 3.09 is negligible.
The fact that the standard normal curve is symmetric about z =
means that the area under the curve on either side of is 0.5. This symmetry
allows us to compute the probabilities that do not specifically occur in the
table.
The Normal Distribution 445
SOLUTION Since the area under either half of the curve in Figure 13 is 0.5000.
FIGURE 13
For the normal curve, P(z = a) = P(z < a), and P(z s a) = P (z > a),
SOLUTION From Table 1 in Appendix B, we read that the value for z = 1.2 is
.3849. Thus,
important as we discuss areas under the curve. The fact that the standard
normal curve is symmetric about the origin means that the area under the
curve on either side of is the same. For example,
Since the total area under the curve is 1, the area to the right of z = 1.66
is 1 minus the area to the left of 1.66. That is.
FIGURE 14
EXAMPLE 26 Find the probability that the normal variable x, with mean 175 and standard
deviation 20, is less than or equal to 215.
SOLUTION 215-175 =
Z= 20
2
EXAMPLE 27 The grades on a certain test are known to be normally distributed, with mean
74 and standard deviation 8. What is the probability that a student will make
less than 58 on this test?
SOLUTION
z
= 58-74
o = -2
= .0228
Thus, 2.28% of the students will make less than 58 on the test. Equivalently,
the probability that a student chosen at random will make less than 58 is
.0228>
The Normal Distribution 447
EXAMPLE 28 The Iron Fist Security Agency has uniforms to fit men ranging in height from
68 to 74 inches. The heights of adult males are normally distributed with a
mean of 70 inches and a standard deviation of 2.5 inches. What percentage of
male applicants to Iron Fist can be fitted in their existing uniforms?
-70 74-70
z = =
68
r-; -0.8 and z = r~l 1.6
Hence, the probability that a given applicant can be fitted in a uniform is .73,
*--'-* = -1 & + * ~ *
and
we have
SinceP(-2 < z < 2) = .9544 and P(-3 < z ^ 3) = .9974, the following
summary may be made for any normal distribution:
Practice Problems > 1. On draw the histogram in Figure 9. Use X Min: 4.5, Max:
a calculator,
39.5, Scl: 5,Y Min: 0, Max: 6, Scl: 1. Now change the range to: X Min:
5, Max: 4 0, Scl: 5; Y Min: 0, Max: .07, Scl: .01. Use [Graph SHIFT 1
1
|
|
LINE EXE to draw the corresponding normal curve.
|
I | |
using A' Min: -3, Max: 3, Scl: I; Y Min: 0, Max: .5, Scl: .1. Compare with
the graph in Figure 12.
(a) z = to z = 2.40
2.4
(b) z = to z = 0.41
(c) z = to - = 1.67
(d) z = -0.36 to z = 0.36
-1.68 1
The Normal Distribution 449
(a) ,v
<
450 Chapter 7 Statistics
Applications
(Business and 10. Sales. It is known from experi- their tires is 55,000 miles (with a
Economics) ence that the number of tele- standard deviation of 4000
phone orders made daily to a miles), and they also know that
company approximates a normal occasionally a tire fails in less
curve with mean 350 and stan- than 50,000 miles. What per-
dard deviation 20. What per- centage of the tires will fail be-
centage of the time will there be fore 50,000 miles?
more than 400 telephone orders
per day?
12. Quality Control. The life of a
certain brand of batteries has a
11. Quality Control. The Goodbond mean of 1200 days and a stan-
Tire Company manufactures a dard deviation of 100 days. If the
superior quality tire (sold at a manufacturer does not want to
superior price) that they guaran- replace more than 12% of the
tee for 50,000 miles. They know batteries, for how long should
that the average life of one of the batteries be guaranteed?
Applications (Social
and Life Sciences) 13. Radar. Radar is used to check mally distributed with mean 177
the speed of traffic on Interstate centimeters and standard devia-
75 north of Atlanta. If the mean tion 4 centimeters.
speed of the traffic is 70 miles
(a) What percentage of the men
per hour with a standard devia-
are between 173 and 181
tion of 4 miles per hour, what
centimeters in height?
percentage of the cars are ex-
(b) What percentage of the men
ceeding the legal speed of 65
are between 169 and 185
miles per hour?
centimeters in height?
14. Diets. Young rabbits placed on
16. Tests. The scores on the en-
a certain high-protein diet for a
trance exam for the Kentucky
month show a weight gain with a
Police Academy are normally
mean of 120 grams and a stan-
distributed with a mean of 60
dard deviation of 12 grams.
and a standard deviation of 6.
(a) What is the probability that a What is the probability that a
given rabbit will gain at least randomly selected test score will
100 grams in weight? lie between 60 and 75?
with mean 76 and standard devi- 19. Aptitude Tests. The average
ation 6. The lowest D is 61, the time required for completing an
lowest C is 70, the lowest B is aptitude test is 80 minutes with a
82, and the lowest A is 91 . What standard deviation of 10 min-
percentage of the class will utes. Assuming that the lengths
make A's? What percentage will of times necessary for complet-
make B's? C's? D's? F's? ing the test are normally distrib-
uted, when should you stop the
18. Achievement Tests. A nationally test to make certain that 90% of
administered achievement test is the people taking it have had
known to have a mean score of time to complete the test?
500 and a standard deviation of
100. What is the probability that
a score is less than 300?
Problems |XE 1
5 [DTI IQ JDT |[DT| 15 1
SHIFT 1
[T|4 [lyfl 20 [SHIFT |T| 6| DT 25 |
1
|
SHIFT] Q] 4 |
DT |
30 |
DT DT 1
1
|
35 |
DT 1
1 Graph |EXE| \
Figure 10.
2. 1
Graph |
0J_E] I V I 2 HI H BED LH ALPHA l l
H CEI
r^rn iEXEi
3. The cutoff score is 65.3.
Overview Professor Larkin in the education department of Lagoon College wishes to determine the
average ACT score of the students. Not possessing the time or energy to collect a score from
every student, he randomly selects a sample group of 30 students and determines their scores.
The average of these 30 scores is 21. Professor Meuler in the psychology department also
wishes to obtain this information. She too interviews a sample of 30 randomly selected students
and determines that their average ACT score is 19.7. Which professor has the correct informa-
tion? In this section, we will study
r lVr~i
Centra/ Limit Theorem If x (the mean of a sample of size n) is considered as a variable in repeated random
sampling from a given population, then the following statements are true.
2. The standard deviation o> of the variable x is equal to the standard deviation <r x of the
population divided by the square root of the number of items in each sample
Vn
3. The variable z, where z is given by
o-jVn
As noted in Figure 15(a), 95% of the time z lies between -1.96 and 1.96.
EXAMPLE 29 Show that z lies between -2.58 and 2.58 approximately 99% of the time.
(See Figure 15(b).)
(a) (b)
FIGURE 75
x - fl
1.96 < 1.96
slVn
X x - ii
fJL
1.96 > -1.96
s/Vn ;/Vn
f+l% 1.96
fe
(jl > .v - 1 .96 M <.v+ 1 .96 ( -4=
fe)
Hence, we may be 95% certain that the population mean is between
r
x - 1.96(s/V/2) and x + \.96(sl\ ii). Similarly, we may be 99% confident
that the population mean is between x - 2.58U/V/7) and x + 2.58(^/V).
(Can you verify this?)^
SOLUTION The 95% confidence interval for fi, is from 870 1.96(20)/V64to
870 + 1.96(20)/V64, or 865. < Ml < 874. 9> 1
EXAMPLE 32 In order to analyze plant efficiency, an estimate of the average daily output
at a certain factory is needed. A random sample of 36 days yields an average
output of 600 items per day, with the estimate of the standard deviation being
10. What is the 90% confidence interval for daily production?
SOLUTION
1 .65 I
iV///
to v + 1 .65
\Vn
,
600
1.65(10)
V36
1=^ to
, nn
600 +
1.65(10)
L
V36
^
597.25 to 602.75
We can be 909? certain that the average daily production for the year is
Exercise Set 7.5 Find 807c, 907c 957c, and 997c confi- 6. We have determined that - =
dence intervals for fix from the sta- -1.96 to z = 1.96 is the 95%
tistics given in the following sam- confidence limit. Find z for the
terval?
What is a 90% confidence inter-
val for the average amount spent 8. It is desired to use a sample
by all tourists in Wyoming? mean .v to estimate the mean of a
456 Chapter 7 Statistics
Applications
(Business and 13. Manufacturing. The average into paper bags. The company
Economics) daily production of automobiles wishes to estimate the true mean
at the Bowling Green plant over weight of the bags. A sample of
the last 100 days is 240 cars with 36 bags yields a sample mean of
a standard deviation of 20 cars. 24.75 pounds and a sample esti-
Find a 95% confidence interval mate of the standard deviation
for average daily production i x
. of 0.25 pound. Find a 99% confi-
dence interval for the true mean
14. Manufacturing. A sugar manu-
weight of all the bags of sugar.
facturing company packs sugar
Applications (Social
and Lite Sciences) 15. Diet. A doctor has been study- confidence of 95% the mean
ing the effect of a new diet on 36 weight of all babies born in this
infants. In a 1-month period, the hospital in 1980.
mean gain in weight is 3 10 grams
17. Commuting Students. In a sam-
with a standard deviation of 100
ple of 49 commuting students at
grams. Find a 95% confidence
Gordy College, the average one-
interval for the average gain in
way distance traveled to school
weight of infants on this diet.
each day was found to be 10.2
16. Weight. A random sample of miles. The sample estimate of
size 36 is taken of the weights of the standard deviation was 1.5
babies born Happiness Hospi-
at miles. Give a 90% confidence in-
tal during The sample
1980. terval estimating the average
mean is 7.6 pounds, and the one-way distance traveled by
sample estimate of the standard commuting students at Gordy
deviation is 0.8. Estimate with a College.
Extended Application 457
Extended Application
A Comparison of the Hi iiomi.il and Normal Distributions
The mean and standard deviation for this distribution are given by
M. = "P
<j x
= V npq
The normal distribution function is a continuous distribution function
(the variable can take on all real values) defined by
f(x) = L=*-u-M,*2ri
o-, V2tt
where p., is the mean of the distribution and cr, is the standard deviation. By
making the transformation z = (x p )/cr, we obtain the standard normal
y
,
P(8) = C(12, 8)
(.7) (.3)
8 4
p = .1
9 3 q = .3
P(9) co; 9)
(.7) (.3)
l0 2
P(\0) en: 10) (.7) (.3)
p = up = 12(.7) = 8.4
x
The following diagram shows the normal curve approximation to the histo-
gram representing the binomial distribution.
458 Chapter 7 Statistics
and
10.5 - 8.4
= 1.32
1.587
The area under the normal curve from z = .57 to z = 1.32 is .6223. This
normal distribution area is a good approximation to the answer, .6386.
Consider another example. During inspection of 1000 welded joints
produced by a certain machine, 100 defective joints were found. Consider
the random variable to be the number of defective joints that result when 50
joints are welded. Compute the mean value of .v, the standard deviation, and
the probability of getting more than /i,, + 2o\ defective parts, where fix + 2ax
stands for 2 standard deviations above the expected value.
100 _ J_
1000
" 10
Thus,
Mv = np = 50 ( ) = 5
px + 2o- v
= 5 + 2(2.12) = 9.24
Summary and Review Exercises 459
Therefore,
9.5 - 5
z = = 2. 2
2.12
As you read the following review list, be sure you understand the meaning
(or definition) of each of the terms. If you are not completely satisfied with
your knowledge of the term, review the pertinent material.
Sjc 2 - r* 2
n -
Summary and Review Exercises 461
A
462 Chapter 7 Statistics
Chapter Test
Interval
Appendix A
Inexpensive calculators with the potential to sketch quickly the graph of a function
are changing the way professors teach and students study the material in this book.
Procedures are given below for using one such calculator, the Casio fx-7000G. I do
not advocate the use of any particular calculator; however, the calculator discussed
here is the least expensive graphing calculator currently available. I expect this
situation tochange within the next few months. To illustrate the use of this calcula-
tor, we use the keyboardin the picture to work examples involving the sketching of
curves in the first part of the book. From these examples, you should be able to use
the graphing calculator throughout the remainder of the book.
Two types of graphs can be generated using this calculator: built-in function
graphs and user-generated graphs. The calculator contains the following built-in
graphs for this course.
10
|
Graph EXE sketches v =
|
Graph EXE sketches y = e*
Any time a built-in graph is executed, the ranges are set to their optimum
values. User-generated graphs are not set automatically: instead the user must de-
cide upon the range. The parts of a graph outside of the selected range do not appear
on the display. The range contents are given in the fi gure: the maximum and mini-
mum on each axis and the scale on each axis. Press the |
Range key and the following
|
appears.
463
464 Appendix A
Appendix A 465
Range
466 Appendix A
Chapter 1
v = x + 4
Figure 10
|
Graph |
[FT] |
ALPHA |
[FJ [T] 4 f~EXE~1
H 4-
Figure 11
|
Graph |
|
ALPHA |
\Y\ [7] 1 |
EXE |
V = X + 1
Two graphs can be graphed on the screen at the same time and the calculator
can be used to obtain an approximate solution.
Figure 14
320 - Ax
p = 20.v
7--
/
/
/
/
/
/
-f 1
Chapter 1 467
|
Graph | Q] 320 Q 4 |
ALPHA |
5
I
SHIFT [J] 1
Graph |
20 |
ALPHA |
{Y\ |
EXE | |
EXE
To read the point of intersection, use |
SHIFT |
|
Trace |
. Locate the blinking pixel
at the leftof the screen. Use the arrow ke ys and to move it to the point of g] g]
intersection. Then enter SHIFT X<-* Y and read the y coordinate of the point of
|
1
1
|
intersection. For greater accuracy we will use an automatic zoom-in feature. Press
|
SHIFT |T| (the key). You can also zoom in by changing the range settings, but
| [f\
the preceding procedure is much faster The fi rst graph ap pears automatical ly. The .
second graph appears when you press EXE Again use [SHIFT] Trace Now. |
|
. |
|
.
move the pixel to what seems to be the intersection and read x and y. This whole
process can be repeated until you obtain the accuracy you desire. In two repetitions,
it was found that x = 5 and p = 100.
Figure 22
In this figure are graphs y = 4.v, y = 2.v, y = v, and y (l/2).v in this order.
|
Graph 4 1
|
ALPHA |
\x\ |
SHIFT |
[d]
|
Graph |
2 ]
ALPHA \Y\ |
SHIFT |
[d]
|
Graph | |
ALPHA |
[x] [SHIFT] |T1
[Graph |
.5 |
ALPHA |
|T] |
EXE | |
EXE | |
EXE |
The graphing calculator is very useful when working with statistical data. For exam-
ple, suppose you have the following set of data with frequency.
Class Interval
Graphing Statistical Data 469
10 [
DT [
|
DT | |
DT |
|
Note 3 DT's]
10 |
SHIFT |
[7] 3 |
DT |
[DT] 10 |
DT |
|
DT |
|
DT |
20 |
DT | |
DT |
30 ]
DT |
|
DT |
40
|W] 70 I
SHIFT I Q] 8 Q5t] 80 |
SHIFT) \T\ 15 [W] 90
|
SHIFT | Q] 9 [DT] 100 [DT] [DT] |
Graph | |
EXE |
|
Graph | |
SHIFT |
|
Line EXE
Statistical computations also use the statistical mode
1
MODE |
|"x~| |
SHIFT |
[ScT] |
EXE |
The last three instructions clear the statistical input data, use the class memory. To
mark of an interval and the following procedures for frequency. Suppose a class
mark is 10 and the frequency of 10 is 3. We can enter this statistical information as
either
10 |
DT |
|
DT |
|
DT |
|
Frequency ofT|
10 |
SHIFT | Q] 3 |DT|
| ALPHA |
[W] [EXE
470 Appendix A
|
SHIFT |
[JJ |
EXE |
Tables
TABLE 1
472 Appendix B Tables
TABLE 1
zo
Appendix B Tables 473
TABLE 3
COMPOUND INTEREST
i = 1% (interest rate per period) n = number ot periods
n
474 Appendix B Tables
TABLE 3
COMPOUND INTEREST (cont.j
i = 2% (interest rate per period) n = number of periods
n
Appendix B Tables 475
TABLE 3
COMPOUND INTEREST (cont.j
i = 3% (interest rate per period) n = number of periods
n
476 Appendix B Tables
TABLE 3
COMPOUND INTEREST (cont.j
i = 4% (interest rate per period) n = number of periods
n
Appendix B Tables 477
TABLE 3
COMPOUND INTEREST (cont.j
i = 6% (interest rate per period) n = number of periods
n
478 Appendix B Tables
TABLE 3
COMPOUND INTEREST (cont.)
i = 8% (interest rate per period) n = number ot periods
n
Appendix B Tables 479
TABLE 4
ANNUITIES
i = 1% (interest rate per period) n = number of periods
(1 + / )" - 1 /)"
s ^\i = :
flJfli
n
480 Appendix B Tables
TABLE 4
ANNUITIES (cont.)
I= 2% (interest rate per period) n = number of periods
(1 - ty - l 1 - (1 + I)-
am =
n
Appendix B Tables 481
TABLE 4
ANNUITIES (cont.)
i= 3% (interest rate per period) n = number of periods
SQi =
+ (1
i)
;
n
~ 1
fl S|/
1
- (1
n
482 Appendix B Tables
TABLE 4
ANNUITIES (cont.)
(1 + /)" - 1 1 - (1 + /)-
sm = ;
am =
n
Appendix B Tables 483
TABLE 4
ANNUITIES (cont.)
i= 6% (interest rate per period) n = number of periods
= (1 + /)" - 1 1 - (1 + )-
s n\i am
n
484 Appendix B Tables
TABLE 4
ANNUITIES {cont)
i= 8% (interest rate per period) n = number of periods
(1 + /)" - - (1 + /)"
ssi.-
= ;
1
ami
1
n
Appendix B Tables 485
TABLE 5
VALUES OF EXPONENTIALS
X
486 Appendix B Tables
TABLE 5
VALUES OF EXPONENTIALS (cont.j
X
Answers to Selected
Exercises and
Chapter Tests
Chapter 1
488 Answers to Selected Exercises and Chapter Tests
23.
27. 2.vy
29. -1
6 = 6 -3 = -3
7. x = 1
+ = 6+1 27. x =
Check: 2(1) 5 3
2 + 5 = 7
Check:
7 = 7
9. x = 5
' -"-)
Check: I - 3 = -2 4
= 8
9 9
- 3 = -2
-2 = -2
9 9
11. v = -4
-4 29. a- = 9
1
Check: -=- _ "
2 9-5 9-9
3 5 Check: I +
4 12
ill
_5_
15
15
-20
-17
15
15
+
3
T5
4
4
I
a
1 +
1
Chapter 1 489
|-1| = 1 |1|
= 1
1 = 1 1
= 1
Check: 1
49. a 6.6402
51. .v = .2003
37.
-#-12
5. j gallon
(2,4)
-1
-2 +
490 Answers to Selected Exercises and Chapter Tests
2. (a) \.yj
3. (a) (0.2), (l,|), (-1,3
< c ><o,5,,(.,f),(2,f)
-1,
5. (a)
y= 2a- - 3 (g) y
3"
2--
1--
1
1 2 3 -
y + 1 =
-2
-3 +
(c)
4-
kk 3-
(0,2)
-
I
(3,0)
1
I
2
XH
3
I
'
,
-1-
-2 +
Chapter 1 491
6. (a) a intercept: -3
v intercept: 2
15. y.
5-
Chapter 1 493
y
11. (a) y = 4x - 5
3 +
x
1 2 3
-l
2y= 1 -x
-2 +
17. Slope = 3
y intercept: 1
19. Slope = =
y intercept: =
y.
3.v-2v = 5
3--
2--
13. Slope = -2 1
--
y intercept: 1
-2
(O.-f)
-4
20. (a) F (c) F
1 5
21. v = rX +
2
23. v="3*"37 1
= = 25. y = 4.v - 3
15. Slope y intercept: =
27. .v = 1
494 Answers to Selected Exercises and Chapter Tests
28.
Chapter 1 495
7. 3v + 2.v - 19 =
9. (a) y < 3x + 2 (c) 3* + 2y = 1 (e) x + y < 5
H 1 (-
-1/
I
-2"
(a)
496 Answers to Selected Exercises and Chapter Tests
MM
17 . Pll + Ell = , Divide both sides by M
19. t
=
Chapter Test
(page 59) 1. 2x + 3v = 6
Chapter 2 497
Chapter 2
11. 20 10 15 15
-5 10 -5
13. 18 -7 17
1 18 19
-9 14 -11
IS. -2 -1
17. 35 -5
-2 28
"2
19. [2
3
4
_5
21. x = -4, y = 8, z = 20
23. x = 0, y = 0, z =
37. 1
1
1 2
39. [6
41.
Chapter 2 499
2. (a) (2, 3)
(c) In addition and subtraction you
get = 0. The lines coincide and
there are an infinite number of so-
lutions, (one possibility)
(e) (1,3)
(g) In addition and subtraction you
get = 1. This is impossible so
there are no solutions,
(one possibility)
(i) (1, 2)
3. (a) x = 5, y = -1
(c) x = 12, y = -5
(e) x = 0, y = 2
,
4 (a) x
4. = _ jo
- , v
y -
= n*
(g) 133" 133
(c) x = 50, y - 3
5. 93, 82
1 2
1 3
5 7
3 4
2. (a)
(c; 4 -19]
L-i 5j
3. 2x - y = 4
3a- + 4y = 1
5. x + 3y + 2z = 5
-Jt + 2y + z = 1
y + 2z = 4
3l
(c) A
x = 3, y = 2
. (a)
T20
= (rounded)
|
28 I
7. X -]
Chapter 3 503
D |_1 I
(c) Infinite number of solutions
7. (a) No solution 27 - 8c 16 + 3c
(c) Infinite
If z =
number of solutions
t,y = s, then
*
:
J," .y = i- .?
Chapter Test
(page 139) (b)
8 6
-4 -2
1 2
1
3J
7. * = 9, y = 7
8. a: = 9, y = 7
9. x= l,y = l,z= 1
2. x = 2,y = \
3. a = 5, b = 9, c = 3, d = 2. 14,
/=20
Chapter 3
3--
v = 3
2
-\ I
H
12
I
3
I I
4 5
(3,3)
7. >'i
13.
(0, 1)
Chapter 3 505
17. >*
.v +y=2
Bounded; corner points: (0, 0),
Corner points: (0, 0), (0, 5), (4, 0), (3. 3). (4. 0)
7.
2 3 3
2-14 + 3
13= 67
14x + 13y = P
4 2
4jc + 2y < 12
3 3
3jc + 3y < 12
(2,2)
510 Answers to Selected Exercises and Chapter Tests
3. (a) Refinery 1
Chapter 3 511
3. 2.v + 4r + = ,s 7
3.v + y + 2r = 5
4.v - 3;- + P = 12
.v = y = 5
r = 5 = 7
P = 12
5. .V
512 Answers to Selected Exercises and Chapter Tests
27. x y r s
10 10
J 1
110
3.
/21 9\
Corner points: (0, 2), (0, 9), hr ,
g] ;
-8 - k k
-I I
+ k -7 - 2/ k -4A
11. -1 1
I -1 1
- k -6 - k A
13. - 1 3 1
2 1
-6
15. P 80 at (0. 8)
17. C 12 at (3. 0)
19. P 16 at (0. 2)
21.
Review Exercises
(page 204)
516 Answers to Selected Exercises and Chapter Tests
Chapter Test
(page 210) 1
Corner points: ( 0, ~ , (
J
bounded
160
3
imum value at (0, 0)
2
Chapter 4 517
9. $122,445.22
19. $12,283.97: $2093.
11. (a) $45,761.96 (c) $7203.66
13. $5866.60
s.
Chapter 5 519
Chapter Test
(page 254)
520 Answers to Selected Exercises and Chapter Tests
2),
(1,
(2, 3),
2), (1,
(2,
3),
4),
(1, 4),
(3, 1),
(2,
(3,
1),
2),
(3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3).
(4, 4)}
K) 5
14. (a) No, probability cannot be nega- (a) =
16 8
tive.
(c) Yes 2_ = 1
(c) ~~
(e) No, probability cannot be larger 16 8
than 1.
than 1.
15. {HI, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, Tl, T2, (c)
=
19. (a) j-
4
,c)
h \
(e)
T4"
3. 72 9. 24
5. 18
10. (a)
^
11. (a) (C)
T6 T6-
U. (a)
(C)
35
14. (a) -^
15. (d)
40 2
16. (a)
100
(O -2L
vv-'
inn
100
= li 1
(e)
il
100
Chapter 5 521
17.
23. (c)
14. (a)
|| 25. 30
(c)|
16. (a)
17,576
27. (a) 1900
63 (c) 648
17
125
28. (a) 120
19. (a) 1716
29. 120
(c) 725,010
16. (a) J_
9 10
(c) tt
(c)
J_
7. (a) .4
10
(c) .7
8. (a)
j
(e) 1
(e) .8
2 20
2. (a) = (g)
=
35
Chapter 5 523
524 Answers to Selected Exercises and Chapter Tests
11. .10 ,- , , 1
15. (a)
Chapter Test
(page 311) 1. l
2. 720
16
i ,
3. (a)
,
49
12 2
(b)
42
= 7
4. 35
S'
20 4
6. 48,450
Chapter 6
9. (a) -2.74 cents 27. The scheme that costs $1 per ques-
tionnaire
11. 5.31 minutes
= 29. 11.5%
13. E(x) 3
Exercise 6.5
(page 354) 1. Is a probability matrix 25.
3. Is a probability matrix
7. Transition matrix
16. (a) .3
17. (a) .4
(c) .4
19.
Si ,
5^ S3
ft ft_
24. (a) [^ W]
Chapter 6 527
54. (a)
528 Answers to Selected Exercises and Chapter Tests
(e) 4 in third row, third column (k) Value = 1; not fair; strategies
"0"
2. (a) 0; [1 0] and =
[:] [1 0] and
(c) 3; [0 1 0] and 47
4. (a) -TT-; not strictly determined
J 300 100
Republicans
(c) Value = 0; fair; strategies = 400 150
Republicans [1 0]
[0 Hand I
J
= Democrats
(e) Value = 0; fair; strategies
'
[0 1] and
68
(e) Value = -p?; strategies = [A H]
15 gies = [0 H A] and
and
530 Answers to Selected Exercises and Chapter Tests
4 2
(c) Value = g = v strategies = [ft If] and
Jeannie
[| i 0] and I 2
T [1 0]
and J
83
4. (a) Value = tt; strategies = 9. Value = 2; strategies = [1 0]
and
[fr A]and|J [J]
Value = 4; strategies = [1 0]
U. Democrats
(c)
Promise
and A B
Republicans 1 [2000 -1000
158
'jo
(e)
,,
Value =
.
-yr-; strategies
= Promise II [ 500 800
Value = ^j strategies
[A fflandlj*
[ft riland
and [*1 2 -3 -2
2
Value = =; strategies =
(c) Value = 1; strategies = [i j]
and
[I a] and
Value =
Chapter 6 531
7. Value = 2: strategies = [0 1]
0_
1 . 14
>. j-? to cotton and t= to peanuts
Value = ~
m - I
in + m - I n + m 11
Therefore A is regular.
(c) [A
.323]
Chapter 7 533
4. (a)
f
35--
30--
25--
20-
15-
10 +
5--
n
5. (a) 24.5, 34.5, 44.5, 54.5, 64.5, 74.5,
84.5
(c)
534 Answers to Selected Exercises and Chapter Tests
7. (a)
140
60 60
30
n
c c
(O
-\ 1 1 1 1 1
Field
i 8 8 8 T? JS g
e a E
Chapter 7 535
(a) .267
10. (a)
/(thousands)
(C) Yes
536 Answers to Selected Exercises and Chapter Tests
13. 21.
Class Class Mark Class Class Marks
14.
Class Class Mark
43-50 46.5
51-58 54.5
59-66 62.5
67-74 70.5
75-82 78.5
83-90 86.5
91-98 94.5
IS. 50
19.
Units Relative
Sold Frequency
.02
.08
.12
24. (a) From labor, 45% was contrib-
uted to Democratic while only
.25
.26
3% to Republican candidates.
.19
From corporations, 16% was
contributed to Democratic while
.08
30% to Republican candidates.
1.00
(c) 5.94 million
3. 27 13. 2.375
4. (a) 2, 4, 6, 8 15. 99
(c) 20, 25, 25, 30 17. 118.21
(e) 1, 3,6, 6, 14
19. (a) The average salary of $15,200 is
Review Exercises
(page 460) 1. (a) 18 (c) 20 (e) 8.11
3. x = 28.4, s = 12.48
4. (a) 75 (c) 94
5. (a) 20.18
6. (a)
fk
9. 101.5
Chapter Test
(page 462) 1. 13
2. 13
3. 56
4./.
10--
6. 9.7
7. s = 4.86
8. 0.3413
10. 0.84
11. At least 75%
Index
541
542 Index
Dot product, 72
Dual problem, 191
Games
dominated, 384
Effective rate, 224 expected value, 372
Element fair, 339
of a matrix, 63 payoff, 401
of a set, 8 saddle point. 374
Empirical data, 267 strictly determined, 374
Empty set, definition, 9 strategy, 372, 381
Equal matrices, 64 value of game, 382, 383
Equal sets, 8 zero-sum, 371
Equations, 4, 18 Gauss- Jordan, 92, 96
equivalent, 19 Geometric progression, 227
graphs of, 34 Graph, 11, 34
linear, 18, 44 bar, 411
solutions of, 25 circle. 415
of value, 245 inequality, 39
Equilibrium line, 412
cost, 89 linear equations, 35
point, 37, 89, 351 Graphical solution, 82
revenue, 89 Greater than, 23
Equivalent solution sets, 25 Grouped frequency distribution. 408
Index 543
Half-planes, 38 Lines
Histogram, 413 horizontal, 51
Horizontal line, 49 parallel, 50
perpendicular, 50
vertical, 51
Identity, 12 Lines (equations of)
Identity matrix, 76 point-slope form, 81
Independent events, 301 slope intercept, 81
Indicators, 182
Inequalities, 4, 23
graph of, 39
greater than, 23 Markov chains, 347
Intercepts, 36 Matrix
Interest, 213 addition of, 64
compounded, 213, 216 augmented, 92
continuously compounded, 225 canonical form, 362
effective rate, 224 coefficient, 77
Solution
Union of sets, 285
basic. 152
Uniform sample space, 259
Universe, 9
basic feasible, 172
feasible, 172
Solution of a maximum problem, 184
Value of a game, 281, 372
Solution of a minimum problem, 191
Variable
Solution of a system of equations, 120
artificial, 199
Solution set. 25
basic, 172
graph of, 35
nonbasic, 172
of a system of two equations, 82
random, 332
Square matrix, 63
slack, 171
Standard deviation, 432
surplus, 199
Standard maximization problem, 17
Variance, 432, 436
Standard units, 437
Venn diagram. 9
Statements, 4
Vertex, 134
Statistics, 407
Steady-state matrix, 351
Stochastic matrix, 88
Whole numbers, 11
Strategy of games
dominant rows (or columns), 384
linear programming, 393 x axis, 34
mixed, 371 .r-intercept, 36
optimum. 381
pure. 371
saddle point, 374 y axis, 34
strictly determined, 324 y-intercept, 36
two-by-two, 378
Strictly determined game, 324
Subset, 9 Zero matrix, 66
Subtraction of matrices, 67 Zero sum game. 371
Summation notation, 423 z-score, 437
Continued from inside front cover
Mazes, 6.6, 6.R Protein, 1.4
Medicine, 1.1, 3.6, 5.2, 5.3, 6.1, 6.2, 6.9, Psychological attraction and repulsion,
6.10, 7.R 2.3
Medicine (colds), 7.1 Psychology, 1.1, 6.6, 7.2
Military, 5.5, 6.1 Radar, 7.4
Mortality tables, 6.1, 6.4, 6.R
SAT scores, 1.4
Muscle efficiency, 1.2
Temperature, 1.4, 7.1
Nutrition, 2.3, 2.4, 3.3, 3.6
Testing techniques, 3.1, 6.3, 6.4
Nutrition (poultry), 3.R
Test scores, 1.4, 7.3, 7.4
Occupations, 7.1 Traffic flow, 2.5, 7.4
Transportation, 2.1, 2.2, 5.2, 7.1
Physical attributes (weight), 1.5, 7.2
Physical attributes (height), 1.5, 7.3, 7.4 Unemployment, 6.4
Plant nutrition, 3.3, 3.7
Vacation, 7.5
Politics, 1.2, 5.2, 5.4, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.7,
Vitamins, 7.2, 7.3
6.8, 7.1
Voting, 1.4, 2.3, 6.1
Polling, 2.6, 5.2, 5.5, 6.4
Pollution, 2.2, 2.5, 3.5, 7.2 Wildlife growth, 1.1
Population, 1.1, 1.5, 1.6, 2.3, 6.5, 7.3. Weights, 7.5
7.5
X-ray, 6.1
Population growth, 4.1
UCTOR'S COPY
ISBN Q-DB-DSMSST-D