Strength of Materials by Ramamrutham

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
[For Engineering Degree^ Diploma and A. M. I, E, Students]
By
S. RAMAMRUTHAM
B.E., {CMh M.l.C.B.
PrincipaJ, Modern Colleise of Engineering, New Delhi
Auihor of Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures, Design of Steel Structuies,
Theory of Structures, Applied Mechanics etc.
DHANPAT RAI & SONS

1682, N.\I SARAK, DELHMiC006
(H.O. JULLIÔR)
Design Of Rei^niced Concrete StructnKs
Design of Steel Stmctures
Theory of Straetares
Prestressed Concrete
Applied Mechanics
Hydraulics. Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines Steel Tables
First Edition: 1962
Reprint: 1970
CONTENTS
Chapter *
Pages

1. Simple Stresses and Strains
Introduction Definitions, stress, strain, tensile and compres-
sive stresses Sheat stress Plastic limit Hookes law
poissons ratio Modulus of Elasticity -Modulus of Rigidity,
Bulk Modulus Bars of varying section 'Extension of a
tapering rod Composite section -modular ratio- Bar of
uniform strength- Equivalent area of composite sections
Temiterature stresses Hoop stress Stresses on oblique
sections State of simple shear - Relation between the Elastic
constants Volumetric Strain Rectangular blodt subject to
normal stresses Diagonal tensile and diagonal compressive
stresses Solved problems 1 to 71 Problems for exercise.
1 - 100
2. Strain Energy Impact Leading

Strain Energy Elastic, plastic and rigid members Stresses
due to different types of axial loading Gradually applied
loads Suddenly applied loadj Impact loads Solved pro-
blems 72 to 84 Problems for exercise. 101118
3- Centre of Gravity and Moment of Inertia
Centre of Gravity Definition Lamina Moment of an
area Centroid of a uniform lamina Centroids of laminae of
various shapes Triangle, circle, semicircle, trapezium
Built-in sections Analytical and graphical methods Moment
of Inertia of a lamina Definition Parallel axes theorem
Perpendicular axes theorem Moment of Inertia of laminae of
different shapes - Rectang ilar, ciicular, triangular and com-
posite sections Solved problems 85 to 104 Problems for
exercise. 119157
4. Shear Farces and Bending Moments
Definitions -Cantilevers, simply supported beam, fixed beam,
continuous beams -Conception of Shear Force and Beading
Moment Sign conventionsshear force and Bending Mo-
ment diagrams for cantilevers, beams supported at ends.
Beams with overhangs Point of contrafiexure -Member sub-
jected to couples Members subjected to Oblique loading
Miscellaneous types of members and corresponding S.F.
and B.M. diagrams-;-Iqter-reIation between S F. and B. m!
diagrams To obtain the B.M. diagrams from S.F. dia-
gram- Solved problems 105 to 130 -Problems for exercise.
158-227
5. Stresses in Beaau
Definition Pure or 8im{de bending Theory of simple bend-
ing Netural layer Neutral axis Beading Stress distribu-
tion-moment of resistance Assompôs in the theory of

(i7)
Chapter Pages
simple binding Practical application of bending equation
Sectioi) modulus Section moduli for different shapes-
Rectangular, triangular, circular, I-section, T-section Normal
force on a partial area of a beam section Moment of resis-
tance of a partial area of a bmm section -Fliiched beams
Equivalent section Beams of uniform strength Shear stress
distribution on a beam section Shear stress distribution on
rectangular, circular, triangular, I and T sections Shear
stresses in bolts connecting components in laminated beams.
Proportion of B VI and S F. resisted by flange and web
of an [ section Shear centre Solved problems I3l to 199
Problems for exercise. 228337
6. Direct and Bending Stresses
Stress distribution of the section of an eccentrically loaded
rectangular column. The middle thirdrule Core or kernel of
a section -Circular sectionHollow
section Structural
section Walls and pillars Solved Problems 200 to 223
Problems for exercise. 338370
7. Masonary Dams
Forces acting on a dam Stress distribution on the base of a
dam. Stability of a dam Minimum bottom width of a dam
section. Solved Problems 224 to 228, 371388
8. Deflection of beams
Member bending into a circular are slope, deflection and
ladius of curvature Derivation of formulae for slope and
deflection Cantilever Propped cantilevers- Beams Macau-
lay's Method Beams subjected to couples Moment area
method -Mohrs theorems Relations between maximum
bending stress and maximum deflection Beams of varying
10. section -Strain energy stored due to bending Law of reci-
procal deflections - Bettes law The first theorem of
Castigliano Impact loading on beams Laminated Springs-
Conjugate beam method Solved problems 229 to 312 Pro?-,
blcms for exercise. 38952'
9. Fixed and Continoons Beams
Fixed beam -Relation between the free B.M. diagram and
the fixed B.M, diagram-slope and deflection Effect of sinking
of supports Fixed beam subjected to couple Degree of
fixing Advantages and disadvantages of fixing beams
Continuous beam Clapyrons thcorm of three moments
Solved problems 313 to 324 Problems for exercise. 528581
Toraioii of Shafts
Pure Torsion Theory of Pure Torsion Torsional mement of
resistance. Assumptions in the theory of pure Torsion Polar
modulus H.P. transmitted by a shaft Torsional Rigidity
Stepped shafts Composite shafts Keys Couplings Shear
and Torsional resiltenoe Shafts of non^drcular section Close
coiled helical springs Torsion of a tapering rod. Solved
Problems 325 to 361 Problems for exercise. 582-632
11. Priacipal stresses and strains

Normal stresses Tangential or shear streses Principal stresses
Principal planes Graphical and analytical methods Ellipse
of stress Determination of principal stresses and strains
Obliquity Mohrs circle of stress Combined bending and
Torsion Strain energy in terms of principal stresses
Equivalent bending moment and equivalent torque Principal
strains Criterion for failure Ellipse of strain Solved prob-
lems 362 to 388. Problems for exercise. 633682
12. Thin Cylinders and Spheres
Thin cylinders circumferential ond longitudinal Stresses
Riveted cylinderical boilers Wire bound pipes. Thm spherical
shells Biaxial stresses in doubly curved walls of pressure
vessels Stresses in a conical tank. Solved probkms 342 to
349. Problems for exercise. 683705
13. Hiick cylinders and Spheres
Thick cylinders Derivation of formulae Lammes equations
Hoop stresses and radial pressure distribution compound
cylinders Thick spherical Shells - Solved problems 350 to
413 Problems for exercise. 706726
14. Colnmns and Struts

Introduction Axially loaded compression members Crush-
ing load Buckling or critical load or crippling load Eulers
theory of long columns Different end conditions Effective
length of colums Assumptions made in Eulers theory
Limitations of Euler's formula Empirical formulae

Rankines formula Straight line formula Johnson's para-
bolic formula Formula given by the I S. code Column
abjected to eccentric loading Euler's method Rankincs
method Prof Perrys formula Columns with initial curva-
ture Laterally loaded struts Solved problems 413 to 429.
Problems for exercise. 727 768
15. Rhetcd Jtrfats
Tjrpes of joints Lap and butt joints Failure of a riveted

joint Tearing strength, shearing strength, bearing strength-
EfSciency of a joint Riveted joints in structural steel work
Chain riveting and diamond riveting Eccentric Riveted
connîons Resistance of a rivet against translation and
rotation. Solved problems 430 to 442. Problems for
-
exercise. 769 798

16. Wdded Couaectioiis
The welding process Advantages of welded connection
Disadvantages of welded connection Types of weld Mini-
mum sizes of weld Effective length- Minimum length Fillet
weld applied tp the edge of a plate Angle between fusion
faces - Throat thickness -Intermittent fillet welds Lap joints
- welds in slots or holes End returns Bending about
Fillet
17. a single fillet -Permissible stresses in welds Combined

stresses in welds Eccentric welded connections. Solved
problems 443 to 462 799 830
Analysis of Framed Stroctures
Perfect frame -Deficient frame Redundant frame Reactions

at supports Analysis of a truss -Method of joints -Method
of section Graphical method. Solved problems 463 to 489.
831-914
18. Simple Mechanical Properties of Metals

Yield or flow of material Tensile stress Stress Strain
diagrams for Mild Steel Specimen Limit of proportionality
Ultimate stress Working stress Factor of safety Measure-
ment of ductility -Unwins Method based on reduction of
sectional area Hardness Scratch test Indentation test
Brinnels method Impact testing Fatigue of metals-
Endurance limit. Solved problems 449 to 491. 915922
19. Elements of reinforced Conaete
General principles of design Assumptions Singly reinforced
beams-Nctural axis-Lever arm Moment of resistance
Balanced or economic or critical sections Unbalanced
sections Under-reinforced and over-reinforced sections
Doubly reinforced beams Shear in beams- Shear stresses-
Diagonal tensile and diagond compressive stresses in con-
crete-Stirrups-Diagonal reinforcement Bond stresses
End ancliora.e -Standard hook Reinforcement T and L
beams- Axially Loaded Columns- Combined bending and
direct stresses. Solved problems 492 to 520, Problems for
exercises. 923 998
Appendix Useful tables. 999-1035
Index 10361038
1
Stresses and Strains
1. btrodactioB
Materials which we come across may be claailQed into elastic,
plastic and rigid materials. An elastic
undeigoes amatoial
deformation when subjected to an external load^ such
deformation disappears on the removal oftheloi$ng. plastic A
material undergoes a continuous deformation Ai^ng the ^riod
of loading and the deformation is permanent and materitd does
not regain its original dimensions on the removd' df the lAaffiag
^
A rigid material does not undergo any deformation when subjected
to an external loading.
In practice no material is absolutely elastic nor plastic nor rigid.
We attribute these when the deformations me within certain
properties
limits. Generally we handle a member in its elastic range. Structural
members are all generally designed so as to remain in the riastic
condition unde r the action of the working loads.
2. Resistance to Deformation
A material when subjected to an external load system
goes a deformation. Against this deformation the ateri al will m
offer a resistance which tends to prevent the defonnatitin. This
resistance is offered by the material as long as the ntember is
forced to remmn in the deformed condition.^ This resistance is
offered by the material by virtue of its srrengrA. In the elastic stage,
the resistance offered by the material is proportional to the
deformation brought about on the materia] by the external tna/Ung
The material will have the ability to offer the necessary resistance
when the deformation is within a certain limit. loaded memberA
remains in equilibrium when the resistance offered by the member
against the ddbrmation and the applied load are in equifibriom.
When the member is incapable of offering the necessary leristance
against the external forces, the deformation wOl continue leading to
the failure of the member.
3. Stiem
The force of resistance offered by a body against the
is called the stress. The external force acting on the body is naiw
the food. The load is eppUed on the body white the stress is
in tte material of the b^.
Tj^s of stresses. Fig. 1 (a) shows a rod of uniform
area A and subjected to axial leads F t tiie aids A and B.
.
SntSNOTB OF MAtWIAlS
2
longitaillMl nit f Mie
,-^ .i.io.yyiniialtottc
*'*^theiiieii>bwtalakentooiMSiit(>tlol)iirBCiia B mlo
whicli it is dMded
by the sertioa XX.
consider the equilibrium
of the part C.
Let us .
_ _
subjected to the
, ,
externally F
See Fig 1 (W- This part is
J
P" kli thifoS in equilibrium, the part

C oflm a ri8-
SnolraUhe^Son In other words, we may
XX. say, ^t
XX is offering the resistance R
against a possible
against the deformation is the
stress.
Son XJf. This resistance R
ai>ove, *hc rwislto^
Obviously for the case mentioned
to the load. If the resistance
offered by the section
equal Mdoîte
iMiml tli9 defonnatioD be assumed to be uniform across the^ scctioii>

difcin^sity of the resistance per unit area of the section is called
At ist&uity of stress or unit stress. In common usage the word
sftoss is used to mean the intensity of stress.
P
Intensity of stress =p=-jR =- .
A A
Let doe to the application of the load the length of the member
dtange from / to /+<//.
The ratio of the change in length to the original length of the
memha iscalled strain.

.
a f 8train=e=-j-
=
SDfPU STRESSES AND STRAINS 3
material is capable of offering the following ftrpes

of stresses.
A
When the resistance offered by a section of
(0 Tensile stress.
member against an increase in length, the section is said to offw
a is
a tensile stress. For example, the stress offered

by the sôn XX
rod in Fig. is a tensile stress. The intensity of the tensile
of the 1
stress is given by
R P
The corresponding strain is called a tensile stîn.
_ ^ . Increase in length
.. Tensile strains
(ii) Compressive stress. If the bar >45 of Fig. 1 be subjec^

set up by
to pushing axial loads as shown in Fig. 2, a resistance is
any section such as XX

against a decrease in length.
Fr..2
This resistance is called a compressive resistance. The intensity
of the compressive resistance or stress is given by
Let due to the external loading the len^h of the member

decrease by dl. The ratio of the decrease in length to the original
length is called a compressive strain.
Decrease in length
Compressive strain
Original length
SfRENGTH OP MATSRIALS
4
shows a rectangular block of height
(no Shear stress. Fig. 3
/ and length L and width unity.
Fig. 3
Let the bottom face of the block be fixed to a surface EF.

Let a force P be applied tangentially along the top face of the
block. Such a force acting tangentially along a surface is called a
hear force.
For the equilibrium of the block, the surface EF will offer a

tangential reaction P equal and opposite to the applied tangential
force P. Let the block lx taken to consist of two parts G and H
to which it is divided by a section XX. Consider the equilibrium
of the part G.
See Fig. 4. In order the part G may not move from left to
right, the part H will offer a resistance R along the section XX such
ttot R=P.
(a) ic)
Fig. 4
Similarly, considering the equilibrium of the part H, we find

that the part G will offer a resistance R
along the section XX such
that R^P.
The resistance R along the section XX is called a shear rests-
tmee.
Fig. 5 shows a failure at the section XX
caused by the tangential
loads acting on the top and bottom faces of the block. This type of
ftflure is called a shear failure. In a shear failure, the two parts
into which the block is separated, slide over each other. Hence if
udi a shear failure should not occur, the section XX
must be able
to offer tangential resistances along the section opposing the force P
qt file t<^ face and the force P at the bottom face. For the equifi.
SIMPLH STRtSSHS AND >rRAlNS 5
uz> (b> id
Hig. 5
brium of tbe system the shear resistance R shtndd be equal to the

tangential load P,
R^P.
The intensity of the shear resistance along the section
: XX is
called the shear stress.
Sheai stress - ^ ~
R Shear resistance R _ P
A Shear area Lx l "~L x 1
Shear deformation. Fig. 6 (a) shows a rectangular block sub-

jected to shear forces P
on its top and bottom faces.
Fig. 6
When the block does not fail in shear, a shear deformation

occurs as shown in Fig. 6 (6). If the bottom face of the block bo
fixed, it can be realized that the block has deformed to the position
A^BiCD. Or we can say, that the face ABCD has been distorted
to the position A\B\CD through the angle BCBv=^^.
Let us now imagine that the block consists of a number of

horizontal layers. These horizontal layers have undergone horizontal
displacements by dilferenl amounts with respect to the bottom face.
We can assume that the horizontal displacement of any horizontal
layer is proportional to its distance from the lower face of the block.
Let the horizontal displacement of the upper face of the blodc
be dh Let the height of the block be /.
STRENGTH OF HATBRiAtS
shear strain. We could have

considered any other horizontal layer
say the layer which is at a distance x from the lower face.
XX Let
the layer XX.
dx be the horizontal displacement of
dx
Then shear strain
Since ^ is very small, ^=tan^= j- = shear strain.
Hence, the angular deformation ^ in radian measure represents

the shear strain.
4. Elastic limit
A material is said to be elastic when it undergoes a deformation

on the application of a loading such that the deformation disappears
on the removal of the loading. When a member is subjected to an
axial its section svill olfer a resistance or stress.
loading, When the
loading removed, obviously the stress will vanish and the deforma-
is
tion will also vanish. But this is true when the deformation caused
by the loading is within a certain limit. For every maieriaJ the
property of assuming or regaining its previous shape and size is
exhibited on the removal of the loading, when the intensity of stress
is within a certain limit called the elastic limit. If the loading is so
large that the intensity of stress exceeds the elastic limit, the member
loses to some extent its pioperty of elasticity. If after exceeding the
elastic limit the loading is removed, the member will not regain its
original shape and a residual strain or permanent set remains.
Hooke's law. It is observed that when a material is loaded such

that the intensity of stress is within a certain limit, the ratio of the
intensity of stress to the corresponding strain is a constant which is
characteristic of that material.
Intensi ty of stress
^constant.
strain
In the case of axial loading, the ratio of the intensity of tensile

or cotnpressive stress to the corresponding strain is constant This
ratio is called Youngs Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity* and is
denoted by E
e
In the case of shear loading also, the
ratio of the shear stress to
the corresponding shear strain is found to
be a constant when the
shear deformation is within a certain limit.
This ratio is called Shear
Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity and is denoted by
C, or G. N
fS. Units
In this book SI andMKS units

are adopted to express quantities
of various magoitudes. The following
nomenclature is SiSdT
tlllPLK STRESSES AND STRAMS 7
KILO I0 MILUIQT^
MEGA 10 MICRO 10-
GIGA 10 NANA 10-*
TERRA 1012 PICA I0-*
In the SI units force is generally expressed in newtats. The kilo-
newton ikN) means 1000 newtons.
In the MKS units force is expressed in kg (the earlier practice
was to express force in kg wt).
Stress intensity is expressed in various forms
newtonlmn^, newtonim*, kglcm\ kglnfi
1 J\r/meife2= 10- iV/mm*
1 Njmm^ =10 N/metr^- l mega Newtonlmei^^
Problem !. A rod of steel is 25 mm in ^tnketer and 200 cm
long. The rod is subjected to an axial pull of 450(1 kg. Find {i) the
intensity of stress, (it) the strain, and (Ui) ehngation. TUdce ETl X lOA
kglcm*.
SoIutiOD. Diameter of rod=d=25 mm=25 cm
Length of rod 1200 cm
PoU =P=4500 kg
Area of the section =A ntP ^

kx25*
' =4 909 cnr
.
. P 4500 ,
(i) Intensity of stress =/ 7 kglotfi
f 916'7
(ii) Strain .21x10^
(Hi) Elongation =d/=StramXorigina! length
00004365 X 200 cm
0-0873 cm.
Problem 2. (SI) A steel rod 25 mm

in diameter tmd 2 metre long
is subjected to an axial pull of 45 kN. Find (/) the intensity of stress,
(ii) the strain, tmd (Hi) elongation. Take E2(X) GNfmetr^.
Solution. Diameter of rod =25 mm

Length of rod **2 metn
Puii P=45 jt)^=45000 N
Area of rod (25)*-490-9 mnfl
=-J
=490-9 X10 metr^
P
(i) Intensity of jtresr=/
STRENGTH MATERIALS
8
45000 . ..
490'9X 10r
=9167 X /O Nlmetr^~=9r67 Njmm^
m>9J'67 MN/metr^
(h) Strain
(h7) Elongation
d/^Strain X original length
=00004583 x 2 metre
=^0 0009166 metre
sO'9166 mm.
Probicin 3. A wooden tie is 7' 5 cmwide, 15 cm deep and I'SO
metre long. It is subjected to an axial pull of 4500 kg. The stretch of
the member is found to be 0 0638 cm. Find the Young's Modulus for
the tie material.
SoIntioB. Area of tie=j4*=75x 15=1125 cm^

Pull =/>-4500 kg
.'. Stress hg/cm~
Change in length _ 0 0638 =00004253

Strain
Original length ISO
Young's Modulus = E f
e
40
kg/cm-.
cF0W4253
ProUem 4. A load of 400 kg has
to he raised at the end of a
steel wire. must not exceed 800 kgjcm^
If the unit stress in the wire
what is the minimum diameter required ? Ifâi will be the extension of
3' 50 metre length
of wire ? Take E2x /(/> kgfem^.
SoIntioB. Load on the wire= 1F=400 kg
Area required =A=*y cm^

Let the diameter of the wire be d cm
ueP

^= 0-5
^
d-yj ^^0-7979 cm
7'979 mm
xt0irjiMi=d7=Strainx original length
MMPU STRESSES AMO STRAINS 9
800
2X10*
X3S0 an
=m0l4 cm
=ar4 mm
ProUen 5. (SI) A wooden tie is 60 mm wide, 120 mm deep
and 150 metres long. It is stdtjected to an axial pull of 30 kN. The
stretch of the member is found to be 0625 mm. Find the Young's
Modulus for the tie material.
SoiathM.
Area ofthetie=X==60x 120= 7200 mm=-7200xl0* metr^
Puli=P=30 ifciV=30,000 JV
Stre88-/=
^= 72^^-6 = ^ 10* Nlmetre^
_
. Change in length 0625
Mrain-c=
Qjiginal len^ rsx 1000
= 4 167X 10-
Young's Modulus E=
e
4167X10* , ,
- W=-
=10^ Nfmetr^
=10xl(F N/metre^
=10 GNJmetr^.
ProUem 6 (SI). A 20 mm diameter brass rod was subjected to a
tensile load of 40 kN. The extension of the rod was found to be 254
divisions in the 200 mm extensometre. If each division is etpial to
O' 00 1 mm, find the electric modulus of brass.
Stdathm.
7C
Area of the rod=y4=-^ (20)* mm*
=3 14 16 mm*
=314*16 xl0- metre*
PuIl=P=40 itiV= 40,000 N
r ^ 40,000 ^ ,
Stress- /=-
^ _ 3j4*i6x i0-
= l2732Xl08^/mefre*
Lmgth of specimen=/=200 mm
Extension d7= 254 XOOOl =0*254 mm
Strain=e= =0*00127
10 STKENGTIi OF tIAlEUAXS
t r2732x 108
Young's Modulus=E= Njmetr^
e 0 00127
=^1002-5xmNlmetr^
=l00-25xl(fl Nlmetr^
= 100-25 GNImetre^.
Problem 7. A hollow steel column has to carry an axial load of

200,000 kg- If the external diameter of the column is 25 cm, nd the
internal diameter. Take the ultimate stress for the steel column to be
4800 kglcm^ and allow a load factor of 4.
Soiotion.
External diameter =D =25 cm

Internal diameter -d
Load on the column = 200,000 kg
Ultimate stress =4800 kgjcm^
Factor of safety =4
Ultimate stress
Safe stress =/=
Factor of safety
4800
= 1200 kgjcrn^
4
Sectional area required
W 200,000
= V6-61 (7w2
l200~
( 252 -</2)= 166-67
625-d*^212'21
d2=41279
d20'30 cm.
Problem 8. (SI) The following data refer to a tensile test coif
meted on a mild steel bar.
(0 Diameter of the steel bar -30 mm

(a) Gauge length 200 mm
(itf) Extension at a load of 100 ktl is =0139 mm
(v) Load at elastic limit =230 kN
(v) Maximum load =360 kN
(vi) Total extension
=56 mm
ivii) Diameter of the rod at failure =22' 25 mm
J^'^*^ôte ia) The Young's modsdus (b)
V
p^rcemge clongaO^,
The stress at elastic HmU
71, peSf!
SIMPLE STRESSES AND SIVAINS 11
Solntion.
Area of the rod =^4 =-^(30)* mw= 70686 mm*

= 70686 X 10* metre*
(a) Young's Modulus
P 100X1000 ^ ,
otress-/=^= 706-^ 10^
X
= 14I47X 10 NJmetr^
Strain=e=^ - =0 000e95
Youngs Modulus
r- / 141-47 x108
E 0 000695
=203-55 xKPNImetri^
=203' 55 GNlmetre^
{c) t*ercentage elongation
_ Increase in length -o/

~ Original length
-^XJOO%
(d) Percentage decrease in area
JL
4
d2-d'*
= xl00%
d*
30a-22-25*
_
*"

xl00%
30*
=44'99%.
6 . Ban of Varying Sections
Fig. 7 shows a bar which consists of three lengths /i, h and h
with sectional areas Ai, Az and Aa and subjected to an axial load P.
Even though the total force on each section is the same, the
intensities of stress will be different for the three sections.
For instiUDce,
p
Intensity of stress for the portion lABfi= -j-
12 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
p
and. Intensity of stress for the portion CD^fs^ ^
^3
Let E be the Youngs Modulus.
Strain of the part
Strain of the part BC
and Strain of the part CD=

Change in length of the part AB--=dli=eiIi
Change in length of the part BCdh=cxh
and Change in length of the part CD=dh=exh
Total change in length of the bar=rf/=<//i-f tf/g+J/g.
Problem 9. Fig. h shows a bar consisting of three lengths.

Find
the stres-ics in the three parts and the total extension of the bar for an
axial pull of 4 tonnes. Take E= 2xl(f> kgfcm\
Solution. Load P-4 tonnes =4000 Ag.
Intensity of stress on the part A B
~565'8 kg/cm^.
SIMPLE STRESSES AND S111AINS 13
Intensity of stress on the part BC-fz==
1274 kg.fcnfi.
Intensity of stress on the part CD-fz>
=480 kg.lem*.
-
( 3 25)2
Total extension dl=dh+dh-\-dlz
= 4'î+=|-/2+^.fa
( fth +A&+/3iyi
[565-8x18+1274x26
2 x lO
+480x16] cm.
=00255 cm.
ProUem 10. A bras.i bar having a cross-sectimud area of 10 sq.

cm. subjected to axial forces shown in fig. 9. Find the total change in
is
length of the bar. Take E> ^^ J OSx Kfi kg.Icnfi.
B C
5,000kg. \
8,oo<Jig 2,0(mkg. I
\toookg.
\*-60cm -|* mcw-

Fig. 9.
SolirtioB.Part AB. The section of the bar in this part is sub-

jected to a tension of 5000 kg.
.'. Extension of AB= ^rh

AH
5000 x 60
idx 105x10
= cm. (Extension)
Part BC. The seôn of the bar in this part is subjected to a
cominession of 80005000^3000 kg.
Contraction of BC=~^^-
BC-
STRENOIB OF MAIimiALS
14
3000X100
loxrosxio*
= (extraction)
Part CD. The section of the bar in this part is subjected to a

compression of 1000 kg.
.'. Contraction of CD
'
.4E
1000 xJ20
10x105 xl0
= - cm. =001 14 cm. (contraction)

j
.'. Change in length of the member
Js
CtOlM cm. (Decrease in length).
nnbiem 11 (SI). A member ABCD

is subjected to poin
loads P\, P%, Pi, awif P4 as shown in Fig. 10. Calculate the force Pz
necessary for equilibrium if Pi =120 kN, Pa=220 and P\Î60 kN. kN
Determine also the net chmge h length of the member. Take
<=200 GN/m.
z IB*
Sototion. Resolving the for^s on the rod nlong

,
its &xiS;i wc
120+P8-2M+160
Pz=2^ kN
Part AB
Force on the cross-section-Pi=i 20 kN- 120,000 N (tensile)
Extewdon ofAB=-+r -JjO.OOO X075
.
[1600 X I0~^[200 X
10J
+0 00028 metre +0*28 mm
+ 1
8IMPLB snssnss AND STRAINS 15
Part BC
Force on the cross-section =FiP2 = 120 220 = 100 kN
==100,000 N (compressive)
100000 X
Contracuon of BC^- Fo^l
= OOOOS metre*" O'SO mm
Part CD
)rce on the cross-section=P4 160^kN
= 160000 N (fensUe)
16OO0axl.2
Extension
[900 X lO^'^^^x lO*]'^*'^^
=-i-000107 metre+l07 mm
Net change in length of the member
=+02i-0i0+r&l
^+055 mm (exteniion).
PraUeB 12. A member ABCD

is subjected to point loads, Pi, 2, P
Pa and P4 as shown in figure 11. Calculate the force 2 necessary for P
equilibrium, if Pi 4500 kg., Pz 45000 kg.. Pi 13000 kg. Determine
the total elongation of the member, assuming the modulus of elasticity
to be 2' lx IC^ kg.jcnr^.
M
/!4:
US J
L
I
ftocm mm.
Fig. 11
Sohition. Resolving the forces on the rod along its axis, we

have,
Pi+Ps-Pa+Ps
Bat Pi=4500 kg., Ps=45000 kg. and P4= 13000 kg.
.-. 4500 + 45000=Pa+ 13000
.'. Pj =36500 kg.
Part AB
Force on the cros8>8ection=Pi
=4500 kg. (tensile)
Pih
Extension of AB=
AiE
4500 XlM
'
6-25>
86400
(extatsion)
E

16
STRENGTH OP MATERIALS
Part BC
Force on the cross-section =Pii*8
450C- 36500 kg.
32000 kg. (.compressive)
32000 x 60
Contraction of BC= 25 E
cm.
76800
cm. (contraction)
Part CD
Force on the cross-section=P4 =73000 kg. (tensile)
Pih
Extension of CD=
AiE
'44E
_ 13000 x 90
cm.
12-5
93600
^ cm. ,(extension),
.
Total change in length of the 'member
_ 86400 ,76800 ,93600
103200
. 103200
21 X 10
=0'049143 cm. (extension)
subjected to a tensile
load
SotatloR. Area required for the middle

portion
Rg. 12.
^
SntPU STRESSES AND STRAINS 17
Let the diameter of the middle portion be d rms.

nJ* y6
~4 7
. d=3'7I8 cms
Let the length of the middle portion be x cms.
Stress in the end portions
^' _ 15200
ttx5 ,
kg-lcm^
4
-774 1 kg/cmK
Total extension of the rod--0016 cm.
Extension of the end portions-f Extension ol ti'.c middle
portion
-0016 cm
(.70-.v)4- V
n Kt
-0016
r (3(1
.v;4 nv|6x
r 0 056x2xlO
- 32000

774 1(^0 *
14(KH- -3:('00
23223- ^74 14(Xiv^ 32000

i Vy'i.x 8"77
.T-" ' *
'
J C*K t.
FfoWfm 14. A cjadva'lv load H'- ff ^ is suyponded

M rojh's tr, I v and (A). In hath la.so. rU rapes have
L'i)
a t : rca rj b rnr and the value of E h ki^ enfl.
In (t;) thi ror\: ABC imtimtons and W is nded from a

soio!' frir loon'vs pidh y In it) iB ami CB are topes pined
to a Mock from wluck 14' '
Pt tided m such a Wtvr tear both ropes
striuh by ibe same imioiifit
bind, for t th * *
and ^he stre.^srs In the rope< and find the
downward morettu m A the i idbyand the block dm: [<f the gradual
application of the had {London University)
Strength of materials
18
(a) In this
Solution,
arrangetnent the tension in T-]
since the h52m
the rope is uniform
Let the
pulley is smooth.
tension in the rope be
P kg
ol
T
Hence for the equilibrium
the s>stcm,
2P-H^
W I 45601 4-56m.
/
2 4
-250 kg.
/. Intensity of stress on
the rope section
P nr
-P -
A
250
-kgicmr- M'-i r UNfie
TONNt'
=3 1
25 kg lent*. (
Fig. 13.
Length of the ropc==4 56 4 4 56M'52 10'64 m.

The increase in length of the rope
31-25
<10-64x100 cm.
- 3 394 cm
Let the downward movemeni of the pulley be cm.
2S- 3 394 cm
-77><>r,v2.
ih) In thesecond arrange lunt the h>aJsshai 'i1 by the two

ropes AB and should bc\nC\ th it thc\ estend by the same
ftmount. Let the stress ifiionsiry on the sections of the lopes 4B and
CB be pi ard Pi respccci\cl>\
Biquatmg the extensions of the two r >pe i wc ]ia\e.
m J3 h'0^_
Pi
^ U ^ 45n ^ '
. 4
in - jpi
BqI tennon in i4B4-tcnsion in CB -* W
kg
^X =
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS 19
500
/i+P2=j-
,
4 500
3P8+;2=
7 500
3
^~ 8
p2^26 8 kgicnfl.
and Pi = 26 8 357 kglcm^.
Downward movement of the pulley

Êxtension of the rope AB or CB
^V662 cm.
Problem 15. A steel tie rod 4 cm. in diameter add 2 long is
subjected to a pull of St, To what
length the bar should be bored
centrally so that the total extension will increase by 20% under the
same pull, the bore being 2 cm. diameter.
Take E^2000 tjern^.
et at
Fig. 14.
*
ilutioo.
4 (4)247c cm^.
4n
/ x200=
l_
'E 're X 2000 5
Extension after the bore is made=r2x J-

'5J5
Lei the bar be bored to a length cl I metres. Area at the

reduced section
A' "=4ji " 4

(2)
4nr-ic=>3n enfi. I imttrn
Extension of the rod pi. i<

20
STRi NCIH OP MATERIALS
^
'itx2d00^^ 3nx2U00 25n
(2
- 1) _i_
lOn ^ 15Jt 25si
2 -/ ,
15 25
"^
2/ ^
To
30-15/+20/-'36
5/- 6
/=r2 m.
Problem 16 A rectanr
gular base plate is fixed at
each of its four corners by
a 20 mm. diameter bolt
and nut as shown in
Fig. 16.
The plate rests on

washers of 22 mm. inter--
nal diameter and SO mm.
external diameter. Upper
I
ig. 16 washers which are placed
between nut and plate are of 22 mm. internal diameter and 44 mm.
external diameter.
If the base plate carries a load of 12 t {including self weight

which is equally distributed at the four corners) calculate the stress on
the / er washers before the nuts are tightened-
What would be the stress in the upper and lower washers when the
nuts are tightened so as to produce a tension of 05t on each bolt ?
(AMIE May 1971)
SoIntioD. Area of the lower washer (5 22*) cm.

4
= 15-83 cm.
Load transmitted fo one lower washer = 3/ = 3000 kg.

4
Stress intensity in the lower washer* kg.jcm.*
= 189'4 kg.lcm.^
When
the nuts are tightened the compressive
load in the upper
irasner tension m
the bolt =0-5/ =500 kg.
Area of the upper washer

""X ^4^*2'2*) cm.
= 1140 cm*.
Stress intensity in the lower washer* kg.fcrrfi.
1 1 40
.438S kg.lcm *

SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRMNS 21

Now the compressive load on the lower washer
-^000+500- ^500
Stress intensity in the lower washer
3500
1583
= 22 / kg.Jcnfi.
ProbleoDi 17. Fig. 17 shows a rigid bar ABC hinged at A and

suspended at two points B and C by two bars BD and CE made of
aluminium and steel respectively^ The bar carries a load of 2000 kg.
midway between B and C. The cross-sectional area of the aluminium
bar BD is 3 sq. mm. and that of the steel bar CE is 2 sq. mm. Deter^
mine the load taken by the two bars BD and CE.
{A.M.LE. Nov., 1965)
Modulus of Elasticity for aluminium Eai^7000 kg
Modulus of Elasticity for steel Ef^^ 20^000 kglmm.^
Solution. A rigid rod will
not bend. It will remain straight.
STEEL HOD But the aluminium and steel rods
will extend due to their elasticity.
Fig. 17 shows the position of
the rigid bar after the alumi-
nium and steel rods have under-
gone their extensions.
Fig, 17.
Let the tensions in the aluminium and\steel rods be R kg. and
S kg. respectively.
Since the rigid bar remains straight, the extensions of CE and
BD are proportional to their distances from A.
Let the extension of 3D be 33% = 8
Extension of C = CCi = xS=25

2
But extension of Z?== 8 = 7

A ah a

and extension of . /
Now consider the equilibrium of the rigid bar.

laking moments of the forces on the rigid bar, about the end
A, we have,
/?x1+5x2 =2000x1-5
J?+25 =3000
But ...if)
U 5+25=3000
^' s - 3,(100
3000 x80.
^^ ^ j^ 26 kg. (tensile)
181
X 1326=348 kg. (tensile)

80
7. Extension of a tapering rod
l ilt, i:/
Fig. 19 shows a bar uniformly tapering from a diameter

di at
one end to a diameter d? at the other end.
Let the member be subjected to an axial
tensile load P.
dx of the bar at a distance x
Let
)
*
d'^dikx.
Cross-sectional area at distance
x from the larger end
^
5=s >1' ^
4 --^Wt-Arx)
Intensity of stress on the section
P =P . AP
x(di-A:x)
23
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
P = AP
Strain
ntHdi kxi~
'
E
Extension of the elemental length d'c
êdx
4P
dx
~~KE(di-kx,^
Total extension of the bar

/
_4P f dx
=8.
Ê 1 {d is of unifonn diameter,

dx =d2 ~d
and for this case
s 4P/
^~\EtP
ProMem 18. tapers xmiformly rom 30 mrn. to ] 5 mm.
A rod
diameter in a length of 30 If tin odhe subjected to <m
centimeter'^.
axial load of 600 kg , find the extension of the
rod. Take =- X/ w
kg-Ictrfi.
Solution. The extension of the rod is given by,
S=.
nEdxdi
24 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS
fn our case, /=--600 kg.
/^-30 an.
{li -- 30 mm. -3 cm,

r/2 15 mm ^1*5 cm.
and Eîxnf kg.lcm^.
. 4x600x30
75x2x108x3x1*5
:=.0'()02547 cm
Problem 19. If a tension test bar is found to taper uniformly
from cm. diam tcr to {D{-a) cm. diameter prove that the
error inwheil I*! ushv* the mean diameter to calculate the Young's
Modulus is percent. {A.M.LE. May, 1965}

j
Solution. Diameter at the larger tad^diîDA- a)

Diameicr ai the smaller end ^di (Da)
Let the length of the bar be /
Let the Youngs Modulus be E

Let the extension of the member be S
JFl
API
/: -
^d\d%^
But di - D~\~a and d%D-a
API
If the mean dian<eier be adopted let E' be the computed

Youngs Modulus. Dbvi.msly E is erroneous.
4/V
Ttn^r
4Pl
tzD'H
error in the coraputatioD of the Youngs

vji J
Modulus, when the mean diameter is adopted
E-E'
(^ }
API JPL
nZ)iS
X 1 00 percen
API
^ xlOO percent
^X 100 percent
2
10 a v-
percent.
( D )
Problem 20. A bar of steel /v of lenf'th I and is of uniform

thickness The width of the bar laries uniformly from u at one end
to b at the other end. Find the extenshm of the rod when it carries an
axial pull jP.
.Solution. Fig. 20 shows the tapering rod.

Consider any section X X distant a* from the bigger end.
b
Width of the section = a - y-Â*
^ ^
where k
Thickness at the section ^ t
Area of the section = f (a ~ Ax)

o ^
~ F
Stress on the
/. Extension of an elcmenlaJ length dx
t (a -kx) E

26 STRENGTH OF MATERIAU
dx
tE J akx
0,
(a-kx)
]
P _a
iLk a-Kl 1
a-b
But A-
I
R PI ,
a
b'
/ (a-fc)
Probiem 21. A siraifîii bar of itecl rectangular in section is

SOO cms. long and is of uiiijonn thickness I 5 cm. The width of the
rod varies uniformly from cms. at one end to 4 cms. at the other.
If the rod is subjecleJ to an axial tensile load of 3000 kg.,JinJthe
extension of the rod Take Ta --2x I O kg-jcm'^.
Solation.
pi ^
Extension of the rod , ^ log,
Lt \ao) 0
In our case kg.
/ = 5(H) I ms.
1-15 cms.
a ~ 10 cms.
6=4 cms
and = i0 Aif./cm*
3000X100 ,
10
2 X !!) X rs (10-4) 4
^^H)x300x0'9163
2 x io*irr5x6
0045815 cm.
tSIMPLB STRESSES AND STRAINS 27
8. Bars of Composite Sections
Suppose the cross-section

of a member consists of different
materials, the load applied on
the memW will be shared by the P
various componentsof the
section. For instance suppose a
column consists of an outer tube
of area Ai and Youngs Modulus
El and an inner tube of area A2
and Youngs Modulus 2 . Let
the length of the column be /.
Suppose a load P be applied on
the column. Let the unit stresses
on the outer and inner tube
sections be />] and p 2 .
Load on outer tube-f-Ioad

on the inner tube
~ Total load on the column
P\<\+P%42P ...(i)
Fig. 2l
Let dl be the decrease in length of the column.
Strain of each tube
But i__ Pz
...()
E\ Ez
From equations (i) and (it) the stresses pi
Et
computed. From Eqn. {ii\ pi= - p^*.
2
Problem 22. A compound tube conusn of a steel tube IS cms.

internal diameter and i cm. thickness and an outer brass tube 17 cm.
internal diameter and / cm. thickness. The two tubes are of the
same length. The compound tube carries an axial load of WO tonnes.
Find the .stre.sses and the load carried by each tube and
the amount it
shortens. Length of each tube is 15 cms. Take E$=2xl(P ks tern *
and E.== lx m kg/cm^.
^
SoIntioB Area of steel tubc=/l.= -(17* 15*) cm.*
= 50-27 cm *
^ The ratio
^ is callc i the modular rauo between the materials of thj
outer and inner tubes.

Area of brass tubc>4i ~(I9^ 17^) cm,^
= :6 55c/w2
Let the stresses in steel and brass be p and ph kg.jcm.^ respec-
lively.
Strain in steel Strain in brass
Es Eb
Pb ps-~^2pi>
jL.h
Load on stecl+Ioad on copper = Total load

i-e., p,A,+pt>AbP
2pi-x50 27+p(,x56-55= l00,00() kg.
1 57 09 p(,= 100,000
_ 100 000*^'^^'
,
, ,
157 09
pi, =636' 5 kg-lcm.^
2 X 636 5 = 1273 kg /cm.^
. . Load on the brass tube=Pi,=pi,4i,=636 5x56-55
=35990 kg.
Load on the steel tube 127., x 50 27
= 64010 kg.
Decrease in length of the compound tube
=Decrease in length of either of the tubes
-Decrease in length of brass tube
I
E.
- 36 5
1 xT6 =^0-009548 cm.
bt section. 7^ cm.XJO cm.

The cohmn carries a load
of 18 tonnes
and the steel bars Take E ~>i t tm ?^ stresses in concrete
kg./cm.*
^ f^S-Irm.^ and Ec^014xl(fi
SohtioB. Area of steel bars

i4. = 8x3 l42=25 136 c/w.2
siy 25 14 cm2
Actual area of concrete
"'^="3*-25 14=874-86
, cm*
i-ct the stresses in concrete
and steel be p. and
p, respectively.
SIMn STRBSSES AND STKAINS
Strain in concrete Strain in steel
PL.
"E.
E,
P.-E,- P
21
pt~\Spt .(/)
Load on steel + load on concrete
s=Tot8l load on the column. 22
F4R,
i.e., ptAt-^ptAcP
I Spc X 25- 14+p. X 874-86 =P== 18000 kg.
1251-96^,-18000
18000 , , ,
^' =
l25r96*^/^-
14' 37 kg.tcm.^
/. p$ l5x 14' 37 kg.fcmJ^
=215 55 kg Icm^
ProUein 24. A load of 30 kg. is applied on a short concrete
column 25 cm. 25 cm. The column is reinforced by steel bars of total
area 56 cm.^ If the modulus of elasticity for steel is 15 times that of
concrete find the stresses in concrete and steel.
If the stress in concrete should not exceed 40 kg.fcm.^^ find

the area of steel required so that the column may support a load of
60ft00 kg.
SolotioD. When the column carries a load of 30M0 kg.
Area of steel =*^#=56 cm.*
Area of concrete 25* 56= 569 cm.*
Let the stresses in steel and concrete be p and pe respectively.
Strain in steel = Strain in concrete
JL- P-L
En.
E
psê/p^
pt=l5pt ...(0
load on steel+load on concrete

=Load on column.
piAi\~pcA.=P
15 p X 56-\-p* X 569
30
^-TO.OOO kg.
1409 30,000
30,000 , , ,
pc=2r29 kg-lcm.^
p,= \5 ^21 29= 3I935 kg-lcm.^
When the column carries a load of 60,000 kg.
Let the area of steel bars be An cm.^
Area of concretc=^r=(625-^.) cm.^
Strain in steel Strain in concrete
f-P''-
E. Ec
Pf=p-pc
p.-^-l5pr.
But . Pf ^ 40 kg. Jem
P..--I5X 40-600 kg.lcm.^
Load on steel 4- load on concrete

=Load on column
peAc ~P
600 /l,+40 (625-.4.S)
= 60,000
560 /!.- 35000
. 35000 2
Problem 25. A compound tube is made by shrinking a thin steel

tube on a thin brass tube. A$ and Ab are the sectional areas of the steel
and brass tubes, and % and Eh are the corresponding values of Young^s
Modulus. Show that for any tensile load the extension of the compound
tubeis equal to that of a single tube of the same length and total cross^
sectional area^ but having a Youfigs Modulus of

As'^-Ab
Solution. Let the load on the compound tube be P
Area of steel tube
Aica of brass tube Âb
Let the stresses in steel and brass be and pb respectively,
JP* =r.
Es Êb
ErP'>
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STR MNS 31
Load on steel + load on brass

= Total load on the compound tube
i.e., psAs-{-pbAit=P
E
pbA+pbAi>=F
Eb
]=/>
, rEiiA$'\~EiÊo "]
''[fiAfBx)
Extension of the compound tube
=df
==ExteRSion of steel or brass tuoc
tb
- P-
dh 4\E,A,+EbAb \i
}
Let E be
Youngs Modulus of a tube of area carrying
the same load and undergoing the same extension.
"
*-( {Aa+At,)E
)
jP/ PI
(Aa-\-Ab)E (EÂb^ Eo Ah)
F<Â.ÊuAh
Problem 26. A tube of aluminium 4 cm, external diameter and

2 cm, internal diameter is snugly JiUtd on to a solid steel rad of 1 cm,
diameter. The composite bar is loaded in compression by an axial load
P. find the stress in aluminium when the load is such that the stress
in steel is 700 kg.lcm.'^ What is the xalue ofP ? *> 2 x /O kg.fcm\
Ea^7xl(fi kg./cm.^ (AMLE. May 1969)
SolutioB. 42^22 3jc cm 2

(
i4s~(2)^=^7c cni.^
4
j 1
Modular ratio =i?i

= -zr- = 20
SIRENGTH OF MATERIALS
fa - X 700 kg 245 kg.jcm,^
Total load P lA i
-245 x3Ji-f700X7t 1435 n kg.

-4/OeS Air.
Vrohhm 27/ A rompouiui bar consists of a central steel strip

25 cm wide and 0 64 cm. placed between two strips of brass
each 2 5 cm wide and 1 cm thick. The strips are firmly fixed together
2 5 cm. wide and
to form a compound bar td rectangular section
{2t+0 64) cm thick. Determine <</) the thickness of the brass strips
which will mUke the apparent meduhis of elasticity of compound bar
] 570 tonnes I ctn^ and (h) the ^'laKimnm axial pull the bar can then
carry if (he stress is not to exet d 1*^7 tonnejem in either the brass
or (he steel Take the valuer */ E for steel and brass as 2070 tonnes!
^m.^ and t4(f tonnes fem^ ( London Uni vers ity)
'
Solution. Let the load on the com-

pound bar he P tonnes. 2 sem -
Let the stresses in bra^s and steel be BRA^S

pb and pt tonnesjan ^ respectively.
o^cm
?
Strain in steel strain in biass L

iim SttAtfS
p x_
.
Id Eb Fig. 23
E. "DTO
P
Eb' 114)
P' 1-816
Hut load on steel ] load on brass = Total load
PfÂn+pbAh- P
1*816 p//(2*5x *64) \r
p' x2rx25 - P tonnes.
P- pdim+5t) tonnes.
Area of the composite section
- .4 2*5x0*64 f 2*5 x2r cm.^
r60 r5/) cm.^ i
Apparent Youngs Modulus

E" 1 570 tonnesjem!^
^
Strain
AE
/>d2*9054-5/)
(L6U+5t)1570
This must be equal to the strain of brass
or steel
SiliPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS 33

/>fc^2'90S4~S 0 pi

ll-60+5<)l 570 1140
2*905+51 1570
1*377
1*60+51 1140
2*905+ 5/-2*203+6*8M
1*8851=0*702
0 702
1 = 0*j72 cm
1*885
Since ps= 1*816 pb and since tbe stress in eitbcr biMS or steel
should not exceed 1*570 tomelcml^
Let ptVSlQ tomefcm.^
/>6=-|rg^j 0*865 laww/cm.*
.*. Load on the bar=P=^.^.+p6^>

= 1 *57 X 2 5 X 0 64+0*865 x 2*5 x 2 X0*372
umne$
=2*512+ 1*608 ='^*/2 tmmes.
PfoUen 28. Two vertical wires are suspended at a ^stance of

50 an. apart as shown in Fig. 24. Their upper ends are firmly secured
and their lower ends support a rigid horizontal bar which carries a
load fV. The left hand wire has a diametir of l'6 mm. and is made
of copper and the right hand wire has a diameter of 0 9 mm. and is
made of steel. Both wires initially are 4 5 m. long
(a) Determine the position of the line of action of W if due to
Wf both wires extend by the same amount
(h/) Determine the slope of the rigid bar if a load of 20 kg. is
hung at the centre of the bar. Neglect the weight of the bar.
Take i=*2*l XIO* kg./cm.^ and = 1*3 x |0* kg.jem.*
{A.M.I.E. Nov., 1968)
Sidntioa. ^=0*00636 cm.^
^*=0*02010 c/n*. fi^mft
=1*615 f
^
'*
i4+fnil
. mW
Ar^mA,
I-6I5X('*0063 *||
0*0201 + 1 *615 X00063<J

1 J
34
r*=^0-338 W
Taking moments about copper
0-331 WxSO^lVx ^>0
x16'900 cm. ca
Oae(b) COPPFR
When 20 kg. load is al mid spin U6nim
each wire=10 kg. 0!A.
Load i I OtA
10x450 >0"1722 cm.
*00201 xrîx 10*
10X450
03b3^ cm.
'0 00636x2x10*
J
Let * be the inclination of the rigid
<bar with the horizontal.
^ ,
0-3538 - 0T722 W
30
Fig. 24
=0 003632
JO*
e=(r n\
Problem 29. Two
rods one of steel and the other
vertical
copper are e^h rigidly fixed at the top
of
and are 50 cm apart.
.md length of each rod are ^ cm and 4 metres respectively. Diameter
fixed to the rods at the lower ends carries a
A cross
load of 500 kg such
tlMt the cross bar remains horizontal
even after loading.
stress in each rod and the position ^ Find the
the of load on the bar.
Take E,=2xi0 kg.jcm.^ and E, - x /OO ^^,^2
(A.M.I.E. Winter 1978)
Solution.
Area of steel rod

t' 2 cm 2 cm
-d*-^-(2)*=7t c/m2
OtA OtA
Area of copper rod Ksrm

\copm
te
=* /4 1 = jc cm"^
400
Modular ratio cm
Et 1 X 10* ^
is
a:}
the cross bar
remainVhoSntal ?h!
ônsofthe steel
tods are equal Sinr^Tk 1500 kg
ks *
hnvethe same orSS
strami of these ^ the
rods*are e^Sd Fiib. 25

soms SrRflSBS AND sntAINS 35
Strain in steel^Strain in copper

ete
fÂ
Em Ee
f,==mfe,hM m^2
/= 2 /.
Let 7* and Te be the tensions in the steel and copper rods.
* Ti^fgAt^TlftAi^Tfe ft
T=^fcA=ft ie
T*=2T*
But r.+r4-50OA*
2r.+r,-5oo kg.
r.=
500 , _ j
kg. and
^
r.=
1000
Ay-
Let the SOO kg load be at a distance x from the copper rod.

Considering the equilibrium of the cross bar, and taking
mcnnents about the right end,
500*=r.x50
1000
"
500 X. X50
3
x=33'33 an.
Problem 30. Two vertical rods are each
fastened at the upper end at a distance of
63 arts, apart. Each rod is 300 cms. long and
12 nun. in diameter. A horizontal rigid cross
bar cormects the lower ends of the rods and on
it is placed a load of 450 kg. so that the cross
bar renuuns horizonttd. Find the position of
the load on the cross bar and die stresses in
each rod. One rod is of steel for which snei BRO/Of
E=r96 X 104 kg.jcm.* and the other of bronze ejuf
for which E-^063x 104 kg.fcm.*
SehrtiM. Area of eadi bar
=1131 cm.*
Let the stresses in sted and bronze be
pt aadpv kg-fan.* respecdvdy.
1 Ps 450i^
Since the rigid bar remains horizontal, FIs. 26

the catensions of tiw steel and bronze bars are equal.
SnCBNGTH OTMAmii^
36
Strain in steel Strain in brass.

p
Et Et
Et
Ih
Ei
1%
0 63
ph.
Load on steel f load on brizc-fot|ll load
But i4.=.4=l'311 cm*

3'111 /> X 1*311 +ifex 1*311450
4*650p=450
=9^-80 kg./trrt*.
jp,=3*lll x96*8 30/*l kf./on.*
Cdnader the equilibrium of the rimd rodt see Fig. 26. Let tiie
load be apiêd at x ems. from the steel bar.
Taking moments about the left aid we have

Ax60*=450xjc
.*. 96*8 X 1*131 x60=450:s
96*x 1*131X60
ctns.
.* Xt4'6 cm.
Hence the load must be on the bar at. a diatahee
If 14' 6 cats, from the steel bar. ,
steelbar 50 cm. long and 7 cm. Omiaer

* _1
"Placed mil* m abonimum tube having 7 5 cms. inside diameter and
âmeter The ahminium cylinder is (7015 cm. bm^
^
rS
the sml cybiêr. An axial load of 60,000 kg. is mpHedtê
cover plates as shotm in Fig. 27.
'S'JJV ^îbr<mdthe aheninb^ tube.

Assume &=2 2xi(F kg.fcm.* and E,~-0r7x l(F kg. qti^.
U.m:ls\ May 1964^
Ana of the steel btr-iL - ~ XT* eiR.
-38*49 o*
5 (
afiytB STRBSSS and stsaims. J7
I0 0I5CW
...I
4ca
I "T
f56cn Y
Fig. 2S
Area of tiie almniniani tidw
-A.- j(lO*-7J^ cm.*

=34-36 cm.*
Fig. 28 shows the origiiial diniensioiis of the steel bar and tbe
alaminioiii tube.
Lei the alunusium tabe be compressed by f cm*

The steel bar is ppippressed by (80 015) cm.
change in length
Strain m 9ttelê
original length
*-0-015
50
change in length
Strain in aluminium
original length
5

50 015
Stress in stcd ^ )
2-2xl0*ij/cii#
/>.(- 0 01
-
) 4m0 kg./em?
Stress in
/, 14000 3 kg.laifl.
Load OB steel+Ioad on alumimam
=totaI load on the poflopoate i
ptAf\-pA.^P
(>-0015) 44000 x 38*4H-14000X 3^36=6000011:
SIMNCTH OP IMIBUAU
/. 16938+48I 04*=60+25-4
2174048-85-4
85-4
*- 21^04-
5=0 03928 an.
/.=(S-0015) 44000 kg.Icm.*
-(0 03928-0 015) 44000 kg./an.*
~ 1068-32 kg.lem.^
and 14000 5
= 14000 X 0 03928 kgjcn^.
=549 92 kg.fcnt,^
9. EquWaleot Area of a Compomid Sectioa
Suppose a compound
column consists of a concrete
oolumn reinforced with steel
bars.
Let the gross area of the

oolumn be >4. ^ Ô^RALL
^ ^
ARAgÂ
/
Let the area of steel be ARfACf

ai
A$. snaÂ^
Si
Actual area of con-

mte-ÂcMAAs). ^ ^
' ~
Let the stresses in con- '
Crete and steel be pc and p,

it^)ectively.
p. ^
Strain in Concrete Strain in Steel
P*^mpc ...(#)
where
E,
s called the modular ratio between steel and
OQilcrete.
Load on steel -{-load on concrete =load on column

P*At-\-pcAt^P
pd.A~i~mAt) =P
P.^ iL-_
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
But A,"(AA$)
_ P
A At-f-mAt
P
Â+{m-l)A.
Suppose in place of the composite section, a plain concrete
column of area A-\-{m l)A, had been provided, the stress in concrete
P
A-\-(mljAt
Hence for determining the stress in concrete, we may consider
that the given reinforced concrete column is equivalent to a plain
concrete column whose sectional area
=AtÂ-{-(m lyA*
This area >(<=/4-H(ml) is called the equivalent concrete
area.
Stress in concrete= . ,
Equivalent concrete area
Stress in steel = modular ratio x stress in concrete
The above principle, for instance, can be applied to problem
23, page 28.
column=30 <r/n. x 30 cm.
In the problem, Size of the
Load on the column =18000 kg.
Area of steel .^=8X3 142=2514 cm*.
Modular ratio =m= p-

XSc
=15
.. Equivalent concrete area
=i4=i4+(m 1) At
=30*+(15-l)x25T4 cm.
=1251-96 cm.
Stress in concrete
_ Load on the column

~P'^ Equivalent concrete area
_ 1800CL
kg.lcm.^
"l25r96
1437 kg.fcm.*
Stress in steel=p=mp 15 x 14*37 kg.jcm.^
=s215'55 kg.jcm.^
Problem 32. A steel strip of cross-section 40.'' mm. X 10 mm. is
bolted to two copper strips one on either side, each of cross-sectUm
40 mm. X 7 5 mm. to transfer the load. There are two bolts on the line
of the pull. Show that neglecting frictim and the deformation of the
STKBNGTH OF MATERIAU
the ratio
bolts a pull applied to the pint will be shared by the bolts in
of 3 to 4. Assume E for steel is twice that of copper.
Solntioa.
Figure 30 shows the details of connection of the

members
mentioned in the problem.
Let the load applied on the connection be kg., i.e., the load P
of P kg. is applied at the end of the steel plate. Let the load trans-
ferred to the bolt AbtPi kg. Hence between the two bolts
the load
in the steel plate will be (P-Pi) kg. This load will be transferred to
the bolt B.
The load Pi transferred to the bolt A will be tratisferred to the
two copper plates between the two bolts. Now consider the plates
between the (wo bolts.
Load on the steel plate (P Pi) kg.
Load on the copper plates ^Pi kg.
Strain in steel * Strain in copper.
/Ctms
n n (1 1 /
^ ySTE(i
mmm
^
^ Vi yim
A IOtbw
i \

,
>J
IJ J L jJ .
\
Fig. 30
P-Pi_ Pi
A$E AkEc
. Pi ArEr At Ec
P-PiA.E. A, E,
Pi 2x40x75 \_
P-Pi 40X10
2
-h.
P-Pi
24
But load on the bolt A =Pi
andJhe load on the bolt P*P Pi
Ratio of the loads shared by the bolts
A and B=3 -.4.
ProUem Two copper rods and a steel rod, together support
33.
a rigid uniform beam weighing P kg as shown in
Fig. SL The stKsm
respectively. Find the magnitude of the load

P that can be safelv
^ ^
supported. Young s Modulus for steel is twice
that of cooner.
Area of copper component

-/4.=2f4x 41 -32 cm*.
ample SntBSSES A^D STRAINS 41
Area of steel component

=/!= 5 X S'* 25 cm*.
Length of copper component=f= 15 an.
Length of steel component =1*== 25 an.
Decrease in length of coppcr=Decreaae in lengdi
of steel =8
6=gc/=e/
^5
25 =
If. 0-6
Ce
Stress in steel
Stress in copper=p=ecii
l.==IL =0-6x2=r2
po e Et
:. p$^Vlpe
when p, reaches 600 kg.jcm^. p, wiU reach r2X600-
720 kg /an*, whidi is less than its permissible value.
P^peAfi-ptAt
=(600 X 32)+(720 x 25) kg.
-37200 kg.
42 SnUBNGTH or materials:
FroUen 34. Two copper rods and one steel rod together
support a load of 25000 kg. as shown in Fig. 32. Find the stresses Us
the rods.
Take Et^2xl(fi kg./cm.^ and Ec=1^10^ kg.fcm.*
Sdotim. Each rod will be compressed by the same amount.
Let the decrease in length of each rod be * cm.
Let the strain in copper and steel be and respectively.
. . le
$ 7~ . e
e.-
Y e.
Let the stresses in and copper be p, and pc respectively.

steel
pt=e,Ec ind p,eeEc

^== -
Pc Cc Ec
p,-j p
Load on steel+Load on copper=Total load applied
i.e.,
p/4'4"Pe^=7*
*'**-^^
4
y pX 16+p< X(2x 10) 2SOOO kg.
64
-yPc+20 p-2SpOO kg.
SOiPU STKBSSES AND STRAINS
124
-3- /.==25000 kg.
25000 x3"
kg.lcm.*
124
*
/. pt=60484kglcm.*
p. = j X 604 M=S06 45 kg.lcm.*

PraUm 35. Two copper rods and one steel rod together
su^rt a load as shown in Fig. 33. losses
If the ^^PPff
steel are not to exceed 600 kg.lcnt.* and 1200 kg-lcm- f
P Kg
ROD-s.
I
smi fiO0] COPPER ROD
3CIIIX3CW <cx4<n 5C1flX3C1ll
12 cm
I
/////777?y kW/gr
acR
%}////m//77P
Fig. 33.
Young's Modulus for steel is twice that

load that cat be supported.
of capper.
be compressed to the. same extent.
Each rod will
Let the decrease in length of eiach rod be * cm.

Let the strain in steel and copper be e and
e# respectivdy.

3 Cl. beetle
et L 12
= 0-6
e 20
/
in steel and copper be p and p#

respectively.
Let the stresses
pBênE* and ptêeEo

^-=0*6x2=r2
pt et
p,^\1p,.
permitted to reach its safe stress of 120^
Suppose steel is
kg.lcm.* the oonrespoiKhng stress in cof^ wiBhr^^ 'WO

44 STRBNOIH OP MjllBtlALS
kg.lcm.^ which exceeds, the safe stress of 600 kg-lan.* for copper.
Therefore let copper be allowed to reach its safe stress of 600 kg/cm.*
Corresponding stress in steel wdl be 600 x T2 720 kg.fcnt^^
Total load'P==load on steel t-load on copper
~p$At-i-peAc ,
=720 X 16 + 600 x 2 x 9 kg.

^22320 kg.
Problem 36. Three vertical rods equal in length and each 12
mm. indiameter are equispaced in a vertical and together pl^
support a load of 1000 kg. the rods being so adjusted as to share the
load equally. If now an additional load of 1000 kg. be added deter-
mine the stress in each rod- The middle rod is of copper and the
outer rods are of steel. Take 2 X 10^ kg.jcm.* Et= 1 X 10^ a^
kg-lcm *
SolntioB. (/) Stresses due to the initial load of 1,000 kg.
Area of each bar xV2^ cm.^ = T 13 cm.*

4
Initially the load on each bar
1000,
The initial stress in each bar

1000 ,
po 294 '9 kg./cm.*

(a) Stresses due to additional load of 1000 kg.
stresses in copper and be pe and
... steel /> due to the
additional load of 1000 kg.
Strain in copper = Strain in steel.
Et Eg
^ Ee ^
E* Pc2pc
Load on steel + load on copper = Total load.
P$ /4+pe Ac'=P
2;p.(2xi-I3)+p.xil3
+ 000 %.
5-65 p. = 1000 kg.
p. = ^kg.lcm.*
and
ft m kg./cm.*
p.-2x 177= 354
SmPIB STEBS8ES AMD STRAINS 45
Fiaal stms in copper 294*9+ 177 47/ P kgjcnfl.

Final stress in steel =sp<+ps=:294'9+354=^^5'P kgjcnfi*
Pioble^ 37. A steel rod 18 mm.in diameter passes centrally
through a steel tu^ 25 mm. in internal diameter and 30 mm. in
extenusd diameter. The tube is 75 cm. long and is closed by rigid
wadiers of negligible thickness which are fastened by nuts threaded on
the rod. The nuts are tightened until the compressive load on the
tube is 2 tonnes. Calculate the stresses in the tube and the rod.
find the increase in these str^s$es when one nut is tightened by
me quarter of a turn relative to the other. There are 4 threads per
cm. Take E^2000 tonnesjcm^.
SointipB. When the nuts arc tightened the tube will be com-
pressed and the rod will be elongated. Since HP external forces
have been applied, the compressive load on the tnbe must be equal
to the tensile load on the rod.
f U
0 m
r
^
scM
Fig. 34
Area of the tube (32-2-5*)-

4
81
Area of the rod =Ar=~ x(l-8)*--,\ K crn^.
Let the stresses in the rod and tube be p. and pt tonnesicm.*'

reflectively.
Tensile load on the rod compressive load on the tube
prAt ^pi-A *
At
UK 100
275
^'324^
(0 Vnten the eompressive load an the tdbe is 2 tonnes.
2
.'..Stfess.m flie tobep*^ ^l^romes/em*.
toimeslcn/^
lt926 totmeslen^ {eomprasMlTtey

STRBNGTH W MATIUAU
275
Stress in the rod=/?r^ XO 926 twinesjcm^
^0'7S6 tonneslcm^, (tensile)
(ii) When one nut is tightened by one quarter of a turn.
Lct/t and/r be the stresses due ty tightening of the nut by one

quarter of a turn.
Obviously ft is a compressive stress and ft is tensile, and
324^'
Reduction in the length oi the tube
. /
E
_/,x75
cm.
2000
Extension of the rod
-I'
.Ax 75
cm.
^ 275 /fX75
324 2000
68-66/.
cm.
2000
But contraction of tAc tube'\-extension of the rodâxial advanca
fif the nut.
75/ , 63-66/
2ot)0 2000
* ,
(
~ ) = 0 0625 cm.
75/+63-66/,=.125
138-66/ = 125
fi==0'90 tlcm^, (compressive)

275
0 9 = 0-754 tjem^. {temiU)
*
f'
324
^ netal bar of diameter D and
and E the Yomg s Modulus of the materud

efthebm.
(A.M.I.E. May, 1975)
SBIPLB CniESSeS AND STKAINS 47
SohitiOB. Consider any sectton XX of the

rod distant x from the lower end.
Weight of the rod below the sectioa XX
where 41 sectional area of the rod.
Stress at the section XX^f^ YJf
Consider an elenMntal loigth dx of the rod from XX.
Extennon of the elemental length of rod =~dx FIS.3S

48 STRENGTH OF UATEUAIA
Suppose the area of the upper and lower ends be Ai aad Aa

respectivdy.
Let the area of the section be /I at a distance x from the lower

end. Let the area be 4 at a distance x+dx from die lower
end.
Let the weight per unit volume of the member be w
Ginsider the equilibrium of the strip EFGH
Total force acting upwards Total force acting downwards
Let p be the uniform stress intensity.
p{A-\-dA)pA+wA dx
p dA~wA dx
. .
dA = w dx
j

A p
Integrating, we get
log.
where Cl ^constant of integration

At jr=0,
log* Aa~ Cl
log. -x+iog. A%
w
log. '
X
Ai p
wx
wx
A=Aaf p ...(/>
w/
Obviously ^1=^2/ ..Hi)
Eq- (i) may also be written as
2'3kô X
At p ...mo
Vthe w tfthe bw metres hng.

IM ^nii
*liRtltwe^8tms.leHL^
the tie is to
uJdof
^ ^ material
aMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS 49
Solatioa. Area of the tie at the bottom =A25 cnfi.

Intensity of stress =/= =14000
^000
10
kg.jcrr^.
Wt. per unit volume =M = , kg-lcm^.

lUUJ
Tfce area at any distance x from the bottom end is given by
2'31ogio j
^
Ai p
Let the area at the upper end be A\
23Iogr-^ =
J/
8 X 180 0
^
1000x14000
9
8'/50
logic
-4^ =rooi
A2
Ai^V00lx5^5W5 cm\
Problem 40. Fig, shows a P
rigid square platform of negligible
weight and of side I supported by
four identical elastic pillars each of
height h If a load P be applied at
a point distant a and h from the
adjacent sides AB
and AD
find the
pressure on each pillar and the dep-
ression of the centre of the plat-
form,
Soiotion. Let the pressures
on the legs AA\^ BBi, CCi, DDi
be Pa, Pb, P and Pd respectively.
For the equilibrium of the

platform.
Pa+PK+P.+Pd =P
Taking moments about AB, we have,
Pel-^-Pal^^^Pa
P.+P4 =
Pa
I
m
50
Taking moments about AD, we have

i>/+/c/*=Ph
...(/)
Let Sa> adO be the depressions of the pillars AAj, BBi,

CCi and DDi.' These depressions are proportional to the respective
pressures on the pillars.
SaoiF, 8a AlPa. Where AT is constant

h=KPi,
dc=--KPe
h=KPi
Depression of O Average of depressions of A and C
__8.+8. KiPa+Po)
"
- 2 2
Average of depressions of B and D

K(P^+P4
2 2
P.+Pt^Po+Pi
Rewriting the above equations.
P.+P.+/>.+Pi-P ...(0
Pc+Pd=^ ...(iV)
Pi+Pc=~ ...(f/f)
P+Po=P4-P1 1
..(v)
SaiFU SntESSES and strains SI
Substituting the value of Pd in equation (v/)
<-)}
P-= 1-2 (b-a)[

Substituting the value of Pa in equation (//)
P= -4y|l-2
P=-j^|2 (a+b)
Substituting the value of P in equation (>y)
J*.-P.+Pd-P.= -| 2(a+b)~/|
/-2(a+b)|
Thus the pressures on the pillars are.
P.= -J|3f-2 (u+b)|
P*= -{/+2 (*-<)}
P.=-^|2 (o+*)-/)|
Let the Young's modnius of the material of pillan be E

Depression of the centre O of the platform
=8=J (Depression of the pillar AAi^
depression of the pillar CCi)
where A is the sectional area of each pillar.
But P+P=-^
ProHea 41. Three ropes AD, BDand CD

support a tkaiPas
shown in Fig. 39. If the three ropes are of the same sectioned ana.
52 STRENGTH (Of UATERIAIS
(Ike middk rope be vertical and the other ropes beat 6 with the vertical^
JM the load carried by each rope.
Fig.J9
Sotatioa. Let the length of /</) be /i

Let the tension in the middle
rope be ^
and CD k.
be n
y
Let the tension in each of the ropes
Resoh-ing the forces at D
vertically we have,
/t+2ec6s6-i*
y=l(P- R) sec 8 ..(0
Inraease in length of AD
Increase in length of BD
But
Differentiating, we get,
2/i<//i-2/. dt
dll
-cos
~dl h
h
AE _=cos8
R
I
AE
-j^cos 0 cos* 6
Q^R cos* e .(fl)

But - J?) sece ..(i)
Rcos* 6=
P-R
sec
2
2R cos* 0=(j-/()
J? (1+2 cos* 6)-?
1+2 cos* I
SIMFU SIKBSSES AND STKAOV 53
^_Pcos*0
r+2cos*'8
Problem 42*. A rigid horizontal beam of kngth 21 is earied by
three wires each of length I hut of sectional areas Ait A%, As as shown
in Fig. 41. If a load W
be placed at a distance ,Klfrom the Uft endt
find the tensions in the three wires neglecting the weight of the beam.
Solotioa. Let the tension
lit
in the wire AA' he P, r* I <+ 1
and tension in the wire ^:/j/////////////M////////////,//,C

CCheQ
and tension in the wire
SB' he R. @ 5^ 0 ^
For the equilibrium, we P R g
have
/>4-e+=' -(o
Taking moments about the I"* n
left end of the beam, we have
RI+Q2I^Wia
R+2Q^WK Fig 41.
P^JV-Q-R
==lV-i(fVKR)~R
^W-lfVK~ V
(2-a:)-
...m
Since the beam will always remain straight
Extension of BB' =mean of the extensions of A A' and CCf.
Let the extensions of AA, CC and BB' be Sx, Sg and 9^
Viiii/or siiideuls may leave this numerical.

54 STKEMOTH CH> MATOtlAtS
Since
C
8= f" Sj -
we have
Q-
AzE 2 lAiE ^ AiE
l

--^1
At 1
Substituting for P and Q, we have,

R W(2 K)-R WK-R 1
A3 4f
2>Ji + 2Ai J
_ f K>izA ._WK~R
Aa Ai y<2
[_L ^ -J_ .
a. -LI -_E| 2- R ]
-
1 AAi 4Ag '
Aa _ 4 I
[ Ai A2 )
_
2-K
Ax
^
Aa W
rC.-U.
^ ^
K 4
4,4i 4^2 Aa
R being known the tensions F and Q can be determined from
equations (ii) and (//7).
Problem 43. A uniform rope of length I units hangs vertically-
Find the extension of the first a units of length of the rope from
the top due to the weight of the rope itself Find also the total exten-
sion of the rope.
Solalion. Consider an elemental length dx of the

rope at a distance x from the botto n of tne rope.
Let the weight per unit volume of the rope be

p.
Let the cross- secti,)jal area of the rope be A-
*
Force on tae cross-section of the elemental part
P Ax
. . Stress on the section of the elemental part
Extension of the elemental part
*.
Total extension ~S 1^*^

0

SMPLB SrRGSSBS AXD STRAINS 55
PP
2E
Exteosiou of the top a units of length
Total extension extension of the bottona
(/ fl) units of length.
pp p (/-fl)*
2E 2E
= P-il-df
2El ]
P
" 2E 2 /a o*
^ ^
II aUll d)
11. Temperature Stresses
When the temperature of a material changes there will be corres-

ponding change in the dimension. When a member is free ta
expand or contract due to rise or fall of temperature, no stresses will
be induced in the member. But, if the natural change in length due
to rise or fall of temperature be prevented, stresses will be offered.
Suppose a rod AB
of length / be fixed
at the rads A and . Let the temperature
rise by T. If the member was free to expand,
^
1
the free expansion of the member would be

BB'=Tl where a is the coefficient of linear
expansion. If the member is allowed to freely expand no stresses
will be induced. But if the member is prevented from expanding,
compressive stresses will be induced.
This can be realized as follows.
f =5
=:)
Let the rod B be of length t
Let its ends A and B be fixed.
B a' Suppose there is a rise of tem-
(h>

s.
IZf perature. The rod tends to expand
by 77.
1 +<T<1
Suppose the fixture at the end
B B'
B isremoved so that the rod freely
(t)
N, IJ, expands by aJI so that BB'^â-Tl.

Let now an external load be
(W) applied at B so that the rod is
decreased in its length from (/-|-77)
Fig. 44 to /.
Let a be the sectional area of the rod.
P
Compressive 8tress=p^
a
56 SIRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Strain
z+ar/ /
Stress ,
E (Youngs modulus)
Strain
Hence when the rod is prevented from expanding temperature

stress ôlTE.
The thrust on the rod section
~P~pa
~~(xTa
In generah the temperature strain
_ Expansio n or contracti on prevented

original length
Suppose a rod of length L when subjected ro a rise of tem-

perature is permitted to expand only by 5, the temperature strain
^^JExpansion preverUed
Original length
Temperature stress
^FÊe
E(oTl-l)
/
Problem 44. A rod is 2 metres long at Find the ex-

pansion of the rod when the temperature is raised to 80*C. If this ex-
pansion is prevented, find the stress in the E=-IxJO^
material. Take
kg./cm.^ and = 0-0000/2 per C
(AM/E, May 1974)
Solution. Rise in temperature^ T= 80 10 = 70C.
Free expansion =a T/
.=0-000012 x 70 X 2x100 cm.
O' 168 cm.
Temperature stress =a r
=0 000012 X 70 X 1 X 10 kg./cm.^
=840 kg. I cm. ^
ture of 2^^ is 20 metres long at a tempera-

me
ture ^hen the tempera-
is
IS rtdsed to
raised 6rc. Fmd the temperature stress produced (/) when
E5
the expansion of the rod is prevented (ii) when the rod is permitted to
expand by 5'S mm. Take ol^12x 10~^ per *C and = 200 GNjm.^
Solttilon.
Free expansioo of the rod~a77

-12X10 (65-- 20)20
=^-0 0108 metre
--^-JO'8 mm.
(') When the expansion is fully prevented
1 emperature stress ar
- 12 X 10-^ X (65- 20) X 200 X 10 Njmi
~ 1 08 X ] 0*' Njmetre^
^108 MNImetre^
(a) When the rod is permitted to expand by 5' 8 mm.
In this case, expansion prevented = 108 5*8 5 mm.
/. Strain
Êxpansion prevented
Original length
5 1
20xldb0~4000
Temperature stress ^^Strmnx
1
X 200 X 10
4000
'-=^50X10^ N/mctre-
50 MN metre^
!
Problem 46. (S.I.). A 15 mm. diameter steel rod passes centrally

Through a copper tube 50 mm. external diameter and 40 mm. internal
diameter. The tube is closed at each end by rigid plates of negligible
thickness. The nuts are tightened lightly home on the projecting parts
of the rod. If the temperature of the assembly is raised by 6(fC.
Calculate the stresses developed in copper and steel.
Take Eb^ 210 GNImetre^ c-Î05 ONImetre^

; ;
a, = 72 X 70-6 per 'C a, - 1 7' X 70~^ per

; C.
Solution.
Area of the steel rod = /4.s (1 5)^ mm.^

56*25 n mm.^
Area of the copper tubcv4c ~*(502 40^) mm.^
225 w mml^
Free expansioo of steel v-bTI
jFree expansion of copper cT/
Let the actual expausion of each component be 8

aLcTl>S>asTI
steel is in tension and copper is in compression.
Let / and fc be the stresses in steel and copper.

For the equilibrium of the system
Tension in stccl= Compression in Copper.
f,A,-=fcA<
/-4/.
Actual expansions of steel - Actual expansion of copper
.r+A =a.r- j-
,s Er
But/-4/r and substituting for ats, ac, Es and Ec, we get
12 X 10 XbO+r = i7s X y fio
720 X 103 ^ j^,3_
,
/
3/
=330 X 103
105
jLy / rneirc^
U 'S^x Njmetre^
i(fi
55 MNjmetr^
Z=4/.==4 X 1 \ SS=46 2 MNImetr^.
ends pa^^tûeh
exter^TdiLetTr^
Fit
rt TJ
A SO mm.
screwed at the
internal and
to126C and the iuitt nn of the whole assembly is raised
* of the tube Fnd screwed lightly home on the
common temperamre Iw falleFtol6^''a^
Coefficient of expansion for steel = 1 2x KT* per'C

Coefficient of expansion for gun metal =20
x 10~* per *C
SlfMPLB STAfiSSBS AND SIRAINS 59
Modulus of Elasticity for steel =2'1 x 70* kg-lcm^.

Modtdus of Elasticity for gun metal =0'94 X Kfi kg.Icnfi.
(A M IE., May 1966}
Solatioii. Area of steel tube
32-2-5 Jem.
Area of the gun metal rod=î/= x2*2 cm^.
= 1*21 n cm^.
Let the length of the rod and tube between the nuts be / cms.
If the two members had been free to contract,

free contraction of the gun metal rod 77
free contraction of the steel tube = Tl
Since a,/ is greater than ol* the free contration of the gun metal
rod is greater than the free contraction of the ^teel tube. But, since
1-
^ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZl
6UN metal 90D
Fig. 45
the ends of the rod have been provided with nuts the two members
are not free to contract fully, each of the members will contract by
the same amount. Let S cm, be the final contraction of each rod.
The free contraction of the gun metal rod is greater than 5, while the
free contraction of the steel tube is less than S. Hence the steel tute
will be subjected to compressive stress while the gun metal rod will
be subjected to tensile stress. Let and pt, be the stresses in steel
and gun metal.
For the equilibrium of the whole system.
Total compressive force in steel
Total tension in gun metal.
.* psAn'=p(iAn
r21n
P"
'16
/>=1*76 pg
STRENGTH OF kUTHMAU
60
Final contraction of steel
= Final contraction of gun metal
J,TI+
P.t
a,T+
Ei
T^m - 16 =V/ 0C
Pa
12 X U? 'Jv lUM- 20x I0-XI10
2i X i0 0-94 Xl0
1 : X lie I-
X i 10-
'( 2 r+ok)
Pf^46?'7 kg.icfn^ {tensile)
**. ps i 76 A 462*7 kgjcnfi-
-8I4J kg.lcm-. (compressive)
Problem 48 A steel bar placed between two copper bars

each having the same area and length as the steel bar at A5C. At this
stage they are rigidly connected together at both the ends. When the
temperature iv raised to 315' C, the length of the bars increases by
0*15 cm. Determine the original length and the final stresses in the
bars.
Take 1 -** 2* I x /O kg. /cm? : Er-=^ I X I(fi kgfemi^ ;
---0 000012 per a.-- 0 0000175 per

;
{AM IE, Summer 1978)
COPPER h
COPPCA.
mi
t
01S
cm
Fig. 46
Solatioii.
Let the sectional area of the steel component be A cm.

Sectional area of the copper component=2y4 cm.*
Free expansion of steel component =a< 77
Free expansion of copper component=cr/
Let 8 be the at^l expansion <rf each bar.
.ri <8<xer/
SIMPLE SrRBSSES AND STRAINS 6t
Steel is in tension and copper is in compression.

Let / and fc be the stresses in steel and copper respectively.
For the equilibrium of the system

Tension in steel compression in copper.
fA^f(2A)
Actual expansion of steel Actual expansion of copper.
a,r/+-^ /-a.2Y-4 /
a,7+-4-=- a'7-
^

r-ais-is-soo'c
0 000012 x 300 -0-0000175 x 300- f
2n"xio X 10
12x300+^1 17-5x300-/,
1-9524 /- 1650
ft --- tS'^5* 1 1 kgjcm.^ (compressive)
f2 X 845 ] 1 = 1690 22 kg.jcm,'^ (tensile)'
Now consider say the steel bar.

Actual expansion of the steel bar
=<t.Tl+-^l=0 15
0-000012 X 300
^+2-f x*^j 06
1 690*22
/ 12X300 150000
3600 H- 804*87 /- 150000

4404*87 /- 150000
/. 124 05 cm.
Problem 49. A 12 mm- diameter steel rod passes centrally

through a copper tube 48 mm. external and 36 mm. internal diameter
and 2 50 metres long. The tube is closed at each end by 24 mm. thick
steel plates which are secured by nuts. The nuts are tightened until
the copper tube is reduced in length by O' 508 mm. The whole ossem-
bly is then raised in temperature by 60*C. Calculate the stress in
copper and steel before md
after the rise of temperature^ assuming
diat the thickness of the plates remains unchanged.
Take kg.jcmf, EcÊ05x l(fi kg-jcmK
u.Î2y.lO-^rC and n.Î7 5xl0^rc
62
Solution. Area of the steel rod=.4. ^r2)*cw2.==0-36cm2.
Area of the copper tube

-362) cm.*=252n arfi.
Caseii). Stresses *
Me tightening
to the
nuts. When the nuts
are tightened the steel
K
rod will be subjected
to tcnsiic and me
tensile stress ana the Fig. 47
<x>pper tube will be subjected to compressive stress. Let pe and p$ be
the stresses in copper and steel.
Total compression in coppcr=Total tension in steel.

pCÔ^^psAs
Ar 2 52n
ps-
Ai 0 36k
Pi^lpe
change in -length -
c*
Strain

in copper = er = . f-
original length
OOSOg
e==
250
Stress in copper=pc=ec Ec
0*0508
"
Xl05xl0*g./rm.2
250
=213' 4 kgjcm,^ (compressive)
Stress in steel =pc=7/;a = 7x213*4
- 1493 S kg.lcm:^
Case (a). Stresses due to rise of temperature.
If the two members had been free to expand.
Free expansion of steel == uTL
Free expansion of copper^ x/r/n
Since ac is greater than the free expansion of copper is
grratcr than the frw expansion of steel. But since
the ends of the
rod are provided with washers and nuts the members are
not free to
expand fully Final expansion of each of the members
will be the
same. Let this final expansion be 5. The free
expansion of copper
IS greater than 8 while the free expansion
of steel is less thanl.
Hencethestee rod will be subjected to a tensile stress
while the
cop^r tube will be subjected to a compressive stress.
Let f, and f.
be the stresses in steel and copper. For the equilibrium
of Ac whole
"uuw
system,
Total tension in steel=Total compression in copper

ftAtfeAe
f r
17-^'
Final expansion of steel
=Final expansion of copper
a,Tl.+ ^.
0$
UôlcTL- -/.
iLc
But T=(ffC,
/.=250+4-8 = 254-8 cnw.
and / 250 cms.
12xl0-X60 x
254-8+^-^.J^^^Jg*
/cx250
= 17 5>cl0-x60 x 250-
105x~10
fc.
= 7264 kg.lcm? (compressive)
f, = 7 xn-64 kg./cm.^
f,=S084S kg Im.^ (tensile)
Final stresses due to tightening the nuts and rise of tem-
perature :
Stress in copper ^pc+fc=2l3'4+72'64=286'04 kg./cm,*

(compressive)
Stress in steel =p.+/s = 14938+508'41 =2002' 28 kg.jcm.'
(tensile)
Problem. 50. A steel rod 20 mm. diameter and 6 metre long is

connected to two grips one at each end at a temperature of 120C.
Find the pull exerted when the temperature falls to 40*C (/) if the ends
do not yield (it) if the ends yield by 0 I J cm. Take x l(fi kg.lcm.^ E=2
md.^l2>tlO-^<rC.
Solution. Length of the rod=/=600 cms

Fall of temperaturc=7= 120 40=80C
Case (/) When the ends do mt yield.
Temperature stress=*7!E
- l2xl0-x80x2xl0A:g./cm.2
= 1920 kg.lcm.^ (tensile)
Pull in the rod = Stress x area

= 1920x~x2*fcg
^6033 kg.
Case (ay When the ends yield by O il cm.

Contraction prevented
Temperature strain = Origin^TkiigVh
aTt ^
12X10 80x600 OTl

600
0'^
600
Temperature stress =Strain x Youngs Modulus
^ 0'466 X 2 X 1,nA,
_ / n
0* kg.lcm.^
60^
-1553 kx-lcm.^
Pull in the rod Sttess 'area
= 1553 X X 2 kg. = 4878 kg.
Problem 51. A steel tube cm. external diameter and 3 mm.

thick encloses centrally a solid copper bar of 3 cm, diameter. The
bar and the tube are rigidly connei (ed together at the ends at a tem-
perature of 30"C. Find the stress in each metal when heated ta
I80*C, Also find the increase in length if the original length of the
assembly is 30 cm Coefficients of expansion for steel and copper
are J OSxIO and 1 7xp)'^ rc\pectively per degree centigrade^
E^2' I XlO^ kg^janr for sit'd and I' 1 x iO^ kg.jcm'^ for copper.
Solution.
Area of steel tube ^ (4 52 3 9^)-= 3*959
Area of copper bar -Jr- cm-.

^
Since the coefficient of expansion for copper is greater than
that of steeL the free expansion of the copper bar is greater than
the free expansion of the steel tube. Since the two components are
rigidly connected together at the ends,
actual expansion of steel --^-actual expansion
of copper.
Let be the actual expansion of each component.
8
Obviously, 8 is greater than the free expansion
of the steel tube
than the free expansion of copper. Hence steel is in tension
and the copper bar ms in compression. For the equiBbrium of the
system.
^
Total tension in steel Total compression
in copper
Let the stresses in steel and copper be/# and
ft respectively*
miKB SnUBSn AND SIXAINS C5
f*A*
7069 ^
A,-'" 3-959
1-785/;
Actual expansion of steels Actual expansion of copper
a,Tl+ ^/=.
JDt
n^l Jbc
/.
.T+
In
.acT-^
jt,(t
r=180-30=150"C
rOixiO-6xl50+2Tj47oll'^*<^**
1-785/.
/.
flMOf
1620+
21
-=2550-
^
1620+0-85 -2550-0-9091
/. /,
1-7591 /.=930
/ p930
75^
=^52S8 kg.lcm.* iam^resatfe}
f'l7i5xS2gr-~943-9kg.lem (UHsOey
Increase in length of either component
=. n+ ^ /
( ^+6-)'
1-08x10-6x150+ 30 cr.
=[
*0'062 cm.
ProUem 52. A weight of 20 tomes is supported by three short

pillars,each -5 cm.^ in section. The central pt^
is of steel and the
outer ones are of copper. The pillars are so adjusted that at a tem-
perature of J5C each carries equal load. The temperature is then
raised to 115'C. Estimate the stress in each piUar at JTC and IIS^C.
Take El =2 y 10^ kg Icm.^ ; Et=^0'8xl0^ kgJem.*;tu>^l2xfO-AfC
and e=18 5 x W'^jC. {.A.M.LE. May, 1965)
Solution. Area of each pillar .4 5 cm.*
Initial stresses
At 15C each pillar carries-^ tonnes.
Stress in each pillar toimeslem*.
-I33333kg.lcm.*
I
66
Stresses due to rise of temperature alone. Let the stresses due

to rise of temperature aloue be pc kg Icm.^ (compressive) in copper
p* kg-tern.^ (tensile) in
steel.
and
Lit the change in length of each member be
.r/+-' IôicTl^-
,,T+^^c,cT-Pf
PL . .ir(.-.)=(ll5-15)(18-5-12)10-
Ec Er
P* I
P' looxesxio'^

lx 10*"*'0'8xl0
ILl jPl ==650

2 ^0 8
2/>.+5/>.=2600 ...(i)
Also pc At = pc At
p.X5 -prXlO
p.=2p. ...()
Substituting in Eqn<' (0, we get,
2 X 2pc-l-5pc =2600
P(-==--^-=28889 ^rg./cm.* (compressive)
and Pc=2x288-89 = 577-78 kg.lcm.^ (tensOe)

Final stress in copper
= 1333 33+288 89= /622-2.? kg.Jcm.*
Final stress in steel=l333 33- 57778 = 755-55 %/cm.*
ProMem 53. A flat bar of aluminium alloy 24 mm, wide and
6 mm. thick is placed between two steel bars each 24 mm, wide and 9
mm. thick to form a composite bar 24 mm. x 24 mm. as shown in
Fig. 48. The three bars are fastened together at their ends when the
temperature is 1(PC. Find the stress in each of the materials when
the temperature of the whole assembly is raised to SOTC.
If at the new temperature a tensiie load of 2000 kg. is applied to

the composite bar what are the final stresses in steel and allov ? Take
** X IC^ per C and
m,-m 24 xl(r*perC.
sun PLB STRESSES AND STRAINS 67
Solution* Area of aluminium

â=2-4 X 0-6 - 1-44 cm.2
Area of steel
in=2 X 2*4 X 0*9=4*32 cnfi
(i) Stresses due to rise of tern-
perature. If the two members had
been free to expand,
free expansion of steel ^dsTl
free expansion of aluminium
--OiaTl
But since the members arc fas- Fig. 48
tened to each other at the ends final
expansion of each member would be the same. Let this expansion
be The free expansion of aluminium is greater than 8 while the
free expansion of steel is less than Hence steel is subjected to tensile
stress while aluminium is subjected to compressive stress. Let ps and
Pa be the stresses in steel and aluminium.
For the equilibrium of the whole system
Total tension in steel=Tota] compression in aluminium
PiA$"^paAa
/? X4*32=/?aX 1*44
Final increase in length of steel=Final increase in length of

aluminium.
But 7'-=50-I0=40C
12X10-X40+ ,-fi73-24xl0-*x40- ,

X10
^
480+^=.960|-p.
^+Y/>='480
1920
^+3ip.-19
Pk^S76 kg./cm,* (jeompressive)
x
SIMMOTH <W MAXnUAU
kg.fem*
p^-. 192 kg.lcm.* (tensile)
Hi) Stresses due to enternal load of 2000 kg.

Let the stresses due to the external loading be and / in sleel
nod alumiaium.
Strain in 8teel=8traio in
alaminittm.
. ^L fi
E. .
But load on steel+Load on aluininiom>' Total load
V44fa+Anf,^7m
r-M/.+4 32x3/.-2000
14'4(>/.-2000
..
f 2000.
/144 **/<
.8
^69'44 kg.fcm.* (compressive)
/.*3x 69-44 JIrg./an*
^208.32 hg.fcm.^ (compressive)
Final stresses due to rise of temperature and loading
Stress in aluminhun* 576+69*44 kg.jem^

^645' 44 kg-lcm.* (compressive)
Stress in steel =208'32 192 A:g./ctn*
mi 16 32 kg.jcm.^ (Compressive)
Problea. S4.Two steel rods one of 8 cm. diameter and the other
^6 cm. diameter are joined end to end by means of a turn budUe.
The other end of each rod is rigidly fixed and there is inltialty a
small tension in the rods. If the effective length of each rod is 4
metres, find the increase in this tension when the turn buckle is turned
by one-quarter of a turn. On the rod of bigger diameter there are IS
meads per centimetre while there are 2 threads per centimetre on the
other rod. Neglect the extension of the turn buckle, also what
rise in temperature would nullify the increase in tension.
Take E=2 J0 kg./cm.* and e.^J2'X.l(r^fC.
Selatien. Cross-sectional area of the stnalif- r bar
X 6 cm.*
4
M-2S cwi.*
mVLB STRBSns AND STRAINS 69
Fl|. 49.
Cross-sectional area of the bigger bar
X8* cm.*
4
-50-27 cm.*
When the turn buckle is turned by one quarter of a tsrn
Extension of the smaller bar=-^

^ cm.
Extension of the bigger bar cm.
Total extension of the two rods cm.

o O
7
-24
Let the tension in each bar be T kg.
Total extension in the two bars
400P f 1 1 \
2xl0V 28-28 +,
50-27 I
400 7iS5P 7_
2x10'' 28-28 x 50-27 24
P-26380 kg.
In order this tension must be nullified by rise of tempomture
7
total expansion of the two rods mustbeequal to
Let the rise of temperature be TX!
.-. -xrx 800 -;5

I 2 xl 0 -
24X12X800
-J0-58*C.

rod 32 mm. in diarneter is fixed coêntria^

ProUem 55. A steel
in a brass tube which has

outside ai^ inpde diameters of 48 nm.
34 mm. respectively. Both the rod and the
tube are 40 cms. long
wAicA
^
^
The compound rod is held between two stops
their ends are level.
temperature of the bar is then raised
are exactly 40 cms. apart and the
by 60rC.
distance between
(o) the stresses in the rod and tube if the
Find
(il) is increased by 0 025 cm.
the stops (0 remains constant
stops if the
Find the increase in the distance between the
ib)
force exerted between them is
8000 kg.
rake E>=2x m
kg.jcm.^ Ei.=0'9 x 10* kg.fcm.*
,= 12 X 70 * perC and <tb^2l x /O"* per^C.
Solution, (a) (i) When the distance between the stops remains
constant.
Stress in steel m^ctsTEa
= 12 X 10" X 60 X 2 X 10 kg.fcm.*
= 1440 kg./cm.* (compressive)
Stress in brass ar
=21 X 10"* X 60 X 0*9 X 10 kg.jcm.^
= 1134 kg./cm.* (compressive)
(a) When the distance between the stops is increased by 0025 cm.
Strain in steel
, expansion prevented
,, -r
original length

a.r/-8
/
12X10-^x60 x 40-' 0 025

~ 40
=0-000095
Stress in steel =e=2 x 10 x 0-000095 kg jcm.*
= 190 kg. Icm.* (compressive)
prevented
Strain in brass
onginal length
bTl^
" /
21xlO-x60x4n-0-02S
40
=0000635
Stress in brass =^6
=0-9 X 10* xO-000635 kg.lcm.*
5715 kg.lcm.* (compressive)
8
71'
SIMPU SIHeSSBS AND SPRAINS
(b) When the force exerted between the stops is 8000 kg.
Let the expansion of the composite member be 8 cm.
c*
Strain m steel
* 1
j

12xl(Hx 60 x 40-8
40
=.(720xl0-
Stress in steel pt=Etei
=2x 10* ^720X10^--;^^ kg.lcm.^
)440_^*j kg.lcm.*
Similarly strain in brass
=e
* Tl
j
21 Xl0~x 60 X 40-8
40
=.(l260xl0---^)
Stress in brass ^ptÊb e
=0'9 X I0( 1260 X kg-tcm.*

)
=( 1 134-^ X 10 8 ) kg.lcm*
Area of Steel
=^.ix3'2* cm *
4
=8'04I cw*.
Area of brass =^46= ^^4'8* 34* cm. =9*016 cm*.

j
Load on steel +load on brass

Total load between the stops
ptAt+pi,AbP
(
1440- -2^-)8 04H- (
1 134- x 10 8^ 9 016 =8000 kg.
1 1 580+10220-605000 8 -8000
13800
i(jr 02281 an.
605000'
72 SIMNOTH OP MATBUAU
112. HtacfSiMPi.
Fig. SO diows a thin steel tyje of ioternal diameter d. Such a
tfn can be dirank on to a wheel of slightly bigger diameter D. The

glial -tyie is heated so that its diameter exceeds D. la this stage the
gtee tyre Is slaved on to the whed. U
now the tyre be cooled it it
pnventoi fh>m assuming its original diameter d. Hence it will grip
the wheel.
Hence a pensile stress u induced circumferentially along the
tyre. Sodi a sireas it called a hoop stress.
Temperatttre strain
^ ^
amtraction prevented
original length
icDvd
~ ltd
D-d
~ d
Hoop stress due to fall of temperature
Prahlem 56. A rigid wheel is 3 metres in diameter. It is

derired to shrink on to the wheel a thin steei tyre. Find the internal dia-
meter of the tyre if qfier fitting the hoop stress in the tyre is 900
kg.lem.*. find also the least temperature to which the tyre must be
luated dbofe diat of the wheel.
Take E=2x 10* kg.lcm.* and Oml2xI0^* perC.
Sshaita. Hoop stress p^ ^=900 kg.lcm.*
)2x I0=900
300-d 900
d '2xl0*
d 2X1^
d_ 900
300 2xl0
d 900
300 2X10 approximately
-10*00045 -'999SS
<^'99955 X300c.-299*d5 oiw.
^
y,^****^*?****** to which the ^ must besubjected
fillPUB SntBSSB AND STRAINS 73
nZ)-Kj(H-r)
i+r=
D
d
j- D
~-i D-d P_
d E
p_
E
p
E
900
l2x jD x2xi0
ProUeu 57 (SIX A
rigid wheel 1'25 metre in Udometer is to be
provided with a th^ _steel If the stress in the steel tyre is not to
tyre.
excifid 140 MNImetr^,find the minimum diameter of the tyre. Find
also the minimum temperature to which the tyre is to be raised so that
it can befitted over the wheel.
Take E^ 200 GNImetr<A and uÛxlO-^ per C

Solation. I>= Diameter of the rigid wheel
(/= Least diameter of the steel tyre.
Strain in the tyre =
Stress In the tyre

(^)E^f
D _f _X_ 0007
~ J? ~"200xl0
^
D 1 0007
d
d =0*9v93
D
d~0999i X l-25=r24912 metre.
Jjet the steel be subjected to a temperature rise of T C
l+ar= ,^^vooon
r-o 0007
_ 00007 n58'33 *C.
12X10-*
;
Ratio
13. Lateral Strain and Poissons
load
roH he subjected to an axial tensile
f
Suppo^ increase. But at the same
rod will obviously
P, the length of the decrease In other words, a
pr<Kluoe . r.ta in it. on direcoon,
,ot only
strain.
but will also produce a lateral
Similarly suppose a of the
an axial tensile ^J^/jl^'drforaiation
/ be subjected to take
.
length
^ place such that the
length of the mcml^r
T
t
T
- -I
! ! .
"" 1
J
* * will increase while
the lateral dimensions
/ and diameter d. namely
Shows a rod of length
Fig 5i.
Let 8/ be the increase in length and let
and the depth will decrease.
St and W
be the decrease in width and depth.
.
8 1 .
The ratio is
called the longitudi-

nal strain while the
Fig. 52.

*
strain , or is
d
called the lateral strain.
When the deformation of the member is within the elastic

limit it is found that the ratio of the lateral strain to the longitu-
dinal strain is a constant for a given material. This ratio is called
Poissons ratio and usually denoted by *

For most of the
is
^
netals we come across m lies between 7^ and 4.
Lateral strain
= -= Poisson s
Hence = :

Longitudinal strain
^ .
m
1 t
ratio.
14. Volumetric Strain

When a member is subjected to forces deforming it, it undergoes
changes dimensions and hence its volume will be subjected to
in its
changes. The ratio of the change in volume to the original volume is
called the volumetric strain. This is usually denoted by ev
Change in vo lume
Original volume
15. Volumetric Strain of a Rectangular Bar
Let a rectangular bar / units long^ b units wide and d units deep
undergo small changes by at and Id respectively in length, width
and depth.
Original volume = F= Ibd
smrp STItESSES and strains 75
Final volume =(/+8/)(6+86Xrf+W)

=/W+W8/+ft 8</+d/W
(ignoring products of small quantities)
Change in volume
=SK-W 8/+/h Id+dl 8h
Volumetric strain
_ Change in volume
~
Original volume
bd S/+//> 8</-t-<// 8h
*
Ibd
8/ 8 </ Sb
-J + 'd'+'b
, ,
Volumetric strain^Strain of the length+Strain of the

depth + Strain of the width.
16. Volumetric Strain of a Cyliadrical Rod

Let a rod be / units long. Let its diameter be d.
Let the length and diameter change by 8/ and id respectively.
Original volume =iK=
Final volume =^(d+idHl+il)

4
^ Âd^l+ifiil+2ld id)
4
ignoring products and higher powers of
small quantities.
.. Change in volumc=8K= -~(dîJ+2Id id)
.'. Volumetric strain
_ ch ange in vo lume 8F
~ original volume V
dîl+2ldi<l
d^l
il,.id
Volumetric strain Strain of the length+Twice the strain

of the diameter.
SntBNGTH OT llAraUAU
{17. VohnMtric Stnli f Sphere
Let the diameter of a solid sphere hfd. Let its diameter in-
ciease to d+W.
Original volume of the sphere
6
Final volume of the sphere
.-^d+3dW)
0
ignoring higher powers of id.
Change in volume -IK- 3d*d
Volumetric strain
_ volume iV
rw
Original volume V
3dd8 ,
Volumetric strain = three times the strain of the diameter.
Problem 58. A steel bar SO mm. wider 12 nan. thick tmd 30 ems.
Umg is subjected to an axial pull of 8400 kg. Find the change in die
lengtht wUth, thickness and the volume of the bar.
Take J? 2x iO* kg.fcnl.* and Poisson's ratio=032.
p
Solirtion. Longitudinal strain
kg.jcm.^
5xr2
1400 kg.! cm.*
Longitudinal strain
= 2^=00007
Lateral straka^ Poisson's ratio x LongitwHnai strain
=032 X 00007=0000224
Increase in length of the bar
--e/
-00007 x 30 cm. =0 0210 cm.
Deoease m width =ih=Lateial strain X Original width
sums siussn AND 8IKA1MS 77
-0000224x30 on.
==0001120 cm. (-)
Decrease in thickness S</= Lateral strain x Original thidcnes^
-0'000224xr2 cm.
=0- 0002688 cm. (-)
Volumetric strain e=ei+o+e4
-0 0007-2 X 0 009224-0 000252 (+)
bcreasein volume ev.F
-0 000252x30x5x1*2 on.
=0 04536 cm.^
ProUea S9. A bar of wAform rectangular seetbm A is stdtjectei
to an axial tensile load P. Show that the volumetric stndn is given by
AJa \
I \
m I
where E is the Young's Modulus 'md
,
~
Iff
is the
Poisson's ratio. '
j>
Sdntkm. Strain of the length et
:. Lateral strain Strain of width Strain of depth
=_ -L
m
=mAE
^
.'.
Volumetric strain Strain of length+Strain of width
'4'Strain of depth
AE
f 2

mAE mAE
PMMem 60. A steel rod 400 cms. Img and 20 mm. diameter is
subjected to an axial tensile load of 4500 kg. Find the change in leng^
diameter and the vidume of the rod. Take Et=2xl(P kg.jcm.^ arm
Poissons ratio
Sdutiun. Area of the rod =A=^4 x2* cm.* 3*142 on.*

.*. Tensile stress p==^
1432 kg.lcm.*
Strain of length-
0*000716 (+)
1
STRENGTH OF MATBRIAU
78

Increase in length =0 0007 6 x 400 cm.
=0-2864 cm. (+)
Lateral strain = Strain of diameter
==4- X 0 000716 (-)

4
= 0000179 (-)
Decrease in diaftieter
=0-00(! 179X2 cm.

-0-000358 cm. (-)
Volumetric strain -Strain of length+Twice the strain of the
diameter.
=0-000716-2 x 0000179
=0-000358 (+)
Increase in volume
=0 000358 X X 2^X400 cm.

4
cm3
$18. Rectangular Block Subject to Normal Stresses on all its Faces.
Fig. 53 shows a rectangular block of dimensions x, y and z

so that AB^x^ BF-^y and BC^z.
Let reference axes O.V, OY and OZ be imagined paralleled to
AB.BFmdiBC-
Let the stresses on the various faces be px, py and p^ acting
parallel to the reference axes OXÔY and OZ,
Now the strain of
each dimension can be de-
termined as the algebraic
sum of the strains produc-
ed by the stresses py
and
Strain of
Strain along the
A' axis
Âlgebraic sum of
the strains along the axis X
due to the stresses Pm^pw
and pu
E mE mE
...(0
J
)
SIMPLE S1RESSBS AND STRAINS 79
Similarly strain of -ff/'=e=Strain along the Y axis
E mE mE ...m
Similarly,
Strain of Strain along the Z axis
..(ffO
E mE mE
Change in the length of i4B=Ss=ea X
Change in the length of BF=8t, = ev. y
and Change in the length of SC=Sz*ez z
Volumetric strain =et=ez+ev+e*
_ P* .
E^ E'Ê mE mE mE
=-].(p.+p+p. )-^{p'+p+p>
e.=(p.+p.+pz
)(
Since for the metals we come across m lies between 3 and 4 the
quantity
^
1 ^ ^
is always positive and is never equal to zero.
Hence e=0 if p-t"P"l"P*=0
This is no doubt possible if the stresses py and pt may not

all be like stresses Regarding tensile stresses as positive and com-
pressive stresses as negative the volumetric strain can be determined.
According to the above convention if c: is positive there will be an
increase in volume of the block and if cv is negative there will be a
decrease in volume of the block.
Change in volume of the block ^ eg x original volume of the
block.
19. Stresses b Oblique Sections of a Bar Carrying Axial Load.

Fig 54 (a) shows a rectangular bar of cross-sectional area A
subjected to axial tensile load P
Suppose we consider a normal
cross-section 1
1 (secticn normal to the axis of the member). The
P-
intensity of stress on this normal cross-section 1 The
direction of this stress on this normal cross-section is entirely normal

and no taiigenttal stresses (shear stresses) are indooed on the
-I.*"
section 4
SvppoK weiiowooiiderascciim2 latanMgledwttfi the
Rorml cfonêctlofi.
Fig. 54.
The atea corresponding to the section 2 2 -A sec 6

Intensity of stress on this section
^ ~ yfsec 9
i.e., p'pcos9
This stress being parallel to the axis of the member is not
normal to the section 22.
Now the poll P applied can be resolved into a normal compo-
nent PnP cos 6 and a tangential component P( sin 6. =P Hence
the normal and tangential stress intensities are,
_ P P cos 6
A sec6~A sec 0
p cos 0
and Hi
- P sin 0 . .
The above expressioss for the normal and tangential stress intensities
may also be obtained as follows ;
Consider unit area of the section 22.
Resultant force on this area
=p' X 1 o=p cos 8
acting along th^ axis of the member.
Normal stress intensity
piRsasp-' cos 6ap cos^ 6
iiid tangential stress pt / sin sin 8 oos 8
SIMPLE SrRBSSes AND SPRAINS 81
Suppose the magnitude of the tensile force P be increased till failure

occurs on the section 22.
The failure may be due to excessive normal stress pn or due to

excessive tangential stress pi.
Since p=p cos , p* is maximum when 00

Hence the greatest normal stress occurs on the normal cross-
section. Maximum normal stress =p
Since pip sin 6 cos 0==-jsin 20,
the greatest shear stress occurs when

20 = 90* or 270*
or 0=45* or 135*
Hence on planes at 45* or 135 with the normal cross-section

the maximum shear stress occurs.
Maximum shear stress ax =
It is easily seen that there are two planes perpendicular to each

other carrying the greatest shear stress and these planes are at 45
with the plane carrying the maximum normal stress.
20. Element in a State of Simple Shear
Fig. 55 shows an elemental rectangular block ABCD whose
thickness normal to the plane of the
drawing is unity. Let shear stresses
of intensity q be set up on the faces
A D and BC. Hence the forces acting
on these faces, each of which equals
q.AD, will form a couple. If the
block should be in equilibrium, shear
stresses of intensity say q' must be
set up on the faces BA and DC. The
forces acting on these faces, each of
which equals q' AB
will form a restor-
ing couple.
Hmice for the equilibrium of the elemental block, equating the
couples, we have
qADxAB^q' ABY-AD
9=9
Hence a set of shear stresses is always accompanied by a tran^
verse set of shear stresses of* the same intensity. This principle is
called the principle of oomplementary shear stresses. Tlie element
offering the^ Presses is spid to be in a state of simple shear.
82
-Stresses on Oblique Sections
21. Element in a State of Simple Shear
Consider an elemental rectangular block

ABCD (fig. 56) whose
thickness perpendicular to the

plane of the drawing is unity. Let
this element be in a state of simple

shear offering the shear stresses
of intensity q across the faces
BA, DC and the faces DA, BC.
Consider a plane BE at angle

0 with the face BC. Consider
the equilibrium of the wedge BEC.
This is subjected to the following
forces, Fi?. 56.
(i) a for qBC acting along the face BC 1
(h) a force qKC acting along the face EC ^

(Hi) a force P.. normal to the plane EB
(/v) a force Pi tangential to the plane EB
Resolving these forces normal to the plane
BE and along the plane BE we have,
P,. qBC sin 0+9:Ccos 0
and Pi-- qBC cos i- qEC sin 0
Area of the section corresponding to the sectional plane

BE=-A-=AEy.\
The normal and tangential stresses on the plane BE are
given by
Pn qBC sin ^-j-qEC cos

Pn
^
~ 2q sin 0 cos 0
=^=q sin 20
and /
^qEC sin 0
A BE
=q cos- 0- 9 sin^ 0
~q cos 20
tience the normal and tangential stresses on the j^ne BE are
p~q sin 20
and pt q cos 20
For the planes carrying the maximum normal stress, /> should
be a maximum
pn will be a maximum when s.in 28= 1

i.e., -90
26 =90* or
or 9=45" or 45
when 6=45*, |?n=+?
(positive sign indicates
that the normal stress is tensile)
when 6=
45', 9
(Negative sign indicates
that the normal stress is com-
pressive)
Fig. 58.
Corresponding to 6= 45*, we find pt =0
Hence the planes carrying the maximum normal stresses do not
carry any shear stress.
Obviously for pi to be a maximum
cos 26= 1
26=0* or 180
or 9=0* or 90
On these planes corresponding to the maximum s&ear stress the
normal strc es are zero.
Hence, we come to a very important conclusion.

When an element is in a state of simple shear, maximum direct
stresses are induced on mutually perpendicular planes which are at
45 to the planes of pure shear. One of the maximum direct stresses
is tensile while the other maximum direct stress is compressive.
These direct maximum tensile and compressive stress intensities are
of the same magnitude as the intensity of shear stress on the planes
of pure shear.
The above observation may also be made by considering a
square block ABCD(^\%. 59) whose thickness perpendicular to the
plane of the drawing is unity.
(b)
Fig. 59.
Let us imagine for a moment that the block is of two parts
ABD and CBD. Consider the forces on the part ABD. This is
subjected to a force of qAB*- on the face AB and a force qDA t on
the face DA.
STKENGTH OF MATERIALS
84
Resultant force on the part
ABD= 9* ^B4- 9* DA^ = v'2 aq
where a is the side of the square.
resultant force v/2 <>9 is acting
It can beeasily seen that this
such a manner as to cause a scpara-
norma! to BD and is acting in
tion of the part ABD from the part CBD.

Hence when there is equilibrium
Ihe force V2a9 is resisted
resistance by the section BD.

by a tensile
plane BD
Hence the tensile stress on the
_v2fl9
P*~BDy.\
But BD^\/2a
V2 aq
P'~ via
pn=q (tensile)
similarly, if the block ABCD

had been taken to consist of the
parts ABC and ADC it can be seen that the forces acting on these
two parts tend to press the two parts towards each other and it can
be easily seen that the direct compressive stress is equal to q.
The pure direct tensile and compressive stresses acting on the
diagonal planes BD and AC are called diagonal tensile and diagonal
compressive sti esses.
Suppose the elemental block ABCD is of a material very poor
in offering tensile stresses, then, as the magnitude of the shear stress
will fail due to excessive diagonal
q goes on increasing the block
tensile stress. On the contrary if the material is very poor in
offering compressive stresses, then a failure may occur by crushing
due to excessive diagonal compressive stress.
22. between the modulus of elasticity and the modnlns of
rigidity.
Consider a square block ABCD of side a and of thickness unity

perpendicular to the plane of the drawing (Fig. 60).
Let the block be subjected to shear
stresses of intensity q as shown in the
figure.
Due to these stresses the block will

be subjected to a deformation such that
the diagonal idC is elongated and the
dta gnnal BD is shortened. Consider the
diagonal AC.
The increase in length of the dia-
gonal can be computed by considering
the effect of the diagonal tensile and
diagonal compressive stresses. We know Fig, 60.
that these diagonal tensile and compressive stresses are also of io
tonsity q.
+
Strain in the length of the diagonal /4C=Strain in tl length of

y4Cdueto diagonal tensile stresses on the plane 5Z) (Fig. 59 6)
Strain in length of AC
due to diagonal coihpressive stresses on the
plane AC (Fig. 59 c).
.-. Strainof^C=|+;^=-|(l + -^)
Hence the strain of the diagonal AC=

)
The strain of the diagonal AC may

also be determined from the geometry
of the distorted shape of the block
(Fig. 61).
Let the block ABCD

deform to the
position AiB\CD through the angle
relative to the face DC.
Increase in length of the diagonal

AC
= AiC-AC
Fig. 61, Let AAs be perpendicular to AiC
Since the angle ACA 2 is very small, ACÂzC
Increase in length of the diagonal AC
CA 1 CA 2
AiA-z
- AAi cos AA1A2
But the angle AAvU is nearly equal to BAC~ 45
Increase in length of the diagonal AC
=AAi cos 45
_ 4Ai
~'v2
^ AAi
But shear strain =^=
AAi
a
AAi=a^
increase in length of the diagonal AC
a^
~
V2
But the length of the diagonal ACaV2
- Increase in lengt h
Strain of the diagonal ~ Original length
C
86 STRENGTH OF MATER lALS

1
V2 a\/2
2
But we have also found that the strain of the diagonal
shear
But modulus of rigidity
shear strain
Strain of the diagonal AC

* JL
2 1C
!-2c( I+-i)
The a^ye is the relationship between the Youngs Modulus
and the modulus of rigidity.
123. Bulk Modulus
I
Suppose a b^y
is subjected to like and
equal direct stresses
tbree mutually perpendicular directions.
We find that the ratio
of thr. direct stress to the corres-
ponding volumetric strain is found to
be a constant for a given material.
When the deformation is within a
certain limit, this ratio is called the
bulk modulus and is usually denoted
by K.
Fig. 62 shows a cube
A B C D E FG H of side'a.
Let the faces of the cube be
subjected to a direct stress of intensity
p. Let E be the Youngs Modulus,
and the Poissons ratio.
Let us now consider the strain

of one of the edges, say, AB.
Strain of AB due to stresses on the faces AEHD and BFGC

SlMl'iti STRESSES AND STRAINS
Strain of MB due to stresses on the faces AEFB and DHGC
mE
Strain of AB due to stresses on the faces A BCD and EFGH
-P-.
^ mE
Total strain of AB-
)
Original volume of. the cube
Let the side of the cube change by Sa so that the volume

changes by 8K
Volumetric strain= -jr -3.

V a
Volumetric strain^ 3 xStrain of

3/
Ea 1
-
Stress
But bulk modulus K ^
Volumetric strain
K= 2
-|( m
E--2K
i'-i)
Hence we have
-20 +m
('î)1 ...(0
and =3
< -i) ...()
1 +-;
E
m 2C
and 1 m E
3K
Multiplying eq. (hi) by 2 and adding eq. (/v), we have,
.
E
S8 STRI NGIH OP MATiaUALS
_E0KO
^KC
^ 3K+C
Problem 61. A rectangular block 25 cm. x 10 cm. ^8 cm. is
subjected to axial load as follows :

48 tonnes tensile in the direction of its length
90 tonnes tensile on the 25 cm. X8 cm. faces
too tonnes compressive on the 25 cm. x 10 cm. faces
Assuming Poissons ratio as O' 25 find in terms of the modulus of elasti~
city E of the material the strains in the direction of each force.
If E^2 x }(fi kg.Jcm.^ find the values of the modulus of rigidity

and bulk modulus for the material of the block. Also calculate the
change in the volume of the block due to the application of the loading
specified above.
Solution. Fig. 63 shows the block with its 25 cm., 10 cm. and
S cm. dimensions parallel to X, Y and axes. Z
The stresses in the directions of these axes are,
/*= kg Icm^ {tensile)
^'"' ^25 x^ "450 kg.lcm.^ (tensile)
kg.Jan.^ (compressive)
1 he strains along the three principal directions arc,
600 450 400

MMPLB STRF SBS AND STRAINS 89
=^(600- 50 x0 25)
,
587-5
450 600 400

'
E mE^ mE
= 450-200 x 0-25
,
400
E
c _ 400
E
^
mE'~
450
mE
-i(400+ 1050 \
m )
-|(400+ 1050x0-25
)
662-5
Volumetric strain
=e
587-5 400 6625
=+ ,
E
,
325
E
+ 325_
2X10
Increase in volume=ci> x V
x(:25X10X8 lcm.3
2x10^
\
=0'325 cm.^
We know the following relations between the Youngs Modulus
E and the modulus of rigidity C and the bulk modulus K.
1 \
2 X 108=2C (1 + 0-25)=3/: (1-2 X 0.25)

C^P'Sx 10*^ kg./cm.^
and K=J'33 x /O* kg fcm.^
Problem 62. The modulus of rigidity of a material is 0'8 X l(fi

kg. lend When a 6 mm. x5 mm. rod of this material was subjected to
an axial pull of 360 kg. it was found that the lateral dimension of the
rod changed to 5'999l mm.x5 999l mm. Find the Poisson's ratio
and the modulus of ela'^*'''ty.
Solution. Area of the section of the rod
=06x06cw.
036 cm.
c* ^ 360, 2
.
Stress =^^kg.lcm ,
= 1000 *g./cm.
__
Change injateral dimen sion
Lateral strain ~ Original lateral dimension
6-5-9991
'
6
00009
=0 00015
But lateral strain
-P-
= 00015
mE
J000__ 20000000
'00015 ~ 3
...)
^2 x 10?
3
Also, =2c( H~)

m=2C(m+l)
=
2 X 10^
3
2 x 0-8 X 106 1 )
m+l=4-I67
m=3-167
.'. Poissons ratio = =0-3158
3167
= mE
m
2x10
3x3-1679-501 X10
^
2'lx](fikg.lcm.^
SillPtE STRESSES AND STRAINS 91
Problem 63. For a given material the Young's Modulus is 1100

tonneslcm.^ and the modulus of rigidity is 430 tonnes/cm.* Find the bulk
modulus and the lateral contraction of a round bar of 40 mm. diameter
and 2" 5 m. long when stretched by 2' 5 mm. {A.M.1.E)
Solution. =1100 t/cm.2
C-430 t/cm.^
.^9CK
3K+C
1100
9 X430 K
3 +430
=830 t/cm.* (Bulk-modulus)
'+i)
1100
1 + 4m:-^
2C 2 X 430
r28
m r=0'28=Poissons ratio
Lateral strain = Poissons ratio X Linear strain

0-25
-0-28X
250
=000028
Lateral contraction
0 00028 X 4 cm.
=0 00112 cm.
Problem 64. A
bar of metal 10 cms. X 5 cms. in cross-section is
25 cms long. a tensile load of 40 tonnes in the direction
It carries
of its length, a compressive load of 400 tonnes on its 10 cms. x 25 cms.
faces and a tensile load of 200 tonnes on its 5 cms. X25 cms. faces.
lfE=2000 tonnes per cm.^ and Poisson's ratio is O' 25, find the change
in volume of the bar.
What change must be made in the 400 tonnes load in order that
there shall beno change in volume of the bar.
Solution. Let reference axes X, Y and Z be taken as sbown
in Fig. 64 . The stresses along these axes are,
40
^10X5
= +080 tomes!cm.* (tenslk)
92
-
200
25X5
= + r60 tonneslent. ^ (tensile)
i ig. 64
/ = 1 60 tonneslcm.^ (compressive)
25X10
The Volumetric strain is given by
e,- (/.+/+/.)( l)-r

-(0-8+r60-100 1-0-5
){
I
5000
; Change in volume = e. x original volume,

Change in volume
x 25 x 10 x 5 cm.
5000
025 cm.^
In order that there may not be any change in volume /.+/4-/*
roust be equal to zero
0-80+r60+/* = 0
/j = 2-4 tonnesjem.^ (compressive)
Hence the compressive load on the 25 cm. x 10 cm. faces

= 2-4 X 25 X 10 tonne5=600 tonnes
But the existing compressive load on this face 400 tomes.
Additional compressive load that must be applied on this
face
=600400=200 tomes compressive.
Problem 65. A bar of steel is of square section 60 mm.
x60 mnt. and IS cms. long. It is subjected to axial load of 30 m
tonnes. The lateral strain is prevented by the application of uniform
exterml pressure. If and E2xl(lfi kg.jcm.^., find the
alteration in the length of the bar.

SIMPLE stresses AND STRAINS 93
If, however, only one-half the lateral strain is prevented what

would be the alteration in the length )/ the bar ?
SolotioB. Fig. 65 shows

the bar with its axis placed
vertical.
Axial stress on the normal

30
,ection-pi=g^= -5 ^
tonnesjcm.^
Let the compressive stresses
applied on the side face be p2
and pa. Due to symmetry />2-=/>3
Strain of either side
M.
E '~mE mE
=-I^[/>a-0-3p2-0-3X-|]
-0
.-. 0-7/2=-|'
Pi- tonne! cm.^ {compressive)
Strain of the length =^

is
2~ ITIiS
200C
~ llxlOOO
strain)
13
Decrease in length^ ^
2 fx 2000
=0'000557 cm.
When only half the lateral strain is prevented.
Suppose the lateral stresses had not been applied the lateral
strain would be Since half this strain is prevented by the
application of the lateral stresses, we have
Lateral strain J?* _ -1-. -El

E mE mE 2 mE
94 STRENGTH OF MATBRIAU
P2 1
PL
=T m
EL
m
1-0-3 )=-y xO-3 xA
1
0-7p2= -j-
P2= -^tonnes I cm. ^ {comprexsiv^

Strain of the length
_ IL ; Pi
E mE

^
2000 ^ 81
X
(compressive strain)
\ Decrease in lenth= x ~ x 18 cm.
=0'00(J7 cm.
Problem 66. A
bar of steel is 4 cm. x 4 cm. in section and
is 12 cm. long. subjected to tensile load of 20 tonnes along the
It is
longitudinal axis and tensile load of 50 tonnes and 40 tonnes on the
lateral faces.
(fl) Firtd the change in the dimensions of the bar and the change
in volume.
(b) Find also what axial longitudinal tensile load acting alone
can produce the same longitudinal .strain as in (a).
Take E^2x 10^ tonnesfcm.^
and m
SoIotioB. Fig. 66 shows the bar subjected to the given load
system.
Let reference axes AT, Y and Z be chosen as shown in the figure^
Then stresses along these axes are
/>#==+ tonnejcm.^ (tensile)

^
40 5
p, ^ I
tonnejcnfi. {tetisiie)
I
j
SIMPLE STRESSE AND STRAIN 95
20
/> =+ tonnejcm^-. {tensile)
4x4
Strain along the A'-axis
=e = mE
P* Pz
5
1
2x103!
/^-o-
3x
\
-03 X
24
24X10
Increase in the dimension
parallel to AT-axis
^ 5
X4 cm-
24x103
0 000833 cm.
Strain along the F-axis
=r^ =_EiL Fig. 66

mE 'mE
=0*0000729
Increase in dimension parallel to the K-axis.
=0*0000729 X 4 cw.
-=-0 0002916 cm.
Strain along the Z*axis
-- PJL
E mE mE
m )
(t+i)}
=-0-00034375
Increase in dimension parallel to the Z-axis, i.e,, increase
in length =:0-00b34375 x 12 cm.
=^0-004125 cm.
Let p the axial stress acting alone longitudinally i.e., along the
Z-axis to produce the same longitudinal strain.
4 -0 00034375
1
96 dTRENOTH OP MATERIALS
/) =0'00034375 X 2 X 10 tonnejcm*
=06865 tomelcm.^
Longitudinal load =0686 5x4x4 tonnes.
^10 984 tonnes.
ProUem 67. A 60 mm. diameter bar carries an axial tensile
load of 18 tonnes.
Find the norntal and tangential stress intensities across planes
at 30, 45 and 60 with the normal section of the bar.
SoIntioB. Area of the normal section of the bar
X 6* cm.
4
=2827 cm.
.'. Stress on the normal cross-section
-0'6368 tomelcm.^
The normal stress on any plane at an angle 0 with the normal

section is given by
pn^p cos 6
When 6=30*, /îÔ 6368 cos 30=0 4776 tonnejcm.^ tensile
When 6=45, pii=0'6368 cos 45*=0 3184 tonnejcm.^ tensile
When 0=60, -=0-6368 cos 60* =0 1 592 tonne jcm.^ tensile
The tangential stress on any plane at an angle 6 with the
normal section is given by
p=-2 sin 26
When 0=30*, pt = - sin 60 = O' 2757 tonnefcm.^
When 6=45*, =0'3184 tonnelcm.^
When 6-60*, pt = ^sin 1 20* =0 2757 tonnelcm.^

ProUcni 68> A bar of 30 mm. diameter is subjected to a pull of
6 . The measured extension on gauge length of 20 cms. is 009 mm.
and the change in diameter is 0'0039 mm. Calculate the Poisson's
ratio aid the vcdues of the three moduli.
SMatioa. Diametm- of the bar =30 mm, 3 cms.
Area of the bar =A=^x3cm.

4 ^

=:70686 rm.2
Tensile load =6
tonnes
Intensity of tensile stress
P
^P- A
7G686
=08487 tonnelcm.^
Change in length=8=009 mm =0'009 cm.
Longitudinal strain =e= v=^=0'00045
Y.og-. Modul-- i
~ 1886 tonneslcm.'^
Lateral strain _ Jl^hangc in lateral d ime nsio n
Original lateral dimension
"30 ^
0 003
=-0*00013
Poissons ratio = _
= 1 Lateral strain
m Longitudinal strain
^ 0^ 00013 ^
*
B
0 00045 45
Let C be the Modulus of rigidity,
we know,
-2C {
V
1+ m )
)
58
1886 =2C 2 CX
45
1X86x45
C= ,
,
tomesjcm.-
,
731' 8 tonne/cm.
Let K be the bulk modulus.
we know. E=3K '-i)

(
1886=3 a:
i'-fs)
19
K= ^* ^9 5
" tonne/cm.*
*496 '
torm/cm.*
9< STRENGTH OF MATERIAU
Prd>lcai 69. A steel bar 40 mm. x 40 mm. iOO cm. long in

section is subjected to an axial pull of 12
a tonnes. Taking x 104 E =2
kg-lcm^ ond poissons ratio as O' 3. calculate the alterations in the
length and sides of the bar during the extension. (AMIE, Winter 1974)
Solutioii.
P 12S00
Tensile stress -/=-^ = 4 =800^ kg.jcm^
f 800
Linear or longitudinal strain=e=-^=2j^-j-Q6*=4x 10-
Lateral strain=e=e*=
ntJb
= -0'3x4x10
--r2xl0"*
/. Increase in length Cx x original length
=(4xl0~) 300=0-72 <?i.
Decrease in side (or lateral dimension)

=evX original lateral dimension
=(1-2 X 10-) 4=0-00048 cm.
Problem 70. A cylindrical bar is 2 cm. in diameter and 100

cm long. During a tensile test it is found that the longitudinal strain
is 4 times the lateral strain Calculate the modulus of rigidity and the
bulk modulus, if its elastic modulus is / X /O kgjcm.^. Find the
change in volume, when the bar is subjected to a hydrostatic pressure'
of 1000 kg.jcm.^.
-
Solution. d=2 cm. ; /=100 cm.
Longitudinal strain 4 times lateral strain
=1 X 10* kg.fcm.^ p=l000 kg.lcm.^
Rigidity modulus C=? Bulk modulus K=!
sy=?
lateral s train
Poissons ratio _1 _ __1
;n ""longitudinal strain"" 4
)
1X10
*2t ! -
0 25)
=4 X 70 kg lent.*
f=3fV 1- m
^
)f
^
= rs X 103 X 4 (2)* 100 cm.*

4
=0471 cm,^.
Problem 71. Find the elongation in cm. of a straight bar of
^teel 12 metres long due to its own weight if hung. The value of the
modulus of elasticity of the material is unknown. However ^ it is
known that the modulus of rigidity of the material is 0^88x10^ kg./
cm.^ and Poisson\ ratio is 0*25. Take specific weight of steel equal
to 0*0083 kg. Icm.
Solution.
'+v)
=2X0-88x 10* (1+0-25) kg. [cm*
--2-2xl(] kg./cm.*
Extension of the bar due to its own weight
j0008M1200j^
2x22x10
=0'0027I63 cm.
Exanqilcs on Oapter 1
(1)rod of steel 6 cm. wide and I'S cm. thick is 800 cm long.
A
It extends by 0 558 cm. when an axial pull of 12 00 kg. happêS^
Find the modulus of elasticity of steel. (2'(Ht7 x 10* kg fem^
A rectangular base>|^te is fixed at each of its comers by a

(2)
20 mm.diameter bolt and nut as shown in Fig. 67 At each comer
the plate rests on washers of internal diameter 22 nun. and external
diameter SO mm. The washers provided betwee > the nuts and the
plate are 22 mm. internal diameter and 40 mm. ext rnal diameter.
Find the stress in the washos when the base plate carries a
load of 20^000 kg. assuming dust the hd is equally distributed to
the four comers.
:
100 STRENGTH OF MATtRIAUS
Find also wbat would be the stress in the top and bottom
washers when the nuts are tightened so as to produce a tension of
2000 kg. in each bolt.
(Before tightening
nuts) :
Stress in top washer
Stress in bottom washer

>=^315 9 kg.lcm.^
after tightening nuts
Stress in top washers

^228 1 kg.jcm.^
Stress in bottom washers
= 442-2 kglcm.^
(3) A steel column is 12 cms. in diameter and 3 metres long.
Find the intensity of stress and the strain when it carries an axial
compressive load of 95 tonnes. Take =2 x 10 kg. I cm *
(839-9 kg.lcm .^ ; 0 00042)
t4) Find the extension of the conical rod shown in
Fig. 68 due to its own weight, the weight per unit volume
of the material being w
( 1^)
(5) Find the maximum diameter of a steel wire
with which a load of 350 kg can be raised so that the
^ Fig.^68
stress in the wire may not exceed 1300 kg Icm^ For the'diamctw
chosen, find the extension of the wire if it is 4 metres long. Take
E~2x 10 kg.lcm.^ (5'86 mm. ;
2-596 mm.)
(6) A tie bar has enlarged ends of square section 6 cm. x 6 cm.
as shown in Fig. 69. If the middle portion of the bar is also of square
section find the
size and length of
the middle portion
if the stress there
*
is 1400 kg/cm\
and the total ex-
tension of the bar
is 0 014 cm. Take Fig. 69
i?=2 X 10* kg.jcm r2'5 cm. x 2'i cm ,

77'P cm.J
(7) A rrd circular in section
tapers from 2 cms. diameter at
one end to 1 cm. diameter at the other end and is 20 cms. long. On
applying an axial pull of 600 kg. it was found to extend by O'OMS cm.
FM tile Youngs modulus of ^
material of the rod
(1" 123X10^ kg.fcm*).
2
Strain Energy Impact Loading
24. StniB Energy
When a load is applied on a member, the member is deformed.

The member offers a resistance against this deformation. We know
that the internal resistance offered by the member is the total stress
in the member. It is very important to note that only when the
member has the capacity to offer a resistance to the deformation, a
stress will be induced in the member, when the member is subjected
to a deformation.
Fig. 70 (a) shows a bar of length / and of uniform cross- section

A. Suppose the top end A of the rod is fixed and the bottom end B
is pulled down, so that the rod is extended by
In this position if R is the resistance

offered by the member against the exten-
sion.
I
I]
We have,
rli <fj|
Stress intensity p"

I
Strain =re= - 4^
E
and extension 8=e/=
E^
I
Since the bar is in equilibrium after Pip. ^0

the extension BB\ has taken place
We have RP
Stress intensity =/=
R P
A~ a'
Now let us consider as to what may be the resistance offered
by the member during the process of extension. The resistance at any
instant depends upon the extension at that instant. Suppose at any
instant during the process of extension, the extension of the irember
BB'=x
Strain
I
101
m STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
X
/. Stress intensity
/. Resistance = R' " AE

But when the total extension B has taken place, resistance
AE-r
Hence the resistance R' offered by the member goes on increas-
ing as the extension ^ goes on increasing. This resistance therefore
increases gradually from zero when the bar is not stretched, to R=P
when the bar has stretched fully by 8.
Hence in order to extend the member by S the average resis-
tance put forth by the member
R _P
"
i ~ 2
Hence work done against the resistance to extend the member
Average resistance X distance for which
the resistance is overcome.
This w ork done on the member will be stored by the mem-

ber as energy and is called strain energy.
Strain energy is the energy absorbed or stored by a member
when work is done on it to deform it.
Suppose a member is of such a material that it docs not offer

any resistance at all against the deformation. Such a member can-
not regain its original shape after the load producing the deforma-
tion IS removed, in oihcr words when the member allows itself to
be deformed without oHering any resistance at all. there will be no
Mress in the member. Hence it is very important to
^ recognize this
fact that the stress induced by a member is
entirely due to its
^ deformation. A member
iraich allows itself to be deformed without
any resistance is said to
teptoyc. When a member is in a plastic stage, no stress will be
uiduoed by its section due to any deformation of the
member.
Amcmber which allows itself to be deformed, bat will offci a
mistanoe to the iteformation is said to be elastic. Hence when an
WjStK memb^ IS kept in a deformed position the member will be
orowng a resistance. When the external load producing the dc-
focmatiofi is mraber will regain its original dimension.
said
wtitngm*
STRAIN ENERGY IMPACT LOADING 103
Strucniral members, we come across, are neither plastic nor

rigid. In general, structural members are elastic allowing themselves
to be deformed and offering a resistance against the deformation
when the deformation is within the elasic limit. If the member is
deformed beyond the elastic limit, the member will certainly allow
itself to be deformed without offering any more resistance.
Let us now consider the elastic member in Fig. 70.
Let P be Che load causing the deformation. Let p bd the stress

in the member when the full extension S has taken place.
.. Stress
.'. R=pA^P
Work done against the resistance, on the member
= Strain energy stored by the member
= Average resistance x displacement
R s
2

But S=e/ where e is the strain

and R^pA
Strain energy stored by the member
= 2
. /> . e {Al)
as . Stress X Strain x Volume of the

member
But e=-|-
Strain energy stored by the member
Strain energy stored per unit volume

*-
2E
25. Stresses due to varioas types of Axial Loads
Gradually applied load
Let a load of magnitude P be applied axially on a member of
p
length 1 and uniform cross-sectional area A. Let 8/ be the extension

of the rod. I^t p be the stress intensity in the rod.
Strain Enefgy stored by the member
-^ AI
~2E '
Work done by the external load = Average load X extension.

1
P.8/
Equating the strain energy stored by the member to the work

done by the loading.
We get. -I
But 8 /.
Âl-^-P
IE
P-l
r- E
^
/>=
Suddenly applied load. Let the load P be suddenly applied.

Let the extension of the member be 8/ In this case the magnitude
of the load is constant at P throughout the process of extension.
Let p be the maximum stress induced.
Equating the strain energy stored by the member to the work

done.
We get, P 8/
But
I
A!=
2E
Hence^ the maximum stress intensity due to a suddenly applied

load is twice the stress intensity produced by the load of the same
magnitude applied gradually.
,
STRAm ENERGY- IMPACT LOADING
Impact load.
In this case the load P is dropped from a

height h before it commences to stretch the bar.
Fig. 71 shows a vertical bar whose upper end is
fixed at the top and a collar is provided at the
lower end. The load P drops by a height h on
the collar and will thus extend the member by S/.
Let p be the maximum intensity of stress
produced in the bar.
Extension of the bar
-"-I-' {
I U
Equating the loss of potential energy to the
strain energy stored by the rod,
we have. Fig VI.
2E
p(*+|).
Al-
E
Pp 2PhE
A " Ai
pz
Adding
^ to both sides of this equation,
we get.
2-2^P+
P
^= P^.2PhE
ÂÂ^ A*^-Ar
( P P^ ,2PhE
p- -^^J\ '+lPhE
A y A Al
^ A V A^ ^ Al
When S/ is very small in comparison with h
Loss of potential energy =/%
Equating the loss of energy to the strain cnerjr\
we get. Ph^.^Âl
^
SIKENGTH OP MATERIALS
When A0, from eq. (i),
we get,
which 18 the case of the suddenly applied load.
Having determined the maximum instantaneous stress, the in*

stantaneous extension is given by
Pkrobleni 72. A steel rod 5 irn. in diameter is 3 metres long. Find

the maximum instantaneous stress induc ed when a pull of 10 tonnes
is suddenly applied to it. Find aho the instantaneous elongation. Take
E^2x l(fi kg jem!^
SolotioB. Area of the rod x5^ cm.2
*
2^ 2
-
T5 cm.^
4
Since the load is suddenly applied the maxing um stress is double
the stress due to gradual application.
Max.
P
stress /7-2
_ 2x10 ,
tormejem.^
019 tonne i cm.

Max. instantaneous elongation
E'
-
~' I
'2x 103
-=01528 cm.
I^raUMl 73. An unknown weight fails hv J cms. on to a collar
fj^ly attached to the lower end of a vertical bar 4 metres long and
10 cm. in section. If the maximum instantaneous extension is found
to be 0 366 cm.y fmd the correspondimt stress and the value
of the
unknown weight. Take E 2 x 1(1^ kg /cm -
SMatioB. Maximum stress Ex Max. strain
-2X10X
1830 kg fcm.^
STRAIN ENERGY IMPACT LOADINU
Let P be the load.

Equating the loss of petential energy to the strain energy stored
by the rod, we have,
(1830)2x10 x 400 .
'2x 2 x 106 x 3 366'

=PP5-y kg.
Problem 74. A steel specimen I S cm^ in crosss-ection stretches

by (yooS cm. over a S cm. gauge length under an axial load of 3000 kg.
Calculate the strain energy stored in the specimen at this stage. If
the load at the elastic limit for the .specimen is 5000 kg., calculate the
elongation at elastic limit and the proof resilience
(AMIE, Winter, 1977)
SolatioB.
.<-*r5 cm.2
SyO'OOS cm.
1=5 cm.
P=3000 kg.
Load at elastic limit
-5000 kg.
Strain energy stored =work done
-l(3000)(0 005) -7-5 kg. cm.

Elongation due to 3000 kg. 0W5 cm.
5000 1
.'. Elongation due to 5000 (0005)=-2q cm.
=elongation at elastic limit.
Proof resilience (Maximum strain energy in the elastic condition)
Work done at this stage

^(load at elastic limit)
(Extension)
= J X 5000 X kg. cm.
==2(7833 kg. cm.
Problem 75. A bar 100 cm. in" length is subjected to a pull

such that the maximum stress is equal to 1500 kglcm^. Its area of
108 STRENGTH OP MATERIAU
cross-section is 2 cm?' over a length of 95 cm. and for the middle 5 cm.
length the sectional area is I cm?. lfE=2xl(fi kg.lcm*., calculate
the strain energy stored in the bar. {AMIE, Summer 1975)
Solutton.
P=1500k^
Let the stress in the larger part
fi kg.jcm?
Stress in the smaller part
~fi \ 500 kg /cm.^

AREA^Zcm^ 47Scm
A} =2 cm? A 2 = cm? ; I
fi M=hA2
:. /i=750 kg.jcm?
Total strain energy stored
AReA=lcm^ 5cm
/i*
~ 2 ^ volume of the larger
part
/*
+ ^ volume to the smaller
AREA- 2cm* 475 cm
part
2X2X10* 1(WX2X95)
+ (l500*x lx 5)] cm.
29 5 J kg. T= 1500 kg
cm-
Fig. 72
l^blem 76. An object
of weight 10 kg. falls by gravity a
vertical distance of 5 metres when it is suddenly stopped by a collar
at the end of a vertical rod of length 10 metres, and diameter 2 cm.
The top of the bar is rigidly fixed to a support. Calculate the maximum
stress ai^ strain induced in the bar due to the impact. Take
==2x IC? kg.jcm? {AMIE, Winter 1979)
SdiitkM.
Falling weight = W= 10 kg.
A = 5 metres^ 500 cm.
I - 10 metres 1000 cm.
d2 cm.
E-2x\(fi kg.jcm.*
Maximum stress w* 2EWh

15" Al
STRAIN ENERGY IMPACT LOADING 109
But
and
/=3183+v' 10 1 31 + 2x2x10 >c:VlH3XO-5

=^2526-278 kg./cm.^
Maximum strain
/
E
=00012631
2x10
Problem 77. {SI) A load of 100 Newtons falls by gravity a
vertical distance of SOO cms^ when it is suddenly stopped by a collar
at the end of a vertical rod of length 6 metres and diameter 2 cms.
The top of the bar is rigidly fixed to a ceiling. Calculate the maximum
stress and the strain induced in the bar. Take EÎ'96 x JO^NIcm,^
Solution.
Falling weight 100 Newtons
/i==300 cm,
/==6 m=600 cm.
d2 cm,
:= 1-96 X 107 A^/cm.2
Maximum stress
, lEWh
/-:r+V'
A +VlT)+-(-^){4)
But
w 100
=31-83 JV/cm.*
A
(^)M31-83)*=1(13-
300
and =0-5
7
/=3r83+v'l013-H-2 xl-96x I0x3r83 x0*5

==24977 N/crn^.
-
110
"^wqfmajewau
Maximum strain^ e= L
E
= 24977
196X107 '"(>001274
%4w$i
k^*lcm?
SoIntkMi. Area of the

bar= ^ v ,2
^
tMth themaximum
4
instan(ane, *
=078*4 cw.*

Maximum elongation kg./cm.*
by the mem?,i^*^*f potential energy

to the
stnun energy
,tor
24-1- -%
2'^^
*
-4x2x2x106
"7854
^
07854X150

/^-30-36;,8,47(^
=814933
-15-28 -902-8
Alternatively, P -
T4
/
But J2
12
0*7854 28 kg.jcm,^
150

^^^00 kg/cm.*
STRAIN ENEROYIMPACT LO<DING Ill
Maximuni elongation
= 8 /=^-/
E
91808 X
150 cm>
2xI0
-0 06885 cm.
ProMem 79. A mm. diameter is firmly held in a
steel wire 25
clamp from which it hangs vertically. An' anvils the weight of which
may he neglected, is secured to the wire I' 8 m. below the clamp. The
wire is to be tested allowing a weight bored to slide over the wire to
drop freely from I metre above the anvil Cidadate the weight
required to stress the wire to 100 kg.jmm.^ assumbtg the wire to be
elastic up to this stress. Take 21 X 70 kg./cm.^
Solution.
Maximum stress "*/>= 100 kgdmm.^^ 100 x 100 kg.jcm.^
= 10,000 kgdcm.^
Area of the wire = 7-(0'25)**=0 04909 cm.^

4
Instantaneous extension
X 180 CJ. =0*8572 cm.
Let P be falling load.

Equating the loss of potential energy to the strain energy
stored by the wire, we have,
P (H 81) - ^ Al
/ (100 ! 0*8572)= 04909x180
24'2xTo
( 10,OOOV X 0*04909 ^180
^
100-8572 x2x2'1x 10
^T086 kg.
Problem 80. A weight W

falls a distance h bifore beginning to
stretch a bar of length I and cross sectional area A. Derive expressions
for the maximum stress induced w the bar when
(a) the maximum extension is negligible compared with h
(b) the maximum extension is of the same order as h
(c) A
bar 3 metres long and 5 cm. in diameter hangs vertically
and has a collar securely attached to the lower end. Find the maxi-
mum stress induced :
(i) when a weight of 250 kg. falls by 15 cm. on the collar

Hi) when a weight of 2500 kg. falls by 15 cm. on the collar.
Take E^2 J X I(fi kg Icm.^
112 SfRENGTH Of> UATSMALS
Solution. S/ be the extension and let p be the maximum

stress
(a) when the maximum extension is small compared with h

Loss of potential energy of the load
Wyh-\-M) = Wh (since 8/ may be ignored)
Strain energy stored Al

IE
Equating the loss of potential energy to strain energy stored
Wh-- Al
2E
l2WhE
sj'- Al
(h) when the maximum extension is of the same order as h
Loss of potential energy of the load
W(h+M)=w( h+-^ I
)
Strain energy Al
2E
Equating the loss potential energy to the strain energy
W(
) J:
2E
Al
-
2 A^ = IWhE
Al
Solving as a quadratic in p we have.
W yip ,2WhE
P=
,
A'^
+ Al '
For the numerical, H'=-250 kg.
/(= X 52 = 19-63 cm*.

4
(0 when a weight of 250 kg. falls by 15 cm. on the collar.
For this case >'250 kg. and A== 1 5 cm.
The maximum extension being small compared with h
\ At
^1635 kg.lcm.*
I
(UtAiN ENERCic mpact loaimkg 113
(li) when a weight of 2500 kg. folk by 15 cm. on the collar

For this case JF=2500 kg. aod A=r5 cm.
The maximum extensioo being of the same order as that of h
2WhE
Al
_ 2S00 2X2500X1-5X2 IXIO*

19-63 19-63 x 300
= 127+1640 kg.lcm.^= 1767 kg./cm.*

PnAlem 81- A vertical romd steel rod, I'Si metres long is
securely held at its upper end and a wei^t sliding freely on the rod
falls on to a stop at the lower end of the rod. When the weight falls
from a height of 3 cm. the maxinum stress readied in the rod is
estimated to be 1570 kg.fcm.^ Determine the strea if the load had
been applied gradually and also the maximum stress the load had ^
fiJIen from a height of 45 cms. Take =2" 1 x 70 kgfem.*
Solution. Maximum stress=p = 1570 kg.fcm.*
Maximum extennon
= 8 / = -? 1
E
1570
X 182 cm.
21x10
=0-1361 cm.
Strain energy stored by the rod
= ^dl kg. cm.

Let the falling weight be W kg.
Loss of potential energy of the weight
= W{h+hI)kg.cm.
= FF(3+0 l361)jfeg. cm.
=31361 W kg. cm.
Equating this loss of potential energy to the strain energy
stored, we have,
**
7
31361 A!
IE
L
2 {i
1570

2
114 SISENOIH OT MAiatUU
J1
A 2 31351
=3407 kg./an*
If the load R7had been gradually qifdied the intensity sbeM
wookl be -^^=34'07 hg.fctn.^

A.
If the load had fhllen from a height of 4S cms. the maxtumm

stress is given by
W* j_ 2WhE
P
nr*' la
But
W -3007 kt.lan*
S cfff*
p=UW+^ (34*07)a+2x3407x~^ X21xl0
kg.lcn^*
-1915 kg./em*
FnAlem 82. A top end comics
vertical tie, fixed rigidly at the
of a steel rod 2' 5 and 20 mm. diameter encased tbrou^mut
metres long
m a brass tube 20 mm. internal diameter and 30 mm. external diameter.
The rod and die easily are fixed together at both ends. The compound
rod is suddenly loaded in tension by a weigfit of 1000 kg. faOing freely
through 3 mm. before being arrested by the tie. Odculate the
maximum stresses in steel and brass. Take Et2'x.l(fi kg.fcm.* and
/ X 70* kg.fcm.* (A.M.I.E^
SidBtkNi. Area of steel rod
X2 cm.*
4
=3142 cm *
Area ot brass tube
=
=3-927 cm.*
Since the elongations of the steel rod and
brass tube are equal,
we have.
Strafai in sted=sttain in brass
Inhoi and / be die stress intennies in
fM and bram. 1%. 73
{TRAIN BNBKOY IMPACT LOAlriMO 115
E. &
E$ 2x 10<
lxlO ^
/)=2/u
Extension of each bar- . 8 /=

P I
Loss of potential enepgy of the load=îP ih+il)
pjt
Strain energy stored by steel rod'- ^pA$l
Ob*
Strain energy stored brass
Equating the loss of potential energy of the load to the strain

energy stored by the steelrod and brass tube.
1000
(
0-3+ -^250 )-j^rX3 I<2250
>'3-7x230
+2&*
300+0-250 p=0 0007856 p*+0*0004909 p
0 0012765 p*2-0-250 -300
p8_i95-g p-23SI00
(p-97-9)=235100+(9r9)*-244685
p6-9r9-494'6
pb5925 kg. Ian.*
p$2 pb^lISS kg.Jan.*

Problem 83. i4 member formed by camieetii^ a steel bar tom
aluminium bar is shown in Fig. 74. Assundng that the bars are
116 S1REKOTH OF MATERIAU
prevented from buckling sidewise, calculate the magnitude of the force

P that will cause the total length of the member to decrease by 0 25
mm. The values of the elastic modulus for steel and aluminium are
2100 t/cm^ and 7(^ tjcm^ respectively. What is the total work done by
the force P ? (A.M.I.E.)
Solntioo. Area of the steel bar

5 X 5=25 f/n 2
Area of the aluminium bar

=/la= 10X10 = 100 cm2
Total change in length
PU
i AtEs ~ÂaEa
r
90 cm. ^5cmx5cm.
STEEL QAR
pr_A_
L A.E.
, -i2
^ AaEa
_V
J
38
8
25x2100 100 X 700 J
0 025 cm,
78P
0025
'locmnwcm.
700 X 100
BBcm. ALUMtNtUM BAR 0*025x700x100
tonnes
78
*. P ^22* 44 tonnes
Total work donc=i x load x deformation
X 22*44 X 0*025 tonne cm.
= i
Fig. 74.
^0'2805 tonne cm.
Problem 84. A vertical steel rod^ ISO cm. long, is rigidly secu-
red at its upper end and a weight of 8 kg. is allowed to slide free!)
on the rod through a distance of JO cm. on to the stop at the lowei
end The upper 70 cm. length of the rod has a diameter of 20 mm
while the lower 60 cm. length is 16 mm. in diameter.
Calculate the maximum stress induced in the bar ignoring tht

extension of the bar in determining the potential energy given up b)
the weight. E=^2X 10^ kg.lcm.^. {London University]
Solution. Area of the upper part
x2^ cm.=3*14 cmS^
Area of the lower part
1*6* cm?- 2'01 cm.*

SrRAiN ENERGY JMPACT LOADING 117
Let the stresses in the upper and lower

portions be pi and p^.
We have, pi/li =P2/<2
Az
Ai
pi
mil6\2
=064 Pa'
Pi
(0
l,= 70 cm.
.
2omm.oi
Strain energy stored by the rod Strain =

energy stored by the^per and lower parts
= -^[(o 6 p2 X 3- A X 70+P22 X
201 X lHHm. DIA

6oJ kg. lent.
105-3
'pa*
Ignoring the extension of the rod (d

the
wtcntial energy given up by the falling weight
=8x10 kg. Icm.
Equating the total strain energy

stored
0 the loss of potential energy, we have. Fig. 75.
105-3
P2*=8 X 10
. 8 x 10x2X10*^
Pt
105-3
P2 1232 kg.cm.^
Examples in Chapter 2
metres long and 6 cms. diameter. It is subjected
r. t
hei?*'^^ d"^^20,0W^^^ Find the stress and the etenS

ir^^ ln!i *1 the maximum
maximum elongation if the load had been suddenly
^
PPlied ? Take =2x
10 kg lcm\ (707 3 *g./cm J/ow Sf.
1414-6 kg.lcmK, 0-2122 cm.)
vertical steel rod, 5/8 diameter is rigidly secured
at its
Pperendand a weighlofl5r. is allowed to slide
fteSTon t
CQrough a distance of 3 in, on to a stop at the
lower end of the
Ilg STRENGTH OF MAIERUij
rod which is 50 hi. below the fixed eod. Find the maximum stn
induced in the rod.

What would be the maximum stress reached if the upper
length of the rod had a diameter of 3/4' with the lower 20' lenj
remaining at 5/8' diameter ?
In both cases take >30 x 10* Ibs.Jin^. and ignore the extension
of the rod in the determination of the potential energy given by tlie
weight. {London University, 13330 lbs.lm\ ;
14700 Ibs.lin^]
(3) An unknown weight falls by 2*20 cm. on to a collar rigidi;
attached to the lower end of a vertical bar 32S mctrer long and
6 cm} in section. If the maximum instantaneous extension is known

to Im 02S cm., find the corresponding stress and the magnitude of
the falling weight. = 2 x 10* kg./cm/
{1538 kg.lcm.^ ;
4706 kg.)
(4) A bar of a certain material U' diameter and 4 ft. long

has a collar securely fitted to one end. It is suspended vertically^
with the Collar at the lower end and a tensile load of 5000 lbs. isj
gradually applied to the collar, producing an extension in the bar

of 0*011 in. Find the height from which this load could be dropped
on to the collar if the maximum tensUe stress in the bar is to be
6 tons per square inch. {London University) {0'07175 in.)
(5) A voticai steel rod of 2 *5 cm. diameter checb the fall os

itsend of a wei^t of 230 kg. which drops through a distance dj
0*38 cm. before it strikes the rod. Find the shortest length of tbi
rod \^h will bear the impact if the stress is not to exceed
1260 kg./cm*. Take =2xl0* kg./cm^. Verify that the lengtk
found is the least possible length. {4848 cm^,
3
Centre of Gravity and
Moment of Inertia
26. Ceatre of Gniltj
The centre of gravity of a body is iftcr pouit tfavu^

wiMi the resultant of the syst^ of pirallel fords formed by
weights oj all the particles of the body passes^ for eMpositbms of the
^
body, A gtven body has a definite centre of gravity.
Centre of gravity or centroid of a lamina.
Fig. 76 shows a lamina of definite area, the lamina may
Fig. 76.
be takmi to consist of an infinite number of particles lyhîn Ae

ifiaoe of the lamina. Snpposethemassesof the various poctidesbe
mi, mi, mg, etc.
The weights of these paitides form a system of paiaOd foroea
13 img, iiteg, mag and m4g...esc. Let the coonKnates r^thevaiions
paitides be (xi.yi), (xio^ (xsj*s). (x*, M

etc. refened to a set of
nfiamoeazesOJifandOF. Let the mass of the odiole landna be
Jjfso that the weight ai the whole lamiiia is Jlfg. Let G betbe oentie
of gnvity or oentnrid <j the lamina.
119
120 SntENOTH OF MATQUAU
Let the coordinates oft? be ix, / ).
Hence Mg is the resultant of the forces, mig, mtg, mag, msg etc.
Sii^ the sum of the moments of a system of coplanar forces equals
the moment of the resultant we have, tiUcin^ moments about O,
mg xi+mag X2 +ntag xa+m4g X4+......
-MgT
.
mxt+mtxt+ maxa+miXi+ ...
M
By a similar reasoning imagining the lamina and the reference
axes as turned by %*, it can be shown that
wiyi-fmsy2+<W8j>3+W4>>4+...
^ At
Uniform lamina. This means a lamina where particles within
equal areas of the lamina are of equal weight. If a uniform lamina
has a symmetrical shape the centroid of the lamina will be the geo-
metric centre of the lamina.
Moment of an area about a
point. This means the product of
the area and its centroidal distance
from the point.
Centroid of a uniform lamina-
Fig. 77 shows a uniform lamina of
surface density p per unit area. Let
the total area of the lamina be A.
Let G be the Mntroid of the lamina.
Hence the weight of the lamina Âg
acts through 6'.
Consider an elemental area da
of the lamina at a distance x from the axis O Y. The weight of the
elemental part is p da g. The moment of this force about the axis
OY^9dagx.
Total moment of the weight of lamina
=P^gA- -Spdag X
="Pg 2 dax
Hence if a lamina be split up into smaller areas ai, at, aa,...ete.

-_ Moinent of the individual
jpass' ' '
areas about O Y-
'' -
Total area
or
Sifflilarly
CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MCRlENr O.' =nA 12 !
X3...are the centroidal distance of the areas

where xi, xs,
tti,at, aafrom
tto axis and j OY >3.. .are the centroidal
distances of the areas ai, at, as-.-from the axis OX.
Plobleai 85. Find the centroid of the lamina showA in Fig. 78.
areas A BCD and EFGH as shown in Fig. 79 of areas.

2x 10=20 cm*.
and 15 x 2=30 cm*, respectively.
Centroidal distance of A BCD from the axis 1 1=7 cms.
Centroiddl distance of EFGH from the axis I 11 cm.
Let J be the height of the centroid of the lamina from the axis
1
- 1.
- lay
~ 20 x 7+ 30x1 cms.
la 20+30
=3 4 cms. above the axis 1 1 .
The above computation may be conveniently worked out in a

tabular form as shown below :
!
Centroidal
Area distance
Comppment a from Il
cm*.
y cm.
ABCD 20 7 140
EFGH 30 1
Total SO 170
- lay
2a
50
17 ^ =m34 cms.
I 1 1
122 SIMNGIH OF MATERIAIS
PraUcB 86- the centroid of the kmtina diown in Fig. 80.
SolotkNi. The given

lamina will be split up
into a number of com-
ponents. The areas of
the various components
and their controidal
distances from axis 1
and the moments of the
individual components
about the axis 11 are
shown in the following
table. (D-
H
\r -Mm,-
Fiff. no
Area Centroidal dis-

Component a tance from 1 ay
cm.* y cm}
cm.
ABCD 10x2 13 260
EFGH lOx 2 7 140
JKLMTgxl 1 40
1
Total SO 440
y
^ 440
=*5*50 cms. above the axis I 1.

\
ProUeiB 87. Find the centroid of the lamina shown in Fig. 8L

SololkMi. The given lamina may be sfdit up into two rectangles
ABCD and EFGC as shown in Fig. 82.
The
position of the centroid of the lamina with respect to the
lais 1
1 and 2^2 will now be worked out. The rdevant compota*
tims aft shown in the following table.
CentroiM Centroidal
Con^ponent Area a Distance
y Distance x a y a X
ent} from I from 22 cm* . cm}
cm. cm.
ABCD 2X10 20 :> 1 100 20

EFGC6X2 12 1 5 12 60
Tatd 32 112 80
(XtftMM W OKAVITY AMD MOMENT OF OtERTU 123
Pir. 81. 8Z
Pig.
ftoUem 88. /n a rectangular lamina 10 cms. x 12 cms., a

rectangiJar opening PQRS 3 cms X4 cms. is made as shown in Fig. 83.
Find the centroid of the lamina after the iêning is made.
y
) 7
124 S1RENGTH OF MATERIALS

SfriatkMi. The computation is made in the following table.
ây ^ 672 =6' 22 cms.
2a 108
âx_
= la 510
v~:: tKs-^4 72 cms.
108
Centroidal Centroidal
j
Component Area 1 Distance y Distance x ay aX

cm* i from bottom from left
1
eiJge {cm, edge cm.* cm.*
1 (cm.)
Area ABCD 10 x 12 120 0 5 Tia 600
Deduct for 12 !
4 75 48 90
opening 4:0 !
Net qusntiiy 108 i 672 5i0

1
J
ProblcB 89. Determine the centroid of the Section shown in

rig. 84.
A4MSF PtJtre mem.*iem.
Solution. The
computation is
made in the
following table.
I I W I .I I IIPII ... -- I
..
^noTTOM rutnee ucm.Ktcr..

Fig. >4.
Centroidal
1
1
1
Area a distance ay
Component i
from i (cm.)*
|
1
y cms.
Top PUmge plate |

36 1
612
Top tlai^ 20 15 200
Web 24 8 192
j
Bottooi flange 48
| 1 48
Total 128
j
1152
Cl'KTRe OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 125
tay _ 1152
=P cms.
Za 128
27. Cntroki of triaagaltr iamim.
LetABC be a triangular lamina.
Let this lamina be divided
into a number of narrow strips
like BiCi parallel to BC
The centre of gravity of
the strip BiCi is at the middle
pointM of BiCi.
If AD be the median we find
that M on AD. This holds
lies
^
good for the centre of gravity Fig. 8S.
of any other strip parallel to BC Hence thb centres of gravity of
all such parallel strips lie on the median AD. Hence the centre of
gravity of the whole lamina lies on /tD. Simihurfy it can be shown
that the centre of gravity should also be on ihedian BE. Hence
the centre of gravity lies at the point of intersecdoo of the medians
of the triangle.
Some important cases :
(0 Right-angled triangle of base b and altitude h.

Let G be the cen-
troid.
Let the distance of

the centroid from AC
hex.
By similar triangles
AGE and AHC, we have
GE _ AG _ 2
HC AHi
:. GE=x=-~HC
*'
== 1 iL=
"^3.
2 3
The centroid is at from the end C and j- h from the
end B.
(it) Any triangle
Let ABC be any triangle of
base / and altitude h.
Let y4/> be perpendicular to
BC.
Let BD=a and DC'=b
. a-\-b~l
Let the centroid of the tri-
ang^ be at a horizontal distance Fir. >7.
of-3 from B.
126 SIMNOTHW MAiniAU
Somofthe aiomeats of the areas ABD and ADC tSaaalt B
^Moment of the area AMZ about B.
1^2,1..
T**
-!+&+
2(^+3fl6+i*
n
(2a+tXn^^6)
-lx
3
But (<H-6)=/
2ff+h
5= ~3
-_+6+a
* -3
Hence the oentroidal distance from the left end

H-a
"3
Similarly, the centroidal distance from the risht end
_/+h
3
28. Ceatraid a Itapeanm
ABCD be a trapezium.
Let the paraUel sides AB and DC be a and 6 respectively.
Let h be the distance between the parallel wd^s
Let AAi be perpdtidicalar to DC.
and BBi be perpendicular to DC.
LrtAc oentroidal distance from DC be y.
Total Area
The moment of the trapezium about DC

-S^ of the moments of triangle ADAi
triangle BBiC and lectanglc
about DC.
A
* .ah*
~^'^^~^KDAi+CBi) +2
3
CENTUB OT OllAVnY AND MMONT OV ItaRIIA 127
Hence cenDoidal distance from DC

b+7a h
A+a 3
Similarly, oentroidal distance from AB
a+26 ft
fl+6 3
1 Find the centre of gravity of <t uniform plate in
90.
the form of a symmetrical tnêzium whose parallel sides are 3 metres
md rS metres in length and 2 metres apart.
If it has a rectangular extension of the same weight per square
metre attached to the VS metres edge and I'S metres long so as just
to fit that edge, find what should be the height of the rectengular piece
if the centre of gravity of the whole is on the VS metre edge of the
trapezhan. (/. Mech. K}
Soiatkm. Case 1- Tnq>ezoidal plate~
Distance of the cemroid from tho
side AB
a+A
a+2b

A3
1-5+6 2
4-5
X -^metre
10
= 9
metre
F i-sm. E
Let the size of the rectangular piece
be rS mXy metres
Since i4D is the centrmdal axis.
Mmnent of the area FEBA about AB
Moment of tlm area ABCD
about AB
y=2'58 m.
128 STRENGTH OF MA1BUAU
ProUeiB- 91 Find the centroid of a semicircular lamina of
radius r.
SolntkM. Consider the ele-

mental radial area OPP' the angle
JVP' being This can be taken
AS a triangle of area i r t/6. The
distance of the centroid of this
2
r
r
from O.
^
elemental area is
Hence the height of the centroid A O B

of the elemental area above AB Fig. 91.
=2 .
r sin 0
Moment AB
of the elemental area about
~r2d0X-jrsin0
f sin 0 </0
.'. Moment of the whole area about AB
= -ipr3 |sin 6 d^
r 2
f
1 sin 0 </
Let ^ be the height of the centroid above AB

Area of the semicircle
w*
2
PTeblem. 92. Determine the

position of the centre of gravity of
the plane figure shown in Fig. 92.
SMntka. Area of the tra-

pezium.
"
*^(20-f-40) cm*.
-540 cm*.
Hg.92.
I
CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 129
Height of the centroid of the trapezium above the base

&+2a h
^1 - b+a
.
3
40+2 x 20 18
'^'
40+20 ^ 3
Area of the semicircle=^ 2 * cm.*
=353-5 cm.*
Height of the centroid of the semicircle above tlm base
=^ 2 =-,
4 r 4x

-Tj
15 ,
cm.<365cm.
Distance of centroid of
the net section
^
y4i>i /l2^2
A\ A2
540 X 8-353-5 X 6*365

540- 353-5
= //70 cm.
ProUem 93. Find the height
of the centroid above the axis 1

for the lamina shown in Fig. 93.
Solution. FI = FG cos GFH

g
'8x *6*40 cm.
/H= 10-6-4=3-6 cm.

The lamina can be split up
into a number of components.
The areas of the various com-
ponents, their centroidal distan-
ces from the axis 1 I, and the
moments of the various compo*
nents about the axis 11 are
tabulated below. Pig. 93.
:
STRENGTH Of MATBMAU
Distance of the centroid from the axis 1 1

lay 6502-2
^ la "33712
Problem 94. Determine the centroid of the lamina shown in
Fig. 94.
ji. mcH
^
Fig. 94
L*J ^ ^ determined. The lamina

fato separate components
is conveniently solit
^^CD.Z.Ciir and
distances from
0eQts of the aieas of the indivi-
Smr^LneI2?tr.i
(RMI components about the axes l-l and 2-2 are tabulated below
OF OHAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 13!
Cent raidai Centroid J

Artaa distinct y distance x aX
cm.* Jrom / / from 2 2 cm,^ cm,*
cm. cm.
20 17 15 340 300
ABCD
28 It <
252 308
:CKE
e 24 144
IfGH 1
1
1
'
72
' i
.16 752
'otal
j
1 !

1a' '
lcm>\
I2C
7
JLI.
Fl
ica
JZSMt-
Fig. 95
"ây
Sa
~^^S'J6 cms. from the axis 1-
and.
~la
752
~Î0'44 cms. from the axis 22
72
ical Solution
J7b find i. The given section is split up into three rectaag^

^wn. The areas of the three rectangles are respectively 20 cn^*,
^ and 24 cm^. Now forces of magnitude 20 units, 28 units,
units are assumed acting vertically through the centroids of
oective rectangles. Let the forces be represented by AB, BC
'B. Adopting a convenient scale marie off oh 20 mits,
units and cd24 units.
'
STRENGTH OF MAnRIiHlS
132
A pole O is chosen and no, ho, co, and do arc joined. Starting
from any point on the load line AB the funicular polygon is drawn,
and the point 0\ is obtained. Through 0\ a vertical line is drawn.
This Nne represents the >ertical centroidal axis. This axis is at a
distance of 10*4 cm. from the right end.
Similarly taking three horizontal forces of 20 units, 28 units

and 24 units through the centroids of the respective
rectangles, a
polar diagram and the cofresponding funicular polygon arc drawn
and the point O 2 is obtained. Now a horizontal line is drawn
through (2?. This renresents the horizontal centroidal axis. This
axis IS found to be 8*6 cwj above the bottom edge.
Froblem 95. F/g. 97 shows the cross-section
of a masonry
SMulioa. m //te distance of the centroid
figure will be split
^**
up
from the vertical face.
into a rectangle A BCD
Area of the rectangle
Jjc5
CENIItE OP GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 133
Centroidal distance of the rectangle ABCD from the vertical

side
a
2
Area of the triangle BC
ib-a)
Centroidal distance of the triangle BCE, from the vertical side

,ba
=a+-3-
Fig. 97 F>g. 98
Moment of the cross-sectional area about the vertical side
a. ib-d), {7a+b)
-ah V-+ ,
= " 0<^-\-b^-Vab-W)
d^-\-ab\~b'^
h
Area of the whole section
=-|-(a+&)
Let the centroid of the section be at x from the vertical side
a*-f-a6+*
or
.HoH-fr)'3(d2-*)
ProUa 96. Determine the centroid of the dam seettom shown
in Fig. 99.
SwlotloH. The section may be conveniently divided into various
<ô<jp<ments as shown in Fig. 100.
1 / f
CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OP INERTIA 135
The areas of the various components, their centroidal distances

from the axes 1 1 and 2 2 and the moments of. the areas of the
various components about the axes 11 and 22 aro tabulated
below :
! r entroidul Ceftroidal
Component Area distance y dhtance x Ay '
Ax
j
i U from 1 from 2-2 (m*) ! (m*)

i
(m) (m) tm)
AliCD 1 5 X 10 15 00 500 0 75 75 00 1
1125
FFG^lyt 7-50 1+1=3-00 1-50+-^. 22 50 17-50

1 j
1 1
HGDK 45 1
'
4-50
1-5+
2*25 i
16-88
^
1 i
9 I
Total 2700 i
99 75 4563
! i
Height of centroid above the axis 1 1
9111 3' 694 m

27
Distance to the centroid from the axis 2- 2
a.x
45-63
Problem 97. In a circular sheet of metal (f radius H a hole of

radius r is made as shown in Fi^. JOJ. Dctermme the centroid of
the renuminss, sheet.
Solution Area of the
sheet before making the
ho!c-nA2
Its centroidal distance
from A R.
Area of the hole -w^
Its centroidal dista.ncc
from A'=r.
Moment of the aiea of

the sheet about A before
driving the hole
= - w/l* X R=nlfi
Moment of the area of
ir2xr=nr8
Net area of the sheet after driving the hole
Net moment of the area of the sheet about A after driving the
hole
= r r*)
Let the centroidal distance of the sheet after making the hole
be X from A
f29. Moment of Inertia of a Lamina

Fig. 102 shows a lamina of ai^tL
A. The lamina may be split up
into an infinite number of elemen-
tal components each of area da.
Suppose these infinite components
be at distances yi, yt, yz etc. from
the axis OX, the quantity
da yi^+da y^-^-da y^-\-...etr

i.e.,Iday^ is called the moment of
inertia or the second moment of
area of the lamina about the axis
OX.
tig. 102
Similarly, if jci, xg, 13 , etc. are the distances of the various ele-
.
mental components of area da each from the axis O Y, then

da XTÂ-da x^+da e., 2da x* is called the moment of
Inertia of the lamina about the axis O Y.
In general if a, r 2 , r 3 ...e/c. are the distances of the elemental
oomMnents each of area da of the lamina from a given axis, then
dla ny+da rz^+da tz^+...t.e. "Zda r* is called the moment of Inertia
of the lamina about the given axis.
Radius of gyration oj a îven lamina about a given axis.
. .
shows a lamina of area A. Let this area be split up
into infinite copiponents of area da each. Lei these components be
at distances ri, rg, rg etc. .rom a given axis AB. By definition, moment
of inertia of the given lamina about the given axis AB
Îiih^^da rx^
the infinite components of the lamina be arranged at the

same distant k from the axis AB, the distance k bmng such that the
moa^t of inertia* about the axis AB- remains unchanged. In this
^nd position, each elemental area is at the same
distance k from
AB.
Moment of inertia of the lamina about the axis
4B
itZ^^+*>k+dak+:.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTfA 137

If in the two positions the moment of inertia should be the

same Iab = Ak^
k is called the radius of gyration of the lamina about the axis
AB,
A
(1^ Fig 103 (i7)

The radius of gyration of a given lamina about a given axis is
that distance from the given axis at which all elemental parts of the
lamina would have to be placed so as not to alter the moment of
inertia about the given axis.
30. The perpendicular axes theorem

If lox and hv be the Moments of Inertia of a lamina about
mutually perpendicular axis and OX OY
in the plane of the lamina and
loz be the Moment of Inertia of the lamina about an axis normal to the
lamina and passing through the point of intersection of the axes OX

andOY,
Fig. ||04 shews a lamina

of area A. Let and OX he OY
two mutually perpendicular
axes lying in the plane of the
lamina.
Let OZ be
an axis normal
to the plane of thelamina and
passing through O, Consider an
elemental component of area da
of the lamina. Let the distance
of this elemental component
fronwthe axis OZp i.e. from O be r.
Fig. 104
Moment of inertia of tl le elemental component about OZ
^da r^
If the coordinates of the elemental component be (x, y) referred
to the aaes OX
and O
F, we have
140 STRENGTH OF MATBRLiLS
bd^
/l-l
bd^ bc^
12 + 4
'
3
Similarly the moment of inertia about the axis 22 (Fig. 106)
is given by
If G
be the centroid of the lamina the axis through-the centroid
and normal to the plane of the lamina is called the polar axis- Let
Ip be the moment of inertia about the polar axis. /;> is called the
polar moment of inertia.

By the perpendicular axes theorem.
db^
Ip I 12
An importani particular case

Suppose the lamina ABCD
square of side b
Polar Moment of Inertia

b^
= //>
b
b^_
12
In general if mn be any centroidal axis in the plane of the
lamina
12
(h) Rectangular lamina with a centrally situated rectangular
hole.
Let in a rectangular lamina Bx D a rectangular hole btid be
made centrally.
Moment of inertia of the lamina about any axis -Moment of

inertia of the bigger rectangle Moment of inertia of the smaller
rectangle.
For example /,
BD3 _ W
l2' 12
CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF IMB^tTlA 141
(Hi) Lsection and channel section
Fig. 109 shows an /-section. Let the overall dimension of the
/section be B unitswide and D units deep.
Hg. 108 Pig J09

Let the dimensions of the web be b units wide and d units deep,
Momrat of inertia about the axis XX
= Moment of inertia of the
rectangle Bx /)- moment of
inertia of the hollow rect-
angular part.
. ,
J?i) (B-b)<P
. . /..<
j2 j2
Fig. no shows a channel

section of overall width and y
depth D Let the web be b
units wide and d units deep.
Moment of inertia of this
lamina about the axis XX=
Moment of inertia of the re-
ctangle BkD- Moment of in-
ertia of the rectangle (Bb)xd Pis. no
, _BIfi (B-b)(P
~
12 " 12
< iv) Moment of Inertia of a thin ring
Fig. 1 1 1 shows a ring of mean radius r
and of thickness t.
Consider an element component da of

the lamina. The moment of inertia of thi.s
elemental component about the 70 lar axis of
the lamina. dar^.
Since the elemental components are
all
at the same distance r from the polar axis,
Y moment of inertia of the ring about the
Pig. Ill polar axis
STRENGTH OF MATEitlALS
]42
=r* area of the whole ring
=r*x2irr/
Moment of inertia about the axis XX

= Moment of inertia about the axis YY
h
!NTIIE of CaHAVlTV AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 143
(v/) Moment of inertia of
circular lamina with a cen-
illy situated circular hole.
Let D
be the external
ameter and J the internal
atneter of the lamina.
Polar moment of Inertia

/o= Polar moment of
Inertia of the bigger x-
circle Polar moment
of Inertia of the smal-
ler circle
_ rt d^
32 32
It D* d^
7C
64 64
(vfi) Moment of Inertia of a semicircular lamina
Fig. 1 14 shows a semicircle of radius R. Let AB be the base
the semicircle.
The moment of inertia of a circular lamina about a diameter
7t
''
64
.. Moment of inertia of the semicircle about AB
. n R*
"T128
, e the c . .ual axis parallel to the base AB. Let
/ betwee \.e axis XX and AB.
AR
3it
D
3w 2
W
3n
We have by the parallel axes theorem.
Jai = lmx-\~Ay^
The area of the lamina^

144 STRENGTH OF MATERIAJLS
(via) Moment of Inertia of a quadrant

Let AOC be a quadrant of a cimilar plate of radius R.
Moment of inertia I
of the area AOC about

the axis one-fourth
of the moment of inertia
of the circular area about
N
\
.axis AB.
\
. ,
\ TtRA
4 4 :
ro
jtR*
16 \ i
circle
Consider the semi-
ABC. Distance of
\ 1 '
its centroid from

..n ar
in Fig. 115
The distance of the centroid

also equal to
of the quadrant AOC from AB is
AR
3n
eauak' one-half the

quais
inertia of the quadrant about the axis XX
moment of inertia of the semicircle about A X
O'll RA R^
J=0055
centre of gravity and moment op inertia 145
(v) Moment of Inertia of a triangular lamina
Let ABC be a triaagle of base b and altitude h.
(a) Moment of Inertia of a triangle about an axis l~l through

the vertex and parallel to the base.
The triangle may be taken to consist of a number d infinitely
small elemental components parallel to the base.
Consider one such elemental component at a distance y ftom

the vertex and of thickness dy. Width of tbe elemental component
Area of the elemental component
^b' dy^^ydy.
Moment of inertia of the elemental competent about tbe
axis 1 1
Moment of inertia of the lamina about the axis 1
{b) Moment of inertia of a triangle about the centroidal axis

raUel to the base.
2
Let XX be the centroidal axis. This axis is at a distance of
y A
the vertex.
Applying the parallel axis theorem, we have,
bh* bh 4
146 SntBNOTH OF MAIERIALS
_
36
(e) Moment of inertia of a triangle about the base.
A{iplybg the parallel axes theorem again, we have
(y )
2 9
bh* blfi
I
blfi
12
FroMeaM. Find the moment of inertia of the area shaded
in Fig. 117 about the axis AB.
Solatioa. Moment of
inertia of the triangle about
the axis AB
(altitude)^
12
BJ'S ^
=341 '33 cm*
Moment of inertia of
the semicircle of 8 cm. dia-
meter about the axis AB.
n X (diameter)*
'128
nx8*
cm*
128
-100*53 cm*.
,^4cm *|
.'. Moment
gross area about the axis
of
AB
the
Fig. 117 -34r33+100'53

=441*86 cm*.
From this we have to subtract thgNnoment pf inertia of the
hollow part which is a circle of 4 cm. diameter.
Moment of inertia of the circle of 4 cm. diameter about the
axis AB
--^'--12 56cm*
: /
ceNTKB OP OKAVITy AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 147

The moment of inertia of the net area about the axis AB
=441-86- 12-56=429^0 cm*.
32. Moment eA Inertia of composite secOons.
Fig. 1 18 shows an l-section.
Let be required
it romaoi
to find the moment of
inertia of the section
about an axis 1 1
passing through the
bottom edge.
The section may
be split up into compo-
nents like 1, 2 and 3 of
areas ax, oa and oa. Let
the centroidal di.stanoes
of
the
these
axis
nnd ys.
areas, from
1
ht yi^yz I
1
Let La be /i /*a.
-1
he Moments of Inertia
)f the individual components about their leqtective individunl
:entroidai axes parallel to the axis 1 1.
Now the moment of Inertia of the section about the axis I I
=/i-i
Moment of Inertia of component 1
-f Moment of Inertia dt component 2

-f Momenrof Inertia of component 3
+f*2+02>^*
-{-/a'f'Oajs
h~
i.e., h- Say*-4-S/i/
where Itiitt Moment of Inertia of any componoit
about its centroidal axis parallel to the
axis 1 1.
The computations may be conveniently made in a tabular form
hown below
Centroidal
Components Area distance oy hat
a from the
axis 1
1
1 ax yx OxVx fliT* 1
lx
2 at y% OtVx aWi* j
u
3 Os oiys
1
iyi* In
1
1 j
Total
2oy* Jlhnt
i 1
148 STRENGTH OF IIAIERUu
Hence for any compficated composite section the above quan-

tities may be enter^ as shown.
Moment of Inertia about the axis 11
U., /i -i
= Sum of the last two columns of the
table
Distance of the centroidal axis XX from 1 1
S'
The moment of io';itia about the centroidal axis XX is given
by the relation
fi-i
/*=/i-i (2a)j>2
.
PlUjMenf the moment of inertia of the section shown
in F^. 1 19 about the centroidal axis XX perpendicular to the web.
Solution. The given

section up into
will be split
components ABCD, EPGli
ahd JKLM. The areas of the
individual components, their
centroidal distances from the
axis I
I through the bottom
edge and the moments of
inertiaof the individual com-
0 ponents about their respective
centroidal axes paralfel to the
axis I 1 are given in the
Fig. 119 following table.
1 I
CENIkU W Gluvirv AND MoMbNTOf INERIIA 149
Distance of the centroidal axis XY frooi the axis 1

Sa> 440
=
~ jjj- 5 50 cms.
Moment of inertia about the axis ] I
a)^
- IR6 67 h4400cw.^
4586*67 cm.^
But /iî==/x^+(5ii) >
4586*67-/,4j+10r5-5)-
Iz^2l6&67 cm.^
Problem 100. Find the moment of inertia about the centroidal
axes XX and YY of the section shown in Fig, 120,
SolotioD. To find the moment of inertia about the asdsXX,
I ig. 120
The following table shows the relevant computations.
Area . Centroidal
Component a distance a} ay^
cnF I cm ent ent*
from 1
ABCD 20 5 00 300
El GC 12 1 12 12
Tolal 112 512
^=^-3*50cms.
Moment of inertia about the axis 1 l==/i_i=2/.i/+Sfl)^
But /i_t=I 70*7+512 -682*7 cm.^
STR' NGTU OP llATERlAtS
150
/l-l =/.+(
682-7==/..+32(3-5)*
W 1^=297 7 cmA
To find the moment of inertia about the axis YY.
shows the relevant computations.
m
The following table
CetUroidul
Component aiea dtstanecx ajt* I,elf
a from 22
ABCD 20 1
..
H 20
1
EFGH
Total
12
32
5
i
B
80
300
320
-^-K-OO
42 67
_ Sflx 80
Moment of inertia about the axis 22
/2-.2=42 67+32^=362-67 cm.^
But /2- 2 =/8^>+(^) (
362 67-/ifir+32(2 5)2
/. Iyv^l62r67 cm.^
Problem lOl Calculate the moment of Inertia about the hori-

zontal and vertical gravity axes (/c* and hv) of the section shown in
Fig, 121 {A.AiJ,E)
Solaticn. The given sec-

tion will be split up into two /5 cm-
p*
components. The areas of the
individual components, their
CD 4
s\m.
oentroidal distances from the
axis 1-1 through the top JL
edge and the Moments of tscm.
Inertia of the individual com-
ponents about their centroidal
axes pirallel to the axis 1 1
are tabula 'ed below.
5 cm
Fig. 121
CENikE Ok Or itY AMD MOMENT Ok INERTIA 151
Properties of the Section
Area Centroidal ay In
Component a distance y (cnif {.cmY ienf)
(rm) icm)
Top flange 75 2*5 187-50 46iJ-75 ^^156 25

5X10* 416-67
\Ncb 50 10 500 (.0 5000 00 12
1
Total 125 I
687*5 5468 75 57292
1
1 1
Distance of the centroidal axis XX from 1-1

- lay ~ 68T5
Sa 125
= 5'5 cm.
/i.i =2/i/+2:flY=572'92+ 5468-75
=604167 cm.*
But /i-i=/,+(2o)jk
6041-67=-/.+(125K5-5)a
/*as== 2260-42 cm.*
5x158 10x58
" 12
+ =1510 4 cm. i
12
Problem 102. Find the moment of inertia about the centroidal

axis XX for the lamina shown in Fig. 122.
Fig. 122
Solntion. The given section will be sfditup into thiee rect*

angular components, i.e., the top flange, the web and the bottom
flange.
152 STRBNGIH OF MATERlAt S
The properties of the components arc tabulated below :
Area Centroidal
Component > a distance y ay 1
ay- Unf
from / 1 (cm) iem^)
(em) 1
6.V 3*
Top flange 18 18-5 333 6*160 50 135
12
2Xi3 366-l67
26 10-5 273 2866-50
Web 12
1
10x4=* -53*333
40 2 80 160
Bottom flange 12
Total 686 9187 4j3

1
Distance of centroidal axis XX from the bottom edge 1 1
_ 686
=8T7 cm.
Sa 84
Moment of inertia about the axis 1 ~ 1
=/i-i
-433+9187=9620 cw4
But liî^^fxx-hAy^
9620-/*,+84X8T72
/, hx^40l5'38 cm.^
Problem 103. A T-beam is made up of two plates and two angles
as shown. Determine the moment of Inertia of the T-section about
+ I
CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 153
an axis passing through the centroid of the section and parallel to the
top plate. {A.M .)
Solution. The given section will be split up into different

components. The areas of the individual components 1, 2, 3, 4 and
their cenlroidal distances from an axis 1
through the upper edge,
1
their moments about the axis 1 1 and their moments of inertia

about their respective centroida! axes parallel to the axis 1 J arc
tabulated below :
Area Centroidal
Component
distance y ay a y- Kelt
j
(cm)* from the {cm) KemY (cmY
f
axis /
(cm)
1 16x1=16-00 05 800 400
2 13xl*=1300 1-5 19'50 29*25 1083
^ \
3x515*00 (
4-5 67-50 303-75
-f|-=31-250
i
1
4 IxlO-lOOO 120 120-00 1440-00

333
*4f=83
;
Total 54 215 1777 116.999 say 117

1
Distance of centroid of the section from the axis 1 I
ay 215
V == cm. ^3 98 enu
â 54
Moment of inertia about the axis 1 I
=/i_i~2 Jseif-\-l>ay^
= 117+ 1777- 1894
But /i-i /*
1894=/**+54(3-98)2
hz=-J03r98 cm*.
say 1038 cm*.
The method of tabulation adopted in the above problems can

be used with great advantage even when the section is complicated
consisting of several components. The following problem illustrates
an interesting case. The student may note that any other method to
analyse such a section will be tedious.
Problem 104. Find the moment of Inertia of the built up section
about the centroidal axis X-X shown in Fig. 125. {A.M.l.E.)
:
154 OF MAtBRtALS
Fi-. 123.
Solution. The section consists of several components. Con-

sider an axis I 1 through the bottom ^ge. The areas of the various
components, their centroidal distances from 1 1, their moments
about the axis 1 1, and the moments ofinîa of the individual
components about their own centroidal axes parallel to the axis 11
are tabulated below
cBNiitB or oR4vmr and moment of inertia 155
Area ill ay I,elf

Component a
(eifi)* (cm)* (cm)* (cm)*
(i) One plate

28 cmx t cm 56 52 2912 151424
s
&
Ue
(/i)
12
Two
cmxl cm
plates
24 49 5 1188 58806 *'|f -
(ifi) Two plates
H 12cmxl cm 24 50-5 1212 61206
(iv'i One plate

cmxl cm 36 50*5 1818 91809 3*00
36
Web
Two plates *^,2^^*-10666 67
cmxl cm
'
40 80 29 2320 67280 '
(i) Two plates

12cmxl cm 24 8-5 1
204 1734
3 1
oT (/i) Two plates

a 8 cmx cm 1 16 4 64 256
o
O (110 One plate 36 xP
m 36 cm X 1 cm 36 7*5 270 2025 ,2
*300
-
Total 9988 ^
434540 11068*67
296
1
,
1 1
Distance of the centroidal axis XX from the axis 11

lay 9988 =33*74 cm.
la 296
Moment of inertia about the axis 1 1
=/i_i " 2/.,i/+2ajj*

= 11068*67+434540=445608 67 cm.
But fi_i=/+(2a)y
445608*67 - /+296(33*74)2
h,^3S6995 t2cm^
Examples fai chapter 3
(I) Determine the centroidal distances * and ^ for the section

shown in Fig. 126. =-2*49 cm., *-1*15 cm.) O
156
SntENCYH OF llAtEftULS
(2)
Find the centroidal axis

of the lamina shown in Fig. 127
^rallel to the base. Find also the
moment of inertia about this cent-
(4*08 cms
roidal axis. . ; 385.33
cm.*)
Fig. 126
(3)
Fig. 127
(4)
For the lamina shown in Fig. 128
find the moment of inertia about the ceo-
troidal axis XX parallel to the base. mcm E I
(18-91 cm., 183193*34 cm4)
Fig. 128
Find the moment of inertia
of the lamina shown in Fig. 129 about
the centroidal axes XX and YX.
(7=6*345 cm. from top edge
/- 3340*51 cm*.
1199*67 cm.)
Fig. 129
CENTRE GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERHA ir
(5) Find the moment of inertia of the box girder section shown
in Fig. 130 about its centroidal axis XX. [Lcmdon Unimsitv)
Fig. 130
2 flange plates at top each 60 cm. x 12 cm.

2 flange plates at bottom each 60 cm x 1*2 cm.
2 web plates each 80 cm. x 1 cm.
4 angles each 14 cm. x 15 cm. X 1*2 cm.

For one angle A=34'59 cm.
cm.*
4
Shear Forces and Bending Moments
Defliiifiotw- A beam is a structural member subjected to a
system of external forces at right angles to its axis.
If sttidi a member
is fixed or built-in at
one end while its
other end is free, the
member is called a
cantilever. (Fig. 131a).
If the ends of a
beam are made to
freely rest on supports
the beam is called a
freely or simply sup-
ported bean. Fig. 131b
shows such a beam.
In this case the beam
is resting freely on
brick masonry walls.
(b) may supportco eeAM
The clear horizontal
distance between the
walls is called the
clear span of the beam.
The horizontal dis-
tance between the
centres of the end
(0 PIXtO BtAM bearings the
is called
effective span of the

beam. If the intensity
IL ,
of the bearing reaction
is not uniform the
effective span is the
horizontal distance
(i) emmoui etju*
between the lines of
action of the end
Pig. 131 reactiotts.
If a beam is fixed at both
its ends, ' ii is called a built-in, or
encastred or fixed beam {ig, 13k).
A beam which is provided with more than two supports is
called a continuous beam (Fig. 131</).
158
1(50 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
sh:
that the support A provides the necessary fixing or reacting moment

A of the beam, there a bending m<
at A, and tha^ at the section is
cci
moment of 4000x2= 8000 kg. m.
me
Now consider, for
mi
instance, the section D ab
Suppose the part DB was be
free to rotate about /),
obviously the load on the
ar
part DB
would cause the
part DB
to rotate in a
lo
cockwise order about D.
Considering the part DBy
taking moments about /), al
we find that there is a

clockwise moment of
4000 x 0*8 - 3200 kg. m.
about D. Hence for the
equilibrium of the part
3200 kgm
DB\t is necessary that
the part DA of the canti-
lever should provide a mokqm
reacting or restoring on/i- /
clockwise moment of 3200
kg, m, about D, '
Let us now discuss <

ôkgjfi
the equilibrium of the ôohj
partial) (Fig. 133). Taking
moments about D, we Fig. 133
have following moments about D.
(/) FaX^/)==4000xl*2-4800itg.m. (ctocJtvFwe)
(//) couple =8000 kg. m, {anticlockwise)
Net moment about /)=8000~4800 = 3200 kg. m.
{anticlockwise).
Hence, for the equilibrium of the part AD, the part DB should
provide a clockwise moment of3200^g. m.
Hence, we find that at the

section Z),
The part DB provides a
clockwise moment of3200ikg. m.
CFFeCT OF H066IN6 BCHOINC MOMiNT
and the part DA provides an anti-
clockwise moment of 3200 kg.m.
We say that at the section there D
is a bending moment of 3200 kg. m.
The bending moment at the
section D is the aJgebraic sum of
the moments of forces and re-
actions acting on one side of the
section.
In the case illustrated above CFFECT OF SA66tN6 BCNOING HOMCNT

4he tendency of the bending
Fig. 134
SHEAR F(tCBB AND BENDING MCMfBNTi 161
moment at Z> is to bend it so as to produce convexity above the
centre line. Such a bending moment is called a hogging bemBng
moment. It is quite possible that the bending moment at a section
may bend the member at the section so as to produce ooncavhy
above the centre line. Such a beading moment is called a sagging
bending moment.
In our discussion we will consider sagging moments as positive
and hogging moments as negative.
Now let us consider the cantilever AB carrying three point
loads as shown (Fig. 13.^).
Total load on the cantilever being 3000 kg. the verticil reaction
at >4=3000 kg. upwards.
Fig. 135
Taking moments about A we have the following moments r
(0 1500 x 2 = 3000 kg. m. {clockwise)

(a) 800 X 3'5=2800 kg. m. (clockwise)
(Hi) 700 x 5 3500 kg. m. (clockwise)
Total moment about A
=9300 kg. m. (clockwise)
Hence the fixed support at A must provide a reacting or. fiTing
moment of 9300 kg. m. (anticlockwise).
Now consider the section F.
To find the shear force at this section, consider the foioe
acting on any one ride of the section.
162
STRiNGlH OP M4TEIUALS
S.F. at F= Total force normal to the member on the

right hand side of /=+
700 Atg.
Alternatively S.F. at F= Total force normal to the member
on the left hand side of F
=+3000- 1500- 800- +700 kg.
Bending moment at f= Algebraic sum of moments and
reactions acting on one side of the
section F, about F
B.M. at F= Algebraic sum of moments of forces on the
right hand sfde of F about F
= 700 X 0 8 560 kg. m. (hogging b.m.)
Alternatively Bending moment at F= Algebraic sum of moments
and reactions on the
of F about F
left side
=3000 X 4-2- 1500 X 2 2-800 xO7 9300 kg. m.
$60 kg. m. (hogging)
Similarly
S.F. at (/ Total force normal to the member on the right
hand side of G
-+700+ 800=+1500 kg.
Alternatively, S.F. at G Total force normal to the member on
the of G
left side
=+3000-1500=+1500 kg. (hogging)
B.M. at G Algebraic sum of the moments of forces acting on
hand side of G about G
the ri^t
= - 700 X 2-5- 800 I = - 2550 m. (hogging)
>j:
Alternatively, B.M. at G= Algebraic sum of the moments of

forces and reactions acting on the
left hand side of G about G
-?+3000 X 2-5 - 1 500 X 05
9300 kg. m.
=2550 kg. m. (hogging)
Some important hints to be noted :
SHEAR FORCE
^
t.
^ to calculate the shear force at a section
the following procedure may be adopted :
(i) Consider the left or the right part of the section.

(a) Add the forces normal to the member on one of the
pans.
Ptt of the section is chosen, force on the right
^ 's positive while
a force on the right part
negative. For instance, if the S.F. at a section X
ûired and if the right part
y
forces F and e
are positive while the force
XB
be considered the
is negative. R
:
SUEAlt FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS 163
S.F. at X=P+Q-R
the left part of the
If
section be chosen, a force on
the left part acting upwards is
positive and a force on the left
part downwards is negative.
For instance if the S.F. at X
of
a beam is required and if XA
is the left part, the force Qis
positive while the forces fVi
and tVz are negative.
S.F.&t X~Q-Wi-Wi
BENDING MOMENT
To find the bending mo-
ment at a section of a beam the
following procedure may be
Fig 136.
adopted
(/) Consider the left or right part of the section.
(//) Remove
all restraints on the part selected.
O/j) Now
introduce each force or reacting element one a, a
time and find its effect at the section (i.e., find whether the moment
produces a hogging or sagging effect at the section). Treat sagging
moments as positive and hogging moments as negative. Note that the
moment due to every downward force is negative and the moment due
to every upward force is positive. For instance, let the bending
moment at the section G of the cantilever AB (Fig. 135) be
required.
If the right part of the section be selected

Remove the restraints on the part
GB
Introduce the load of 700 kg. at E
The independent effect of the load
to produce a hogging
is moment of
-700 x 2 5 1750 kg.m.
Now consider the independent
effect of the 800 kg. load, at D.
Obviously this will also produce B
hogging moment of 800 x 1
= 800 kg.m.
.'. Resultant bending moment at
The load of 800 kg at D will G= 1750 800 = =2550 kg m.{hogging)
produce a hog ieg raomeot of
800 kg m at G. 34. Shear Force and Beading Momeot
Fig. 137. Diagrams
A
shear force diagram for a structural member is a diagram
which shows the values of shear forces at various sections of the
member.
/
164 STRENCTH OF MATERULS

A moment diagram for a member is a diagram which
bending
shows the values of bending moment at various sections of the
member. .We shall now cons-
truct these diagrams for mem-
bers carrying different load
systems.
A. CANTILEVERS
(f) Cantilever of length /
carrying a concentrated load W
at the free end.
38 shows a cantilever
Fig. 1 a
AB A and free at ^
fixed at 5 ^ diagram
and carrying the load at the W
free end B.
Consider a section X
distance of x from the free end
S.F. at
BMDtAGRAM
B.M. at Fig. 138.
Hence we find that the S.F. is constant at all sections of the
member between A and B.
But the B.M. at any sec-
tion proportional to the dis-
is
tance of the section from the
^ree end.
At x=0, i e., at Z?, B.M. =0

At re., at A,
B.U.^Wl
Fig. 138 shows the S F.
id B.M diagrams.
( 1 ) Can tilever carry ing
several concentrated loads.
Suppose a cantilever AE
is2 metres long and is subjec-
ted to the forces shown in
Fig. 139. A B C D B
A t any section between D S.r. DIMRAM
and E, distant x from ,
S.F - - 4 500 ky.

BM.~M^---5QQx
At Jc-0, Mt0
At x~-0'5 m.
500x0 5 kg. m.
kg m. = -250
At any section between C BMDtAenAH
md /), dismt X from B,
Fig. 139.
shear PtMlCES AND UENDING MOMENTS 165
S.F.=5. = + 500+<s00=+ 1300 Af.

B.M.=Af=-500*-800 U 0-5)==-1300;c+400
At Jc=0-5, M.= - 1300 X 0-5+400 A:g. ot.= -250 kg. m.
At jc=l m, 1300+400 kg. m. 900 kg. m.
At any section between B and C distant x from E,
S,F.=S.= +500+ 800+300 *^.=1600 kg.
B.M.=M.-=-500x-800(x-0-5)-300(;c-I) kg. m.
= -I600x+,700% m.
At m, Af.= - 1600 +700= 900 kg. m.
At 1-5 m, Mx= -1600 X 1*5+ 700= -1700 kg. m.
At any section between A and B distant x from E,
S.F. = S= +500 +800 +300 + 400 = 2000 kg.
B.M.=iWx= -500x-800(x-0-5)- 300(x- 1)-400 (x- 15)
= -2000 x+ 300 %m. 1
Atx=l-5 m, 3fx= 2000x1-5+1300 kg. /n. = 1700 kg. m.

At x=2 m. Mx=-2000x2+1300=-2700 kg. m.
In the above example the S.F. and B.M. were computed consi-
dering the forces on the right hand side of any section. In fact the
compulation could be made by considering the left hand side of a
section also.
Suppose we consider a section between B and C distant x

from E.
Distance between A and the section=(2 x) metres.
S.F. at the section, considering the left side of the section
= 5x=K.-400.
5x=2000-400= + 1600 kg. (as obtained
before)
B M. at the section, considering the force and reactions on the
left side of the section
+ K<.(2-x) - A/a-40t (2-X-0-5)
= +2000(2-x)-2700- 400(r5-x)
Mx= 1600X+700 kg. m. (as obtained
before).
(lu) Cantilever of length I carrying a uniformly distributed load
of w per unit run over the whole length.
Fig. 140 shows a cantilever AB fixed at A and free at B
carrying a uniformly distributed load of w per unit run over the
whole span.
Consider any section X distant x from the end B.
S.F. at A'Sx=+wx
B.M. at X-Mm= wx .
166 tnTRBMOTH CNF MATBUAla
Hence we find that the varia-

tion of the shear force is according
to a linear law, while the variation of
the bending moment is according to a
parabolic law.
At x=0, 5.=0;
At x0. M*=0 ;
At x= 1, Sac [W/
At x=l. li 1
(iv) Cantilever of length 1 carry
ing a uniformly dhtributed load of w
per unit run over the whole length and
a concentrated load W
at the free
f ig. 140. end-
Fig. 141 shows a cantilever

AB fixed at A and free at B and Of PfR^NfT RUN
carrying the load system men-
tioned above Consider any
section X distant x from the end
JB. TheS.F. and the B.M. at
the section X, are respectively
given by iiffUw)
Sx-*"w.v-|- IV
-
jr*
1
and Mx
S,F. DIAGRAM
At, a:--0, i at B,
5.-" 4 W
Wx-O
At x -
/, /.(*. at A,
S. W)
^wl^
2
-*
'^0
S F. varies following a linear law while B.M. varies following
a parabolic law.
(v) Cantilever of length I carrying
a uniformly distributed load
Of w per unit run for a distance a from The free end.
Fig. 142 shows a cantilever AB fixed at A and free at B and
eanymg the load system mentioned above.
Consider any section between D ana B dist nt xr from the free
and B-
j
SHEAR FORCES AND B6HDIN0 liOMENTS 167

S.F. and B.M. at this section
are given by
Sx^+WX
wx^
and
2
The above hold good
relations
for all values of x between jc==0 and
Y a (/.e., between B and D).
Hence for
this range the S.F.
following a linear law while the
varies
I
B.M. varies following a parabolic law.

At JC--0 Sx==Q
and II
o
At xa,^ .S'.= + Ha
and
Now consider any section between Z) and ^4, distant x from

thi* end B.
The S F. and B.M. at this section are given by,
+wa
and -
A
Hence between A and Z), s F. is constant at f wa but the B.M.
varies according to a linear law
At
/ a \ wa
At -I
(vi) Cantilever of length I carry-

ing a load whose intensity varies uni-
formly from zero at the free end to w
per unit at the fixed end.
Fig. 143 shows a cantilever AB
of length / fixrd at A and free at B
carrying thd iâd system mentioned
above.
Let the intensity of loading
X. at a distance x from the free *>
Bbewx per unit run.
since the inteoBty
of load increases uniformly from

at the free end to w at the fixed end.
=
16S
Load acting for an elemental distance dx from wx.dx.

Hence the total load acting for any distance between x=a and
Wx.dx
xâ
area of the load diagram between ,
jc o
and x-b.
Hence we come to a very important point, namely that the
total distributed load acting on any segment equals the area of the
load diagram on that segment.
S.F. and B.M. at X arc given ^
5a area of the load diagramroetween X and B.
+ \ X.Wx^ +
5x'== "f-
2/
and. Mx - Moment of the load acting on XB about X
=arca of the load diagram between X and B x
Distance of the centroid of this diagram
from X
wx^ X
2/" *
3
WX^
61
At x=0, 5x^=0
and Aia-0
At JC-/,
and
The S.F. changes following parabolic law while the B.M.

changes following a cubic law.
(vii) Cantilever carrying a load whose intensity varies uniformly
from zero at the fixed end to w per unit run at the free end
Fig. 144 shows a* canti-
lever A3 of length / and fixed
at A and free at B and carry*

ing the load system met^tioned
above.
Jt is convenient to find
the S.F, and B M. at any
section by considering the left
part of the section,
Let Mu be the reacting moment or fixing moment at A.
SHEAR FORCES AND BBNDINO MOMESI-S 169
jlfa=moment of the total load about A.

^wl 21 _ w/2
2 3 3
K= Vertical reaction at A
=Total load on the cantilever
Consider any section X distant x from the fixed end A

S.F. at Algebraic sum of forces on /4.V
wl X WJC
T T
wl
Sx
2 11
B.M. at X- Algebraic sum of moments offerees and
reactions on AX above X
wl WX^
r- X -Ma
21
wl w/2
6/' '3'
2
At x==0, i.e., at A
and ~ wP
3'
At x=l, i e., at B,
Fig. I4S
170 STRENGTH OF MATBRIAU
Problem 105. Draw Shear force and Bending moment diagrams

for the cantilever shown in Fig J46.
3/ 7 5t. Let Va be the
Solution.
vertical reaction at A* Since
IS Only ouc support
4 ^ xotal load on the span

L uv . /rj
- - ^0 5 7? -
-
Va=^ 1x2 2 5 ! +
I . -I S tonnes (upwards)
There will also be a react-
) ig or fixing moment ing moment
at /< in an anticlockwise order v/hich v/iW be equal and opposite to
the moment of the forces on the cantilever about A.
Reacting moment -=3 < 1 I- 1 :<2x3'5-f2'5x5=225 1m.
S.F. Calculations.
S.F. between A and H it
y-5t
C mT
I
S b. between P, and C/unatin/j^BUmfla? > ,
- 7-5- 3 ; 4 5

S 1
I
. at /) - 2 s t
r
y* f 5 m. +--
*tM+
-4w>nj.-
*
From C to D ihe
S.F. will change uni- r- 5t 7. 5 /
formly from 4-5t to 2 5/, *
If'ljjlllll ,
or- If 4 5#.
S.F between /> and 6 InrTmnTTmrnrmT, piA

aarf <
8
- ' 2-5 r ililljjjjfaijlil
B.M. Calculations " S.F.OtAe/fAM
^
B.M. at/)-. 2-5\(V5

2-5 \ 0-5 fflHIilllliilllllllllll^
|
-F25t/n
B.M. at C-~- -2'5\2'5
I
2 \ I 8 25 fm
or alternatively, H.K OtAORAM
S^môiaoram
22 5:7 5x^^3 0-5 Mg. 147

- 8*25 tm
B.M. at i?-^- 2 5x4-1 x 2 2 5 -\5tm.
5 tm. 1
or alternatively,
-22-5 i
7-5 X 1- -15 mi
B.M. at A 22*5 tm
From C to Dr he B.M. will vary according to a parabolic law.
a -
SHEAR FORCES AN1> BENOnW MOMENTS nr

35. Kmus freely supported st tte two
(/) Simply supported beam of span 1 carrying a concentrated load
at mid span.
Fig. 148 shows* a beam
AB simply suppofted at the
ends A and B. Let the span
of the beam be 1 and let the
beam carry a concentrated
load W at mid span.
Since the loa^ is sym-
metrically placed on the span,
reaction at each support
W
2
''
K-
2
For any section between
A and C
fV
S.F.-Sx-+
For any section between
C and B
IV 6.HM6iiAf
S.F.-S^= ^
JL Fig. 148
At the section C the S.F. changes

*
from +
W to W
At any section between A and C distant x from the end A. the
bending moment is given by,
IV
Mx + -j~x (sagging moment)
At JC-0. M,=0
Wl
and at x-7i- Mx~-r
Wl

Hence the B.M. increases uniformly from zero at A to at C.
Similarly the B M. decreases uniformly from

^
at C to zero at B.
Maximum bending moment occurs at mid span, i e., at C

where the shear force changes its sign,
(ii) Simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load placed

eccentrically on the span.
Fig, 149 shows a simply supported beam AB oi span / carrying
a concentrated load If at Z) eccentrically on the span.
Let AD
and DB=b
172
Let Vn and K/. be tlie vertical reactions at A and B.
For the ei uilibrium of the beam.

Taking moments of
the forces on the beam
about A, we have
F<./= }Va
I-
V,.= W-
Wd-a)
'
/
Wb
F=
I
since a+b~l
For any section bet-
ween A and D the shear
force ,
o
Ktt= i" y
For any section bet-
ween D and B, the shear
force
Wa
/
fig. 149
At any section between A and D distant x from A the bending

9
moment is given by
Aix- j ^ (sagging)
/
At jc - -0, Mx 0
Wab
At X Mx
/
Hence the B M. increases uniformly from zero at the left end A
to Similarly the B.M. will decrease uniformly from
j
at D to zeio at the right end B,
It may be observed from the S F. and B.M. diagrams that the

maximum B.M. occurs at D where the S.F. cliang^s its sign,
(i7/) Simply supported beam carrying a number of concentrated
toads.
Fig. 150 shows a simply supported beam AB of span 8 metres

carrying concentrated loads of A tonnes^ \0 tonnes^ eind 1 tonnes nt
distances of 15 metres^ 4 metres and 6 metres from the left support.
JLet us construct the S.F. and B.M. diagrams.
4
SHFAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS

m
Let Vu and Ko be the vertical 4t tot It
reactions at the supports A and B
respectively.
For the equilibrium of the
beam, taking moments of the forces
on the beam about. the left support,
we have,
p/,x8 = 4xl 5+10x44 7x6
^ 88 tonne metres
Kb ^ 11 tonnes
o
KTotal load on the beam Vb
21 1 1 ^10 tonnes
S.F. between A and C
+ 10 tonnes
S.F. between C and D
= 4 104= +6 tonnes
S.F. between D and E
=+ 0 4 10
or alternatively
^ -ll+7= 4 tonnes
S.F. between E and B
4.1()_4-10-7=-11
tonnes
or alternatively
-- tonms^ Fig 150
B.M. 2ii A 0
B.M. at C i 10 X rS
f 15
tonne metres {sagging)
BM. at D ^10X4-
4x2-5 -I 30
B.M. at E -
111x2=-- 1-22
Ii may be observed
from the S.l'. and B.M dia-
grams that the maximum
B.M. occurs at D where
the S.F. changes its sign.
(/v)Simply supported
beam carrying a unifprmly
distributed load of w per
unit run over the whole span.
MOOHSRAfi^ Fig. 151 shows a simply

Fig. 151 supported beam AB of spaO'
0
i carrying a uniformly distributed load h' per unit run over the
whole span. Let Va and Vn the vertical reactions at the supports
A and B respectively.
Since the loading is symmetrical on the span, each vertical
reaction equals half the total load on the span
wl
Consider any section X distant x from the left end A.

S.F. and B.M. at the section X are given by.
-+Va WX=-\- WX
y
and
wx
M.= + Kjc-
wl wx^
X
w
Mm=+-^x(Ix)
wl
At x-^0, S-= + -ând
wl wl
At X -/,

-wl= and Af#
At
The S.F. diagram is a straight line. The S.F. uniformly
changes from I at 4 to-- at 5 and obviously the S.F. at
mid span is zero.

The B.M. diagram is a parabola. The B.M. increases according
72
to a parabolic law from zero at A to + O
at the
.
mid span
t
C and
from this value the B.M. decrease# to zero at B following the para-
bolic law.
(v) Simply supported beam carrying a uniformly distributed load
over part of its .span.
(a) IVIun the beam carries a uniformly distributed load for a

certain distance from one end.
Fig. 1 52 shows a simply supported beam AB of spaft 9 metrer
carrying a uniformly distributed load of 1800 kg. per metre tor .
distance of 4 metres from the left support A.
SHBAR FORCES AND BBNDINO MOMENTS 175
Let V, and K be
the vertical reactions at A
and B. For the equili-
brium of the beam, taking
. moments about the left
support A, we have,
Fi.x9=1800x4x }-
.
K*=1600A:g.
%60okg.
. K==1800 x 4 -1600 Arg.
= 5600/fcg.
At any section bet-
ween C and B, S.F. =
- 1600 ytg.
Consider any sec-

tion between A and C
distant x from A.
S. F. at the section
is given by,
5*- -1-5600- 1800 X
A~ D C
At x=0,
AMOMC/MM
Fig. 1S2. 5* i-5600yfcg.
At x=4m, S= +5600-1800 x 4=- 1600 kg.

Let the S.F. be zero at x metres from 4. Equating the S.F. to
zero, we get,
5600-1800 ;t=0
.f=3'll ffi. from 4.
At any section in 4 C distant x from 4 the B.M. is given by,
+ 5600 X- 1800 =5600 x- 900 x^
At x 0, Mx=0
At = 4w. ilf*= + 5600x4 -900x42 = -
"f 8000 kg, m,
m
.v
At A/,=5600^;-~-900x
9
78400
k.g,m =--f 871111 kg. m.
B.M. dcccrascs from 1-8000 kg. m. at C to zero at B according

to a linear law.
MajittB.M. occurs at D where S.F.=0 : i\e.,
where the S.F. changes sign.

(b) Simply sujyported beam carrying a uniformly distributed load

on on intermediate part of the span.
Fig. 153 shows a simply supported beam AB of span 9 carry- m
ing a uniformly distributed load 1800 kg. per metre run on the part
CD of the span so that /4C=
2 m, CD 4 and m 3m. pB= fiafflnaaaBBnaiai2_^
Let us construct the S f.
and B.M. diagrams for this
beam.
Let Va and Vu be the

vertical reactions at A and
B respectively.For the
equilibrium of the beam,
taking moments about the
end A, we have,.
F6a9=--1800x4x
(2 +2 )
F.-3200A^.
W 1800x4-3200
-4000 kg.
At any section between E J)
A and C B.M DIAGRAM
S.F.- UOOOAx Fig. 153
At any section between D and B, S.F.= 3200 A:g. Consider

any section between C and D distant x metres from A
S.F. at this section is given by
- i
4000 -
1800 U 2)
At A ---1 nu S,= t-4000 kg.
At .v---6/n, +4000-1800x4
--3200A:g.
Let the S.F. be zero x meire.t from A. Equating the S.F. to
zero, we pet
4(X)6-1800(.v-2)-=0
20_
= '9
2 -
1800
.x = -g-j-4-22 w.
B.M. at/< 0
B.M, at B = 0
B.M. at C=- -4000x2 = +8000 kg. m.
B.M. at D- 4 3200x3= f 9600 kg. m.
At any section in CD distant x from A. the B.M. is given by
Mx=4000;c-1800
SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS 177
-4000.x- 900 (x-2f

38
At -m.
38
B.M. = +4000x -900
9
kg. m.
(
112000,
=^ ,
-i kg. m.
^
-12444-4 m.
B.M. uniformly vary from 0 at A to 8000 kg. m at
will C
Between C and D
the B.M. varies following a parabolic law reaching
the maximum value at E. From D
to B the B.M. will uniformly de-
crease from 9600 A g. m. to zero.
Problem 106. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams
for the beam shown in Fig. 154. Also find the position and magnitude
cf the maximum bending moment.
Solution. Let the salient
4ookglm.
points of the beam he named
shown in the ngure.
l..et Frt and Vo be the
vertical reactions at the left >5W.~ -lonh-
and right supports rcspcc-
iOokgliTt.
lively. ,
B
Taking moments about
the left support, we have
r^,\5-<00> 1*5
(1-5 1 0-7.5)
Vr.- 210 kg.

K- 40() rs -270
-330 kg.
S.F. Between A and C
- : 330 kg.
S.F. Between D and B
- 270 kg.
l.et the S.F. be zero
at,
i et AE^x
Equating the S.F. at E to zero we have
3.^0 400 Cv-r5)=0
x2'325 m.
B.M. calculations
B.M. at A==Ma=-0
, B.M. at C=M.=330xl-5=495it^. m.
B.M. at D^M*=270x2^S40kg. m.
:
178 STRENGTH OP MATBItIAt3
B.M. at 2-32-*' m from A

325-1 5)
-A/.- 330x2 325-400 ^
= 63 1 125 kg m.
Problem 107. A beam AB 10 metres I mg has supports at its

ends A and B ft carries a paint had of 5 t. at 3 metres from A
and a point load of 5 t. at 7 metres from A and a uniformly distributed

foifd of 1 tonne per metre beitveen the point loads. Draw SF and BAf
diagram for the beam.
Solution.
Reactions
Since the loading is symmetrical reaction at each support equals
half the total load
5 f5f x4 I
It.
S.F. Analysis
S.F. at any section in AD f 7 - r.
S.F. just on RHS of D -= 4-7-5-= -2 t.
5t 5i
Fig. 155
S.F. just on LHS of ==-7-4 5== 2 t
S.F. at any section in EB=1 1.
S.F. at centre <7=0

BJi. AnaHysis
B.M. at A at =0.
BJyf. at D=Blliat =+7x3=4-21 tm.
B.M. at G=7x5-5x2-lx-y =35-10-2- +23 tm. {maxh
mum bending moment).

The B.M. diagram is linear for the parts AD and BE and is
parabolic for the part DE
(v/)Simply supported beam carrying a had whose intensity
varies uniformly from zero at each end to w per unit run at the mid
span.
Fig. 156 shows a simply ux
supported beam AB oP span / 20;

carrying the loading men-
YlV
tioned above.
Total load on the beam A^^W i
=area of the loa V -a:

diagram r - ( J
1 ,
W VarT
Eich vertical reaction ^nyrh,^

=half the total load I 1 1 TflTTTrjs^
Consider any section ^ ss.DtAsnAM.

in distant x from the end
riTK" ..jiliiK
(H
External load on the
length AX
=area of the load dia- B.M DtA6lfAM
gram between A and X Fig. 1S6
acting at -y from X.
S.F. at X is given by.
+ i-;
180
STRENGTH OF WAlTRMlS
Sx ~ -
wl JV Jl
4
0
< /
wJ
At v=/.
B.M. at X is given by,

wl \
Aft - . X . X -
4 / 3
a ir 3
At x-0.
,W .=0 ;
/
At j:= ;; .
Wl/ w /'*
Afr
T
M ./2

ir
_
i2'
The loading being symmetrical, the S.F. and B.M. agran s
can be easily drawn.

Max. B.M. occurs at mid span and is equal to
H'/2
--
t-
I>
Total load on the span
W.
/. Max. B.M. - r .
-r
2 o
Wl
6
Total load x span
6
Simply supported beam carry iny: a had whose intensity
(v/7)
varies uniformly from zero at one end to w p.r unit run at the other
end.
Fig. 1 57 shows a simply supported beam A B of span / carrying
a load whose intensity varies uniformly from zero at the left end A
to w per unit run at the right end B.
Let Va and Vb be the vertical reactions at A and B*
For the equilibrium of the beam, taking moments about At
we have.
ahd ben ng moments lEi
qhbar forces
ff:M.DfA6RAM
fig. 157

y ~ ^
2 3 6
Consider any section X distant x from the end S.F. and
B.M. at this section are given by
wl X wx wl wx^
,, wl X wl
6 ^ 2/
T 6 ^ 61
Hence the S.F. diagram is a parabolic curve and the B.M.
diagram is a cubic curve
At jc- 0 ,
S.F.=
f:
At
u
At Y-O,
Mr-0
182 strength of materuls
At X=U
Let the S.F. be zero at a distance x from A.

Equating the S.F. to zero, we have,
Wl WX\
6
~ 2r
I
V3
Max. B.M. occurs at x= from A
V J
Afmx=.-
g .
j
IVp
9v3
^ Problem 108. The intensity of loading on a simply supported
beam of 5 metres span increases uniformly from 800 kg.lm. at one end
to 1600 kg lm. at the other end. Find the position and magnitude of
the maximum bending moment. Also draw shear force and Bending
Moment diagrams.
SolatioD. The trapezoidal loading on the beam consists of a

uniformly distributed loading and a triangular loading as shown in
Fig. 158.
Reactions :
Taking moments about the end we have,

10
KhX5- -|^800x5x-^|+ J-x800x5X
I, 10,000 ,
kg.
Ka--Total load Kb
10,000
SOOxS-t-y x800x5
J_
= 6 000 - 10.000
,
Consider any section XX at a distance x from A.

Load intensity at the section XX
=800+ y got =800+ 160 x.
j
SFRENGTH OF MATERULS
184
3x2-t-30v- 100 --0.
"*
Solving, wc get
B.M. Analysis
B.M. at the section XX
8000 1 X (160
Af -3- X- x)f
The B.M, diatM.drn follows a cubic law.

occurs at the section of zero shear.
Maximum bermmg moment
f ^ 6^^ nuire,s from A.
i.e., at a dr,iancc <
Ma.\ mum in nding moment
x2637--400 X2'6372- X 2-637^
.3761-51 kgm.
has supports fff i
Problem 109- A beam of length {l+2a) W
m The beam carries a concentrated load
an oZlZl a each side.
moment diagrams.
Con^ruct shear force and bending
at each end.
let />.IM be the beam of length (/+ 2a). Let the
Solution.
surports be at A and B so that
DA-BCâ
AB--1
Each vertical reacti(^n=^ W
at any section between D and /j =
S F.
S.F. at any section between B and C= + W

S-F. at any section between A and B~0
B.M. at I>=0 B.M. at A=~ Wa
At any AB distant x from D
section in the B.M. is given by
M, = - Wx ^W(x-a)==- Wa
WM.zXB^-Wa B.M. atC'-O
The B.M. throughout the length is of the hogging type.
(v/ii) Beam with overhang at one end and carrying a uniformly
distributed load over the whole length.
Fig. 160 shows a simply supported beam ABC with supports

at A andB, 6 metres apart
with an overhang BC 2 metres
long. Let us construct the
Ya-4t
ein-
ivat
J
S.F.
tiiis
and B.M. diagrams for
beam.
Let Va and Vb be the
vartical reactions at A and B.
For the equilibrium of

the beam, taking moments
about A^ we have,
K6X6-^r5x8X4
K/i~8 tonnes.
/. l*5x8-8==4 tonnes
S.F. at the leftend
=+4t.
S.F. just on the left
Fig. 160 hand sidcôf B

= + 4-r5x6--5 /
S F. just on the right hand side of B

- + l5x2-3 t
S.F. at C-0
Fig. 160 shows the S.F. diagram.
Let the S.F. be zero at a metres from A. Equaling the S.F. to
zero, we get,
4-r5 x-0
f= ~ g
metres -2*67 m.
B.M. at >4 ==0

At any section in AB distant x from A, the B.M. is given by
Mx^4x-\'5~
Hence the B.M. diagram is parabolic
8 8 rs
B.M. at a:= is Afmax=4 X
2
^ ~3 tm
or alternatively B.M. at B,
taking moments of the forces on the right hand side of B,

r5x2x(-j)=^ 3 tm
Point (It which the B M. is zero,
g
Since at v m the B M. is +533 tm and at
X--" m is 3 tm there must be a section where the B.M,

the B.M
is zero. section can be determined by equating the generel
This
expression for B.M. to zero.
/ by the equation,
4.v-r5 -0
y
.x(4-0 7.S v)--0
.v-0
and
y m ~533 m
Let the B.M. be zero at O (Fig. 160)
y m.
The point 0 where the B M.

is zero is called the point of contra-
flexure or point of inflexion
For all from A to
sections O
the B.M, is the sagging type
of
while for all sections between O
and C
the B M. is of the hogging
type.
Some interesting observations
For the beam di.scussed above 4#
the B.M. at A is zero and the B M. 5 33tm
at O is also zero and the distance
AO= m.
3
Suppose a simply supported
beam AO has a span of m, and Fig. 161
y
187
SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS
subjected to a uniformly distributed load of
I '5 r/w over the
is
would be l'5x tonnes.

span, each vertical reaction i
^
3tm
Fis. 162
Max. sagging B.M. will occur at the cenre and its magnitude
188 STKENCrH OF MATERIALS
*=+ /m. h533 tm.
It may be noted that the S.F. and B.M. diagrams for this beam
AO are exactly the same as the S.F. and B.M. diagrams for the por-
tion AO of the beam ABC
Hence for we may consider AO as a separate

analysis purposes
simply supported beam supported at A and at the end O of a double
cantilever OBC. The S.F and B M. diagrams for the portion OBC
of the given beam can be drawn easily by drawing the corresponding
diagrams for the double cantilever OBC.
Problem110. A simply supported beam ABC

with supports
at A andB, 6 metres apart and with an overhany BC
2 metres long
carries a uniformly distributed load oj 1 5 tonne per metre over the
whole length as shown in Fig J6J Draw S.F. and B.M. diagrams.
bmd
Fig. 163
Solution.
Reactions, Taking moments about the end A,

K^x6-- r5x8x5
Fa = Total load Vh
-(r5x8)-8
-12- 8 Wf
SF. analysis. At any section \x\ AB distant x from shear
orce
At .r-0, S^^4t
At m, S 4 1*5x6 --5f
!-HEAR forces and bendiKg moments 189
Section of zero shear. Equating the general expression for

shear force to zero,
4-r5.x-0
. . X -
m=2 67 metre
j 5
At any section in CB, distant x from C

Shear force =5= + I'S x
At x=0, S=0
At x=2, S-r5x2-=+it
B.M. Analysis. At any section in AB distant x from ^4,
Bending Moment
o
M --4jc 0*75/^ This is a parabolic law.
At A -O, M O,
At .v==6m, M-4 '

6 -OTSx i /m.
Maximum bending moment, which occurs at the section of-

zero shear
- Af,-4x -075
^ (
- j
---
\ 5-33tm.
At any section in CB distant .v from C

Bending moment
-0 75a2
At .v=0, A/ -0
and at .v 2 in. Af=- -0 75 r

2^ - J rm.
(/.vA Simply supported beam with equal overhangs and carrying

a unifor uly distribuh d load of m' per unit run over the whole length.
Fig. 164 shows a beam EABD of length (/ r2a) with supports
at A and B so that AB=^l and AEBD a.
Let the beam carry a uniformly distributed load of w per unit

run over the whole length.

190
Since the loading

is symmetrical on the
beam, each vertical reac-
tion eciuals half the total

load on the beam.
Let Vu and be
the reactions at A and B.
^ a-- P0
w(l~] 2 q)

"2
S.F. at any section

in A distant x from E
is given b> Sx r
At ;c^ 0, i.e., at . Sx 0
At Jc--fl, /.e.Just on the

left hand side of A^
wa
Fig. 164.
At any section in AB distant x from E the S.F. is given by
5x-- Vu^^wx
y(/+2n) ivx
At xa, i,e,^ just on the right hand side of A,
Sr
^
[J+2a)WG^+
y
At x=^(u+l), i.e.^ just on the left hand side of B
-(/-l^2o) w{a~}-l)
wl
2
Hence from A to B the S.F. changes uniformly from ^ wl

to
Hence the S.F. at Cths middle point of the beam is zero.
For the portion BB, the S.F. will change uniformly Croih
+IMI at JI to zero at D.
SHEAR FORCES AND RENDING MOMENIS 191
Ai any section in EA^ distant a from E, the B M. is given by,
A/a;= (hogging)
At A 0, at *,
B.M.-O
At X a, i.e.y at
B.M.=^ (/hogging)
Hence from to A the B.M. increases from zero at E to*
(hogging) at A foUowi' g a parabolic law. Similarly the B.M.
wci^
for the portion EB will vary from zero at Z) to
^
^hogging) at B
following a parabolic law.
At any section in AB, distant x from E the B.M. is given by,.
Mx--- (lMa)(x--a)
Mx- (1 A 2a){xa)x^
^ I |
At A a and at x - a^ I /.e., at A and B

w
M. -
2
At A at the middle point of the beam

Y z.e.,
(where the S.F. is zero) the B.M. is

given by
2 )(+ ("+ -if]

2 I
Some important observations :
We find from the above discussion that the B.M. for the over-
I
aeging parts EA and BD are of the hogging type.
The B.M. at the middle point C^Me=
B
192 STRbNGTH OF MATERIALS
Case (a). When I- > 4a i,e., J> 2a

For this case (/ 4a) is positive. Hence Me is positive and
the B.M. diagram will be as shown in Fig. 164.
For this case there will be two points of contrailexure Oi and
Oi between A and B.
The positions of the.se points can be determined by equating
the general expression for B.M. for any section in AB to zero.
We know at any section in A distant x from E the B.M is
given by,
Mt- |(/-t la){xa)~x^ j-
For the points of contrailexure,

we have,
! 2a)(x-a)-T2}-.--0
.. (/ r 2a)(xa) - 0
.v2-(2a + /).x-!-a(2fl i-/) -0
"
^
(2a 1 l)V (2a 4-/jô(2a-i /)
.
2
.r a 1 -yj-|-\/(2a HA2c + / 4a)
.'
{
a !
2 )-\ V (2a+/)(/-2^
v
^
a t ~ ~ v/ ^^-4a
2
But EC a;
I
Hence the points of contrailexure Oi and O2 are at the distance
-y from the middle point C of the beam.
Hence distance between the two points of contraflexurc

O 1 O2
Hence the part 0\0z alone can be regarded as a separate
simply supported beam, the maximum B M, at the centre being
wX "
g
(/* - 4/r) as obtained before
Case {by When f e,, l^2a
B.M. at C-Mc *^(/-4o)
==0
The B.M. diagram between A and B will just touch the span at
the middle point.The beam is subjected to only hogging bending
moments. The points of contraflexure Oi and O2 will coincide
with C
Fig. 165 (a) shows the S.F. and B.M. diagram for this case.
2 2
Fig. 165. (h)

Case (c). When f^<Ad^ i.e., l<2a
B.M. at C= (/2-4a2)
Afr is negative since r^<Aa^
M, :-^(4a2-/2).
Hence for this case, the B.M. will be zero only at the ends A
and /) and at all other sections the B.M. will be of the hogging type.
Problem 111. Calculate the reactions at the supports A and B
of the beam shown in Fig. 166. Draw bending moment and shearing
force diagrams. Determine also the points of contraflexure within
the span AB and show their positions on the bending moment diagram-
Solution.Let reactions at A and Bhe Va and Vh respectively.

Taking moments about Ay we have, Vu y 7 1000 x 2 ;
--2400 x 44 1500x10
22600 ,
kg.
=3228 -6 kg.
strength <x matbmau
194
K=Total load- K
-=4900- 3228*6 kg.
=+1671*4 kg.
S.F. Catealatfcns
S,F. between A= 1000 kg.
D and
S.F. between A and C= 1000+1671*4 kg.
-+671*4 A:g.
S.F. between Cand il= + 1500- 3228*6

=-1728*6 kg.
S.F. between and = + 1 500 kg.
ffioakp '^pokg.
j
6ii-4kg.
Dr
ytoek^
Fig. 166
B.M. Odcabrtioiis
B.M. at J>=JI#4=0
B.M. at .4=il#.= -1000 x 2=-2000 kg. m.
B M. at Cil|=+167r4x4- 1000x6 JtR. m.
+685*6 kg. m.
fhear forces and bbndino moments 195
B.M. at 1500 x *3= 4500 kg. m.

B.M. at E==Mc=0
PîDts of coDiraflexure. There willbe two points of contra-
flexure Oi and <32. One of them lies between 'A and C and the other
lies between C and B.
Point of contraflexure Oi between A and C. Let this point bo
X metres from A. Equating the bending moment to zero
167l*4x-1000(.v+:) = 0
metres from A,
Point of contraflexture 2 between O C and B. Let this point be
X metres from B. Equating the bending moment to zero,
3228'6x-l500(x+3)=0
x = 26 metres from B.
Problem 112. A beam of length L is si nply supported on two
intermediate supports, movable along the length, with equal overhangs
on either side. The supports are so adjusted that the maximum B Si.
is the minimum possible. Determine the position of the suj^rts and
draw the B.M and S F diegrams for this position. The beam carries a
uniformly distributed had of w per unit length over the entire length.
(A.M.l.E.^ November 1965}
u/mr/ttm Solntion When the overhangs

ing lengths are small there will be
B
a sagging B M. at midspan and a
hogging B M. over the supports. If
I/*
^ the maximum B.M. shoidd be the
minimum possible the length of the
te/UNIT WN overhanging portions must be so
WSSh ^msmtmsssQB adjusted that the sagging B.M. at
0207L 0'586L
midspan equals in magnitude the
I vr
' Mi
UtL
hogging B.M. over the supports.
Let the overhanging length of
each side be a.
029301 Fig. 167 shows the beam carry-
0-207L
ing the distributed load over the
whole length.
Each vertical reaction
0-Wwl
0.29SL =half tbe total load
wL
wL
Ve^Vd-
hig. 167 Hogging B.M. over the supports
_Wcfi
2
Saeuiiie B.M. at the centre of the sbao
wL f L \ WL*
196
4(4-)
2 4 \ /
midspan to the hogging B.M.
Equating the sagging B.M.
at
over the supports, we

have.
TV 4
-Laa^
4
L2
La-
Completing the square, we get. *
[^^-2) 4^4 2
L
af
2 V2
- _A2
"'v2
a^-^Q'lblL
Sagging B.M. at midspan

= Hogging B.M. over the supports
=-^ (0-2)7L)=0 02 wL~

wL? ,
S.F Calculations. S.F. at B=0

A and
just on the left side of C hx 0 207L"-
-0 *07
S F. ^0 29. m
S.F. just on the right side of C 0 207uL-r0 5 mL
S |^ at midspan 0
-* --0293 wL
S.F. just on tl e left side of
S F. jusr >n the right side of D=
-S-ti207 mL
Draw the diagrams for the over-

B.M and S.F
I'roblem 113.
loads as shown in Fig 168. Make the values oj
hanging beam carrying n-'
S principal ordinates and locate the point of contraflexure, 1/
SHEAR FORCES AND BENDINO MOMENTS 197
Solution. Let the reactions at

A and BbtVa and Vd respectively.
Taking moments about, A we
have,
Fi,x20 = lx30x h5x30

Fft=--30 t
Fo=l X 30+5-30=5 r
S F. Calculations
S.F. just on the right hand side
of A=^~]-5 tons.
S.F. just on the left haod side of
F- + 5-20---15 tons.
S.F. just on the right band side
of F +5+1 X 10=*^+ 15 tons*
S.F. just on the left hand side of

C + 5 tons.
Let the S.F. be zero at x ft
from A
Equating the S.F. to zero, we get
5-Ix;t-0
x-5ft.
Fig. 168
B.M. Calculations B.M. at A~^

B.M. atF -5x10 ^^^^--- 100 ton. ft. {max. negative
b.m.)
B.M. at C O B.M. at x^Sft.
Mii=5x 5 + 12 50 ton. ft. (max. positive b.m!)
Point of controflexurC. Let the B.M. at a distance .v from A

(between A and B) be zero. Equating the bending moment to zero,
we have
5.V -1 2--0.
10;v=0 x{x~ 10)-= =0 or 10.
Problem 1 14. A beam AB, 20 metres long supported on two

^mediate props 1 2 metres apart carries a uniformly distributed load
0 tonne per metre
together with concentrated loads of 3 tonnes at
the li
ft end A and 5 tonnes at the right end B. The props are so located
ôt the reaction is the same
at each support Determine the positimt
the props: and draw B.M. and S.F.
diagrams. Mark the values of- the
-
maximum B.M. and S.F. . r
strength op MATCRIALS
198
SoliitfoB* Let the left sup-

port beat C
and the right sup-
port be at D.
Let AC=a metres
Ji)=20-l2-a
=(8 metres
Let Vi and Fa be the react-

ions at the left and right supports
respectively.
Total load on the beam
*3-t-5-)-06x20 tonnes
20 tonnes
Since the reactions at the
supports are given to be equal,
we have
tonnes.
Taking moments about A,

we have
5x20+06x20x 10=^ 10a JD B
+ 10(12+a)
100-i-120=10a+120
+ I0a 775tm
*
20a=100 Fig. 169.
a 5 metres
The left support is at 5 metres from A and the right
support is at 8 5=3 metres from B.

Shear force calculations
S.F. on the right hand side of A =3 tonnes
just
S.F. on the left hand side of C= 3 0'6 x 5= 6 tonnes
just
S.F. on the right hand side of
just C=
6+10= -r 4 tonnes
just on the right hand side of D= + 5+06 x 3=
S.F.
+6'8 tonnes
S.F. just on the left hand side of i!>=+6 8 10'0= 3 2 ronafs.
Let the S.F. be zero at a distance of x metres from A (between

the two supports)
Equating the S.F. to zero, we have,
10-3--t)-6x=0
0 6.x=7
7
metres
= ll-~ metres.
Bending moment calculations.

B.M. al.40
SHEAR FOACfiS AND BENDING MOMENTS 199
B.M. at C=JKc==-3x5~-06x -y- tonn^ metres

= 22*5 tonne metre
B.M. at i>=Afd= = 5x3 06X 32 tonne metres
= 17*7 tonne
metres
2
B.M. at a distance of 1 1 metres from A
t )
=Afc=10X6^ -3X11
y -li" tonne metres
:
9^
0
tonne metres *
--9' 17 tonne metres.

Problem 1 15. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams
for the beam shown in Fig. 170. Indicate on the diagrams the values of
shear force and bending moment {with proper units) at signânt points.
Also show the location and magnitude of the maximum bending moment.
{A.M.I.E., May 1964)
Solution. Let the g rtmes
reactions at th^ left and ? mmslmetre |
right supports be Vn and

Vd respectively.
Taking moments
about the left support,
we have,
Fdxl2-2xl2x3+8x9
F'd=l- tonnes
.'. Fi.=2x 12+8-12
=30 tonnes.
Shear force calculations

Shear force at A =0
S.F. just OD the left
hand side of B
= 2x3=-6 tonnes
S.F. just on the
right hand side of B
= -6+20= + 14
tonnes
S.F. just on the
tight hand side of C
S.F. just on the left hand side of C
12+8 4 tonnes.
'
Let the S F. be zero at x metres form A (between 5 and O

Equating the S F. to zero, we have
20-2X-0
x\Q metres.
Bending moment calculations.
B.M. at A --
32
BM . at h Ml. - 2 X -j- = ^9 tonnes metres
BM . at r M' I- 1 2X3 + 36 tonnes metres
B.M. at M 0
B M. at !0 meters from A
10
M. - 20 X 7 2 X = +40 tonnes metres
Point of controflexure.
,
Let the B.M. be zero at x metres from A (between the two
supports').
Equating the bending moment to zero, we get,
20f.v-3)-2
f=0
20X+60 -0
The practical value of x should be between 3 and 12.
Solving the equation we get x==3*67 metres.
Problem 116. Determine the support reactions for the beam shown
in Fig, 171and conMruct the bending moment diagram and shear force
diagram marking the values of the various ordinates, {Bombay, 1966)
Solution. Let Va and Vh be the vertical reactions A and B.
Taking niomentN about the end wc have
Vir L+ W. '
L 3L
4 2
Vb- "
W
2
3>F ' W
'
2
S.F. computations
S.F. between A and B+W
S.F. between Cand D=-\-W2W= W
S.F. between D and B=+W2W+W=0
S.F. between B and E= +
w
SHKAR FORCS AND BENDING MOMENTS 201
B V/. Computations. B.M. at y4=0

1 u/j
B.M. at
4
-+ T
e.MOM6R4M
Fig. 171
B.M. at (hogging)
^
u A
B.M. .
at
a
B-=-
W L Wl,, , .
2
^ 4
B.M. at ^0.
Problem 117. Calculate the reactions for the beam shown in Fig.
'
72. Construct the bending moment and shear force diagrams. Deter-
nitne the location of the maximum bending moment and mark it clearly
on each of the diagrams, I
202 STRENGTH OF MAtERUu
SolutioD Let Va and Ke be the
reactions at the supports A and C t'St
respectively. TOTAL 8t
Taking moments about
A, we have j"* 3 m 3 m,- ~2 m.-
K, x6==8x
|
+ r5x8 I 5 i
Vr -4 tonnes 8!3 t/m

F-8+r5-4-5*5 ApMmMs:iS. t
t
. 3m. nI*
3m, ^*2/77. -4
S.F. Calcufations V
S.F* at A - 4-S 5 /
S5t
SF. at B^5 5-S t -~T5 t
[IW.E *5* tsi
S.F. between B and C A ^Triimiiiiiyf

T^25t 2-5t
--25/ j
S.F. between C and D

5 662tnu
- + 1*5
trom A.
Let the S.F. be zero at
t
x metres
AsmZo
3tm
Fig 172
Equating the S.F. to zero we have
8
-2 0625 from ^
BMCakul!s
B M at
A^Ma=0
U.M. at E -Af = 55x3 8x tonne meters
+45
tonne metre
B-M. at E i.e., 20625 metres from A
55x20625 tonnemetcr
-|
-f 5'662 tonne metre
B. M. at C Mr = 1 5 X2 = 3'00 tonnes metre
B M. at D=Mh=0
Point of contretflexure
There will be a point of contraflexture between B and
C.
Let this point of contraflexore be at x metres from C.
H
shear FORCtS AND bENDlNQ MOMENTS 20J
Equating the B.M. to zero we get

4JC-1 5 t2+jc)=0
jc 1 2 m
36 . B.M. at a section doe to a couple
Fig. 173 shows a cantilever AB
of length /. Let an anti-clockwise
couple M^Pphe applied at a section
C. distant a from A, The couple here
consists of the equal and parallel
forces P with a lever arm p between
them.
It is obvious that the moment of
the individual constituting the
forces
couple about any point in the plane
of the couple is Fp,
Hence at any section X in AC
B.M. Moment of the individual
forces P of the couple.
B M Diagram
= anticlockwise moment Pp
Fig. 173 =iagging moment
Hence at every section between A and C there will be a sagging
moment M
Due to the couple alone
there will be no shear force.
Fig. 173 shows the B.M. dia-
M
Btm
57 "7
m
wtm.
^
gram for the cantilever. * ut- '--j . 9m
m
om,
Problem. 118. Draw the B.M,
-
n
diagram for the cantilever shown '
1
in Fig. 174.
1
Solution. 1
B.M. between D and 5=0.

1 1
mTTTTTTW
B.M. between C and D ?tm i
= ~10 rm {hogging)
B.M between A and C tot /O.
-10+8 -2tm
{hogging) lig. 174
Problem 118. Find the reaction at the fixed end of the cantilever
loaded as shown in Fig. 175. Draw also the shear force and the bending
moment diagrams
Solution. Total vertical load on the cantilever ==3+2 5 tonnes
Vertical reaction at >4= 5 tonnes {upwards)
Taking moments about A
We have the following moments ;
(/) Couple at BÎV ) tm. {anticlockwise)

in) Moment due to 3/ **3 x 4=** 12 tm {clockwise)
iUi) Couple at i>=3*00 tm {clockwise)
(iv) Moment due to 2f
=2x816 tm {clockwise)
Net moment=29 tm
{clockwise) 2n\.-- 2 /.-
Hence at A the fixed sup-

port will provide a balancing or
reacting moment of 29 tm.
(anticlockwise)
Hence the reaction at A

will consist of an upward re-
acting force ofi5 tonnes and an
anticlockwise reacting moment
of 29 tonne metres.
S.F. between
A and C +5 tonnes.
S.f \ between
C and E ~ + J tonnes.
BM Calculations
B.M. at -0
B-M. just on the right hand
side of D - 2 x 2 - -4 fm.
B.M. Just on the left hand
side of 7 tm.
B.M. at -2x4-3 --11 tm.
B.M. just on the right
hand side of B
--2x6 3-3x2
--21 tm.
B.M. just on the left
hand side of B
-21 f-2 ---l9 tm
BM at
y4---2X8-3 -3x4+2
- - 29 tm.
reacting moment at /(.
Problem 120. Find the

reaction at the fixed end and
draw the shear force and
bending moment diagrams for
shown in Fig. 176,
the cantilever
Solution. Total verti-
cal load on the cantilever
= + 2 =
1 2 1 tonne.
(downwards)
Vertical reaction at A
= Ka 1 tonne (upwards) Fig. 176
SHkAR tORCtS AND BENDING MOMENTS 205
Taking moments about A, we have the following moments ;
(/)2 X 8 = 6 tm.
1 (clock wisci
(li) 12 tm. (anticlockwise)
(Hi) 2X4 = 8 tm. (anticlock wise)
(iv) 1 x2=2 tm. (clockwise)
Net moment=2 tm. (anticlockwise)
Hence the fixed support at A will provide the necessary
reacting moment of 2 tm (clockwise)
S.F. between E and C=4-2 tonnes
S.F. between C and B=Q
S.F. between B and A -]r\ tonne.
B.M. at =0
B.M. just on the right hand side of D 2x2A tin.
B.M. just on the left hand side of i) 4+ 12= +8 tm.
B.M. at C=-2x4+12 = +4 tm.
B.M. at B=2x6+12+2 X2-+4 tm.
B.M. at =-2X8+12+2 x4-l x2=+2 tm.
Problem 121. Calculate the reactions at A and B for the hear:
shown in Fig. 177 and draw the bending moment and shear fori e dio
grams, (A.M.I.E., November /%/
Solntion. Let the reactions at A and B be Ko and K. rcspcc
tively. Taking moments about A
we have,
WL
F.L+ WL^ -/-+ W~
4L
. F<.=21+-
= yl+t
S,F. Calculations
S.F. between A and C
S F. between C and B
4 w
S.F. between B and iv
B,M. Calculations
B.M. at y4Jlfa"0
206 STRENGTH OP MATERIAIS
w tr
B.M. C=7Wr=+ W'L

at
y ^
B.M. just on the left side of D
B.M. just on the right side D of

=A^d=+-|X-^FL=- ^WL
37. Beam with a couple at an intermediate point

Fig. 178 shows a beam AB of span / hinged at the ends A
and B and subjected to a clockwise couple tonne metres at M C
distant a and b from A and B respectively.
Taking moments about A, we have

Fi>/=A/
M
Vb<m Yttmnes (upwards)
shear forces KSD bending MOMBNtS
Since there is no external vertical load,
Vix^^ tonne {downwards)

Va^MIl
/. S.F. between A and r= M - H wmie.Hm
S F* between Cand B= -j
B.M. at /I ^0
B.M. just on the left hand side of C
M
B.M. just on the right hand side of C Sf
,
M,
B.M. at BÔ I
Jtohris.
178 shows
Fig. the S.F. and B M.
diagrams for the beam.
Problem 22. Draw shear force and ^
e^moiAceAt^
bending moment diagrams for the beam
shown in Fig. / 79. Fig. 178
Solution. Let the vertical reactions at A and B be Va and Vb.
Taking moments about A we have the following moments.

t JCNHetm. ntm.
*
1
2 5 tm. {clockwise)
(//) couple - 15 00 tm.
{anticlockwise) f tonnetm.
net raoment=2 5 tm.

{an ticlock wise ) I
5.
5-25 TONNES
Htnce Vb x 10^-2 5 tm. 0^2S TQHNt
{clockwise)
^6=0*25 tonnes
{downwards)
F. = IX 5+0/5
=5 25 tome
p
j
{upwards) ^
\i4mim,
S.F. between C and B }
-+0-25t.
[
From A to C, the S.F.

'III
change from +525 to 94BiM
075 t.
Fig. 179
B.M. at^=0
52
B.M. at C=5'25X5-1X-2 tm.
-1375 tm.
B.M. at B -0
B.M. just on the right hand side of D

= 0'25x25 tm
= 0 625 tm.
B.M. just on the left hand side of D
= -0-625+15 tm.
= + 14-375 tm.
Problem 12.3. Construct the bending moment diagram and shear
force diagram for the bâm shown in Fig. 180 and mark the values of
the important ordinates. {A.M.IE., November 1966)
Solution. Taking moments about the end A, we have
Pi> X6+12 6x4+6 X 7
6 F6=54
Vii~9 tonnes
Va~-l29 - 3 tonnes
Shear force calculations.
Shear force just on the right hand side of /l=+3 tonnes.
Shear force just on the left hand side of i)=+3 tonnes.
Fig. ISO Pig. 181

:
SHBAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS 209
Shear force just on the right hand side of Z)=+3-"6

3 tonnes.
Shear force just on the hand side of
left 3 tonnes.
Shear force just on the right band side of tonnes.
Fig. 181 shows the S.F, diagram
Bending Moment Calculations
Bending moment at i4==0
Bending moment just on the left hand side of C
= 4"3 X 2= +6 tonne metres
Bending moment just on the right hand side of C
=+3x2 12~ 6 tonne metres
B.M. at D=r +3 X 4- 12=0
or alternatively,
B.M. at /)=+9x2-6x3=0
B.M at B 6X 1 = 6 tonne metres
B.M. at =0.
Fig. 181 shows vhe B.M. diagram.
Problem 124. Explain the inter-relation between ^bending mo^
ment" and 'shear force* in a beam. {A.M.I Nov 1966)
Solution. Fig. 182 shows a
beam subjected to an external loading.
Consider the equilibrium of the
portion of the beam between sections
1 1 and 2-2, dx apart, at a distance
X from the left support.
Let the shear force at the
sections 1 I and 22 be S and V (rpraumRtm
S f respectively.
Ler the bending moments at
the sections 1 and 1 22 be and M
respectively.
The forces and moments keep-
ing the portion of the beam between
the sections 1-1 and 22 in equili-
Fig. 182
brium consist of the following :
(0 upward force S at section 11

(//) downward force 5+85 at section 22
(Hi) downward load wSx
(/v)) moments M
and (Ai+8Af).
Resolving the forces on this part vertically^ we have
5+S5+w8x=5
BS+wZxÔ ...(/)

210 SIRENGTH OF MATERIAU
Taking moments of the forces and couples about the section
. fx 2
(If instead of a uniformly distributed load of w per unit run

there bad been a load varying according to some law the last
expression in the above relation would be of the form-MS:>c .

where the quantity n depends on the law of variation of the load).
Ignoring higher powers of small quantities, and simplifying die
above relation, we get,
^
Sx
ie., the rate of change of bending moment is equal to the
shear force.
Similarly, from equation (/)
SS
i e., the rate of change of shear force equals the rate of loading.
the beam
For instance
shown in Fig. 183.
for w,
I v/umrum
^
|
Shear force at the section X a i /X

distant X from the left support i""
given by
is
j* * *|
S^Vi-wx-Wi I
B.M. at the section X is given

by Fig. 183
M~Vix-^-Wi(x-a)
we have
w. fViViwxWi=S
tv =rate of loading at the section X.
38. Members wiih Oblique Loading
shows a beam AB of span 8 metres carrying three
Fig. 184 fa)
pomt loads applied in an oblique manner. Let the end A be hinged
while the end B is placed on rollers.
The various forces can be resolved into their vertical and hori-
zontal components [Fig. 184 (ft)].
Total external horizontal load on the beam

~(4-|-52 173) tonnes
=7'47 t<-
1
.HBAR KKICESAND B NDfNG MOMFNTS 21

The roller support at B cannot provide any horizontal reaction.
Hence the hinged suppoi t will provide a horizontal reaction of
//-7 47
Let Va and Vj be the vertical reactions at A and B.
Taking moments about A, we get.
K.x8--3x:+3x4+4x6
42
n= -g =5-25 t
Ki Total vertical load Vb 10 5"25475#

2î
si
4 75/
* 4 75/
*
A C JO E 3
B.M UAGRAti
Fig. ia4
212 SIRENCTH OF MATERIALS
The beam being horizontal the ^hcar forces and bending

moments are only due to the vertical components of the external
loading.
/. S.F. between .4 and +'* 1^ t.
S.F, between Cand D f4'75~3 -+I 75 t.
S f. bet\\een D and E ~5 25~f ^ 1*25 t.
S.h between E ana B -525 t.
B.M. at >1 0
B.M.atC A/. - + 4 75x2-
1 9 50 /m.
BM M.i 4 75 X 43 X 2--
'^
13 /w. +
B.M. at-Af.- - 5*25 X 2- + 10*50 Iw.
B.M. at B 0.
The Thrust Diagram
The horizontal components of the loads on the beam will intro*
duce axial loads or t^rust in the member.
Axial load or thrust between A and 7 47 t (compressive)
Thrust betvêen C and D 7 474 73 - 9 20 /. (compressive)
1
Thrust between D and E 4 l (compre>sive)

Thrust between and B 0.
A diagram which shows the variation of the axial load for all
sections of the span is called ihe thrust diagram. The thrust diagram
for the above beam is ^hown in Fig IK4 (p).
Problem 125. A simply supprrtvd beam carries inclined loads
100 kg. 200 kg. and .WO kg inclined at 30*. and 00" to the vertical
as shown in Fig. IS5. These loads act / metre, 2 metres and 3 metres
from the left .support respectively. If the .span is 4 metres^ draw shear
force. Bending Moment and Thrust diagrams. (A I E Summer 1979) M .
Solution. The inclined forces are replaced by their vertical

and hori/onial conip nent>
Now takinf? moments about the hineeJ end A.
f .X4 (86*6x I) (141 4X2)+(I50x3) f
V. 204 85 kg t
6+ 14 *4 + 1 50)-(:04*85)
-173*15 Agt
Rcsoiviiiff horizortallv,
- // . -5'4 141 4+259 8
HaÂSilOkg -
S F. Cafrulatwns
S F at nnv section in AC
-+ I73 15A.I?.
S.F. at any section in CD
- : 173*15 - 86*60 - +86 5 5 kg.
S.F. at any scciion in DE
i 150-204*85- -54*85 kg.
S.F at any section in EB
-~204*85
B.M. Calculations
B.M. at
B.M. at G-.+173 I5X 1=+17315 Jtg. w.
AND BENDING MOMENTS 21J
SHE FORCES
I
I
7m !
S66kg
7m i
I4i4kg
Tm
mkg
J
im ^ \
I 1 SOkQ 1 t4l 4k(l 259
V^=2Q4SSkg
20499itf
C D E
THRUST DIAGRAM
f ig. 185
B.M. at /)- + (! 15X2)-(86*6X 1 )- -f 259
/^ 7 A:ir.-m.
h204 8>x
-
B.M. at +2:)4-85 kg^m.
I
Thrust Calculations
Thrust at any sjc.ijn in 4C = r 24 vij.
Thrast at any section in CD = 1-451 20 50-- -1-40 1 2 kg.

Thrust at any section in 259*8 kg.
Problem 126 The beam ABC shown in Fi^. 1S6 is hinged to the
wall at A. A \ertival bracket BD h firmly fixed to the beam at and B
a tie DE is hinged to the bracket at D and to the wall at E. Draw S.F*
and B M diagrams for the beam ABC when it carries a uniformly
distributed load of 4 tonnes per metre run over the whole length and a
point load of 2 tonnes at C.
Solution. Let Ve and /f. be the vertical and horizontal reac-
tions at . Let Va and i/.* he the vertical and horizontal reactions
at A.
For the equilibrium of the whol: stracturc, taking moments
about , we get
4x3
/faX2=-^+2x3
/fa~12 roinie^.
Resolving the forces on the structure horizontally, we get,
JS9=Jfa=l2 tonnes-
Let the tension in the tieD be T
Resolving the forces at horizontally and vertically, we get,
T cos - //
^
rsin e- Ve
3 3
Ve^ ~r \2^9 tonnes.
4 4
Resolving the forces on the whole structure vertically, we get.
Ka==4x3+2-9-5t
Now consider the equilibrium
of the beam ABC. This part is
in equilibrium under the action
of the following forces :
(/) External loading on the

beam.
(//) Vertical reaction at
t
{Hi) Horizontal reaction at

t
iiv) Vertical component of

the tension T at i)~ Va
-rsin (1-9/
(v) Horizontal component
of the tension T at D=Hd
=^T cos 6 12 t
The effect, of the forces

f/rf 1and Kd 9/, is the same
2 /
as that of an upward force of 9/

at B and an anticlockwise couple
of 12x0*5=6 tm at B.
S.F. Calculations
At any section in AB distant

X from A the S.F. is given by,
5-5-4.X:
At X--0,
5= 4 5 tonnes.
At X 2 m, i.e.. just on the
left side of B
5=54 X 2= 3 tonnes.
S.F. is zero at a distance
from A given by the condition
Pig.|t8a.
i.e , at x= ^ m
S.F. just on the right side of B-* 3+9= +6 tonnes.
From 5 to C the S.F. will change uniformly from +6 tonnes to

+2 tonnes.
B.M. calculations
At any section in AB distant x from A the B.M. is given by,
M 5x 2
^ ^>^2x2
At A i.e., atx=0 M=0

at x2m i.e., just on the left side of B.
jW=5x2-2x22 = + 10-8=+2 tm.
B.M. at x=~ m whcc the S.F. is zero
45x5
25
^16 tm.
B.M. just on the right side of 5= +2 -6= 4 tm or alteroR'

12
tively==2+lx4x- =4 tm.
B.M. at C=0.
Problem 127. The structure shown in Fig. 187 is supported on
horizontal rollers at D and F and a vertical roller at E. Four loads
are applied as shown.
rig. 187.
216 SIRENOTH OF MATERIALS
Calculate
(0 the reactions at D, E and F,
(i7) the bending moments at C and J
(iii) the direct force in portions CD, BI and IC
{iv) the shear force in portion AH, (Bombay)
w Wy/2
Fig, 188.
Solution. (/) Reactions, The inclined force 21Fat/may be

split into a vertically downward force W\,/2 and a horizontal
force W\/2. Let the reactions at D, E and F be Rd. Re and Rf.
Resolving the forces on the structure horizontally, we get
Re - W\/2
Taking momerHs of the forces on the structure about F, wc
have,
wX A 4. yy 2 X W\/2X?S-\- fVXS
=-^VxS+^Vy2xS-i R^xlS
/?,i=--^(l+5V2)
Rf^lV-i-Wy/2-~il + 5\/2)
i?/-
w
(3~V2)
(//) Bending moments at A, C and J
B.M n/ Aftt* + FFx 5= + WS (producing concavity on
the outside)
SHHAH FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS 217
B,M. at C=^Mc~ WS (producing concavity on

the outside)
BM. at J=^0
(Hi) Direct force in portions dD, BI and 1C
Direct force in CZ)=
ir
( H 5 v 2) (compressive)
Direct force in BI=^ H I

IV \/ >? If" ( 1 +\ 2) {tensile}
Direct force in IC== IV {tensile)
(iv) Shear force in portion AH
W (3-V2)
= 4
Problem 128. A vertical pile is hinged at the base and AB B
subjected to the variable load (due to earth pressure) as shown. The pile
is anchored by a tie pin connected at Draw the C
shear force and bending moment diagrams for
the pile AB.
Solution. Taking moments of the forces
on AB about B, we have,
6x\? 6
Pcos 30" X 4-
2
1
4 V3
9
^
2V3 Fig. 189.
Resolving the forces on the member horizontally we get^

horizontal reaction at B
9 9 * = -9
==225 tonnes.
2 47 4
218 SIIIENCTH OF MATERIALS
Vertical reaction at C= sin 30i
4v3
Now
consider the horizontal forces on the member. The B.M.
or S.F. at any section of the member is only due to the horizontal
forces. These forces are shown in Fig. 190.
S.F. Calculations.
At any section m AC distant x from A, the S.F. is given by
X X
1 4 8
At A, i.e., at j:= 0, S-^0

2*
S.F. just above
At any section in CB distant x from A, the S.F. is given by
>-+2-25
8
S.F. just below C
>2
= --^4 2-2,5=4-1-75 t.
S.F. at B, i.e., 6 m from A
= - 2 25 -
/
Point of zero shear
~
Equating the S.F. to zero,
jc
+2-25=0
aS=18
x= 4-243 metres from a.
B.M. Calculations
At any seciion in AC distant x from A the B.M. is given by
" r T
24
At ;c==0, Af=0,
and at x^2 m
Af= J tm.
shear forces and bending moments
219
At any section i i CB distant x from A the B.jM. is given by
^+2
24
25(x-2)
At x=2m.
Af== i tm.
At x^6 m.
+2-25(6-2)-0
24
At x=4 243 m
4*2433
M-- 24
+2*25 X 2*243
=+1*863 tm.
39. To obtain the B.Vl. diagram given the S.F. diagmm

Fig 191 shows the S.F. diagram
for a beam AB.
Let at a section distant jc from A
the B.M and S.F. be and M S rcspec
lively.
S.f OIAORAM
we have Fig. 1 91.
dx
dx
Integrating between A and X
we have x jc x
dM=^ Sdx
J I
a:=0 0
X
But jsrfx is the area of the shear force diagram
0 between A and X
Completing the integration, we get
(M-M<,)=area of the S.F. diagram between /t an J A". If at
A the B.M. is zero, we have
A/4J=area of the S.F. diagram between A and X

Hence the B.M. any section is numerically equal to the area
at
of the S.F. diagram between A and X,
Problem liO. The diagram shown is the shear force diagram for
a beam which rests on two supports one being at the left hand end.
Deduce directly from the 6*.F. diagram
(a) B.M. at 2 m intervals along the beam
(ft) Loading on the beam
(c) Position of the second support. >
SolutioB.
(a) B.M. at 2 m intenals
Since there is a support at the left end A the B.M. at AÔ
At any section X in AB distant X from A the ordinate of the
S.F. diagram
45
XE 10- x
(10- 075 a-)
^
Area of the S.F. diagram between A and X

_ (10 10-_ -
-
0 75 x)x I
.
2
10 .V- 0-375 Jc2
But the area of the S.f diagram between A and X

M.-M.,
Since M 0, we have
Mr lO.Y- 0-375 A-a
At X- - 2 m,
M-i 10x2- 0 375x4=18 5 //M.
At a: 4 i.
Mi i0x4-0 375x16=340 rm.
At .X = 6 in,
Mv,^ 10x6- 0-375X62-46-5 tm.
Nov^ consider a section .3 in BC distant .v' from B
The ordinate of the S.i diagram at .V' =
.
mt
rE' = l-5-F-,J-x'
3"'=1-5 4 0-75 a'
5HEAR FORCES AND 3ENDING MOMENTS 221
Area of the S,F. diagram betweea B and X'

r5+.-5+o;75y
^
= -(l'5x-f()*375A''2)
But the area of the S.F. diagram between B and X'
=the difference between B.M. at X'
and B.M. at
/Vf'-c
= (F5a +0*375x2)
A/%==:-(r5x'+0 375+2)1 Af.
But A/i/=46 5 rm.
H'x = 46*5-1* 5x' 0*375 .v'2
At 2 metres from B^ putting x2m.

M'x = 46*5-1*5 X 2-0*375+22=. 42 tm.
At 4 metres from B, puting x -^ 4 m
/V/'x=^ 46*5 1 5 x4-0 375x4*2 = 34*5 tmi
At 6 metres from By putting x' =6 m,

A/V = 46*5- r5 X 6-0*375 x 6- -24 tm.
At 8 metres from B, putting +=^8 m,
A/'x=46*5- 1
*5 X 8-0*375x82= 10'5 tm.
At 10 metres from B, putting x' 10 /w,
/V/'r=46*5'-l*5x 10 -0-375 X 102- ~6 tm.
Now consider the general expression for the B M,
A/^-46*5- -I*5r' ~0*375x'2
for A/'., to be zero
46 5 - l'5x' -0*375.\"2=0
Solving we get v' =^9*3J m,

(b) Loading on the beam.
(/) Since the shear force uniformly changes from A to B there
should be a uniformly distributed load in this range.
The intensity of the load ^ Slope of the shear force diagram
between A and />
= 10-^
^
*-()*75 tim
(//) At B there is an abrupt change in S.F. Hence at B there

must be a concentrated load.
Magnitude of the concentrated load
= Abrupt change in S F,
=( 5 -^ + 1 )=7 tonnes.
(Hi) Since the S.F. uniformly changes from B to C,

222
STltENTCH Oe MATBRUU
there must be a uniformly distributed load

between B and C.
Intensity of the distributed load
= Slope of the S.F. diagram between
B and C
Fig. 193
9 rs 0*75 t/m.
^
jy
(fv) Since the S.F. is constant between C and X) at 3 tonnes,
there must be a point load of 3/ at D.
(c) Position of second support
Since the S.F. abruptly changes at C the second support is at
C. Reaction at C=abrupt change in S.F. at C=9+3= 12 tonnes.
"
ProMem 130 Draw S.F. and B.M. diagram.^ for the members
ABC and DEF shown in Fig. 1^4.
Solution Consider the equilibrium of the member DEF. This

member is supported at F as a support and at D
on the vertical
member DC.
Let V.i be thevertical reaction exerted by the member DC at
D. Now DF can be considered as a simply supported beam.
Taking moments about F. we get,
K,( X 4 - 8 >c 1
F,!=2 tonnes.
S.F. between D E-2t
and
S.F. between Fand F=6t
SHEAR rOKCES AND BENDING MOMENTS 223 ^
Fig. 194
B.M. at D-O
B.M. at F-O
B.M. at E=2X3 =^-^6 tm. (sagging)
.
Now consider the member ABC. The loading on the member
^sists of a uniformly distributed load of 4t per metre over the whole
*gth together with a downward point load
Kc=2f at C exerted by
s
224 SHUSNGTH OF MATBRUtS
the member, CD. Considering the equilibrium of this member,

taking moments about A, we get
KfcX4=4x5x 5+2x5
Vh~\5 tomes
1^0=4x5+2 -15=7 tonnes.
S-F. at y4 = +7 t
S.F. just on the left side of B

= 7-4x4=-9r
S.F. just on the right side of B
= -9+15=+6t
S.F. at C-^lt
Let the S.F. be zero at a section in AB distant x from A.

Equating the S.F. to zero, we get
7-4a=0
X Î'75 metres
B.M. at .4- 0
B.M. at B- ^ 2^ ~2x 1= 4 tm. (hogging)
B.M. at 175 m. from A
= tW=7 X 175-4 X 175 x

= 12-25 -6 125= =6-125 ?wi.
Point nj contraflvxure, Lett a section in /I ^ distant a* from

A the B.M. be zero.
4v-^
7a - i )

a17-2a)-0
. . A -=- .'^5 thchjrs.
1. A beam
6 metres U>ng is simply supported at the ends and
carries a uniformly distributed h'ad of 3 tonne per hictre run for a
distance of 4 metres from the left end. Find the maximum shear
force and bending moment and draw rhe S F. and B.M. diagrams.
[Max.+ve S F. --
8r,
Max ve S F.^ 4r
Max. sagging B.M 10667 tonne metres at 2^ metres from
left end.)
2. A beam 5 metres long, supported at the ends carries poinf

loads of 14 tonnes^ 6 tonnes and tonnes at distances 0*5 metre, 2 >
metrp and 3*5 metres respectively from the left end. Find the
maximum S.F. and B M, Draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams.
(Max.+ve S.F. =8 tonnes^

SBBAR roRCES AND BENDDlO MOMD4TS 225
Max. ve S.F.=4 tonnes

Max. Sagging B.M. 17 tonne metres.)
3. A
beam 5 long has one support at the end A
and the other support at B
3 metres from A, It carries a point load
of it at the middle point of AB and a point load of it at C. Draw
S.F. and B.M. diagrams.
(Max.+ve S.F.=3t,
Max. ve S.F.'=4t
Max. hogging B.M.=6 tm. at 3m from A.)
4. Draw S.F. and B.M. diagrams for the beam shown in
Fig. 195.
Fig. 195
S.F. between A and C=+6/

S.F. between C and i) = 2t Ma==0 B.M. at abruptly changes
S.F. between
5. D and B= 12/ Mr= + \2 tm from+8 tm to 4 tm
S.F. between B and =-f 4/ Md = -\~itm Mi>= 4 tm
Mf-0
5. Draw S.F. and B.M. diagrams for the beam shown in Fig. 196
^ f nt. -intr- -/m.~ -imr tm.

fOtM 4t.m. 2t.m.
B
~zr O Fig. 196
(^ '
E
-7r~ e
S.F. between A and 5=0
S.F. between B and E+\t
F. between E and F=0
[Afa=5 /m, Affr=+5 /m, A/ck +6 /m,
Mtd^ 4 tm, 3 tm, Afij=+1 /m, Aff=+2 tm,
Mfe=+2 tm.]
6. Draw S.F. and B.M. diagrams for the beam shown in Fig. 197
S.F. at A =0 S-F. between C and E6t

Sba= It S.F. between E and F~ +3/
Si>c=^+St A/o=0, A/i>= tm, M*= + ll
I tm,
Afde^'^5 tm,
Seb^ ~\~4t Afd* f12 tm, 6 tm, Af/0
Sci= 6t
226 STRENGTH OF MATBRIALa
Fiu. 197
Point of contraflexure at ri27 m from A and 3 m from F.

7. Draw S.F. and B.M. diagrams for the members ABCD and
EFGH shown in Fig. 198.
9t gt
Fig. 198
(Member ABCD : S.F. between A and B=0 MaO

S.F. between 5 and C~3t Mi.=0
S.F. between C and D+At Mf = 6 tm.
Member EFGH : S.F. between E and F 4/ =0

Af
S.F. between F and 7=0 Mt=2tm.
S.F, between I and C7= 8/ Af= 2 tm.
S.F. between G and H +6/ Ms,~~6 tm.
Mh=-0)
8. A beam simply supported and with equal overhangs, carries
Ha. 199
lORda as shown in Rg. 199. If W^wl whidi
find the ratio
j for
tte bending moment at mid span (0*125)
will be zero.
1
SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS

227
9. Find the normal force, shear force and bending
moment
at the section D of the beam shown in Fig. 200.
Fig. 200
10. A beam of length
has one support at one end and the
/
other support at a distance a from the other end. The beam
caniet
a uniformaly distributed load of w per unit run over the whole
length.
Find the value of a, (i) if the maximum sagging bending
moment
equals the maximum hogging bending moment, (//) if
point of the beam is a point of inflexion- (/) 0 293/, (//) --

11. The beam ABCD shown in Fig. 201 is 3
metres long and is
hinged to a wall at A and supported horizontally by
the strut EF
hinged to the wall at F and at to the part CE which
is rigidly
attached to the beam at C. For the loading shown
find the reactioM
at the hinges A and and the thrust in and
draw S.F. and B Kf-
diagram for the beam ABCD.
(Va=5t upwards
Ho=-St
V/=9t
H/=^8t
thrust in F1204f
Ji/a0
Mo =+5 tm.
tm.
Afeds 6 tm.
Md=^0)
Fig. 201
5
Stresses in Beams
A member subjected to bending moment and shear force
undergoes certain deformations. The material of the member will
against these deformations. It is possible
offer resistance or stresses
certain assumptions. In this chapter
to estimate these stresses with
we will discuss about these stresses. A moment bends a
bending
member. Stresses introduced by bending moment
are called Bending
Stresses. Similarly a shear force will introduce stresses called

Shear stresses-
40. Pure Beading

Fig. 202 shows a beam
EABF with supports at A and
B, I units apart. Let the over-
hangs EA '-BF-â. Let a
point load If be applied at
each end of the beam. It is
easily seen that between A and

li the B.M. is constant and
there is no shear force at all
between A and B i-e., between

A and B the beam is absolutely
freefrom shear but is subjected
to a bending moment Wa.
This condition of the beam
between A and B is called
pure bending or simple bending.
41. Theory of simple bending
Fig. 203 (a) shows a part

of a beam subjected to pure
bending. The part of length
being subjected to pure bending
has deformed to the shape e M. DtACOAM
shown in Fig. 203 fr). F)g. 20!
A such as AC has deformea to the shape

fibre
AiC\. This
fibre has been shortened in its length. The fibre BD oa the contrary
has been elongated and has taken the shape BiDi. Similarly, the
fibre GH has been elongated and has taken the shape
GiHi. Hence,
if the beam for the length be taken to consist of a laige number
228
IN BSAMS 229
a
A
(C)
Fig* 203
of fibres,we find that all of them have changed their shape some of
;
them have been shortened while some of them are elongated. At a

level between the top and bottom of the beam there will be a layer
of fibres which arc neither shortened nor extended. Fibres in this
)ayer arc not stressed at all. This layer is called the neutral layer or
neutral surface. The line of intersection of the neutral surface
on a cross-section is called the neutral axis.
If now all the fibres between the two transverse sections AB and
CD be considered, the extremities of these fibres will remain on the
planes AiB^ and C\Di after the deformation. Let AiBi and C\Di
meet at O. Let the angle bei ween the planes ^ and Ci /)i be 0.
Let the radius of the neutral surface be R. Consider the fibre GH
distant y from the neutral layer.
Original length of this fibre GH^x

After deformation this fibre will deform and take the position
GiHu the new length of the fibre being (/? >) }
The fibre EF in
the neutral layer takes the position E\Fi with-
out undergoing any change in length
EFÊiFi=^x
ix=-R^
/. Change in length of the fibre GH
230 STlieSGTH OF MATBUU
6-Re
:=y6
Strain of the fibre GH
_ change in length
originalilength
R
Suppose the stress intensity in the fibre be /, we have strain Oa
the fibre
/
E
where E is the Youngs Modulus. *
L R
E
or L ^3
y R
/*=
Hence the stress intensity in any fibre is proportional to the dis-
tance of the fibre from the neutral axis.
For the case explained above all fibres below the neutral layer
aretsubjected to tensile stresses while those above the neutral layer
arc subjected to a)rnpressive stresses. The stress distribution diagram
is shown in Fig. 203 (b).
?42. Neutral axis

As mentioned earlier, the neutral axis of any ti'ansversc section
of a beam is the line of intersection of the neutral layer with the

transverse section.
Fig. 204 shows the cross-section of a beam. Let R be the
radius of curvature of the neutral layer at this section. Hence the
stress at any point di?tant y from the neutral axis is given bv
wher^ / is the Yoiru!^ \fodulus fftbe cction he suhiccte

nuBSses in beams 231
topure sagging moment* this stress will be compressive at any
noint above the neutral axis and tensile below the neutral axis.
Now consider an elemental area distant y from the neutrid
axis.
Stress on the elemental area
/. Thrust on the elemental area
J\
. y Sa
Total thrust on the beam section
yt
Since no axial load has been applied, the total thrust on the
beam section equals zero.
yc
Iyt
y 8^=0
This is possible only when the neutral axis is a centroidal axis.

43. Moment of resistance
Fig. 205 shows a beam subjected to an external loading. Lc
Va and be the end reactions.
Fig. 205
232 SntENOTH OF MATBMAU
Consider any section X distant x from the support A.
Fig. 205 shows the forces keeping the part AX
in equilibrium.
This part is in equilibrium under the action of the following forces :
(i) Vertical reaction F.
iii) Downward loads Wu fVi
{Hi) Shear resistance S offered by the section X
(iv) Compressive resistance C offered by the section X
(v) Tensile resistance T offered by the section X
Since C and T are the only longitudinal forces on the beam we
have C=r
Let the distance between the lines of action of C and T be a>.
The two equal and opposite resistances C and T will form a
couple Taior C at. This couple is called the moment of resistance.
For the equilibrium of the part AX,
taking moments of the forces on this part about the N.A. of the
section X, we have
C. at=Vax-Wiix-a)-Wi{x-a-b)
But the expression on the
right hand side of the above rela-
tion is the bending moment at X.
Hence the moment of resis-
tance offered by the section is equal
to the bending moment.
Now consider an elemental
area Ba at a distance y from the
neutral axis.
The stress intensity on the
elemental area
Thrust on the elemental area==/Sa
Moment of resistance offered by the elemental area

=mement of the thrust about the N.A.
Total moment of resistance offered by the beam section

Vc
yt
yr
But 2 y^ Sa is the moment of inertut of the beam section about
y*
STRESSES IN BEAMS
the neutral axis. Let this moment of inertia be / /
M_E
I
But we know
y R
Hence
M__f E
I ~y ~ R
The following assumptions have been made in the theory of

pure bending :
(/) The value of the Youngs Modulus is the same for the beam
material in tension as well as compression.
(//) A
transverse section of the beam, which is a plane before
bending will remain a plane after bending.
(///) The material of the beam is homogeneous and isotropic
(Isotropic means having the same clastic properties in all the
directions).
(iv) The Elastic limit is not exceeded.
(v) The resultant pull or thrust on a transverse section of the
beam is zero,
(v/) The transverse section of the beam is symmetrical about
an axis passing through the centroid of the section and parallel to the
plane of bending.
44. Practical application of bending equation
The bending equation is based on the theory of

y " R
pure bending. In practice, in a beam subjected to a loading the
bending moment from section to section. Further the bendin.g
varies
moment at a section is accompanied by a shearing force. But *n
pure bending a member is absolutely free from she ir force and is
subjected to constant bending moment Hence it may appear that
the bending equation which was obtained for the case of a member
subjected to constant bending moment not accompanied by shear
force is not applicable to the practical member which is subjected
to different bending moments
at different sections and accompanied
by shear forces. But it is generally observed that the shear force is
^ro where the bending moment is maximum and hence the condi-
tions of pure or simple bending may be taken to be satisfied at such
a secticn.
The stresses produced due to the maximum bending moment

the most important stresses in a beam and hence if the stresses
be determined by pure bending equation the results
arc fairly correct
Since at these sections the shear ^rccs arc generally
zero.
'
234 STRbNOTH OF MATERIALS
Problem 131. A steel plate is bent of radius

into a circular arc
10 metres. If the plate section be 12 wide and 2 cms. thick
cms
find the maximum stress induced and the bending moment which can
produce the stress. Take E=2x. l<fi kg I cm *
ff(rn Solution. Moment of inertia of the

-i-Tlriw section about the neutral axis
^ -J . - ..Q
^/ ^ m.4=8 C/W.4
Fif. 07
A/_ / E
7 y R
E y
/=
R
fm
R
2X10
.[\)kg.lcm:
10x100
^2000 kg.jcm?'
2 X 10
X8 kg. cm.
10 X CO
I
^16000 kg. cm.

45. Section Modulus
Let M be the moment of resistance of a section of the beam
and / the moment of inertia of the section about the neutral axis.
The stress at any point on the section distant y from the neutral
axis is given by
The maximum stress occurs at the greatest distance from the

neutral axis.
l^t be the distance of the most distant point of the
sectionfrom the neutral axis. Let //-* be this stress at this distance,
we have
ftn
M
'
or Af=/m.,r .
Imaj
fnios Z
where
ytnar
Mom ent
o f inert ia about th^nûtral axis
Distance of the most distant point fro". the neutral axis
STRESSES IN BEAMS 235
This ratio is called the section modulus.

Hence the maxinnim stress offered by a section is known we
if
can easily conipute the moment of resistance that can be offered
by the sect on. Hence for a beam of a given material the greatest
moment of resistance the beam section can offer is given by
Af =/.a/. . Z.
where /jfl/epermissible bending stress (which occurs at the
point most distant from the neutral axis).
46. Section modolos for various shapes of beam sections
(p Rectangular section. - - f
Fig. 208 shows a rectangular ~
^
y
section of width b and depth
//
d.
d. Let the horizontal \
centroida! axis be the neutral a L

axis d /
Section modulus =Z /L. I
Fg. 208
^ Momen t of if^ crtia ^bout the neutral axis
Distance of the most distant point of the section from the neutral axis
yma#
Rn.
But , A d
y ^
12
2 _bcil
6
Let /be the maximum stress offered by the beam section.
Moment of resistance =M=/Z
M=^~fbd^
(//) HoUnw rectangular
section. Fig. shows
209 a
hollow rectangular section. Let
the overall width and depth be
B and D. Let the width and
depth of the centrally situated
rectangular hole be b and d
Moment of inertia about

the neutral axis
Fig. 209
ifRESSES IN BEAMS 237
(/)<-
M^f 32 b
Problem 132. A cast iron test beam 2 'em. x2 cm. in section
and I metre long and supported at the ends fails when a central load
of 64 kg. is applied. What uniformly distributed load will break
a cantilever of the same material 5 cm. with 10 cm. deep and 2 metres
long ?
Solation. Let us first
tem.
consider the test beam.
Maximum bending
r
tern th
moment Af= WL L
Fig. 212
64 X
X 100 kg. cm.
= 1600 kg. cm.
Moment of resistance fbd^
= f 2x2^ kg. cm.
Equating the moment of resistance to the max. bending moment

j /=1600 kg. cm.
f^~xmOkg.lcm.^
1200 kg-lcm.^
Now let us consider the cantilever.
Let the distributed load on the cantilever be w kg. per metre
run so as to break it.
Maximum bending
non. cor kglmeire run moment
T tocm.
= A/==
wL^
z
H X 22 ,
--y XlOOAg. cm.

= 200 w kg. cm.
Fig. 213
M.R. of the section- *

fbd!^
I- xl200 x 5xl(fi kg. cm.

^
238 S7RENG1H OF MATERIALS
= 100,000 Ag. cm.

Equating the maximum bending moment to moment of resis-
tance we have, 200 100,000

500 kg. per metre run.
Problem 133. The moment of inertia of a beam section 50 cm.
deep 69490 cm.* Find the longest span over which a beam of this
is
section, when simply supported, could carry a uniformly distributed
load af 5000 kg per metre run. The maximum flange stress in tlu
material is not to exceed 1 100 kg. Icm.
Solution. Section modulus of section
=Z= /
=
69<90
-c cm.*
3
ym ax 25
Z=2780 cm.>
Let the maximum span be / metre
Max. bending moment
=M= 8
5000 X /a
X 100 kg. cm.
8
Moment of resi.stancc of the section corresponding to the max.
bending stress of 1100 kg. per cm.*
=/Z= 1100 X 2780 fcg. cm.
'
Equating the max. bending moment to the moment of resis-

tance, we get
5000 f
8
100=1100X2780
1100x2780x8,
=48-928
5000X100
/ 6W9 metres
say 7 metres
Problem 134. A rolled steel joist of 1 section has the foUovmg
dimensions :
flange ; 250 mm, wide and 24 mm, thick.

web : 12 mm, thick
overall depth : 600 mm.
If this beam carries a uniformly distributed load of 5 tonnes per
metre run on a span of 8 metres^ calculate the maximum stress produc-
ed due to bending,
Solntion. Moment of inertia about the neutral axis,
25x60^ 23-8 >; 552* ^
~ 12 12
= 116410 cm.
'
stresses in beams 239

Maximum fi.M. !* 25Cfn.
j
wJ^ 3 t:24cm.
= A/= i
5x82
X 100 tonne cm.
eocm.
=4000 tonne cm.
M /
55-7 cm.
f M vzcm
. fmQ
M
~~~ y-m ax 3Z^24caL
I
Fig. 214
JOOO X30
tonne! cm.^
'116410
= t03 tonne j cm
Problem 135. A
timber beam is freely supported on supports
6 metres apart. It carries a uniformly distributed load of 1200 kg.
per metre run and a concentrated load
of 900 kg. at 2 5 metres from
the left support. If the stress in timber is not to exceed 80 kg.jcm.^
design a suitable section making the depth twice the width.
Solution.
900kg.
itookglm.
2-5m. c s-sm.
-601.-
Fig. 215
Fig. 215 shows the beam carrying the loading mentioned in

the problem. Let Va and Vi> be the reactions at the left and right
supports.
Taking moments about the left support A, we have

Kft X 6= 1200 X 6 X 3 +900 X 25
F=3975 kg.
K.=1200 x 6 +900-3975 =4125 kg.
Let the S.F. be zero at x metres from B.
Equating the S.F. at this section to zero, we have
1200 x:- 3975 -0
3975
. . X 2200
metres.
240 STREN01H OF MATERIALS
Max. B.M. will occur at 3*3125 metres from B

Max. B.M.-Af =3975X3*3125 ^?Pg -^g:3125 )^ kg.m.
= 6583*6 kgm.
=658360 kg. cm.
But the M.R. of the section
Since /=80 kg.lcm.^ and

= , wc have.
-*'X80x =^638360
6 2
^ 658360X12
80
d'=Â6'2 cm. say 46 cm.
b ^-
^ =23 cm.
The beam section is 23 cmx46 cm.
Problem 136. A
timber beam is 16 cm. wide and 30 deep am
and is simply supported on a span of 5 metres. It carries a uniformly
distributed load of 300 kg. per metre run over the whole span and
three equal concentrated loads tV kg. each placed at mid span and
quarter span points. If the stress in timber is not to exceed 80 kg.
per cm. ^ find maximum value of W.
w Vfr Solution. Fig. 216 shows
sookglm.
the beam
cairying the loading
rtfftnor>rnr\rsiy.*i7i.Tn'rmB?Tnrn
j'gcgggpniiifflr"-^-
4 125m. 12 bm 125 m. 125 m
-
bm Each vertical reaction
\ total load on the span
V,*( 750 *\bW) 300 X 5+3 -=(750+ 1*5 MO
Fig. 216 2
kg-
Max. B.M. will occur at mid span.
Max. B.M. =Af=(750+r5 lF')x -|--300x

-frxr25
-1875+3*75 lF-937*5-r25fF
= -(937*5+2*5 IE) *g.m.
=(937*5-1 2*5 M'llOO Itg.c/M.
;^.R. of the section >=> -g- fbefl

jikbsses in bhams 241
= -4-x80x16 x 30* kg.cm.

o
Equating the maximum B.M. to the moment of resistance
we have,
(937-5+2-5 ')100= X 80 X 16 X 30*

/. 937-5 + 2-5'=1920
1'=393 kg.
Problem 137. A water main of 120 cms. internal diameter and
12 mm. thick is running full If the bending stress is not to exceed
560 kg. per cm.^, find the greatest span on which the pipe way be
freely supported. Steel and water weigh 7680 kg.jm? and WOO
respectively.
Solution. Consider 1 metre run
of the main.
Area of the pipe section
Av -
i)- 1-224 m.
d 1*200 m.
224*-
- -
-- [1 1 22 ]
metre^
0
0456 metre^
Area of the wafer section
Fij. 217
= X 12* metre
ri31 metre^
Weight of the pipe for one metre run
-0 0456x1x7680 kg.
=3502 kg.
Weight of water for one metre run of the pipe
-1 131x1x1000 kg.
1131 kg.
Total load on the pipe for one metre run
-350*2+1131 kg.
148r2 per metre.
Let the maximum span be / metres.
Maximum bending moment
242 SmCNOTH OF MATeMAU
148r2x/2xI00
kg.cm.
8
^ kg.cm.
Moment of inertia of the pipe section about the neutral axis
[122-4*-l20*) an'.
64
=836600 cm*,
But
f y
18515 /* 560
836600 61-2
560 x 836600
61-2x18515
h =203S metres
ProMen 138. Compare the section moduli of two beams of the
same weig ht if the firs* beam is a solid circular beam of diameter dand
the seco^ is a circular tube of outer diameter >i and inner diameter
Ds.
Sdation. Cross-sectional area of each beam
nd^
=41 =
(/)
Section modulus of the solid section

_ nd^ _ red* _d_
32 4 8
()
Section modulus of the tubular section
(Di*-D2*)
64
=Zi
2
n Di*- D2*
w Dx
4 ZDi
A
8 V Ih )
Zt' .fi( ih*
4^4
But from equation (i) J!)s*= Z>i*-
resses in beams 243
ADi
8 1
+ ^
7 _ ADif^2
Ze- L
Ratio of the section moduli of the two
^
4A -|
J...
beam sections
(tfO
^ -^^rL 5_
Z. 8
4/t ~1 , 8
z, _ i)i r - 4^1
z, L
tn important observation :
^ iV'/KM /Ae tube is very thick, Di approaches d so that Zt will

)proach Z. tVhen the tube is very thin, Di is very large compared
litii d and hence the ratio will approach the value 2 -fy-.
JL% a
Problem. 139. Find the widthx of the flange of a cast iron\beam
ti'in;; the section shown .so that the maximum compressive
in Fig. 218
resi is three times the maximum tensile stress the member being in
bending subjected to sagging moment. The depth h of the beam
2' 5 cm.
10 cm., the thickness t of the web and flange is
Fig. 218
Solution. Let the distance of the centroidal neutral axis from

bottom edge be Let/cand/be the maximum compressive
id maximum tensile stress
A- h-y
Rut from the geometry of the section,
th ^-4-(x /)/ .
-r-
2 h
^ th+{xt)t 4'
244 STRENGTH OF MATCRIj)
X i-r
i,_2f
For the numerical, /=2 5 cm, and h=^\0 cm.
\0-
x^2-5+- ^532x rm,
yy
x^22'5 cm.
Problem 140. A cast iron bracket subject to bending has a crosS
section of Inform with unequal flanges. The total depth of the section ij
28 cm. and the metal is 4 cm. thick throughout. The top flange is 20 cm,
wide and the bottom flange 1 2 cm. wide. Find the position of tk
neutral axis and the moment of inertia of the section about the ncutrai
axis and determine the maximum bending moment that should be im-
posed on this section if the tensile stress in the top flange is not ta
exceed 200 kg.fcm.^^ What is then the value of the compressive stresa
in the bottom flange ?
20 W
cm
4c 1 r' 1
20 ^
CH 1 i
123m
Fig. 219
Solution. Fig. 219 shows the section of the bracket. Th
section may be conveniently split into three rectangular components]
1 !
^Centroidal
Area a distance ay ay^
Component (cm*) frt^m (ew) (cm*) (cm*)
top edne
yiem)
20' 4* 320^
Top flaoie 80 2 160 320 ^
a 3"
Web 80 14 1120 15680

4v2(P HOOO
iz 3
Bottom flanpe 48 26 1248 32448

i
j A.
Total 208 2' 28 48448

'
2837-33
jf
:
1
i
|]({SSES IN BEAMS
lieareas of the individual components, their centroidal distances

om the top edge and their moments about the top edge and their
jments of inertia about their centroidal axes are tabulated above.
Dist nee of the neutral axis from the upper edge
ây_^ 2528 =J2'15 cm.
Sa '208
Moment of inertia about the upper edge
= /uu = S/..,/+W
=2837 33+48448=51285*33 cm*
But luu *
51285-33 =/.*+208 X 12-1 5*
h:c^5m5 iZ-i07l5 20^20570'I3 cm.*
Let the maximum bending moment be M kg. cm.

M _ f'
'y
I
M= X/
y
= - X 20570-13 kg. cm.
=338600 kg, cm.

Let the max. compressive stress be fe kg.lcm.^
X 200 kg,lcm,^
f,^260'9 kg,lcm?
Problem 141. A cast iron beamsection is of I section with a
flange 8 cms. x2 ems, thicks bottom flange ems, x4 ems, thick
the web 20 cms, deep and 2 cms, thick. The beam is freely
^Pported on a span of 5 metres. If the tensile stress is not to exceed
kg Icm^.ffind the safe unformly distributed load which the beam
carry. Find also the maximum compressive stress^
.
246 STRENGTH OF MATERm^
Solution. Fig. 221 shows

the cross-section of the beam. Let
us first determine the neutral axis
and the moment of inertia about
the neutral axis.
The section may be split up

into three components top
flange ; 8 cm, X 2 cm, web : 2 cm.
X 20 cm., bottom flange : 16 cm. x
4 cm. The areas of the individual
components, their centroidal dis>
tances from the top edge, and
their moments of inertia about
their owncentroidal axes parallel
to the neutral axis are shown in
the following table.
Area Centroidal
Component a distance y ay I,nt
from t'*p edge {cm^} (cm*) (cm*)
j
(cm) 1
Top flange 16 1 16 16 5*33

^
12
2x20* = 1333*33
Web 40 12 480 5760
J2
i
16 x 4 ,h5*33
Bottonn flange 64 24 1536 36864 i
12
Total 120 2C32 42640 423*99

say 1424
. Distance of the neutral axis XX from the top edge
= Say
=_y
2a
2032 ..-oi
Moment of inertia about the upper edge of the section

= /u u S/,,i/+ loy
-=1424+ 42640
= 44064 cm.
But luu =/**+(2o^J2
247
jjHESSESm BEAMS
44064 -/..+120(16 93)*
/.=966i> CM*.
Fig. 222
Fig. 222 shows the stress diagram for the beam section, "ê
maximum tensile stress =200 kg.jcm} Let the maximum compressive
stress be/, kg /cnfl.
/=-^^x200icg./cm.*
fc^3734 kg.lcm?
Let the uniformly distributed load on the beam be w kg^lmetfc^
Max. bending moment

wfi
8
X 100 jfcg. cm.

5
2500
-
w kg. cm.
8
JL.=L
/ y
2500 w _ 200
8 x 9669
9 07
200x8x96';9
w=- kglm.
9 07 x 2500
w=6823 kg./m.
PraUea 142. Find the width and depth of the strongest beam
is 50
dm can be eat out of a eytndrical log of wood whose diameter
ems.
248 SntENOTH OF IIA1BSUU
Solation. Let ABCD
be the rectangular
section cut out of tbe cylindrical log of
wood. Let OB
be at 0 with the horizontal
diameter
BC'd=2'X.25 sin 0=50 sin Band
AB=b=2x2S cos 0=50 cos 0
Section modulus of tbe rectangular
^
section
_ 50 cos 0 . (50 sin 0)*
6 ~ 6
Fig. 223
Z
o
. sin* 0 cos 0
For the beam to be strongest the section modulus must be a

maximum.
Hence for Z to be a maximum
dZ =0
a<i
dZ 50*1
0+COS0X2
de""" 6
sin sin 0 cos 0^=0
Sin 0(2 cos* 0 sin* 0)=O
2 cos* 0=sin* 0
tan* 0= 2
tan 0 y/2
sin 6= \/7-
^
and cos 6= 1
Vi V3
Width of the beam =6 50 cos 0
50 X ^ = 28 87 ems
v3
and cleoth of the bcam=rf=50 sin B
= 50 X == 40 83 cnis.
Vi
Problem 143 Three beams have the same lengthy same allow-
able bending stress and are objected to the same maximum bending
moment. The eross-sections of the beams are a drcU\ a square and
a rectangle with d >pth twice the width Find the ratio of the weights
of the circular and rectangular beams with respect to the square beam*
{AMJ.E.,, November 1963)
Solation. Fig. 2?.4 sho\^s the three sections.
Let the circular section be of diameter d
Let the square section be of side x
Let the rectangular section be of width b and depth 2b.
For the conditions mentioned in the problem the three sections
must have the same section modulus.
STRIvSES in beams 249
Section modulus of the circular section

v;d*
^64
d ~ il
'2
Fig. 2z4
Section modulus of the square section
Section modulus of the rectangular section
"6
b(2bf _ 2

3
3
nd^ 2 , j
32 " 6"' 3 *
d=Vm x&ndb=-0-6299 X
, wt of circular beam area of ci rcular sec tion
wt. of square beam area of square section 4x^
(1 193)2 riis
J
wt. of rect angular beam 262
= 2 x ( 0 6299;2 -(?*
'
79J6
wt. of square beam
Problem 144. A horizontal beam of the section shown in Fig, 225
is 3 metres long and is simply supported at the ends. Find the maxF
ûm uniformly distributed load it can carry if the compressive and
tensile stresses must not exceed 560 kg. I ctn.'^ and 300 kg.jcm.^ rcspecth
êl\\ Draw a diagram showing the
variation o] stress oxer the mid span
section of the beam.
Solotion. Depth of neutral axis from the top edge

_ i5xl2x6-t0x9-5x 475
cm.
I5xl2-~j0xv*5
-7397 cm.
x
25a STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
/. Moment of inertia of the

section about the axis tturough the
top edge parallel to the neutral
axis
J2cm
,
=/
15x123

10X9*53 ^
= 5782 08 COT <

Let the moment of inertia
2 5 cm about the neutral axis be /
i
/5C/.- By the parallel axes theo-

Fig. 225
rem, we have
hî+Ay^
/=5782 08 - 85 T39T^ cm*
/=- 5782 08-4650 86 cm*
1=^113122 cm*
Fig. 226
Suppose the maximum stress in compression is 560 kg.jcm}

the correjponding maximum stress in tension.
4 603
=- :
X 560 \ o
Rg./cm.^
,
7 3 ^^
^ZWSkg.jcm.^
But the permissible tensile stress is only 300 kg.lcm.^ Hence
let maximum stress in tension be allowed
the to reach 300 kg-lcm-*
Corresponding maximum compressive stress
7W7
Â%V9kg.lcm:^
Fig. 226 shows the variation of the
stress on the beam section.
Let the uniformly distributed load on the span be w kg. per
metre run.
Max. B.M.=Af =
g
wx3
X 100 kg. cm.
8
900
=z~wkg. ,
cm.
I
L
y
Af= L.i
y
900
8
~x
4603
1131-22
8 300X1131-22
kg.lmetre
900'' 4*603
t=655 2 kgjmetre
Problem 145. A cast iron beam has a section as :ôwn in Fig.
227. Find the position of the neutral axis XX and the moment of
inertia about the neutral axis.
When subjected to a bending moment the tensile stress at the
bottom edge is 250 kg.lcm.^.find
(a) the value of the bending moment
(b) the stress at the top edge.
Solotion The given section

may be split up into icm.
(0 a rectangular part 16 cm.
x2 cm. 7Cm,
(ii) Two rectangular parts
each 2 cm. x 1 5 cm.
(Hi) Two rectangular parts
each 9 cm. x 4 cm.
The areas of the various
parts, their centroidal distances
from the upper edge U-U and the
moments of inertia of the indivi-
dual parts about their centroidal
axes parallel to the top edge U-U Fip. 227
are shown in the table on page 252.
Centroidal distance from the top cdge=J>
_Sa^_1970_
164
*2 01 cm.
Moment of inertia of the section about the upper edge

/ttu 2 //+
^1231-674 31439=32670-67 cm.*
But /uii=/**+(2â)^*
32670 67 =/,x+164 X ( 1 2 01)2
/*x 9015-29 cm.^
say 9015 cm.*
)
Centroidal
Area a distance ay ay^ Inflf
Component (cm-) from (cm) cm* cm^
top edge
yiem
16x2 ^ ,
(0 16x2 32 1 32 32
l2
10*67
- 2 x 15 =
(it) 2 X (15x2) 60 9
570 5415 2x --12 =1125
(///) 2x9x4 72 19 1368 25992 2x9x4*

12
96
Total 164 1970 31439 123167
tOB. 2 cm.
Fig 228
Let the beading moment at the section be M k^. cm.
M f
! "y
Af- - . I
y
250
^=f{.99
^9015 /fs-. cm.
250600 A.? cm.

Let the stress at the lop edge be / Ag /cm."
. 12 01 ,
/' =-g.99<250 Ag/cni-
.^33'9 -
/. kg'Icm
Problem 146. Fig. 2?9 shows the .section of an inverted steel
channel used as a beam. The beam i< .simply supported over a span
of 3 metres and carries two equal concentrated loads at points distant
30 ems from each support.
Find the value of each of these loads if the maximum tensile
STRESSES IN B AMS 253
stress is not' to exceed 940 kg. per cm.* Find also the corresponding
maximum compressive stress.
Solution. Let each point
-'teem.-
load be W kg
W kg
-
wem.
:. Max. B M.
= M W^30 kg. cm.
Distance of the neutral axis
ui
from the top edge. w
28 X 10 K 5 -25 X 8'75 x 5 625
cm.
1
28x 10- -25x8-75 oSm. o-aSl.'*
169 53 -am.-
^ cm.
61-25
=2-767 cm. Fig. 229
.-. Distance of the
rtecm.-
neutral axis from the
2.76JCW.\
25cm. bottom edge.
= 10-2-767 cm.
~T233 cm.
When the maxi-
i-SOL
-A- mum tensile
940 kg.jcm.* corres-
stress is-
ponding maximum
Fig. 230 compressive stress
2161 ,
kg-lcm.*
f,
--359'6 kg./cm*
Moment of inertia about the neutral axis
28x2 7673 25x (2-.67- 1-25)3 2x
3^3 ,
-1 97-70- 29-09-1- 378-4 cm.*

1-5x7-2333
cm.^
= 54701 cm.*
I yt
wy. 30 940
54701 7-233
940 X 547-m
^ 7 233x30
hg.
W 2370 kg.
Problem 147. A
simply supported beam 3 metres long has a
section symmetrical about the y-y axis as shown in Fig. 231. The
beam carries two loads of equal magnitude as shown in Fig. 232. If
the maximum compressive and tensile stresses are not to exceed
1000 kg j cm.* and 1200 kg. (cm.*, determine the maximum value of
STRENGTH OF MATBUALS
254
the maximum compressive and
W. Also State clearly the values of
tensile stresses and where they occur.
oOlutiOD.
rig. 231
Fig. 232
Area of section = 16 X -")2x -^=28 cm.^

2 2
Height of neutral axis above the base
64X \ 36x4-
=>=
28
= 3-52 cm.
Moment of inertia about the base
,
BIP bj^
12 12
|^16x8^'-l2x6
466*67 cm.^
loookglcm^
Fig. 233
But Ibftx4-Ay^
466-67=/xx+28x 3-522
/x*= 119-75 cm.*
Suppose the maximum tensile stress is allowed to reach 1200
kg.lcm.^ the corresponding maximum stress in compression
X 1200= 1528 ifeg./cm.

/ 3 32
STAESSSS in beams 255
But the permissible compressive stress is only 1000 kg-lcm.^

Hence the maximum tensile stress should not be allowed to reach
1200 kg-lcm.^
Let the maximum compressive stress be allowed to reach lOOO
kg-lcm.'^
Corresponding maximum tensile stress
-^XIOOO kg. lent*
= 78 5 6 kg./cm.^
Now beam carrying the two
consider the point loads.
Maximum B.M.=Af== W'x kg. m. 1
= ]Vx 100 kg. cm.

B.
/ y
mw " 10000
11975 4 48
W^267-4 kg.
ProUem 148 A beam has a section shown in Fig, 234,
cast iron
The beam is simply supported on a span of I '25 metres and is used to
carry a downward point load at midspan. Find the magnitude of the
load if the maximum tensile stress on the beam section is 300 kgfem^.
Determine also the maximum compressive stress.
Solution. Distance of the centroidal axis XX fn^m the bottom
edge 1 I
= 5*09 cm,
M.I. about the bottom edge 1 1
M.I. of the two trianglcs+MX of

the central rectangle
256 i:TRENGni OF MATBRlAlS
-2448 cm\
But
2448=/n:4 xl2 ^X5 09*.

( y
/fx = 738l cm*.
Let the central point load on the span be W kg.
Max. B.M.==M
WL
---
4
H'x 100
- -
4
-- =25 W
a, kg.
,
cm.
When the maximum stress in tension is 300 kg.lcm.
_
"
/
I >'
25 W 3(X)
7.38- J 5-09
3(M)x738 1
25X509
W-=174Ikg.
When the maximum stress in tension is 300 kg./cm^.
the corresponding maximum compressive stress is given by
/^=||-9-300Ag./cm.
fc 407' 2 kg !cm^.
Problem 149. The cross-section of a cast iron machine-element
used as a beam is shown in Fig, 236. The beam resists bending moments
about the horizontal neutral axis The permissible stresses in tension
md compression are 220 kg./cm.'^ and 880 kg.jcm.^ respectively.
Calculate the moment of resistance
of the section about the horizontal neutral
axis for both positive and negative bending
moments. {A.M.I.E., Nov.y 196())
Soitttion. The computation of the
position of the horizontal neutral axis
and the moment of inertia about the
horizontal neutral axis may be made as
shown in the following table.

stresses m BEAMS 257
/. Distance of the centroid of .
the net section from the bottom edge -25 c/dI- scm
y ia
2a _L.
n
- i
'7-9I8CIX
796-875 _
.
M.I. about the botton x-
-A_i ==7.,n/'+2:ar-
= 2636-719 1-5566 406 cmA
=8203-125 -
Fig. 237
But /i_i=/x,-|-(2a)j>*
8203 125=/^.--+- 1 125(7082)2
/r -2563-95
Analy.fis for positin and negative bending moments.
Moment of resistance for maximum positive {.sagging) bending
moment.
Let the maximum tensile stress be permitted to reach 20
kg.icm^.
The corresponding maximum compressive stress
_ 7 918
"" ^220Ag/cw.
7082
- 2-6 kg.jcnfi.
Obviously the compressive stress should not be permitted to
exceed 246 kg.jcm.- since for greater compressive stress the corres-
ponding tensile stress will exceed the safe stress of 220 kg jcm^.
Hence corresponding to the safe critical conditian the extreme s tress
in tension and compression will be 220 kg.lcm^.
and 246 kgt/ern*
respectively.
25S SlRtNGTfl OF materials
Let M be the {sagging moment)

-
M^
SSS -
f '
/ y
"'7
082
79660 kg. cm. (sagging moment)
Moment of resistance for maximum negative (hogging) bending moment
Let themaximum tensile stress be 220 kgfern^.
7 OR?
^
'"T?18
= 196*/ kg jem}
Fig. 239
Let M be the maximum negative bending moment (hogging
moment),
I
y
^HESSES IN BEAMS 259
y
220
^ W8
^ 71240 kg, cm. {hogging moment)
Problem 150. Two wooden planks 5 cm. x 15 cm. each are
'onnectcd together to form a cross-section of a beam as shown in
240. If a bending moment of 340 kgm. is applied about the
horizontal neutral axis jmd the stresses at the extreme fibres of the
ross-section. Also calculate the total tensile force on the cross-section.
{A.M.LE.y May 1967) u /sem-
I
5cm.
Solution Let
J.
us first locate the
1
riorizontal neutral axis and the moment of
luenia about the neutral axis. The
relcxant calculations are shown below :
\6^
Fig. 240.
Centroidal
Area distance ay ay* Tft (
Component from top (cm)* Icm)* (cmY

(cm)* edge
(cm y
2*50 15x5*
Top Range 75 18750 468*75 -*156 25
j2
=.1406*25
Web 75 12-5 937-5 U718-75 12
Total 1 150 !
1
1
1125*00 12l8r50 1562*50
1 '
1
Distance of the centroidal axis XX from the top edge

=.,=5a'_>i25_
^ 150 ^ cm.
Moment of inertia about the top edge
= 1562-50+ 121 87-50 cm.<

= 13750 cm
But /,-/*.+(2a)j>*
13750-/,.+ 150 X 7-5*
/-= 5312-5 cm.
260 STRENGTH OF M^TERIAU
Fig. 241
Let the maximum tensile and compressive stresses at the

extreme fibres be ft and fc respectively.
We have
I y
340 x100
'
/ ft
53(2-5' 7 5 i2-5
. . ff~4S kg-lcm.^
ft SO kg.jcnfi.
Total tensile force average tensile stress x area of the ten-
sion zone
= X12-5x5itg.
^2500 kg.
ProblesD 151. The cross-section of a conveyor beam is as shown

in Fig. 242. The beam is .subjected to a bending moment in the plane
YY. Determine t e maximum permissible bending moment (a) for
bottom flange in tensmn (b) for bottom flange in compression. Safe
bending stress in tension and compression are 300 kg. per cm^ and
1500 kgjcm.^ respectively
Solution. Let us first determine thi^ neutral axis and the
moment of inertia of the section about the neutral axis
The given seciion^ may be split up into three rectangular coni'
ponents as shown in Fig. 242. The areas of the individual compo-
nents, their centroidal distances from the bottom edge, and their
moments of inertia about their centroidal axes parallel to the
bottom edge aie tabulated below :
/. Distance of the neutral axis from the bottom edge
296875
10*33 cm.
^ la " 2iT5
jgTfUKSSES IN BHAMS 26]
Fig. 242 Fi. 243
. . Moment of
meriia of the section
about the bottom edge
-lad -'
2473 96+39296 87
- 41770*83 cm^.
Let the moment of

itiertia about the neutral
am be IxT
I
7od - /rr+(S<2)y^
4 1 770-83 -/xx f
I I
^
aookgjcm^
287-5 X 10-33*
BOTTOM FLANGE IN TENSION
11092 07
say 11092 cm^. Fig. 24i
262 mBNOTH OF MATERIALI
(a) Wnen the bottom flange is in tension

Let the max. stress in tension be 300 kg.fcm ?
-571 kg4cm^.
Let M be the max. bending moment corresponding to this
condition
1 yi
1 1092 X 300
3 22 100 kg, cm.

(b) H hen the bottom
flange is in compression.
The max compres-
sive stress should not
be allowed to reach
\ 500 kg /cm 2. Because
corresponding to this
condition the maximum
tensile stress will exceed
the safe tensile stress.
Hence let the maxi-
mum tensile stress be
allowed to reach 3^0
kg./ern 2
Corresponding maxi Fir. 245
mum compressive stress
"
19 ^
-
I57 5itg./cm 2
Let M be the maximum bending moment corresponding to this
condition.
/ yt
y
11092X300 ,
-
19 67
^169100 kg. cm.
sntESSes in beams 263
Problem 152. Two planks of thickness tx and tt rest just one

on another forming a beam as shown in Fig. 246 and support a uniform-
Iv distributed load of w kg. per metre run. Find the ratio of the
maximum stress in the two beams.
or kg/m.
i Hi
Fig. 246
SolutioD. Since one plank just rests on another* each plank

behave as a separate beam section, having its own neutral axis.
v'ill
Since the thicknesses of the planks are small we may further assume
that the radii of curvature of the neutral layer is the same for each
plank at any section.
Let maximum bending moment for the first plank =Mi

Maximum bending moment for the second plank A/g
Radius of curvature of each plank at centre i?
Moment of inertia of the section for the first plank=/i
Moment of inertia of the section for the second plank =/2
1 Mx A/2
R~ Eh ^ Eh
Ml _ h hU^ni
~
Ml" h~^
Let /i and be the maximun > rejs in the two planks at the
inidspan section.
Mr-^\hbtx^
and A/a fi ^^2^
_f\_ ...()
A/a f's t^
From equations (/) and (i7), wc have,
X
moment of inertia of the enlarged section (//) the greatest central point
load the beam will carry if the bending stress is not to exceed 1260
kg {Hi) the minimum length of the JO cm.X] 5 cm. plates.
Solution, (i) Fig. 248 shows

~30cm.-
the section with the plates conncc-
T S 15 cm.
led to the flanges.
Moment of inertia of the
section 2^ tm
-
7= Moment of inertia of
the / section |
-r Moment of ineffia of the i

A5 cm
plates
-35060 f
if ^2' rs X 23-25'
-- 35060-1 48657 cm.^
j=.837]7cm.^ \z:^} 5cm.
Section modulus of the
see ion
j t ig. 248
--
.V
83717
24
_ emy
-348S an?
in) Let the maximum
point load at mid span be
M' kg,
11 L
Max. B.M. '4
WX4 5x 100 .
Kg. cm.
4
But M.R. of the section

= 1260x3488
kg an
Equating the max B.M,
to the moment of rc'îstance,
wc have, Fie 249
1FX4-5XH)()
'--1260x3488
3^066 kg.
{Hi) Moment of resistance of the 1 section alone
- /Z
-1260X
1963000 kg. cm.
7
Suppose the cover plates are absent for a distance of x metres

from each support. Then at these points the bending moment must
not exceed 1963000 kg. cm.
.'. B.M. at X metres from each support
W
- 2
xrX 100=1963000
1963000 X2
metres
a: 1*005 metres
say 1 metre.
Hence leaving metre from each support, for the
1 middle
4'5-~2-~-?'5 metres the cover plates should be provided.
Problem 155. A beam is of square section of -side b. If the

permissible bendinj^ stress is f
find the moment of resistance when
the beam section is placed such that (/) Two sides are horizontaU (//)
one diagonal /v vertical.
Find also the ratio of the flexural strengths of the two positions^
Solution 250
(/) I'ig
shows the beam section when
two sides are hori/ontal.
T
5
^
^
Moment of inertia of i //
the section about the neutral X /
12
fr'
12
T /
^
Fig. 250
Section modulus
Corresponding to the maximum flexural stress /, the

moment < f resistance
^
'r~7 -
(//) Fig. 251 shows the
beam section when one
diagonal is vertical.
Moment
of inertia
of the section about the neut-
ral axis
Fig. 251
;
=/=r
12
J
Section modulus Zj =
ymO*
JL)
J2 / V2
& 12 *
V2
. . Corresponding to the maximum flexural stress /, the
moment of the resistance =M 2 =^/Z2 =

j 2
(in) Ratio of the flexural strengths in the two positions
.==^ 2 - 1
*
414 .
M2 /Z2 22 6 \/ 2 /?^
47. Various shapes of beam sections

We know that at any beam section the bending stress at any
point is proportional to its distance from the neutral axis. Hence
the maximum tensile and compressive stresses in a beam section-
are proportional to the distances of the most distant tensile and
compressive fibres from the neutral axis. Suppose the tensile and
compressive strength of the material are the same, it is ^j^stiîed to
provide such a shape for the cross-section so that the centroidal
axis is at the middle of the depth of the beam For this case the
factors of safety for fibres subjected to maximum tensile and
compressive stresses will be equal. This is the basis in the selection
of sections which are symmetrical about the neutral axis, for
materials like structural steel having the same yield stress in tension
as well as compression. In case the section has to be unsymmetrical
with respect to the neutral axis (for instance a rail section) the
distribution of material should be such that the centroid lies at the
middle of the height.
Some materials have a small tensile strength but a relatively
high compressive strength. Cast iron and concrete etc., are such
materials In a case like this, the cross-section must be so chosen
that it will not be symmetrical with respect to the neutral axis and
also that the distances yt and yr of the most remote tension and
compression fibres, from the neutral axis are in the same ratio
of the tensile and compressive srengths of the material For
instance if ft and fc are the permissible stresses in tension and
compression respectively then the section must be shaped to satisfy
the condition,
f _ yt
A very interesting case

For a given cross-section the maximum stress to which the*
section is subjected due to a given bending moment depends upon*
-268
section. There are some cases where

the section modulus of the
in the sectional area does not result in a decrease in
an increase
stress It may so happen that in
some cases a slight increase in
area may result in a decrease in section modulus which results in
the
.an increase of stress to resist the same bending moihent.
The following examples illustrate this case

Problem 156 A horizontal beam subjected to pure bending is of
square section with a diagonal 'erlical The beam carries
bending moment in the vertical
plane through the vertical diagonal.
Show that by cutting ojj the lop and
bottom corners shown shaded in
Fig. 252 the section modulus can he
increa.sed.
Solution For the square sec-
tion, mome.it of inertia about the
h*
neutral axi.s-
/ -r-;p
12
Section modulus 2
/)-*
-
L-
12 v'2'
Fig 252
Let the portions BCF and be cut DGH off.
Let BE^ oih where a is a fraction.

Now the resulting cross-section consists of
(/) a square A ERG of side hi] - a)

(//) two parallelograms EFCR and GHCR.
Moment of inertia of the new section
I
-a 1
12 3 L V2 J
. . Section modulus of the new section
-_
7 . -
/Wl-a)\
\ v'2 /
12
63. [l-a-5a843a3l
12 I
For Z' to be a maximum,

dz-
)
BEAMS 26>
STRESSfcS IN
- l-10+9a
d* J-0
9a-10-l-0
(9cc-l)(a-l)=0
1
Hence the maximum value of the section modulus is obtained

1
ivhcn =
_V2 / 3 V . I \*
Zt'ii
12V
1-f
iX'-jy 63
^ 256^3
12 243
But the section modulus of the square section is equal to
2=^ -^2 63
12
Increase in section modulus
~Zmax ~ 2
-f
,y/2 13 ^3
243
Percentage increase in section modulus
xioo%
*-6/2^ X 100%
';M3
-5-35%
H/i
Hence if the new section h
adopted in place of the square
section the maximum btmding stress
would be reduced by 5'35%.
H Problem 157. Find the condi-
tion at which any further decrease
of the depth H of the bcarti section
shown in Ftg. 253 will result in an
Mil increase in section modulus.
Solution. Moment of inertia
1 of the section about in neutral axis
,
aH^
Section modulus of the section
2
bcf^.aH^
Rate of change of 7 with respect to H is given by
cl7 hd^^qJl
ilH (yH- 3
The condition for 7 to increase when H decreases is given by

hJ^ aH
6H- 3
h
2a (fl
The above examples show

how in some cases the section
modulus increases with decrease in
depth.
Similarly it can be shown, for
the circular section (Fig. 254) it is
possible to increase the section
modulus by 0 7? by cutting off
the segmental portions shaded.
The depth of segment 5 should be
0 0 11 times the diameter of the
section.
Fig. 254
Similarly the section modulus of
the triangular section can be increased
by cutting off the corner shaded.
An over-hung steel
Problem
158.
crank pin
journal is so designed that
the pressure on the Journal is limited to
40 kg. per cm.^ of projected area. The
total load on the Journal is 27220 kg,
and the maximum bending stress is
limited to 700 kg. per cm ^ Find the
255 diameter and the length of the Journal
Solution. Let the diameter and length of the journal be d cm,
.and I cm. respectively.
Projected area of the journal resisting the load=rf/ cm,^
Since the stress on the projected area is 40 kg.lcm,^ wc have
a
<f/=680-5 ...(/)
Fig. 256
Maximum bending moment for the journal
^-M^lim-K -^kg. cm.
= 13610 I kg. cm.
Section modulus of the journal section
Since the bending stress is to be limited to 700 kg.lcm,^,

we have, M^fZ
Tr/^3
f^
^
^ t f\ 1 f * r\f\ f n, ffl
13610 /=7(X)x / 0 005052
Substituting in eq. (/), we get

0005052 </-680-5
680-5
^/= 19*15 cm.
0 005052
,
680*5
/= j^ri^=35 54 ems.
say the pin may be 19 cm. diameter and 36 cm. long.

Problem 159. A simple bridge is formed of telegraph poles laid
side by side with all the butt ends on the one abutment. JfZ is the
modulus of the section at the butt end^ and Zx is the modulus of the
section x inches from the butt end- Zx~Z--03 x. Span=-3() ft.
Diameter of poles at butt ends is 12 in. Find the position of the most
highly stressed section when the bridge is uniformly loaded throughout
its length. (London University)
Solution. Fig. 257 shows one of the poles.
Let the load on the pole be w lbs. per foot run.
wx30
-=l5wlbs.
B M. at a section distant x feet from the butt end
bA/oISwt' ^ lbs!ft.
^
- ^ (^30x -x2
' '
lb. ft.
j
=-y(30x-x2 jxl2 ft. m.
=6vt' (30x .v) Ih. in.

Fig. 257
Section modulus of the butt end
Jtx 12 o .
Z -
2--==54it m.
Section modulus at section Z distant x feet from the butt

end
=Z.-=Z - 0 3 (xx 12) /.
Z* 54ii 36.x fn
3'6 (IStt x) in
.. Extreme stress at the section X

M _ 6M30x_Xj:2)
Zx 3-6(r5-x)
.. for y to be a maximum
<u =0
dx
(15n-.v)(30--2x)-(.30x
450it- SOTtr + X- 0
x2 -94-25x M4I r72=0
Solving this quadratic, we get
X Iii69 ft.
Problem 160. A tmiformlv

tapering vertical post of height H
having a diameter D
at the base and
a diameter d at the top is fixed at
Its base. A horizontal force P is
applied at the top of ' the post.
Determine the maximum bending
stress for the post and state where
it occurs.
Solution. Consider a section

XX distant x below the top of the
post. Let the diameter at the sec-
tion XX be dx.
Section modulus of the
section.
BEAMS 273
gyppggRS IN
_
32
B.M. at the section Af=i*x

Let the extreme stress at the section XX be >
But M-fZ
Px^f^
rX J

: ^ n dJi
dx^d+^-r^ Kx where
D-d
But H
Jti
/=
MP
n (d+Kx)^
For /to be a maximum
df =0
Sc
df_22P (d+ Kxf-x{3) W+ Kxy^X
d^~K W-Kx)^
{d+Kxf (,d+Kx-3Kx)^0
d-2Kx=0
d
^"IK
But K=^ ^
d_
* 2 iD-d)
Patting expression for/, we get
d
f -}1I 2K
fmm
8 d
If 27 2Kd^
- J?x .* V Pd H
nx27x2 (Ddjifi
128 PH
'"^
271* (>-<!)</*
161. A yatkalftag staff standing 10 metres above the

ProUen
ground is of square seitUm throughout, the dimensions being 8 cm. x 8
cm. at the top tapering umformly to 16 cm. xl6 cm. at the ground. A
horizontal pull of 30 kg. Is

applied at the top. the direction <
the section. Find the maximum

loading being along a diagonal of
due to bending-
Solatioo. Consider a
horizontal section at a XX j
depth of X metres from the top. j
Let the sectional dimension at I
this level be dcm.x-d cm. I
d== 8 +-i7 i (16-8) cm.

lu
8 -t 0'8 .t cm.
xf
I
/
X
^\
= 0-8 (.cf 10) cm. j
Moment of inertia of the I
section about the neutral axis /
d* . I
=/== cm.* mnm7}7 r7//nX/T/r
12 i
!
Maximum distance from

A
! !
j
the neutral axis !
Section modulus of the section
^ ----
Fig. 259
7 {0-8(x+-I0)!3
^=" -
6^2
=|Û+10)
B.M. at the section Af 30 Xjr itg.
30 xxx 100
kg, cm,
3000 X
kg. cm.
Extreme fibre stress at the section
=/=A
3000 x6^/2 , ,

0-512(x+10)
^ 18000 V2 X , , .
'
(i+IoF
For/to be a maximum,
-%-0
df 18000\/2(x+10)-x3(x+10)*
(F5i2 (x+10)*~^
STRIiSSES IN BEAMS 275
(x+10)2U+10-3ji;)=0
I0-2)c-0
X 5 metres.
Substituting .v=-5 metres in the general expression for the
extreme stress, we have,
- 18000\/2 5 , ,
-
= 73'65 kg.jcm.^
48. Force on a partial area of a beam section
260 shows a beam
Fig.
section. Let due to the bend-
j
j ^
J22L
ingmoment at the section the / \ |
/
maximum bending stress be \ /
J
/ \jJijr \

^max. /
Let ymtx^ be the distance : -
of the most distant fibre from

/ ^ \ 1 /
the neutral axis.. 7
\
Let be required to
it
/ \ /
find the normal force on a
partial area A (shown shaded). Fig. 260
Consider an elemental area da of the shaded area at a distance y

from the neutral axis. Let the stress on the elemental area be /
'
r y A-'maa?
. . /==!;
yniax
Force on elemental area

f, , fmax y
Total force on the shaded area

fmax ,
where is the distance of the centroid of the shaded area from the
neutral axis.
49. Moment of the force on a partial area of a beam section abonf
the neatral axis.
Consider again the beam section shown in Fig. 260.
The stress on the elemental area da at a distance y from the
neutral axis
=/5zr y
Force on the elemental area
^fda== da ,y
276 S1RENGTH OF MATERULS
Moment of this force about the neutral axis

fmofie
da .
ymax
Moment of the force on the shaded area about the
neutral axis
yma
fmax ,
ymox
where /= moment of inertia of the shaded area about
the neutral axis.
Problem 162. Fig. 261 shows a reclangulajr beam section 10 cm.
wide and 20 cm- deep. If the maximum flexural stress is
80 kg fcm.^
find ii) the total force on the area
shadedAii) and the moment of this
'
force about the neutral axis.
Problem 163. The beam section shown in Fig. 262 is subjected to

a maximum bending stress of 20 kg.Jcm.^. Find (0 the force on the
area shaded and (ii) the moment of this force about the neutral axis.
SolntioB.
(/) Force on the shaded area

/m

sikbsses in beams 277
_90
12
^5400 kg.
(//) Moment of the force on
the shaded area about the neutral
axis
Amax yfo
ymax
15x123
kg. cm.
12 4
^48600 kg. cm.
Fig. 262
Problem 164. A beam section 10 cm. 'A 20 cm. {Fig. 263) is sub^
jected to a sagging moment producing a maximum bending stress of
80 kgJcm.'K Find (i) the total force on the area shaded and (//) the
moment of this force about the neutral axis.
Solotioo. (/) Force on the

shaded area
ftnax
Ay
ymax
= -|| x(15x5)x2-5fcg.
^1500 kg. {compressive)

This force is compressive since
the centroid of the shaded area is
in the compressive zone on the
section.
(//) Moment of the force on

the shaded area about the neutral
axis
fmax
X
80 5 x 15 8
[ --75x2-52
10 i 12 J
kg. cm locm.
= 15000 kg. cm. Fig. 263

x
Problem 165. A box beam is made from 5 mm. 15 mm. pieces
screwed together os shown in Fig. 264, If the maximum flexural stress
is 85 kgjcm.^ compute (/) the force acting on
the shaded portion and
(ii) the moment of this force about the neutral axis.
{A.M LE.y May 1966)
Solotion. Area shaded
15x5
= 0*75 cm.^
100
(i) Force on the shaded area,

fmax ..
ymm ^
2-5
^ X 0-75 X
= 15' 94 kg. (tensile)

The force on the shaded area is tensile since the centroid of the
shaded area is in the tension zone.
(ii) Moment of the force on the shaded area about the neutral
axis
M. X/o
ymax
/= +0*5 X 1-5 X (0-25) cm.*
= 76
*5 3 ,
^ T6
M^15*94 kg. cm.
49. Flitcfaed Beams

A Sitchcd beam
meaus a
t
beam of composite section consist- i
ing of a wooden beam strengthened

by mild steel plates Fig. 265 shows
one possible arrangement for a
flitchedbeam. The steel and the
wooden components arc so con-
nected that there will not be any
slipping between them i.e., the
components act together behaving
as one beam.
Let at a distance y from the
neutral axis the stresses in wood
and steel be and P*.
Fig. 265
In order a slip may not occur between the and wood

steel at
this level the strains in steel and wood at this level must be equal*
Pv) Pt
C4.
Strain
where Ew and are the Modulus ol Elasticity for wood and

steel
E*
where
Ew
The ratio m is called the modular ratio between steel and
wood.
Moment of resistance of the section
Let Mr be the moment of resistance of the section. Let M^
and Ms be the moments of resistance of wood and steel. Let the
wooden joist be h units wide and d units deep. Let each steel
plate be t units thick and d units deep. Leifs and /* be the extreme
stresses in wood and steel.
M==Mw+Mn
Jlff= ~f,.bdP-\-2-K~
But
Mr=-^ M*+2 X mfvt<P
fit (b-htn 2/)

o
H. nce the moment of lesistanoe of the section is the same U
that of f wooden member of tneadth h+m(2/) and depth d. This
2S0 STTRENGTH OF llAlttlALS
rectangular section (20 units wide and units deep is called

the equivalent wooden section.
Fig. 266
The moment of resistance of the flitched beam section my

therefore be determined by considering the equivalent wooden sôii.
In some cases however the moments of resistances of the individi^
components may also be computed and the total moment of resis-
tance may be determined. The following examples show how the
moment of resistance of a flitched beam caik be determined.
Problem 166. A flitched beam consists of a wooden joist 15 cm.
wide and 10 cm deep strengthened by a steel plate 1 2 mm. thick and
SO cm, deep one on either side of the joist. If the maxirnwn stress in
the wooden Joist is 70 kg. per cm.^ find the corresponding maximum
stress attained in steel Find also the moment of resistance of the
section. Take E- 20 Eu.
Fig. 267
Solutton. Maximum stress in wood =*70 kg./cm.^

Corresponding maximum stress in steel
=*70 X 20= 1400 kg.jcnu^
Moment of resistance of wooden joist
SntBSSES IN BBAliS 281
= ~ X 70 X 1 5 X 30 kg. cm.
==157500 kg. cm.

Moment of resistane of steel plates
=2X -|/. . td^
2x ^ X 1400 X 1 2x30 A:g. cm.
=504000 kg. cm.

Total moment of resistance
= 157500+ 504000 kg. cm.
^661500 kg, cm.
Alternatively the moment of resistance of the beam can also be
determined by considering the equivalent wooden section.
Width of the equivalent wooden section
(2t)
-15 t-20 (2x1*2) cm.
*=15+48 cm, 63 cm.
QUiyALCNT WOODLN SLCTlON
Fig. 268
/. M.R. of the section

-^M.R. of the equivalent wooden section
= X 70 X 63 X 30^ kg, cm,

6
* = 661500 kg. cm.
^Problem 167. + flitched beam consists of two Wooden foists
lOcms.i '
"d 20 cms. deep with a steel plate 14 cm. deep and
10 mm. thick placed symmetrically between them. If the maximum

stress in the wooden joist be 70 kg.jcm.^ find the corresponding maxi-
mum stress reached in steel. Find also the moment of resistance of
the section. Take Ei.=20 Etr.
icm
^lg. 269.
Solution. Maximum stress in wood occurs at 10 cm. trom the

N.A.
Stress in wood at 10 cm. from the N.A.
=^70 kg /cm.^
.. Stress in wood at 7 cm. from the N.A.
= X 70= 49 kg.jcm.^
Maximum stress in steel

- 49 V 20 - 980
Moment of resistance of the wooden joists
= 2x ~f,BD^
= 2x-^ x70xl0x 20* kg. cm.
=
280000
j ,
kg. cm.
Moment of resistance of the steel plate
= \ftd^
= -| x980xlxl4*jtf. cm.
=
96040
kg, ,
cm.
280000 96040,.
^
^
^J25S467 kg. cm.
Problem 168. A composite beam consists of two timber beams

of rectangular section each having a breadth B and a depth together D
with a steel plate having a breadth {i.e,, thickness) b and depth d. The
plate is placed between the timber beams and all the three are joined
together so that the whole section is symmetrical about the horizontal
axis. If the maximum allowable stress in the steel and timber are
1260 kgdcmr and 70 kg-jcm.^ respectively and these are reached
simultaneously* find {a) the ratio of D and d and {b) the ratio of B and
b in order that the moment of resistance of timber alone shall be equal
to that of the steel alone, E for steel ~ 2 Wx
10^ kgJcm.^ and E for
timber O' 105 x 10^ kgfcmj^
If the timber beams are 25 cm. deep and 7*5 cm. wide find the
size of the steel plate. {London University)
fa,-' 70kglcm^
t^nookglcm^
17
STRESS
STRESS DIAGRAM
DIAGRAM FOR STEEL
FOR TIMBER
Fig. 270
Solution. Fig. 270 shows the composite beam.

Let the maximum stresses in timber and steel be/w and /.
respectively.
^==70 kg./cm.^
and f$-=>l260 Ugfem.^
But A- Ev D
-20X70X
D
12^ 9
10
d^9
Moment of resistance of wood
=3f=2x fBD^
o
=2X
1
strength of MATBRUU
Moment of resistance of steel
= Lf,
= 1260 b<P=2lO bd^
and steei are eqnal.

70
^7>2=210 bd'^
B 210x3
h 70
^2
210x3 92
70 ^ 102
-7*29
If
D=25 cm.
and 75 cm.
^2^~225 cm.
and ^ 7 5
7*0i cm.
diagram
fOR WOOD
Fi. 27
gntWSSES IN BEAMS 285
SdatioB. Let the maximum stress in timber be 70 kg.lcm.^
Stress in timber at 12'5 cms. from the N A.

=70 kg /cm.^
Stress in timber at 10 cms. from the N.A.
-12?5><70 kg.jcm.^
56 kg-lcm.^
Stress in steel at 10 cms. from the N.A.
=20 X 56 kg.fcm.^
= 1120 kg.fcm.^
This is less than the permissible stress of 1200 kg.jcm.^ for
steel.
.*. Moment of resistance of wooden joist
BD^
o
= 1- X70X 15 x 252 jtg. cm.

D
= 109315 kg. cm.
Moment of resistance of steel plate
= 2X J - fe ttf
=2 X 4o X 1 120 X X 202
1 A:g. ^m.
= 149333 3
2
kg. cm.
258708 3 kg. cm.
Problem 170 A flitched beam consists of a wooden joist 12 cm.
wide and 20 cm. deep strengthened by a steel plate 1 cm thick and
18 cm. deepf one on either side of the Joist. If the stresses in wood and
Fig. 272
y
286 STRENGTH OF IfATERIiiLS
Steel are not to exceed 70 kgjcm:^ and 1200 kg.lcm.^Jind the moment
of resistance of the section of the beam Take Es^20 x.\
Solution. Let the maximum stress in wood be allowed to reach
70 kg- per cm.^
Stress in .wood at 10 cm. from the N.A.
-10 kg.lcm:^
KlO kg./cm.^
^6J kg jcm-^
/. Stress in steel at 9 cm from
the N.A.
-20x63kg-lcm,^
^1260 kg.jcm.^
But the permissible stress in steel is only 1200 kg.lcm,'^
Hence the maximum stress in wood should not be allowed to
reach 70 kg-jem-^
Let the maximum stress in steel be allowed to reach 1200 kg.
per cmr
/. Stress in steel at 9 cm. for the N.A.
^1200 kg.jcm!^
^ jkg.fcm?

10 200 .
= ^-x60 ,
kg. I cm.-*
This stress is less than the safe stress of 70 kg.jcm.^

Moment of resistance of the wooden joist
= 40
1 700
-x'^x 12 X 202 cm.
=53333'3 kg. cm.

Moment of resistance of the steel plate
=2x O
=2x ~-x 1200X1 X 182 ig. cm.
= 129600 kg. cm.

=53333-3+129600 kg. cm.
= I82933'3 kg. an.
X
Alternative solution
Fig. 273
Fig. 273 shows the equivalent wooden section. Each steel plale
is replaced by a wooden joist having the same depth as that of the
Steel plate but having a width equal to the modular ratio times the
thickness of the plate.
Moment of inertia of the equivalent section about the N.A.
20x18^ I2x2C
-2X
12
cm,"*
12
- 27440 cmA
fy
. I
y
200
ib
200
X 27440 kg. cm.
^3X10
==182933-3 kg, cm.

Problem 171. A flitched beam is made up of two timber joists

JO cm. wide and 22 ems, deep with a 2 cm. thick steel plate 16 cm.
deep placed symmetrically between them and firmly attached to both.
The plate is recessed into grooves cut in the inner faces of the joists so
that the overall dimensions of the built-up section may be taken as
20 ems, by 22 cms.
Calculate the moment of resistance of the combined section when
themaximum bending stress in timber is 80 kg. Icm. What is then the
maximum stress in steel ? Take $=20 Ew where E$ and Eva are the
Young's Modulus for steel and timber.
SolutioD. Let the maximum stress in timber be 80 kg.jcm.^
Hence stress in timber at 1 1 cm. from the neutral axis
=50 kg,/cm ^
Stress in timber at 8 cm. from the neutral axis
288 STRH4<rrH OF IIAimiALS
X kg.lcm.*
11
Maximum stress in steel
640 12800
=20 X ,7 - kg.jcm}
11 n
Moment of resistance of timber
=M R. of 20 cm. by 22 cm. rectangular

timber section.
M.R. of 2 cm. by 16 cm. rectangular

timber section.
O O
= x80 x 20 x 222
o
4- ^
6
^11
X2X 16* kg. cm.
^124102 kg, cm.

Moment of resistance of steel
= i-x ^
77 ^X 2 X 16*
0 11
^99297 kg, cm,
J, Total moment of resistance
= 124102+99297 cm.
223399 kg, cm.
problem 172. A limber beam 15 cm. wide and 20 cm. deep is to

he reinforcedby bolting on two steel flitches each IS cm. by V25 cm*
in section. Find the moment of resistance when (a) the flitches are
attached symmetrically at top and bottom and {b ) the flitches are :
attached symmetrically at the sides. Allowable stress in timber is 60

kg. I cm. ^ What is the maximum stress in steel in each case ? Take
E$^20 Ev.
SolutioD.
Case (a). When thefluches are attached symmetrically at top and
bottom.
Fig. 275 shows the stress diagram for wood and steel for this
case.
Modular ratio m= =20

Ea
Eu)
fs - 1350 k^jcnfl
J-
t 25cm f ^201^*^ tZOOkti/cm^

o
Q
cs
1 25cm^
::iZi
WOOD SrCEL
Fig. 275
Let fw be the extreme fibre stress for wood
is be the extreme fibre stress for steel
/.= -1q-^(20 /)=22-5/
When L=^60 kg. fcm.^f.=2T5x60== 1350 kg./cm.^

M.R. of the section = M.R. of the wooden component
+ M.R. of the steel component!
=4- X 60 X 1 5 X 202+4- 1350 X 15 X 22-5*
6 o
4-^1200x15X202
o
- 60,000+ 1708593-60- 1200000
==568593'60 kg. cm.
Case (b). When the flitches are attached symmetrkally at the sidest
For this case when the maximum stress in wood i''
/=60 kg.lcm.^
The maximum stress in steel
=/.[J^x60 yi)=4Sx2D^900 kg./cm.*

5
290 STRENCIH or MAIERIALS
f 25cift I 25cin
Fig. 276
MR. of the 5ecf/tf/i=M.R. of the 'voodcn component

-f M.R. of the steel component
- X 60 X 1 X 202 + 2[^-|- X 900 X 1 25 X 1 32
--60,000+84375 kg. cm.

-144.t75 kg. cm.
Problem 175. Two rectangular plates, one t^f steel and i/u
other of brass each i75 ctn. by 1 cm. are placed together to form u
beam J 75 cm. wide by 2 cm. deep, on two supports 75 cm. apart, //.
brass component being on top of the steel component. Determine th>

maximum central load if the plates are (?) separate and can hen.:
independently Hi) firmly secured throughout their length, rermmihl
stresses for brass and steel are 700 kg. I cm."^ and J(-00 kg /car. Taki
f> 0\V75x 70 kg.lcm} and lO'K 10^ kg.jcnk^.
Solution.
Case ii). When the two plates are separate and eon bend
independently.
For this case it may be realized that each plate will have it^
own neutral axis.
4 ^
6 7 A'q / c *r
t BfÂSS
3 7t>CTTf
6'^
416
BRASS kq h ru'^
\
Icrti
I
j '
srtfL
^
1 ~l
SJftL j
1 /r rr'
tig 277
it will be assumed that the radius of curvature R is the same
for bo;h the components
Eb
y R R
/, _ E.y. _ E.
Ety* *
Since
^
/.
'
2- IPX IOg_
b-875X l[^
Allowable stresses in brass and steel are given to be 7tO kg.jcm.^
ari'l ItyH) kg.jcnt"
Obviously m this case we will allow / 1000 kg.fcmr
f. -J2~=-4I6-67
Fig. 211 shows the stress distribution.
Moment ol resiMaooe of brass component
---
X4 1
6-67 X 3-75 v 1 ^ 2b 0 42 kg. :rm.
Moment of lesistance of steel component
fsbd.^
o
-J- V 1000 3-75 - 1= (,25 kg. i'm.
TuiCil moment of resistance

260 42-625 US A! kg.cm.
l^t the maximum concentrated load applied at the centre be
b kg
Fquating (be maximum bending moment to the mi>ment of
fcsistancc
If'/
- --85-42 kg. cm.
^
If'x75
885-42
4
W=.--47 22 kg.
Ca<;i' Hi). When the two plates are firmly secured ihroughoul.
In this case the two coni{nents act as a single unit and will
have a single neutral axis. Fig. 278 shows the equivalent brass
section corresponding to the given composite scciion.
The width of the steel component is magnified by the modular

ratio 2 4.
.
292 STRENGTH OF ItATBRlAUI
? 7?rm )6
T ePA^yS 17
/cm !
1
t
f
/cm S U iL \}J-
J- L
Z 15X2-A Sim 4' 4

Fig. 27>
Distance of the centroidal axis from the bottcnn edge

-
->= {9xlx0-5)+(375xlxI-5) 079cm.
--79xD4.(3-75x 1)
Moment of inertia of the equivalent brass section about the
neutral axis
0_21i +J 75 . , ^3.,,,
=.1*479 f0 0284 0-3l3+r890

371 or*.
Fig 278 shows the stress diagram.
// 079
But
m
--= A2 't
/. _0 79
-
2 4/* 1-21
/
Taking y'.-lOOO kg. jcm.^
/* 63816 kg./cm*.
Let hf --- M.R. of the section
i y
^ ^ ** 371 = 1956 67 kg. cm
1 ^ 1
If fV kg. be the central point load,
67
W=-^J04 35 kg.
P*s<Weai 174. A
composite beam is made by bolting an ISJC
^l^tinnel a 15 cm, x 7 5 cm. wooden beam as shown in
to
m
Fig, 280, The composite beam is freely supported over a span of ^
I
^SSES IN BBKMS 293
I
mr/rev. Find (a) the neutral axis of the composite section (fc) the ;
[maximum uniformly distributted load that the beam may safely carry,
Assume allowable stress in timber and steel as 70 kgfcm,'^ and 1500
'
Also assume E for steels 2 x lO^ kg fern * and E for timber

^0 kg.jcm.K and for the steel channel hx^47! 1 cm ^ and Ivv
^579 cm^ area^ 1265 cm,^. Distance of the centroid from the back
of channel^ E66 cm, (A.MJ E.)
SolcitioD. It is convenient to
convert the given composite section
into the eqtd valent steel section,
Thij> is done by replacing the tim-
ber section by steel section having
3 depth equal to 7 5 im. but hav-
ng a width equal to
w idthof timber c omponent
modular ratio
In our case modular ratio
_ 2xl0
20
i V'lO^
Width of steel component equivalent to the limber section
15
-0*75 cm.
20
f5 cm - 15 cm .
k)2'ikglcm^
j
L- /
/
wibcm
/5 Oil eQUIVALCNT SIKl Si OfAONAM

STEEL SECTION TOR STEEL
tig. 280.
Now consider the equivalent steel section.
Distance of the centroidal axis from the bottom edge
0 75> 12-65(7-54-i 66)

7' 50 cm.
075x7 5+1265
Moment of inertia of the equivalent steel section about the
neutral axis
0'7S X 7* S3
- - +37-9-rl2*6S(r66V' cm}
Î78 24cm.^
Suppose the stress in steel be allowed to reach 1500 ki^fcm}
29 4 STRENGTH OF MATERUlS
/. Stresiv in steel at from the neutral axis

5 5 cm,
- kg icm *
l5tK)
Stress io timber at 13 cm from the neutral axis
7*5^1500.
""5 ^ - ^^2 2 kg./cm-o
^
,
5
Thl^ is greater than the permissible stress of 70 kg./cm,^ for
timber
Hence h r us allow timber to reach a stress of 70 kg jc/n.-
NaiMiTiun, '/ress in steel
kg./ern ^
/O- 7 kg /cfn^.
Let tbx safe distributed load on the beam be w kg, p^ r mein'-
run.
Max B M -M --
o
/
Y / 10C> /-v- cr?!.
900 ,
cm,
Bu^
M f
i
7
^
"
1027
\ i7s '55
<j 2^6 kgjm,
J5I. Hean s of uniform strength

He.*: , wc
c Mve across are usually of u.e >af'n^ sectional area
throaijhou spau
the But the bending moi/icnt the beam due
to me I'v.n 5 oi\ n is not the âme at all the sections, if the
beam secii n be c^ cnej ',a that at ibe secnan where the greatest
bending unmt the maxitnum fibre -stress leaches the pei
,
missibic St' ohvi'Hulv other sections the extreme fibre stress-

es are Jcn*
lin r'7;:?v>!hlc stress iienc*: 'i i, '.'neconoiracal to
provide vi uaifrfni scvOon.
'ei^.ra r As fhc bending moment
decre?af'' n warj^ rr siipporh the section of the hcAin njay also be

reduced s, jhut a every section the extreme fibre stress reache-

the pern s ihle sir ns A hv\;m so designed is cdh,^J a beam 2
uniform stn-ngtk. H e section of the beam may he varied (H by
maintaining constant v'epih and varying the wid^b (//) by maintain- ;
ing constant width and varying the depth c- b77^ by varying the
width and depth.
Problem175. A beam of spen i carries a pofnf load at mni W
span. Find the $bap^ of the beam of uniform strength (a) if the dept h
be maintained con,stij>A, it>) if the breadth be mamtained constant.
5TRESSES IN BEAMS
Solution, (a) Beam of uniform strength constant depth.
Let the permissible stress be/.

The B.M. at any section X distant .v from the support (x<//2)
r given by
f 'g 81 Fig. 282

Let the depth and breadth at the mid-span section be d and b
respectively.
Let The breadth of the beam at X be bx while the depth is
constaiu at d
Equating the moment of resistance to the bending moment at

we have
Meiicc the width should proportionately change with v.
At niid span i.e., at , the width of the beam
Fin. 283 Fig. 284

3W
f^' 2 Ifd^
(b) Beam of uniform strength constant width.

Let the depth and width at the midspan section be d and b
respectively.
Let the depth of the beam at any section distant X x from the
support be dx.
Equating the moment of resistance to the bending moment at
X we have, '
-efbd^^2
-V"/f
At midspan, depth
3W I
fb
=vIfb
Problem 176. A beam of rectangular section carries a point load
W which can be placed anywhere on the span of length 1. How should
the depth of the beam vary in order to have a form of equal strength
if the width be of the section remains constant along the beam Ignore
the self weight of the beam.
A
f
X r
it
X
l-x 3
\
Fig. 285
Solution. The greatest bending moment occurs for the beam
at mid-span when the load is at mid-span.
Let the depth of the beam at mid-section be dm.
Let the maximum stress at this section be/.
Maximum bending moment = M = Wl
Moment of resistance fb dm^
-fbdm^=
4
/=-
J
m
bdj'
Now consider any section X distant x from the end A.
Maximum bending moment at this section will occur when the load
at the section itself.
v
For this condilion.
Max. B.M. at A --
Let the depth of the beam this section be d.
"The extreme stress at this ev.iort should also be the same as at

the mid-span section.
^ M _ H.\{/~x) . id -
^
^ Wl
WxU-.\) 6 ? HI
"" '2
I '
biP M.-
-2 4<Px{l--x)
-p
or \/.vl/*~ x)
This is the law for the varia-

.on of the depth of the beam
Jonr the length of the beam.
u bikm section
,4 . ir
^ft-srangn-.
;
I
~2\
i ; . JX''
Any tran' crse sec- ion '

bc/.n is subjected to a bending
cf a
moment and slic.i: forct- Wc hr.\e her studied how the bending
moment is resi 'vd by the section ^ê will now discuss the shear
resistance.
Let at an) section AB the bending moment and shear lor^
be Af and ^ pectj\ey.
i Let :u anolher section CD distant ax
from the section l/Oiu- B.M and S.I-. be (W+./M) and (S^ dS)
respectively. . . .
Let itrequired to find the -shear stress intensity on the

be
section /I B at a disrancc vi iroiii the neutral axis. On the cross-
section of the bedm, let EF be a line distant jvi from the
neutr^
axis. Now c the pan o vm b^'um above the level EF and
between the sections AB and CD. This part of the beam may be
taken to consist of an infmitc number of elemental cylinders
each of area da and length dy. Consider one such elemental cylinder
at a distance from the neutral layer. The intensity of stress on the
M
end of the elemental cylinder on the section AB~-f- y where /
^
= Moment of inertia of the beam section about neutral axis.

Similarly, the intensity of stress on the end of the c'ernental cylinder
on the section CD

dAi
I
ifence the forces on the

yda
ends of the elemental cylin- 3^
der are respectively /. da i.e.,
i
^ y da and {f'tdf) da i.e,.

y
mrrkiL
Hence unbalanced force
on the elemental cylinder \ ig. 2SS
^
"

y Considering all the elemental eylindc'-''. between the
Fic. 2^9
sections and CD and above the level EF
Total unbalanced force above the level EF and between the two
sections AB and CD
. y da
STRESSES IN BEAMS
299
y^yc
dMyr
,
T
y^yi
dMay
where area of the section above the level EF and

a Distance of
the centroid of the area above the level about the neutral axis.
Hence in order the part of the beam above the level and
be'\een the sections AB and CD may nor lail by shear due to the
unbalanced force of J the scsrfion of the beam
at level F!F must offer a shear rcsinrancc. o' the uidth of the
he.un at the level EF is h, the inren-t'> u*' r
.Kizontai shear at the
\p\:\ EF
_ Unbalarncd l(>fcc
^ Sê:ir ..rea
clM _ o?
/ \a\
dM /;t
d\ !>>
uUt
dM S
dx
sStress is the hor/on al

This shear car '^ress at the distance
} 1
the ncutiai avis.
'''oin By the piinciple uf omplcmtiitary shear, <
thf^ liori/onl.il shear stress is aecoioo 'no'd h\ a verrical shear str

if i'i the same intensity.
5^ Shear siress distribution for beam s^vtôn^ of various shapes

t</.' Rcctaniûlor sreffon.
I ni S5IOWS a rectancuiar
set non of width h and depth
J i at Lhe section be sub-^
,cctt-\l lO a shear bnee S.
v 'oiisidera level EF dX
a distance v from the neutral
axis
I he ir.tensit v of shear
Stress at this level ss given by
t-hg. L90
^ It)
where fljp is the moment of ihe area above i;F shown shaded about
th*^ neutral axis.
0
300 STRENGTH OF MATEK1AE3
At the top edge /.r., at ^ y V

At the neutral axis, / e ,
at v 0,
uS 5
' -4
hd^ 2
bd
S
Average shear stress q^.
hd
q>ui QuvU
Mencc the miînuim di jr stress intensity for a rectangular sre-

(ion is J 5 times tfu' avcrayi Lar stress
Problem 177 d rt i tuaiuiar beam JO cm. wide is subjected to a

maximum shear fori of >,
.
the corresponding maximum shearing
stress being JO kg. cm ^ find :'.c depth of the beam.
Solution Let the depth, the beam be d cm.
X
Maximum shear stress ^

x average shear stress
5000
kgjcm}
2 ]Qxd
t
5000
cm.
2 10x30
25 (m.
Problem 178. A timbn earn is simply supported at the ends and
'
carries a concentrated load af mid span. The maximum longitudinal

stress is f and the maximum îh aring stress is q. Find the ratio of
the span to the depth of the beam ignoring the self weight of the beam.
Iff 120 kg.;em.'^ ana u 10 kg jemryfind the ratio of the span

to the depth.
Solution. Let the width and depth of the section be b and d.
Let / be the span.

^
STRLSSES IN BEAMS 301
Let the concentrated load placed on the beam at the mid span
be fV
Maximum shear forcc=S=

^
Maximum shear stress = x Average shear stress
1 .
2
2hd
4bd
Maximum beading moment W= --

4
Section modulus =Z o
. . Maximum bendmg stress =/^ ^ = -r-

Z 4
^ 'iixp
...(>
Dividing eq d) by eq. (ii), we have

q 3 tv 2t)J _ d
f 4bd 3W7 H'
_L= f
d 2q
When /=120 kgjcm.^ q ^10 kg.lcm.^
_/_ _ 1 ?()
^
d ' 2X10
Problem 179. >4 timber beam 10 cm. wide and 15 cm. deep^
support.^ a uniformly distributed load over a span of 2 metres. !f the
safe stresses are 280 kg.jcm.^ longitudinally and 20 kg.jcm.^ in trans-
verse shear, calculate the maximum load which can be supported by
the beam.
Solution. Let the maximum total uniformly distributed load

on the beam be kg.W
(/) Bending stress consideratim
Maximum bending moment =M= Wl

= lPx200
g- ,
kg. cm.
=25 Wkg. cm.

But, M.R.=B.M.
302 STRENGTH OF VIArERlALS
1
fbd^ - X 280 X 10 X 152=25 A'
'
'
280x10x1 '2 ,
" '
6^25
(//) Shear stre\s consideration
n . 2
Maximum shear force .S kg-
Maximum shear stress X Average shear stress
W
2
kg.Jcfn/^
2 10 Hs'
2(!(T
Limiting the ^hcar streN> to 20 Ug./em.'^
. 20
2(H)
ir 4000 Ag.
.SVi/t' lota! htid <fn I'a ^ttjm=4000 A
Safe !///('// \//i </ //?e load =1000 kg.lnu
Probleni 180. simph supported timber beam is 10 cm. wide

4
Md 20 cm deep carries a pîni load at the mhldle point of the span. W
The permissible sin ss m i/t'Ki/re and shear are 100 Ag./c/n.^ and
rcsperfivefy /g>; iraig the seif weight of the beam, (ah u-
late the ^pun length lulow a inch the shear stress will govern the âje
load and above wiiix h the intulmg stress will govern the safe load.
Solution J.er H kg be Oie safe point load at mid span.
Let the .span be t met'c^
IV
Maximum shear fv>rcc S '2
^
Maximum shear stress
^
average shear stress -
15
3 .S
2 -15
10x20
5 2000 A g.
H 25 2x2000- 4000 Ax
4(X)0 X /
-- U - X 100 kg, cm
4
^lOOfOO I kg, cm.
STREiiSES IN BfcAMS 303
Equating .he maximum bending moment to the moment of
resistance of we have,
100.000 1- X lOOx i0x202

O
,
2
metre
If the span exceeds 2 metre the bending stress will govern
the safe load.
If the span is less than metre the shearing stress will
govern the safe load.

Problem 181. simply supported nooden heam of span IM)
'I
cm, having a r. sv vrefi, n 15 cm. wide by 25 cm. deep carries a con-

(
cent rated loud \V of /'/- centrt. Allowable w'orl iny stresses are
c.' 7n hy iemd (bending)
q li^ t'
g '(tn ^ {shear)
What ;h the Siife load W {A,MJ 15 November, I9'^2
Solution
D K. w M'xi30
1.^
Maximum

B.M, M ^
4 4
,
kg. cm.
Maximum S. I . S kg.
Bending stress consideration

Equating the max, B M to the moraenl of resistance
W 'T
4 6
^ 15x25-
W^^3?65 kg.
Shear stress consideration
3
Max. Shearing stress-^ X average shear stress
3
' H'
10 -
2 2x15/25
W"=:50(>0 A'g.
Safe load w=.3^65kg.
Problem 182. Determine the concentrated load which when
placed at the free end of a cantilever of length I would produce a m
shear stress of 15 kg !ctnr at the level of the neutral axis of the section
carrying the maximum shear Assume that the beam has uniform
rectangular cross-section 20 cm, x 40 cm.
304 STRl:NGTH OF MATERIALS
Hence compute the maximum compressive and tensile stresses

due to bending over the cross- sect ion at the fixed end of the cantilever,
Solofioo. Let W be the concentrated load applied at the free

end of the cantilever.
Max. S F. =.S W
Max. shear stress = *1 ^ average shear stress
^3 W
T 20X40^*^
>f'=80()0 kg
Max. B M. = Af- 8()00x I x 100 kg. cm.
- mmjCtkg cm.
Equating bc moment of resistance to the maximum bending

moment
Af
X/ X 2U X 40^ 800000
/=I50 kg.jcm -
(/>) Solid circular section

Fig.291 shows a solid
circular section of radius r.
Consider any level Ef

at a distance y from the
neutral axis.
Width of the section at

291 the level EF
-2v/r- ->2
Moment of the area above i:/^ about the neutral axis.
r
ay- ^2y\ r--y^ '

dy
Let 2y/ r^j^=u
4(r2-J-2)=tt2
8^ dy 2a du
4
0
Shear stress at the level EF

Say
where 0=^ width of the section at the level EP

ÊF==2\/r^'^^=û
I 12m
12f
S
3/
nr*
Bui /=
5x4 2
1- ,
Hence the shear stress distribution is according to a parabolic

law.
At y^r, i.e., at the extreme distance from the neutral axis,
9=0
At y-0, i.e., at the neutral axis, the shear stress
4 S
-9=y .
But the average shear stress
S
=9a,=-^
4
.. 9mo3.y 9 ai-
(c) Shear stress distribution in an I section.

Fig. 292 shows an I section. Let B and /> be the width of the
flange and overall depth. Let b

and be the thickness of the web B-
and its depth.
Shear stress distribution in the

flange
Width of the section at a
distance y from the neutral axis
D
Area shaded
Centroidal distance of this

area from the neutral axis
Fig. 292
2
/. Shear stress
Hence in the flange, the shear stress follows a parabolic law.
At
D
2
( 7-0
At
Shear stress distribution in the web
Width of the section at a distance y from the neutral axis=h

Sa^
Ib

ITRBSSBS IN BBAJUS 307
Pig. 293
Heaoe in the web also the shear stress follows a parabolic law.
At ^=0, i.., at the neutral axis,

b Jn 8/
sn Mora or iiateiiau
294 shors the shear stress distribution diagram. It may

be noted that at the junction of the flange and the web the shear
stress abnipiiy changes from
fteMes 183. A beam of / section 50 cm. deep and 19 cm,

wide has flanges 2 5 cm, thick and web rS cm. thick. It carries a
skearu^ force of 40 tonnes at a section. Calculate the maximum in*
tensity of shear stress in the section assuming the moment of inertia to
be 64500 cm *. Also calculate the total shear force carried by the web
and sketch the shear stress distribution across the section.
(A.M.I.E.)
SoMosl Maximum intensity of shear i
stress will occur at the neutral axis. Hiis

shear stress is given by T H
1
trsem.
where S maximum S.F. >

j
nJ^~moment of the area above the neu- I

- iOCi
^
J V -A
tral axis,about the neutral axis. -
/moment of inertia of the whole

section about the neutral axis.
breadth of the web.
,J;SCm
,
In our case,
1
4^-19 x 2-5 x 23 75+1*5 x 22 5x11 25 cm 11 J-i-

.
1
= I128 125+379-688 cm ^
j
i
I .
1507'813 cm.* Pig 295

_ 40x1507 813
^'="64500
, , g
xTS
^ O' 6233 tonnelcm.^
Shear stress in the flange at a distance y from the neutral axis
ay^B(25-y)^^^
T>
)
=Y (625-f)
4=*;^ .
(625-y*)
1.-
-f-
4=-^ (625-y*)
Shear resistance offered by an ele-

mentid strip of the flange 19 cm. wide and
4^ cm. deep. Fig. 296
intEaBS w VBAMS 309
9<*ii-*gx(19 dy)
=^(625-y*)19 4F
= ^ .^{625-y^dy
Shear resistance of one flange
2S
IW (625 >) dy
21
rrs
625(25-22-5)
2S |-(2^-22'5)^J
19S
.-5^x151
21
19x40x151
tome.
2x64500
=0 S9 tome.
Total shear resistance of the two flanges
0-89x2 1*78 Utmies.
Total shear resistance of the web
40 r78 tomes
^38'22 tomes.
Sheer stress distribution across the section
Shear stress in the flange 22-5 cm. from the N.A.
O
X Moment of the flange area iboot
MB
the N.A.
-0 03681 r/cm.* (say 0 037
Fig. 291
310 8TRBNOTH OP MATHUALS
Shear stress in the web at 22'S cm. from the N.A.
X0 03681 t/cm.^
=0 4662 tlcm.^.
say 0'466
Problem 184. An I section has flanges of width b and the overall
depth is 2h. The flanges and the web are of uniform thickness t. Find
the ratio of the maximum shear stress intensity to the mean shear
stress intensity.
Solotioo. Let the S.F. on the section

be S. Area of the beam section,
A=7jbtA-t(2b-2t)
A=-2bt+2bt-2t^
A=Abt-\-2t^~=4bt
since 2fi is a small quantity.
Moment of inertia of the. section
about the neutral axis
12
(h-t)(2h--2/)3

12
-t)*
_2
"
3
2
' 1^6* (6* omitting terms in-
3 _
volving I*, t* and t*
~x4b^t
Shear stress is maximum at the neutral axis.

Say
qmaz=^jJ-
oj moment of the area shaded about the

neutral axis (Fig. 298)
-4,.+
.4,,-
4
neglecting terms involving /and t*
sx
_ A
^maa= A
9 S_
16 bt
The average shear stress
S
^Qaverage^
A
_s^
~4bt
Qtna x 9 S Abt
âverage 16 bt *
S
Problem 185. A beam of span L metres simply supported by

the ends, carries a central load W. The beam section has an overcdl
depth of 29 cm., with horizontal flanges each I5cm.>c 2 cm^ and a
verticalweb 25 cm. X 1 cm. If the maximum shear stress is to be 450
kg.fcm.^ when the maximum bending stress is 1500 kg.jcm?, calculate
the value of the centrally applied point load and the span L. W
Solution. Fig. 299 shows the
fspn H
Moment of inertia of the section
J5x29^ MX 253 cm.^

12 12
= 12260
Span=L metres
Point load at mid span W kg.

Maximum shear force
Maximum shear stress occurs at the neutral axis
gmax^ =450 kg.lcm.^
moment of the area above the iieotxil

axis about the neatral axis
L
SntEMOTH OP MATEtlAU
=(15x2x13-5)+(1X12-5x6*25) cm*
=405+78-12483 l2 cm*
48312_.
7A 2 ^ 12260X1
450 X 2X12260X1
^ 48312
.
W= 22840 kg.
22840
kg. m.
72840 L X
100 kg. cm.
=5*1000 JL fcg. cm.

Maximum bending stress
=/* J'=1500 kg.jcm:

/
571000 L
1500x12260 x2

571000x29
L2'221 m.
ProUem 186. The T-shaped cross-section of a beam shown in
Pig. 300 is subjected to a vertical shear force of JO t. Calculate the
shear stress at the neutral axis and at the junction of the web and the
flange. Moment of inertia about the horizontal neutral axis is
11340 cm.* (A.M./.E., May 1967)
J Solution. Distance of the neutral

'
axis from the too edce
T-I 1
5
I
20X5X -^+20x5x15
200
= 875 cm.
*4C* Shear stress at the neutral axis
Say
10 X ( 100 X 6-25+375 x 5 X
11340 X5
^ j
Fig. 300 =01 164 t/cm*

STKESSra IN BEAMS 313
Sheai stress in the web just at the junction of the web and
flange
[Ox 100x6-25
=01103 t/cm.*

11340x5
Shear stress in the flange just at the junction of the flange and
web
= -^x0-1103
^ 0*0276
Problem 187. A
simply supported beam carries a uniformly
distributed load of intensity 30 kg.lmetre over the entire span of /
metre. The cross-section of the beam is a T-section having the dimenr
sionsas shown in Fig. 302. Calculate the maximum shear stress for
the section of the beam. November 1972)
te.5cm
SolotioB Wewill first determine

the position of the neutral axis and the
moment of inertia of the section about i
the neutral axis. The relevant calcula-

tions are shown in the Table below- i
i.5Cm
Fig. 302
Distance of centroidal axis form the top edge
Moment of inertia about the top edge 11

== /l^ 1 ~ 2/art/ + 2^13;^
-1132'28 4 558597-6718*25 cm.^
/
J14 STRENGTH OP MAIERIAU
Area Centroidal
n
!
distance y ay a Leif
Component
(cm)2 from / (cm)* {cm)* (cm)*
(cm)
125x2*5
Flange 31*25 1 25 39*06 48 83 16*28
12
12 5x2*5
2-5X17-5*
Web 43*75
1i
11*25 j1
492 19 5537*14
1116
17-5 X 2-5 1
12
11
Total 75 531*25 5585 97 1132*28

j
)
But /l^l =/a!X-}-/4jP^

2
6718-25-/xx+75x7 0
Ixx 2959 cm.^
12 5 Cm Max. shear stress will
occur at the neutral axis
Say
^max~
lb
Max S.F.=5
30 X 100
= 1500ifcg.
Kig. 303
1 500 x 25x 12192 X646

^max- kg.lcm,^
2959x2 5
=42*32 kg lcm.^
Problem 188. A beam is triangular in section having a base b
and an altitude h. It is placed with its base horizontaL If at a cer-
tain section of the beam the shear force is 5, find the maximum shear
stress and the shear stress at the neutral axis.
Fi8. 304
315
sirbssbs in beams
neutral axis
NkSt of Inertia about the
bh^ j.
te a <l.p.b ) from tl <op.

the .tor swers intoSW , at
ut from the top
Width of the beam at a depth y
.,.ly
Say
Ki-fXl?:-
For 9 to be a maximum,
h
>T
^12 S li_
9* frfcs 2 2 bh
put
at the neutral axis,
To find the shear stress
9"-
_125 2
"
. A=
^/,3 '3 "ibh

3
Problem 189. A beam

ttora- ^ "
section.
R*. 305
316 STRBN01H OP MATERIALS
SoiotiOB. Fig. 305 shows the square beam section with one
diagonal placed horizontally. Let the length of the diagonal be d.
Moment of inertia of the beam section about the neutral axis
^12 48
Consider a înt in the section at a depth x from A. Shear

stress at this point is given by
Say
Ib
where a^ârea above the level PQ
Jt^centroidal distance of the shaded area from the
neutral axis
6 width of the beam at a depth x from A
b=lx
-^( id-Ax\
^ MM
( 48
<7- MAx
^ j
.Y=0, i.e., at A, q=Q
X ,
i.e., at the neutral axis.
2
AS d, 4d\ IS

'd 2 '
Average shear stress â =

area ot beam section
-
âvg^Qna
For the shear stress to be a maximum
ie,
Hence at a distance o{ from A maximum stress occurs.

o
Puttingx*^d in the general expression for the shear stress.

o
the maximum shear stress is given by
4 </2
Problem 190. A laminated wooden beam 10 cm. wide and 15 cm.

deep made of three 1 0 cms. X 5 cms. planks glued together to resist
is
longitudinal shear. The beam is simply supported over a span of 2
metres. If the allowable shearing stress in the glued Joints is 4 kg. per
cm.^, find the .safe concentrated load that the beam may carry at its
centre. (A.M.I.E.)
Solution. Let the safe con-
centrated load at mid span be W
kg.
section about the neutral axis
10x153
=/= -cm.
12
=2812-5 cm.4
Maximum 5.F.=S== ^f
W kg.
2
Shear stress at the glued
joint
Say
4 where a} is
lb
the moment of the area shaded about the neutral axis.
W .. 10x5x5
2 2812-5x10
4x2x28125x10
W 10x5x5
kg.- 900 kg.
ProUem191. For the section shown in Fig. 307 determine the

shearing stresses at A, B, and C D
for a shearing force of 20 tonnes
and find the ratio of the maximum to mean shear stress.
3 18 STRENGTH OP MATBMAU
Solution. Moment of
inertia about the neutral axis
XX
_r 125x153 TtXlO* .
12 6^^-
=3025 cmA
Shear stress at A
ay=0 9=0
Shear stress at B
12-5 x25x 6-25 cfl3
= 195-31 c/m.3
^Say _ 20x195-3 1
^ Ib 3025x12-5
=01033 tomelcmy
Shear stress at C
y-s
ayHn-5x5)b-^lx. dy. y
y=2-5
==Zl25~^V25^2y dy
2-5
21
=312-5+ [(25->^)3/3]
2-5
312 5+ j[^0-(18-75)3J
=312-50-5412=258-38 cm.3
Width of the beam at C
= 12-5-2v/25-2-52cm.
= 12-5-8-66 cm =3-84 cm.
^ Ib
20 x 258'38
tormelcm.^
3025x3-84
=0*445 tonnelcm.^
Shear stress at D
ay = 12-5 X 7-5 X 3-75-

Jv 25^ 2y dy
STRES'B in beams 319
= 35r56-y (25)3'*
=35r56-83-33=268-23 cm.
^Say
9 Ib
^20x268-23
tomelcm.^
3025x2 5
^07092 tonne I cm,^
Problem 192. A beam section is a regular hexagon of side
a and
isplaced so that one diagonal is horizontal as shown in Fig, 308, If the
beam section he subjected to a shear force S obtain an expression for
the shearing stress q at any distance xfrom the diagonal^ and hence
find the ratio of :
(0 Shearing stress at the neutral axis to the average shearing

stress;
(a) Shearing stress at a distance^ from the neutral axis to the
average shearing stress. (London University)

Solation. Moment of inertia about the neutral axis
of the rectangle
=M.I. of four triangles about apex
5v3
16
from the neutral axis width of the
At any level EF distant x
section
320
STRENGTH OF MATBRUU
iaVi-x)
Shear stress at the level EF
Ay = moment of the shaded area about N. A.

Moment of an elemental area about the neutral axisfrx dx
= X (oV3 Jt) dx
v3
Moment of the shaded area about N.A.
Ây
Vi.
A
= iaVix-j^)dx
j
SAy
16S
/fl*v3
I 4 2^3
aV'3 o.
5v'3ai
Shear stress at N, A.
Putting X 0 in the expression for the shear stress we get
IW 1
^"5v^3a'> L 4aV3 J
1 -
^
5V3 a2
=0 4618 -
Shear stress at
j
Putting in the expression for the shear stress
16S_
a*\/3
4 ~
aVS
2
^4
,
!
~*~~3'
90-6 5 ^3^4
.
aV3-4
BEAMS 321
jfRESSES IN
=0-386 -T
a
S
5
^3V3a
=0 386
^n _ 0*4618
(Javg 0 386
go.5o 0*386
and
âvg 0*386
Problem 193. Three planks each 5 cm. x 20 cm. are arranged to
form an I section as shown in Fig. 310. The
a shear force of 1400 kg.
section is subjected to
Suggest an alternative rectangular section of the
same material so that the same maximum
shewing stress is produced due to the same shear
force. The width of the rectangular section
shall be two-thirds the depth.
Solution. Moment of inertia of the

j section
7= [20 X 303- 13 X 203]
=33,000 cm.*
The maximum shear stress will occur at
the neutral axis. Hig. 310
20 X 5 X 12*5+5 X 10 X 5 cm.^
=1500 cm.
.*. Maximum shear stress
1400x1500
35000x5 kg.lcm^^
= 12 kgfem.^
For the rectangular section, let the depth be d cm.
2
breadth =-y d cm.
2
Sectional area
3
Maximum shear stresss-y x average shear stress
322
12 kg.lcm.^
rf=16*2 CM.
6=|- XI 6-2 -=10-8 cm.

3
Problem 194. A cantilever 3 metres long is fabricated from five
wooden planks 5 cm. x J5 cm. fastened together by vertical bolts 19 mm.
diameter as indicated in Fig. 311 which shows the cross-section of the
cantilever. The bolts are provided at a spacing of 125 cm. The
cantilever carries a uniformly distributed load of 330 kg. per metre
including its own weight. Find the shear stresses in a bolt located TS
metres from the support. Make the calculations of all the four planes
of contact of the planks. {A.M.LE-)
Fig. 311
Solution, Moment of inertia of the section
= 19531 cm^. h5m.

S.F, at 1*5 metres ^Tom the 'j.
support
=330 X 1*5 A:g.=495 kg. Fig. 312
Shear stresses at the planes of contact are as follows

Say 495 X 1 5 x 5x 10
kg./cm?
125*^1X15
: 1*268 kg.lcm.^
STKESSeS IM BEAMS 323.
Sc9 495X15X10X7*5
kgjcm.^
19531x15
1-901
Shear stress in the bolt at the plane of contact CD
Horizofltai shear per pitch length
=^qodXpxb
- 1*268 X 12*5X15 itg.
Area of bolt 1*^- cm:^
4
=2*835 C/W.2
1*268 X 125X15
.*. Shear stress in the boIt=
2*835
=83*87 kg.lcm.^
Shear stress in the bolt at the plane of contact EF
Horizontal shear per pitch length
=g/ xp X 6 1 -901 X 12*5 X J 5 jkg.
OB. . . u r901Xl2*5Xl5 , , , 8
.*. Shear stress in the bolt ^2^835
kgfcm.^=^l25 7 kg. cm/
Problem 195. Three planks^ each 20 cm. X6 cm. are bolted

together by 12 mm. diameter bolts to
form an I section beam as shown in
Fig. 313. The beam carries a central
point load of 2500 kg. If the shear
stress in the bolts is not to exceed 800
kg.jcm."^ find the pitch of the bolts.
Solution. Moment of inertia of

the section about the neutral axis
,
20x32^ 14x203 .
=45840 cm.^
Maximum shear force=
1250/:g.
At the junction of the flange
and web, the shear stress
Soy
Ib Fig. 343
1250x20x6x13
kg.fcm.^
45840X6
=7*087 feg./cm 2
Let the pitch of the bolts be p cm.

Horizontal shear per pitch length
-6 xp X 7'087 kg.
=42-522 p kg.
Safe shear per bolt
=800 X xr2 kg.
42-522 P7=800x 1-2*

|
p2r28 cm.
say 20 cm.
Problem 196. The box beam shown in Fig, 314 is made up of
four 15 cm. x 2*5 cm. wooden planks connected by screws. Eozn screw
can safely transmit a shear force of 125 kg. EstimcHe the minimum
necessary spacing of screws along the length zf the beam if the maxi-
mum shear force transmitted by the crozA-section is 500 kg. Sketch
the corresponding shear stress distribution across the section
(A.M.I.E)
tSCfO-- 1
SolutloB. Moment of inertia of
. . . i the beam section
\ 2-5 cm.
.'5 X203 __io X i5=
10X15=*
.1^ ,
S ^ ^ 12
=7187-5 cm.4
12
Tm Shear stress distribution

hi
ri^ Shear stress at 10 cm. from
iV.yt. -0
Shear stress in the flange at
7*5 cm. from N.A.
I S_J_ =
2-5m 500x15x2 5x8-75 , ,
^^1^"'-
-
7187 5xl5~
Fig. 314
Pig. 1 52 kg.lcm 2
Shear stress in the web at 7 5 cm from N A.
=-^ XV 51 kg.lcm.^
=4 56 kg.lcm *
Shear stress at the neutral axis
500(1 5 X 25 X 875+2 X 2-5 X7-SX 3-75) .
7187*5 x(2x2-5) kg./cm.
kg.lcm.*
=6*52 kg.jcm.*
MUnran pitch of screws comKcting the flaiqse and 4he web
Horizontal shear stress in the web at the junction of flange and
4*56 kg.fcm.*
SIRTSSES in beams 325
Let the pitch of screws be p cm.

Consider one pitch length.
Horizontal shear force at this level for one pitch loigth
^4S6x(2x2-5)pkg.
=22 80 p kg.
Equating the horizontal shear per pitch length to the shear
strength of the two bolts, we have.
r52kgfan^
Fig. 31 S. Shear stress distribution across the section.
2280 p=2x 125

2x125
cm. =11 cm. centers
22 8
Problem 197. Show that the difference between the maximum and
the mean shear stress down the rectangular web of an /'joist is
241.
Fig. 316
Sh:ar stress distribution
SIRBNGIH CH* MATEBIAU
wAere S is the shear force at a section, d the depth of theZweb and I,

the moment of inertia of the section about the neutral axis:
{University of Mysore)
Let be the breadth of each flange
Sfljnriaii.
Let be the overall depth.

i)
Shear stress in the web at the junction of the flange and web
SB
~iJb
D^-d^
Maximum shear stress in the web
+ft
2 f]
SB
%Ib
[D d2]+
Shear stress in the web changes from KC to ND following a
parabolic law'.
Average shear stress in the web
= 9.a-ii:C+yJViZ)
But NiD==ND-KC
_ StP
8/
SB Sd^
9n...,=
8/
m ^ 12/
But
sd^ Sd^
^max (Jmtan 8/ 12/
24/
PiroUem 198. A cantilever of I section 30 cm. x 15 cm. with a
uniform thickness of flange and web equal to 3 cm. carries a uniformly
distributed load. Find the length of the cantilever if the maximum
betrdSng stress is four times the maximum shearing stress.
JIKESSES IN BEAMS 32H
SotatioB. Let the length rf the

cantilever be / metres.
Let the loading on the cantilever

be w kg Imetre run.
Let the moment of inertia of the

section about the neutral axis be /
Maximum shear force
==19 wl kg.
Maximum shearing stress

_ Sa!^
IF
= ^|[15x3xl35+3xl2x6]
kglcm.^
823*5 r
21
wi, kg.lcm.^^
,
Maximum bending moment=M Fig. 317
wP
X 100 kg. cm.
Maximum bending stress=/wttx=

M
wl^
15 kgjcm.^
2
=750 y-kg./cm.^
But Qmax
750 -= 4 x-3^
823-5
-w/ ,
/= V468 metre
Problem 199. An / section beam has 20 cm. wide flanges and an

overall depth of 50 cm. Each flange is 2-5 cm. thick while the web is
2 cm. thick. At a certain section the bending moment is kg. cm. M
and the shear force is S kg. Find what percentage of and S are M
resisted by the flanges and the web.
Solution. Moment of inertia of the beam section

/==__
, 20 x 50*
12
18x 45*
12
.
cm.*
71646 cm *
Resistance to bending moment
Maximum bending stress in

the web
=/=
-MX 22-5- , ,
,
71646
Moment of resistance of the
web = ^fbd^
=
6
^Jf <22 5 x2x452
71646
kg. cm.
=0 212 M kg. cm.
Moment of resistance of the
two flanges
= M-0-2l2 M=0-788 M
****
<11
<1
212 "
M
while the two flanges
together will resist 78
8% of M.
Shear stress in the flange at any distance y from the neutral axis
STRESStS IN BcAMS 329-
(25+.V)
^f^B{25-y) 2
(625-/)
Consider an elemental flange area of width B ^20 cm. and
height dy at a distance y from the neutral axis
Shear resistance of this elemental flange area
= (625-/) 20^;;
(625- y^)dy
/. Shear resistance of one flange
= (625-/) dy
j
225
(25-22-5)- i (25-22-53)
J
.10 5
(151-04) itg.
10x151-04
7l646~
=0 021 S kg.
Since there are two flanges, the total shear resistance of the two
flanges
=0021 5x2%.
=0 042 5 kg.
Shear resistance of the web
=5-0 042 5 kg.
=0-958 5 kg.
i e., the two flanges together will only resist 4*2% of 5 while
eb alone will resist 95 8% of 5.
.Jtemative method of computing the shear resistances offlange
and web.
Shear stress in the web at the junction of flange and web
5 X 20 X 25 X 23*75
kg.jcm*
71646 X2
=0 008285 5 kg./cm.*
330 STRENGTH OP MATEMALS
Maximum shear stress (which occurs at the neutral axis)
=qma^ = X 2 5 X 23 75+2 X 22 5 X 1 1 -25

j
kg.lcm.^
=0 01182 S kg.fcm.^
The shear stress the web follows a parabolic law varying
in
from 0 008285 S kg.lcm^ at the junction of the web and flange to
0'01]82 S kg-lcm,^ at the neutral axis.
/. Average stress in the web

==0-008285 S+i [0 01 182 S-0 008285 S] kg./cm.^
^0 01064 S kg./cKL^
web
Shear resistance of the
Arca of the web X average shear stress in the web
-(45x2)x0 0I064 5
=0*958 5 or 95*8% of 5
Shear resistance of the two flanges together
-=4*2% of 5.
54. Shearing stresses in a channel section-^Shear centre
Let a channel be used as a cantilever subjected to external

vertical loading. Fig, 320 fi) shows a short length Jx of the channel.
Let the bending moment increase from to M over this short
length. Let us now consider a small rectangular elemental part
ABCDEFG from the top flange. Lei AB-==CD ~z. Let the thickness
of the flange be t. Let d be the depth of the channel from the centre
of top flange to the centre of bottom flange. Let I be the moment of
inertia of the section about the neutral axis.
Since the thickness of the flange is small the stress intensity due
to bending may be taken to be uniform.
Tensile stress intensity of the face
and tensile stress intensity on the opposite face ~

M4-SM
( j
"^d\
1
tz
d
and Tensile force on the opposite face EFGP^^ 2
tz
Net force on the rectangular element due to bending

iMdtz
I 2
For the condition of equilibrium this force must be balanced
by an equal and opposite force which is provided as shear resistance
along BCGF.Let the intensity of this shear stress be gi. Since the
is small, this shear stress intensity qi may be
thickness of the flange
V
assumed to be uniform over the thickness.
Tig. 320
g\X area BCGF=Pi Pz^P

- ^Mdtz
qit 8jc=-y-y
_SvM' dz
'
Sx 21
But in the limit as fends to zero,
dM .
shear force
_ iSd\
By the priacipJe of complementary shear, the above shear stress

gi will also be accompanied by an equal complementary shear stress
q2 acting along the flange
(f)
..
qz varies directly with the distance z
At z~0 92=0
At z=b 92-
2/
In an exactly similar manner at any distance z a shear stress of
the same intensity will also be induced in the bottom flange. But,
since the bending stress in the bottom flange being compressive, the
directionof the shear stress will be opposite to that in the top flange.
332 bTRBNGTil OF MATERIA S
Average shear stress in each flange

^half the maximum shear stress in the
flange
^ 1 Sdb ^Sdb
2 21 41
Shear force on the top flange
= Flange area x average shear stress
Sdb^^t
41 41
The shear force on the top flange and the shear force on the
bottom flange will therefore form a twisting couple equal to
SdbH^.Sd^bh'
41 4/
The beam will therefore have a tendency to twist in a clockwise
direction.
Now consider the shear resistance offered by the web. This
shear intensity at any point can be determined from the usual rela-
Say
tion
Ib^
Let S' be the vertical shear resistance of the web which should
be equal and opposite to the applied vertical shear force S. These
two forces will also form a couple equal to Se where e is the hori-
zontal distance from the centre of the web at which the shear force S
is applied. This couple is easily seen to be anticlockwise.
If the beam should be free from twisting^ the above mentioned
couples must balance.
^
_ d*b'^t
4/
For this value of e, the point O [Fig. 320 (ii7)] through which
the shear force 5 should act in order the member may be free from
torsion, is called the shear centre.
Eumplcs in Chapter 5
1. Asteel plate bent into a circular arc of radius 12 metres.
is
If the plate section be 10 cms. wide and 2 cms. thick And the maxi-
mum stress induced and the bending moment which can produce this
stress.
Take=2xi0itg./cm.*
U666 67 11,111 kg cm )
kg./cm.^
;
2. A timber beam is 12 cm. wide and 20 cm. deep and is used

on a span of 4 metres. If the stress due to bending is not to exceed
70 kg. per cm.*, find the safe uniformly distributed load on the beam.
{280 kg.lmetre nm>
3. A cast Iron beam has a section as

shown in Fig. 321. The beam is simply support i
ted on a span of Aft. and is used to carry a

downward point load at mid span. Find the
magnitude of the load if the maximum tensile
stress on the beam is 2 tons per 55 in. Deter- .
mine also the greatest OOIuprsssivc stress in the

beam. {0852 ton ; 2'667 tonslin-^)
4 A uniformly tapering vertical post of

height 10 metres has a diameter 30 cms. at the
base and a diameter of 15 cms. at the top. A
horizontal pull of 25 /eg. is applied at the top
of the post. Find the maximum bending stress
for the post and state where it occurs.
(I r 18 kg jcm.^ 5 metres from the top)
5. A
plank of timber 240 cms. long, 5 cms. thick has a width
varying uniformly from 46 cms. at one end to 25 cms* at the other
end. ft is supported at its ends with its length and width horizontal.
If the weight of the timber is 880 kg. per cubic metre, find tnc maxi-
mum bending moment in the plank due to its own weight and find
the maximum longitudinal stress produced by this bending moment.
{1130 kg. cm. at I M
I cm. from the bigger end, 7532 kg. jcm:^)
6 . A
cantilever specimen for a fatigue-testing machine, is of
circular cross-sectionthroughout its length, but in a length of 8 cms.
the diameter decreases from cm. at the fixed end to 0*5 cm. at the

free end. Calculate the maximum

stress due to bending when a static
load of 30 kg. wt. is applied at the free end in a direction perpendi-
cular to the length of the specimen.
{2897 kg.lcm? at 4 cm. from the fixed end)
7 A cantilever of mrild steel 6 cm. wide and 2 cm. deep is
100 cms. long. If at
the free end of the
cantilever there is a
clockwise couple of
iOO kg. cm., find the
radius to which the
cantilever will be bent.
Find also the vertical
displacement of the free
end. Ignore the self
weight of the member..
Takc2xl0kg./cm.2
dOO OS cm.)
Iff.,
8 . A horizontal
beam of the section.,
shown in Fig. 322 is 4
metres long and is sim-
ply supported at the
ends. Find the maxi-
334 STRENGTH OF liATERMLS
mum uniformly distributed load it can carry if the compressive and
tensile stressesmust not exceed 600 kg. cm ^ and 300 kg res-
pectively. Draw a diagram showing variation of stress over the mid
span section of the beam.
{205 4 kg,lm. ;fc=^477*2 kg.jcm.^ and ft ^300 kgjcm.^)
9. A cast iron beam of / section is simply supported on a
span of 6 metres The section consists of a top flange S cm. x 2 cm.
thicks web 20 cm, deep and 2 cm. thick and bottom flange 16 cm. x 4
cm thick. Find the safe uniformly distributed load on the beam if
the tensile stress shall not exceed 300 kg./emr. hind also the corres-
ponding maximum compressive stress.
7lO'S kg./m. \fi 300 kg.lcm c=:=560'l kg.jcm.^)
.
wcm.
-- tJ
Fig, 323 Fig. 324

10. Find the maximum bending moment which the section
shown in Fig. 323 can resist
ifthe bending stress is not to
exceed 500 kg.jcm^.
{48415 kg. cm.)
11. A groove 4 cm.xA
cm. is cut symmetrically at the
bottom of a rectangular beam
section as shown in Fig. 324.
If the tensile stress shall not
exceed 250 kg jcm.^ find the
safe uniformly distributed load
which the beam can carry, on
a simply supported span of
4 metres. {515 kg.jm.)
12 Fig. 325 shows the
section of a beam. If the
stress due to bending is not to
exceed 300 kg.lcm,- find the
^6cm^ maximum beriding moment
which the section can resist.
Fir. 325
{32178 kg.lcm.)
:
STKfSSJBS IN BEAMS 335
13. The cross-section of a cast-iron beam consists of

top flange 4 in. x 1 //t. ,
web 12 in. xl in.

bottom flange 8 /n. X3 in.
The beam is 22 ft. long and simply supported at points 6 fL
and ft* froni the left hand end. Determine the maximum uni-
formly distributed load the beam can carry over the whole length if
the stress due to bending shall not exceed 1 tonlin.^ in tension and
13 in eompression- (0-46 ton per foot)
14. Acomposite beam is made by bohing a 15 cm. x 5*5 cm.
steel channel to a 15 cm. x 7 50 cm.
wooden beam as shown in Fig. 326.
The composite beam is freely supported
over a span of 3 metres. Find (n) the
neutral axis of the composite section (b)
the maximum uniformly distributed^
load that the beam may safely carry.
Assume allowable stress in timber and
steel as 70 kg.lcm.^ and 1400 kg.jcm^.
Also assume 2xl0 kglcm.^ and
jEwO'l X 10 kg.jcm^. For the steel Fig. 3/6
channel /cr- 471**0 cm.^, /ki^=37*90
cm.^ area = 12 65 cm.** Distance of the centroid from the back of the
channel ~r66 cm. {7' 50 cms. from the bottom edge ; 295*7 kg./m*}
v/"15. A flitched beam consists of a wooden joist 20 cm. wide

and 30 cm. deep strengthened by a steel plate 12 mm. thick and 20
cm. deep, one on either side of the joist. If the maximum stress in
the wooden joist is 60 kg.lcm*\ find the corresponding maximum
stress in steel. Find also the moment of resistance of the section.
Take Es~20 Ej . {^00 kg.jcm? 308fi00 kg. cm.) ;
^6. A flitchedconsists of a wooden joist 15 cm. wide

beam
and 30 cm. deep strengthened by a steel plate 2 cm. thick and 20 cm.
deep one on either side of the joist arranged symmetrically. If the
maximum stress in timber is 60 kg.jcm.^y fird the maximum stress in
steel. Find also the moment of resistance of the section. Take
a=20 Ew. {800 kg 348, 333 kg. cm.)
ytl. A flitched beam consists of a timber joist 1 5 cm. wide and
30 cm. deep reinforced by two vertical plates 25 cm. deep and 2 cm.
thick one on each side and arranged symmetrically. If ihc stresses in
timber and steel are not to exceed 70 kg.jcm^ and 1500 kg fcm.^ find
the moment of resistance of the section. Take * 18 .
(595fi00 kg. cm.}
18. A flitched beam consists of two wooden joists 15 cm,
wide and 30 cm. deep with a steel plate 25 cm. deep and 10 mm.
thick placed symmetrically between them. If the stresses in steel and
timber shall not exceed 1400 kg. cm^. and 60 kg./cm.^ respectively,
find the moment of resistance of the section. Take the modular
ratio between steel and timber as 20. {374167 kg. cm.)
,
336 STRENGTH OF MATSRIAUi
19. A beam of rectangular section is 10 cm. wide and 20 cm.

deep. If the section is subjected to a maximum shear force of
1000 kg., find the maximum shear stress. (7 5 kg.lcm.^)
20. A beam of circular section is 1 5 cm diameter. If the
beam be subjected to a maximum shear force of 700 kg find the
maximum shear stress. (5 28 kg.lcm 2)
21. A beam of triangular section has a base of width 15 cm.
and an altitude of 9 cm. If the section is subjected to a shear force
of 300 kg., find the maximum shear stress. (6 67 kg.jcm.^)
22. A
beam of square section, side 10 cm. is placed with one
diagonal varttcally. If the shear force at a section is 1000 kg , find
the maximum shear stress. {22'5 kg.jarfi.)
23. For the beam section shown in Fig. 327 find the total
force on the shaded area and the moment of this force about the
neutral axis if the extreme fibre stress is 90 kg.lc-n.^
(6750 kg., 45000 kg. cm.)
/5 cm. ^
iOicm.
N A
'T
son.
i
to cm.
scat
A
Fig. 328
24. Find the total force on the shaded area of the beam
section shown in Fig. 328 if the maximum 80 kg jcm.*
fibre stress is
(4500 kg., 35000 kg. cm.)
25. Deduce an expression for the intensity of shearing stress
atany point in the cross-section of a loaded beam and criticise the
assumptions made.
Abeam of symmetrical I section has the following dimensions :
overall depth D, inside depth measured between the flanges d,

width of flanges B and thickness of web b. If the flanges are
assumed to be rângular and qi and q are the shearing stresses
-2
at the middle and top of the web respectively, find an expression
for the ratio and show that it is equal to 034 approximately

stresses im beams 337

D =ri
when
b
="
14
and
d
f B
98 = -(i)2 -/*)]
I**- h 8/
26. Explain why a single channel section with its web vertical
subjected to vertical loading as a beam, will be in torsion unless the
load is applied through a point outside the section known as the
*shear centre*. Find the approximate position for a channel section
40 mm. X 40 mm. outside dimensions by 3 mm. thick. {1652 cm,)
27. A
beam of square section of side a is used with a diagonal
io the vertical position. If the vertical shearing force at the cross*
section is Sf show that the shear stress at the neutral axis is equal to
the mean shear stress. Also fin where the shear stress is maximum.
I
Find also the ratio of the maximum shear stress to the mean shear
stress.
9n9~gavg'=
r at ^ from N.A.
28. A beam has a symmetrical triangular section of breadth

B and depth D and subjected at a certain section to a vertical
is
shearing force 5 acting in the direction of the axis of symmetry.

Deduce in terms of D
and 5 the shearing stress ^ at any
depth d from the
vertex of the triangular section. Plot a graph
showing how q varies over the depth of the section and find the
ratio of the average shearing stress over the section to the maximum
shearing stress. {London University)
30.
^ 29. Show from first principles that if

Ratio=-|-]
a beam of rectangular
section issubjected to a transverse shearing force the maximum
shear ^ress at a crosssection is TS times the mean shear stress.
timber beam is simply supported at the ends and carries a

concentrated load at midspan. The maximum longitudinal stress
due to bending is 126 kg,fcm,^ and the maximum shearing stress
is 10*5 kgdem,^ Find the ratio of the span to the depth of tfie
beam.
A beam 7
metres long supported at two points equidistaal
from the ends loaded with a nniformly distribute load of w kg.
is
per metre run. Calculate the length of the overhangs on each si^
if the maximum bending moment for die beam has the least value.
If the beam is an /-section 10 on. x2S on. overall, with 2 on. thkic
flange and web an i the maximum gtreas k limited tb
1200 kg.jem.* fiad the value of w. (/*45 ; w=*6'250 kg.lm.) m
6
Direct and Bending Stresses
Very often we come across members like a column or a tie rod

mainly subjected to a longitudinal thrust or a pull. Sometimes such
members are also subjected to bending stressm. In this chaptm we
shall study some important cases of members subjected to axial and
bending stresses.
SS8. Sedangriar Sectiesi
F^. 329 diows a short column of rectangular section, of area

A carrying a vertical point load IK axially. Obviously the intensity
of stress on the section is uniform.
direct and bbndino stresses 339
Uniform stress intensity/?

^
330 shows a short column of rectangular section* of area
Fig.
carrying a vertical point load eccentrically. W
Let the load be
eccentric with respect to the axis A'A". Let the eccentricity of the
load be e. The section of the column is subjected to direct and
bending stresses.
The load fV produces a direct stress
Due to the eccentricity of the load, the section of the member

is subjected to a moment M^Pe.
At any point distant y from the neutral axis XX, the stress in-
tensity due to the moment M
is given by
where /Moment of inertia of the section of the

member about the neutral axis XX.
This stress due to bending may be compressive or tensile depen-
ding on the situation of the point with respect to the neutral axis.
Hence the resultant stress at any point distant y from the

neutral axis is given by
Pbp
^
A~ I
Let pt> be the maximum stress intensity due to bending. This

obviously occurs at the extremities of the section.
Pl,= ^.ya.
.
We
where - v -= section modulus.

/max
Hence the resultant stresses at the extremities of the section are
given by
W
Z
=P.+F
We
Pmtn^
Z
-Poft
Fig. 331
UPn>h,, the stresses on the section are wholly compressive

If Po^Pb, we have,
pm u jr = P.) -|P6 = 2Po
Pmin^Pu P6=0
For this case, the stresses on the section are wholly compressive
and the stress intensity varies uniformly from zero at one extremity
to a maximum value at the other extremity.
If no<Ph, we have.
PmnX' -po^Pb
Ptu.n-~Po~Pb'=^ Po)
For this case Pt compressive and pmm is tensile.
/ is
Condition for the stres^c^ to remain wholly compressive

If the stresses are to be wholly compressive, if tensile stress
should not occur,
Ph^pn
W
A
Z
A
Consider the rectangular column section in Fig. 332.
For the section shown
and Aâb
I-Tence, the condition that tensile stress should not occur is
ab^ ^ 6
6ah' 6
<> ûst be less thau or equal to Hence the greatest
\
^
eccentricity of the load is
-g
from the axis XX. Hence if the load
is applied at any distance less than from the axis, on any side of
direct AMU BETpINO STRESSES 341
the axis XX the stresses are wholly compressive. Hence the range
within which the load can be applied so as not to produce any tensile
stress, is within the midtile third of the base.
Fig. 332 i'lB. 333
Fig. 334 Fig. 335
Similarly, if the load had been eccentric with respect to the axis
YYt the condition that tmisile stress iHlI not occur is when the eooen*
trkityortlwlondwhlireBpeei tothenais yy does not exbeed .

342 STRENGTH OF MATOUALS
Hence the range within which the toad may be applied is within
the middle -j*
If it is possible that the load is likely to be eccentric about both

the axes XX and YY the condition that tensile stress will not occur
is when the load is applied anywhere within the rhombus EFGH
whose diagonals are F/f
y and iSCr j-. This figure EFGH within
which the load may be placed so as not to produce tensile stress is

called the core or kernel of the section.
S6. Solid Circular Section
For this case, in order tensile stresses are not developed
Fig. 336
Let the diameter of the section be d.
Section modulus
rr
32
*A 4
îd 4
*-l2
DIRBCT and BBNDINO STRBISBS 34J
Hence in general, if the load be applied anywhm within a
concentric circle of diameter the stresses will wholly lemain
compressive.
Following the same principle for any other shape of the column
section also, the range withinwhich the load can be applied so as not
to produce tensile stresses may be determined.
Problem 200. A short masonry pillar is 60 m.X60 cm. in

section. The pillar carries a point had of IfiOfiOO kg, acting on the
centroidal axis of the section shown in Fig, 338 and at an eccentricity
of 8 cms. from the longitudinal axis. Find the maximum and minimum
stresses on the section.
Solntion. Load on the section W

i00000 kg.
Sectional area =60 x 60 cm.*
Moment due to eccentricity
=Af= 100,000 X8
kg. cm.
Section modulus =Z= 4"

6
= j X60 X60* cm.*

=36,000 cm.*
. Stress due to direct load
^ W ,
100,000 . , 2
=27-8 kg.lem*
stress due to moneiit
=P*=db
M
iqOjOooj^g
36000
kgJoH.*
=n2kg.lem* Fit. 338
.*. Maximum strem -27 8+22'2=' JB kg.lcm* (eim^naife)
Minimum stress 27'8 222=5'6 X^./cm.* (comprussliv).
Plublai 201. 7%c line cf thnut in a compression testbig specimen
V432 cm. diameter the axis of the spedmenbntis
.is parallel to
placed from It. Caladate the dlstanee of the Hne of thrust from the
aidswhen the maxhnnm stress Is 1S% greater that the mem stress m
a normal section.
344 nÊNOTH Of MAlBRlAtg
Seintioii. Let the load on the section be W kg.

Area of the section -j cm.*
4
ltd*
Section modulus cm:
32
Moment -M=We kg. cm.
Stress due to direct load
-
=Po=
IT
4fV , ,
kg.(cm.^
,
Stress due to moment
=P=
M 32jVe
Z~nd^
Maximum stress Pmax~Po-\-Pb
4W . 321^
==
ltd*
+ ltd*
4W
Mean stress
=/'=i5r
Since the maximum stress is 15% greater than mean stress, we
have.
4W,i2lVe n54W
ltd*' ltd* 100 ltd*
1 +d ri5
8e
=015
e-OlSX
,
.,,^d = 015X0-432
^
- cm.
~ O' 02685 cm.

FraUen 202. A short column of I section 25 cm. x 20 cm. has
a cross-sectional area 52'05 cm.* and maximum radius of gyration of
IQ" 69 cm. A vertical load fV kg. acts through the centroid of the
section together with a parallel load of
^ kg. acting through a point
on die centre line of the web distmt 8 cms. from the centroid Cal-
eidate the greatest allowable value of W
if the maximu.} stress is not
to exceed 800 kg.jcm.* What is then the ndnimum stress 7
Aim of the section i4=S2OS cm.*
Total load on the section
-ir+fl-r25IFI.
W
DIRBCT AMD BENDING STRESSES 345
Moment on the section
=Af= ~ x8=2fV Kg. cm.
Moment of inertia about the neutral

axis
-52 05(10-69)a cm *
2-+
Py , M
ry
2WX12 5 , , ,
* 52 05(10-69)a
Equating the maximum stress to
800 kg./cm.^ we have
l-25", 21FX12-5
=800
5205 5205 X 10-692
+--51--800 Fig. 339

41-64+ 238
w snnv 238 x 41-64 ,
=28360 kg.
Minimum stress ^Po Pb
tv
- W kg.lcm."
"
41-64 110
238
(238-41-64) ..
, -
238x41-64
196-36x28360 , , ,
^
mxAVM
562 kg.jcm.- {compressivet
Problem 203. A tie rod of constant circular croa-icction is
required to withstand a maximum tension of 50 tonnes, but the end
fixbtg is such that the line of action is off the axis of the mender by
0'7S cm. Find the minimum diameter of the tie rod if the maximum
allowable stress is 1'25 t/cm.^
Solathm. Let the diameter of the rod be </ cm. Stress due to
direct load
50
Pc=T"^^\ tasmeslcm.*
("4 /
200. , ,
tmmetttsnr
J46 STRENGTH OF MATHtTALS
Moment due to eccentricity of the load

= 50 X 075 lonne cm.
n ^
50X0.75
t/cm.^
(^)
32
;0x 32x0-75
tjcm?
ntP
Maximum stress =P+Pi>=r25 tlcm.^
200 50 x 32 x 0 75
ncfi
+
,
S5I
-1-25
1
[200<#+I200]=l 25
200</+ 1200= 1-25 Xnrf8
i.e.. d8-.50-93</+305-6
Solving by trial and error
d==9'18 cm.
Problem 204. short A column of external diameter D
and
internal diameter d carries an eccentric load W. Find the greatest
eccentricity which the load can have without producing tension on the
cross-section of the column.
Solotion. Stress due to direct load
'
=P=
Po = AW
Section modulus
_ u(D*d*)
^
32D
Moment =A/= We
.. Stress due to moment
32WeD
If tension is to be just avoided

P= P*
AW 32WeD
e
iD
DIReCT AND BENDIND STRESSES 347
ProbieiB 205. A short hollow pier I '25 metre square outside and
(tJO metre square inside, supports a vertical point load uf 12 tonnes
located on a diagonal and O' 7 metre from the vertical axis of the pier.
Neglectb^ the self weight of the pier, calculate the normal stresses at
the four outside corners on a horizontal section of the pier.
SolotioB. Stress due to
direct load
JV
A
12
r/m*
(r25*-0-7.S2)
-12 t/m*.
Moment due to eccentri-
dty= =M= - 12 X 0 7=8-4 tm.
Moment of inertia about
the diagonal
M r25<-0-75 I
metre*
= 2- 125
metre*
12
Section modulus Z
yn.aT
2- 125
metr^
2'^.
V2
2125V2 metrf^
15
Stress due to momeat at the coraers 1 or 3
n
-/'*=-2
^
8-4x15 ,, 2
^
2125V2
=41-94 //#f|2
At the comers 2 or 4 there will be no bending stress.
Hence the stresses at the various coraers are as follows.

Stress atcomer 1 + 12+41-94= +5J ?4 t/m* (compressive).
Stress atcomer 2 or 4-+i- t/m* icompressive)
Sums at comer 3 +12 4r94= 29-94 t/nfi (tensile).
rrnWnm 206. Fig. 342 shows the section of a slmrt 200 mm. X
140 mm. / section column carrying an axial load Wt kg. at O and a
load Wt kg. at Fin a direetion parallel to that of Wt. The stress at the
odê X is ISO kg.lem.*, compressive and that at DE is 900 kg.fcm.*
eampnssiee. Determine the magnitudes of Wt and Wt> Takefor the
t aeekomt AS6'71 cm.* and Dm" 2624 cm.*

348 STRENGTH OF MATERUtJ
Solution. Stress due

20 cm. to direct load
i- 1
i !
Stress due to the
eccentricity of the load
Wz&tP
Ijf
_n,_^ ^>'8X15
"2614"
^
)
kgJcmJ^
*
= -~4 lt'2 *g./c-m.2

Fig. 342
Resultant stress at the edge DE
36-71 2624
Resultant stress at the edge BC

m+n'z isqifâ
,4 -^150 kg lcm.^
" 36 71
"262'4
...(/()
Subtracting Eq. (lY) from Eq. (i) we have.
300 If s
-750
2624
750 x 2624
Ifs- kg. -^656 1 kg.
300
Substituting in Eq. ()
Ifj 1^1 _ 150 . 6561

16 71 2624
lEi = 12720 kg.

PW Mem
p 207. .1 tenskm member consists of a T-seclion symmetri.
cat ab^ the wnnal centre ttue baring the folknving dimensions :
Top flange fO cm ndde and 2 cm. thick.

:
IPeb : S cm. deep and 2 cm. tktdc.
The member transndts a longittidbial pull P which acts on the

SMflM at a poim on
the centre Une and 4 cm, from the bottom edge of
Ihewdb.
fibd: (a) Ae mmaituie of P V Ae greatest teasUe stress on the

seetim is 2400
dmmOttaamsrnmaa^miam wbmPis being omsmhted.
dirict and bending stresses 349
SdntioB. Let us first
determine the position of the
centroidal axis and the mo-
ment of inertia about this
axis. The rclevent calcula-
tions are shown in the follow-
ing fable.
1 Area Centroidal 1 ay !
aj^
Component ia) instance from \
Fkdf
top edge it"U 1
iy) 1 1
cm? cm. cm.* i

cm* cm?
Top flange 20 1 1
20 20 - 7
1
i
Web ^;'^=85-33
, 1
!
16
!
^ 576
1'' 11
Total i
116 596 92
1 1
Distance of centroidal axis xx from the top edge uu

lay _ 116
cm-
36
=3'22 cm.
Moment of inertia about the top edge^/
=92+596=688 cm.*
Let the moment of inertia about the centroidal axis XX be /
/=/+(Sa)JF*
688=/+36(3-22)*
cm.*
I..et the pull on the section be P kg.
Eccentricity =6'78 400=278 cm.
Moment on the section=iV=2'78 P kg. cm.
Equating the maximum tensile stress to the given permissible
limit, we have,
^+ 1400 kg.lcm.^
P , 278/x6-78
=1400
.36 3i47
I
350 jSTRSNGTH OP MATERIALS
/>(0 0278 [ 0 059881=1400

0 08768P= 1400
/= .5970 kg
Minimum stress=
P
-r
A I
M

P'
15970 (2 8X15970)
'
36*
X3-22 kgjcm.*
314-7
=4436 4542= -lO'O kg.lcm^ {compressive)
- tom. |
44j-6kgicn^_ _ 4^ 2
tern T
1 5*
3-22 cm.
eon \
678Cm,
L. to 4.ff 9S&4,
kpicaf
Fig. 344
PiiAlem 208. A concrete block has the cross-section shown in

Fig. 345. The block weighs 9 tonnes and carries a vertical downward
load of 2 tonnes on the axis but eccentric about the YY axis. Cal-
XX
culate the distance of the point P from the axis YY if the pressure
under the block along the edge AD is just twice the pressure under the
edge BC and determine these pressures.
SoIattoB.
=2'75 t/m*.
Stress
Let the distance between

due to direct load
j-
r
P and the yy axis be e metres.
eccentricity ==e metres
Moment due to the eccentri-
city of the 2t load
-Af-*2e tonne metre
Section modulus
= 2x2*
m^
6
4
3
-m*
Ftg.345
Extreme stresses due to moment
M
1
direct AMD BENDING STRESSES 351
=
r5c l/m
Pffla=Po+Pi.=(275+i5c) ttnfi /
P.m<i.'=Po-P=(2'75-r5e) f/m /
But Pmax^ZPmin j
2-75-hl-5e=2 (2-75- rSe) 1
2-75+r5e=5*5-3e V
4-5e=2'75
2-75
e= -TTT OT^/re
,
45
c=061 ffie/re
p.=2'75+l-5X0*61-5*5tf5//m2
and p.<=2 75-r5xO-61 = / i5 t/m*.
Problem 209. A masonry pier 3 4 ni supports a vertical load

of 60t as shown in Fig. 346
(a) Find the stresses at the comers of the pier.
(b) What additional load should be applied at the centre of the

pier so that there is no tension anywhere in the pier section 7
(c) What are the stresses at the four comers with the additional
load at the centre 7
Solotion. .V
(a) Area of the
section
-y4=4x3
= 12 metre^
Section modulus
about the xx axis
4x32
=Z=
6
=6 metre^
S?ction modulus
about the yy axis
7 3X4*
*=8 metre* Fig. 344
Uniform Direct Stress due to Ioad=

{compressive)
Max. bending stress due to eccentricity of the load about the
XX axis
Afx* _ 60 X
: 10 tinfl
compressive at A and B and tensile at C and D.

352 nWBNOTH OP MATBMAtS
Maximum bending stress doe to eccentricity of the load about
the yy axis
Zyy
do X]2 .o*/2
g
9 tlm^ compressive

at B
and C and tensile at A and D.
Hence the resultant stresses at the four corners are as follows :
Stress at = 4-5+10 9 =+6 tjm^

y4 (compressive)
Stress at +5+ 10+9= +24 r/m* (compressive)
Stress at C= + 5 10+9=+4 tlm^ (compressive)
Stress at Z)=+5 10 9= 4 r/m 1
(tensile)
(b) order to avoid tension the additional axial load
In
should produce a compressive stress of 14 t/m. Hence additional
load required
= + 14xl2168r
(f) After the above additional load is applied the linal
Stresses at the four comers will be as follows .
Stress at /4 =6+14 +20

= r/m (compressive)
Stress at 5= +24+14= +38 r/m (compressive)
Stress at C=+4+ 14= + 18 //m (compressive)
Stress at D0.
Problem 210. An R.C.C. footing rectangular in plan 2 mx 3 m
carries four vertical concentrated loads of lOt, 20t, 30t and 40t
which are located as shown in Fig. 347. Neglecting the self-weight of
the footing.
(0 Calculate the intensity of loading on the foundation at each

of the corners A, B, C and D.
2
direct AMD BENDING STRISSES 353
(I'i) Determine the location of another 50t load with reference to

the axis XX and Y Y which will make the intensity of load-
ing uniform at all comers.
Solution.
Area of the footing=-=3 x2 ^^6 metre^
Section modulus about the axis XX

3x22 o
7-= metre^
o
Section modulus about the axis YY
2x32
=Zvv =3 melre^
6
(i) Direct stress due to direct loading
_Tota1 load^^lO+20+ 30+jW

area 6
=H 1 6 67 tjm- (compressive)
B.M. due to loads eccentric about the axis XX
( ( 30 X 0-3) + (40 X 0-7)} - {( 0 X 0-3)
1
+(20X07)}
-20 tm
Max stress due to the above B.M.
Mr.x
H - + 10 tjm 2
comprisin' at C and D and tensile at A and B.

B.M. due to loads eccentric about the axis YY
-Wvv [(20x07) |-(40x l)}-{(I0x0-8)+(30x0-5)}
-
-^41 tm
Max. stress due to the above B.M.
\Uv 41
il3-67t/m2

Au 3
compressive at B and C and

tensile at A and D
Hence the resultant stress at the corners are as follows :
Stress at A ---
I- 1 6 67- 10- 3'67= -7
1 tfm^ (tensile)
Stress at B-- rl667 10+1367=+20'34 t/w* (compressive)

Stress at C i-I6'67+10+13'67 =+4034 f/w* (compressive)
Stress at D - M667+10 13'67= + 13 t/m*. (compressive)
(a) If it is desired to make the stress uniform at all the four
corners the condition to be satisfied is 3f*=0 and Af**=*0.
/ Let the additional
h- 1.5m m
1. 5
50/ load be
placed as
shown in Fig. 348 at a dis-
tance a from the axis Xx
and b from the axis Ky
Since Mxx=0,
50ya=20 a-0-4m
Since
50xh = 41 b=0 2m
Fig. 348
Problem 211. The section shown in 349 is subjected to a

compressive load of 60 tonnes acting at the load point L. Find the
maximum compressive and tensile stress intensities across the section.
Solution.Let us first de-
termine the position of the
centroidal axis XX
and the
moment of inertia about the
centroidal axis.
This calculation is shown

in the following table.
Fig. 349
Centroidot
Area distance y
Component a from CP ay ay* h.it
cm* cm cm^ cm* enf
..
ABCD 900 15 13*^00 202500 -67500
Deduct for 1
11 ft
EfQH 225 ir5 3937 5 68906-25 00
Total 675 9562*5 133593*75; 63281-25

1
PIRECT and bending stresses
Centroidal distance from flie edge CD

"ây
^y-
Sfl
95625
675
= J417 rw.
Moment of inertia abour the axis CD
--63281'25-l-J 3.^59375 on}

- 196875
But,
196875 - 1.: i-675.'.1417
/.V--- 196875 r'55UO an.*
-
"-61373 cni *
i m
A
r
1
K
i
r>rm
tSQ^CM t
' (- A -
. J
if
I
mrm
1}
7 6 *-7 / b
cm f m (SfL
f i *.
Eccentricity of the load from the A' A' axis

-^---7*5 15'83 cm. i-
-23\A3 cm
Moment on the section

-M -60x23*3? few,
/. Stress at the edge AB due tc moment
60x23 33
^55 83/6'm.
,

61375
+0*3612 tjcmr {compressive)
Stress at the edge CD due to moment
-- ni375
x!4 17 f /cw,2
0*3232 /(cm.^ (tensile)

' P
356 STKEMGTH OF MATEKfAt*

60 ,,
675
*
f(08'^9 r cm it'o/nprrs'.ivi )
Resultant stress at the edee AB

- (^*36124
{ i.mr
~ t 0 4501 f
cm ~ (( omprr^ 'î\c)
and Re*ailant stress; at the edge C

0*^232 V;;t2
0 2345 i' m^ \tfnsilc)
Problem 212. t mlunm nation iO n,i, exicrfâl diiimctcr and 15

cm, internal diameter suppoits an axial load o) 260 tonnes and an
eccentric load of P tonnes at an icc m kity ('^0 /y* //;< / t
pressive and ti'tnile stressf s are eo to etctcd I oo - and 600
kgdcmd respectively find the nufejntitile (f fht luid P.
Arra of the
colutrn -ccMon
5.) 2 rm.2
'64 (" 15)

- 3727.) cm*.
Fqu-.iling the roaxi-
miim compressive stress to
1400 kg.U-m.^
260-1 P />v40 JO
530 2 37270 ^ 2
I 400
^
0 4904 ) -
f ^

530 2
37270
- 1-400
P 60
530 2
3727
0 91
P 50 59 lonru'x.
F'g.
Equating the maximum tensile stress to 600 hg.'itn'^

/>x40
'^ "2
30 260 f P 0*6 tlcni3*
37270 :30-2
60 P 0*6
"3727 P -0-4904-
S5P-2
60 P
3727
P- 530-2 .r0904
>
OiRr CT and BrNDING STRCSShS
28085
/^-r0904
3727' 530 2
I i)904 3727 X 530*2
r tonnes
28085
- 76*68 tonnes
lakiiig ilic ^Cliahcr vaiuc of i\
P 50 39 tonnes.
Problem 213. A beam 2*5 mures long is simply supported at
the two ends, and eunne< a point had of 4 tonnes at the centre^ and a
longitudinal axial tensile load of tonnes. If the section of the
beam is rectanguLo 37) ms. '-h/f* and 50 Cm', deep, find the ntaxh
<
mum and mwimuni 'Ure>sei the miî spun section of the beam*
Neglect the self weight o f ihe
to$
*
I i
Solution. Area ol the beam section

-/I -30:. 50 1500 rm,-
Stress due lo direct load
lOxiU(K)
kg. Ian -
1500
6 67 l\g (/f'/rw'v)
l\laxiniun) b* ndin^:
M/
4 ^ loot) < 25 X 100

kg. cm
4
. 5tMK)0 k :. cm.
Section modulus
30x50"
Z 6
. cm.
-17500
Maximum stress duo lo boudinni moment
V'o
M
z
2^0000 , ,
o
)2500
1 20 kg.lcm.^
STRENGTH OF MATERfAIS
.*. Stress in the bottommost fibre
6'67 20= -6 67 kg-lcm?. (tensile)
and stress in the uppermost fibre

-6-67 h 20
^ f IJ JJ kg.jcmr (compressive)
Problem 214. ,4 team oj rectangular section, 45 cm. wide and 75

cm. deep has a .spaa off' metres. The beam is subjected to a uniformly
distributed load of 2t>00 kg. per metre run (including the .ielf-weight of
the beam) over the whole span. The beam is also subjected to
a longitudinal a.\ial i.otnpre.ssive had of ISO tonnes. Find the extreme
fibre stresses at the mid .span section.
Solution. Stress due to direct load

P 1.50 X loot)
--P,,- J-. -45 .
.75
kg.icm.-
-
- 44 kg.jcm!^ (compressive)
e/2
-A/=-
2000
6'
X 100 kg. cm.
- 9tK.000 kg. cm.

InP
.Sccfioa modi, lies 7- '
6
45x75 .,
. tm.
'.
Max, strc.ss liut. tu bonding moment
90(M)0()x6, ,
'45 x75-
~j 21 Ag
/. TLc eMreme stresscj* arc,
*14 21 65 ,'cm*^ icomprt. ishc) m the ion nb,o

ard, 44 " cm/ (compressive t
{'
the bottom bbre.
ProMcoi 215 4 {u*(irn af reclanûtr^r sf'Ction<5 cm. m /Ic
.
75 ctn.deep ha^ a span of 6 metres. The beam arri io uniform^'

distributed load of 5000 kg. per metre run inciudlm self- weight of
the beam. The in am is also subjected to a longltifdirfil caropressiic

force of !60 tonnes heated at the lower third pol:f as shown in
JPig, 353, Find the extreme fibre stresses ut the mid span section.
DIRICT AND BENDING STRESSES 359
2000 kgl metre run
I
5 XT!
Fig. 353
Solution, Stress due to direct longitudinal load
= 160x1000
== + 47 kg. Icm. ^ (compressive)

bd^
modulus
Section modulus Z=
==Z~
0
45X75
B.M. due to external loads normal to the span

2000 X 6
X 100 kg. cm.
g
=900,000 kg. cm. (.sagging moment)
Max. stress due to sagging moment
, 900,000 x 6 >
= 45x75-
,
Icg.jcm}
= 21 kg-lcm,^
H.M. due to the eccentricity of the longitudinal load
~P.e
-l60xl000(37*5-25)A:j?. cm.
= 60 X 1000 X 1 ? 5 kg. cm. (hogging
1
moment)
Max stress due to hogging moment
160 X 1000x12-5x6 , ,
kg. I cm?
45x75-
= ^47 kg. Icm?
Hence the resultant extreme stresses are
+47 T 21 -'47 ~ +27 kg./cni.^ (compressive) at the top,
and +4721 +47== + 7i kg iem? (compressive) at the bottom.
Problem 216. The bent member ABCD shown in Fig 354 b
iO cm. in diameter. If the member carries a point load of 2000 kg.
at the free end A^find the maximum tensile stress on the section of tne
part BC of the member.
360 STRENGTH OF UKTmklS
SolotioD. Area of the metnber
=~ X 10* C/W.2
4
78*54 cw 2
Consider the part BC. This is subjected to a tensile load of
2000 kg. and a bending moment of 2000X75 kg.jcm.
Stress due to the tensile load
70 cm.
- 25*46 kg.lcm!^ (tensile)

n X 10^
Section modulus =Z ^
32 32
Max. stress due to bending moment
2000x75x32
,
kg./cm.-
TCXlO^
1: 1 528 kg Icm.^
/. Maximum tensile stress
--'25*46-1528 kg.lcm.-
= J553 46
kg /cm.^ (tensile)
Problem 217. Fig. 355 shows a cross-section of the vertica
standard of a radial drilling machine, in which the drill thrust imposel
on the stands rd a vertical pull whose line of action passes through thes
point D Find by what percentage the maximum tensile stress induced
differs from the value which would be obtained if the cored hole had
been concentric with the outside diameter of the standard-
direct and bending stresses 361
station. Sectional area of the standard
a
10*-62j cm
=64 1^ rm.2
Let a be the distance of the centroid of the section from li
Ml!. 35*^
Ax =64kv
= TiXl02x 10-7tx6-x 12
103 -36 X 12
64
71
rm.
= 8*88 cm .
Let the tensile load be P Lg.
Mi
^0 01 5.25 P ,
75
Moment of inertia about the centroidal axis YY

X I0=(10- S88)2j
4
rx64 4-w X 6r(12-8
88)2j ent,^
4
195175 cmA
BM,--{60+x)P kg. cm.
68 '88 P kg. cm.
362 STTKENGTH OF IIATEIUALS
Tensile stress due to bending moment

6888 P X 888
kg.lcm.^
I95l
0-2134 F
kg.lcm.^
;c
Maximum tensile stress
-0-015625 - -f-0-3134 Jtg./cm.2

^
Jt n
-0-3290 kg./cm.^
If the core had been central,
A ^64^ cm.^
0015625 kg jcm.^
= 21 7631 ohA B. M. = 70 P kg. cm,

. 70 7
'
V 10 kg.lcin.-
2176k
()-32l7 kg.jcm.'^
Maximum lensilc stress
f.. . /,.
-0 015625 - +0-3217- kgUm.^

^
K 7t
-0-3373 kg.lcm?
^
Percentage change in the maximum tensile stress
0-3373-0-3290^
0-3373
-- 2-461%.
Problem 218. The cross-section of a short masonry pier is
60 cm, X 120 cm. Th force action across the section consists of a
^
normal compressive load of 30 tonnes at A and a bending moment of

15 tome metre which caiim tension above XX. For this load condi-
tion Jind the maximum and minimum stress across the section.
direct and bending stresses 363
Solution. Stress due to direct load

_ W
30x1000
kg-lcm.-
60X120
=4'25 kg.lcm.^
A/- (30X60-15X 1003 1000Aj;.c/h
--300X1000 kg. an.
Stress due to net inonieiit
.. I -M.
z
300 X 1000x6
"*60x120x 120
~=208
*"4 254"2 08
^6 33 kg lcm!^
c u cm.
und Pmn~4 25 2 08
y 17 kg./ cm 2 i Jg. 356

Problem 219. Find the maximum tensile and compressive
stresses on the section AB of the clamp slumn in Fig, 357 when a
pressure oj 350 kg. is exerted by the screw. The section is rectangular
3 cm. I cm.
hur, af
Solulion. The section AB is sur'ieeicci U) j tension i)f 250 kg,
as well as tending moment of 2^^> 10 250(^ kg cm.
Sectional area --- A -3 x 1 3 cm.

2.SM , ,
^
---
P ^ Kg.' an
^ 83*33 kgAcmr- tensile)
td-
Scctitvn modulus /
'm "
364 SJRINOra OJ MAICRIALS
Maximum stress due to bending moment
-p.--
M
^
2500 ,
,
-
15
- 16(i667 k^.jcni.-
Maximum tensile stress on the sectitni
- 16 '6-67 83 33 !
^ -I'750 kg. 'em.
Maxi :tum c<nnpressivc stress on the scclit)n

-1666-67 -83*33
- 1^83' 34 kg.jcm.'^
57. Walls and iiliars subjected to wind pressure

Fig. 358 shows a masonry pillar
^
of plan dimensions h x a and of height
//. Let the weight per unit volume of i
masonry be p. |
W'eight of pillar h
IV ?hah 1
Intensity of stv>s on the base

due to the weight i)f masonrv !
A ha tlF NATION
Let tlic vertical face a'xh be
subjected to a uniform wind pressure
of intensity P> per uni* area of the
vertical surface.
/, Total wind pressure
- P Pu.ch
/. Moment on the base due to
wind pressure
-A/ P
2 FLAN
Stress caused on the base
section due to the moment l ig. 358
^1-
where Z is the section modulus of the base section.

The extreme stresses on the base section are,
and pnnn--- po
Problem 220. A masonry pillar 8 metres high is 15 metres y-

2*5 metres in section. A horizontal whu! pressure of 140 kg. per
metres* acts on the 2*5 m X8 m face. Find the maKimum and minimum
stres.s intetuifies indfieed on the base section. The Vi eight of masonry
is 2250 kg. per cubic metre.
- 5
DIRECr AND BENDING STRESSES 3(.5
Solution. Weight of the pinar=^fj^-r5x25x8x2250 k^.

Area of the section=y4 = 5 x 25 metre^
i
_ _* 5 x_2 5 W
8 X 2250 i
kglmetre-
'
a' r5x2 5
- 18000 k^.linctre^
Total wind pressure

140 X 2 5 X 8 kg. - 2800 kg.
M-Pf
8
= 2800 X kg. ni.
= 11200 kg. m.
-
2 5 x 1-52
Section modulus=Z- metre
6
n I
^
,11200 x6
^ kg.lmetre-
2-'5xr52
= 11 950 kg./'metre^
The extreme stresses at the base are,

P.ax- 18000 f 1 1950 = 29950 kg. I met re^
Pm n 180001 1950 ^ 6050 kg jmetr^.
Problem 221. A masonry chimney having the shape of a
frustum of a cone is 25 metres high. The external diameter at the top
and the internal diameter at the bottom is 2 metres. The chimney is O'
metre thick at the base. If the weight of the chimney is 180 tonnes find
the uniform horizontal wind pres.sure that may act per unit projected
area of the chimney in order tension at the base /nay be just avoided.
Solution Area of the base section
= [32-22] m2
=3-927 metre-
Moment of inertia of the base section about a diameter
[3424] metre*
64
=3'19I metre*
Section modulus of the base section
3 191
=Z = = 2 1273 metr^
(f)
366 STRENGTH OF MATBRIAtS
Direct stress due to weight of the

chimney
180x1000
P ! metre-
3 921
45830 hm trc
Id the uwlnim inlensify of wind
pressure be p h: projVcIed .nea
of the chimnev
Projected area cliinine\ area
oft rape/ Him AHtP
^<2
3 )
2 ///
62 5 ^
Total wind pressure P 625 p A'.c.
This resultant pressure acts at the

Icscl of the centroid of the trape/ium
4HCD t
I
Ileiglit of ccmroid of the ttape/ium i
A BCD above the base
3-i2v2 25
'V' 3l|r2"" 'tie/res
1 1 67 metres n l J tA
Moment due to wind pressure

py
Stress
62*5 p X
due to moment
1 ]67 kg. m. Fig. W
M
^^t25xn67p
2*1273
In order tension the busc
;it is li> be just avoided.
P"~P.
62 5
1 1 (,7;>
-
45830
2 1273
45830 x 2- 1273
^ "62-5 xTr^
= l3J-7 kg.jtri^.
^ rnasonry chimney is 2 metre
^ square at the top. The
If the total wdght of the brickwork above the

base is 1 30 tonnes
find for what uniform intensity of wind pressure
on one face of the
chumey the stress distribution across the base Just cease
to be whoRv
compressive. '
DIRECT AMD BENNNG STRI SSES 367
Sdatioo. Area of the base section

A^2^- ~
4
X l^me/re^
==3215 metre-
/. Stress to the direct load
130x1000
- , / , o
'3 kg./ metre-
215
=40420 %./m.2
Projected area exposed to wind
arca of the trapezium ABCD
i X 20 >' ( 1r 2) metre-
= 30 nietre^
let the intensity of wind pressure be

p. kg I merte^ of projected area
Total wind pressure
P==30 p kg
This pressure acts at the level of the
centroid of the trapezium ABCD, i e., at
a height of
V
^ 20
0 f-2 I
/ut7/'ts abov e the base

'i*
i V ,
8'89 metr. , above the base /(*V )
Monieni due to wind pressure Tic. 360

- M 30 p X K 89 kg. nu r
266 70 p kg. metre

vlomont <r inertia of the base sectrm
2} 71 X 1'5
metre'^
12 64
1 333 "0 0't9 metre^
i 284 metre^
Stress <hie to monieat
Af
/
2667 p. 1 '
284 ( y I
-
-
2667
If tension is to be just avoided,

Pt,^- P
266 7
p 40420 kg.lmetre^
1284
40420x1-284,
/>= , ,
";>6-7
794-6 kg.lmetre^
368 STRENGTH OF MA1ERIA1S
Corresponding to this condition, maximum compressive stress

on the base
^Po -f* Pb ~2Po
= 2X40420
-
m40 kg.lm\
Problem 223. Ft'. 36 i .vAwh'.v the cross-section of a masonry
chimney with three Jlues. If wind pressure of 140 ki'.jmetr^ acts
normal to the longer side, calculate the stresses on the windward and
leeward side given that the height of the chimney is I metre and the
weight of masonry is 1920 kg. / (/t *.
Solution. Area of chimney section

0-36x0 9-3x0 18'-=0.2268 metr.^
Weight of the chimney
= lt'-0-2268x 1x1920 kg.
-P.-=
W
A
0 2268 X 1920
kg. '.metre'
0-2268
kg jmetre^
Moment of incitia of ilic chimney section about the longitudi-
nal centroidal axis
_0-9x0 36 0 54x0-18^ .
1
^ ,2
0003237 metre*
Wind load =- P =0 9x 1 x 1 40 1 26 itg.
Moment due to wind load

=3/126xJ ==6i kg. m
}
UOtBOT AND BEtOMHO MMENTS 3fi9
Stress doe to momeni

- a.
eixmn
=P= -y-.>=
0 003237'
= 3503 kg.Infl
Resultant stress on leeward side
=P+P*
1,
= 1920+3503 kg.lmetre*
= 5^3 kg.lmetr^
Resultant stress on the windward side
=~P19203503 kg.lmetrt^
P*
2. =1583 kg Imeir^ (tensile)
The vertical post of a crane consists of an / secdon
5^0 mm. X 190 mm. When a load of 6 tonnes was lifted by the crane
the distance of the load line from the centroid of the section is 400
cms. Find tne extreme stresses for the section. Take for the
550 mm. X 190 mm. / Section area of the section=i0997 em.
;r*=53I6r4 cm.*.
(1297 kg.fcm.^ compressive ; 1187 kg.jcm. tauik)
The section of a
short standard is shown in
T
6cm
Fig. 362. The section is sub-
jected to a compressive force
of 60 tonnes action at the
4
6cm
load point L. Determine the
maximum compressive and 4-
tensile stress intensities 6cm
across the section. Find also
the stress intensity at A. i
6cm
jL
Pig. 362
3. A
masonry pier 6 nKtres high is a hollow rectangle in
section. The external dimensions are 5 m X 2m while the internal
dimensions are 4 m x 1 m. If the pier is subjected to a horizontal
thrust of 2600 kg. at its top in the vertical plane biscctmg the length,
find the extreme stresses on the base section. Take the weight of
masonr>' as 2200 kg.lmetres^.
(18400 kg.lm* ; 8000 kg.fm* cempresstve).
4. The line of pull in a tension specimen 0*564 in. diameter
isparallel to die axis of the specimen but is displaced from it Calcu-
late the distance of the line of pull from the axis when the maximum
stress is 15% greater than the mean stress on a normal to
section
the axis. (London University) (a=0'0I0S8 in
370
5.
SntBNOTH W MilTBRlAIS
Ashort cast iron column is of hoHow section of unifonn
thickness^ the externa] diameter being 25 cm. and the interaal dia-
meter IS cm. A vertical compressive 6. load acts at an eccentricity of
5 ems, from the axis of the column, if the maximum permissible
stress is 900 kg.lcm.^ in compressions calculate the greatest allowable
load. (263 3 tonnes)
The cro$s>section of a short
masonry pier 2
is m
x 4 m. The force
action across the section consists of a
normal compressive load of 32 / zt A
and a bending moment of 48 tm which
causes tension about XX. For this load
condition determine the maximum and
minimum stresses across the section.
7. (7 1 tjnfi compressive)
Fig. 363
A tic rodof constant circular cross-section is required to
withstand a maximum tension of 50 3 tons^ but the end fixing is such
that the line of action must be offset 0'3 in, from the axis. Determine
to the nearest -J of an inch, the maximum diameter of the tie rod if
the maximum allowable stress is 8 tonsfin,^
ilMndon University) (37S in,)
H. A short Cv^lumn of external diameter 15 cms. and interna!
diameter JO cm.v. carre.s an eccentric load. Find the greatest eccen-
tncity which the load can have without producing tension on the
cross section of the column. (?'// ems,)
9. A concrete block has the

cross* seel iou shown in Fig 364.
The block weighs 9 / and carries a
vertical downward load of 2 tons
at point P on the axis XX
but
eccentric about the axis FT. Calcu-
late the distance of the point P if it
IS known that the pressure under
the block along the edge i> is just
twice the pressure under the edge
BC, Determine also these pressures.
(22 ;
Max. strcssÔ*40s f//t.^

Min, stress=*0204 t/ft,^)
r
Hg.364
7
Masonry Dams
^5$. Analysis of a Masonry Dam

365 shotvs the crosS'Sectioo of a masonry dam of trape-
Fig.
.ioidal and bottom width of the section be a and
section. Let the top
h. Let H
be the height of the dam. Let the face of the dam exposed
to water be vertical. Let the height of water impounded be h.
Consider unit length of the dam. The forces acting on this part
the dam are the following ;
(f) Weight (V of the dam
Fig. 365
where p is the weight of masonry per unit volume.
371
372
STRENGTH OF MATERIAU
The weight of the dam acts at a distance x from the vertical
face BC so that,
i{a+b)
or

3 (^-Zfl2 )
(fi) Horizontal water pressure P
At any depth x from the free surface of water the intensity of
water pressure is wjc. Hence the pressure intensity uniformly increases
from zero at the free surface to wh at the bottom.
.*. Total water pressure on unit length of the wall
=/*=average pressure x height of free surface
_ H'A ,
This total water pressure acts at a height above the base.
(Hi) Reaction at the base
For the equilibrium of the dam, the resultant of W and P must

be counteracted by the reaction at the base.
Let the resultant R of P and
meet the base at Z. This W
resultant force R acting at Z may
be resolved into its vertical and
horizontal components. Obviously the vertical and horizontal
components of R acting at Z are equal to and P respectively. W
The vertical component W of the force R acting at Z is resisted
by the normal reaction at the base.
The horizontal component P of the foice R acting at Z is
by the
resisted friction between the bottom of the dam and the soil
on which it is resting.
The component
vertical acting at W
is an eccentric load. LetZ
the distance ZC, i e., the distance of the point of application of the
resBltant force R
on the base from C, be z. Let O be the middle point
of the base.
.. Eccentricity of the vertical component W is equal to OZ.
.'. Ecccntricity=e OZ=CZ CO = ^~*2 )
^
The position of the point Z where the resultant meets the base
can be determined by taking moments of the components P and W
about C and equhting this sum to the moment of the resultant force
Jtabom C.
i.e.. Moment of W about C+ moment of P about C
Moment 2? about C '
...(/)
masonry dams 373
The force R acting at Z consists

of the vertical component W
acting at Z and a horizontal component F acting at Z.
Hence moment of R about C Wz since the horizontal com-
ponent F acting at Z has no moment about C.
/. From Eq. (0
Wx+Py = Wz
2=5
p_
+ -y w
Stresses across the section
Stress on the section due to the direct load
'
A hxl b
Moment on the base section
^M-We
Section modulus of the base section
6
6
Extreme bending stress
M
Z
,6We
~T*-
The extreme resultant stresses arc
pmax Po'^Pb^'
^
at the edge away from the water.
Ptnin 3 -poPb^
W ewe
^
^ y-
y
1
^ 1 at the water edge.
59. Stability of a Dam

A dam is liable to fail {/) by sliding on the soil on which it
rests or (//) by overturning. (i7i) due to tensile stresses developed
(iv) due to excessive compressive stresses.
In order that the failure by sliding may not occur the maxi*
^mum available frictional resistance should be greater than the hori-
zontal water pressure P. If the weight of the structure per unit
mn be IF the maximum available frictional resistance is plF where p
is the coejfficient of friction between the masonry dam and the soil
on which it rests. Hence, for safety against sliding*
!
The condition I* FF>P should be satisfied. The ratio is
called the factor of safety against sliding. It is usual to design the

structure such that the factor of safety against sliding is at least 1*5.
In order the structure may not overturn it is neccssa^ that
resultantR of the weight W
of the structure and the horizontal
water pressure P, must strike the base within its width I.e., the point
Z must lie within the base CD.
For the dam shown in Fig. 365 taking moments about P,
Overturning moment
*
3
Available restoring moment
The moment to the overturning
ratio of the available restoring
moment is called the factor of safety against overturning. A
failure may also occur due to tensile stresses induced in masonry.
To safeguard the structure from this sort of failure, the dam section
must be designed such that the resultant force on the base meets the
base within the middle third.
2
le.y z shall not he greater than b,
A failure may also occur when the maximum compressive

stress exceeds the permissible compressive stress for masonry.
60- Minimum bottom width reqnired for a dam section
In order that tension may not be developed in the base section

it isnecessary that the bottom width of the dam section shall not be
less than a certain limit. Let us now determine the minimum width
required for sections of various shapes.
(/) Dam of Triangular Section
Fig. 366 shows a

triangular dam section
Let the width at the bottom
be h. Let the height of the
dam be //.
In order that tension
may be just avoided, the
resultant of water pressure
P and the weight of the
structure W
should strike
the base at Z
such that the
^
K-
distance ,
CZ-z- lb
Consider unit run of
d no.
Fig. 36S
lUaoNRYOAMS 375
Weight of the structure
piessure=P
wH^
Water
2
But
2
bHp
where Sr=r. p
specific gravity of masonry
(a) Dam of rectangular section

Fig. 367 shows a dam
of rectangular section b units
wide Hunits deep.
Consider unit run of the

dam.
Corresponding to the full

rfservoir condition,
p-
2
tension is Just avoided

2 .
But Z--5+
H
W
2 w//^ I
3"
3 '2 2 bHp
b _ wH^
6 66p
b
376 SntBNGTB OP MATBRIAU
wbere S* Specific gravity of masonry
VS
Hence the miaimum bottom width required to avoid tension
is
H whether the dam section is
^
triangular or rectangular.
(hi) Trapezoidal section
Let a dam section be trapezoidal having a top width a and a

bottom width b and height H.
Let the water face be vertical
We have, x
Consider unit length of the dam

When the reservoir is full, the maximum water pressure
=p=
2
In order tension may be just avoided.
- ,
//
W
<i+a6+h
310 +6 )
,
^ 3
wH*
^

' a^+a6+6*+ /f^=26(o+6)
a6+62=a2+ H
P
For the above relation the minimum bottom width required
may be computed.
For the case of the triangular section,
c=0
'
MASONRY DAMS 37T
For the case of the rectangular section,

a=b
b^+b^^b^+~-m

v5
Minimum width to avoid sliding
In order the structure may not slide, the condition to be
satisfied is,
^W>P
a+b>
H
yS
where 5=* = Specific gravity of masonry.
w
For the critical condition
a+h -
yS
or yS fl
Minimum width from consideration of maximum normal stress

The maximum compressive stress is given by
From/this relation, the width required in order the maximum

normal stress may not exceed a given limit may be computed.
Hence for the stability the minimum width required (0 to

avoid tension (//) to avoid sliding and (Ui) to avoid excessive normal
stress may thus be computed.
For the structure to be safe the greatest of the three values of

b may be chosen in order failure may not occur.
Problem 224. A masonry dam 8 metres high, 15
metres wide
at the top and 5 metres wide at the base retains water to a depth of
7'5 metres^ the water face of the dam being vertical Find the maxi-
mum and minimum stress intensities at the base* The weight of water
is 1000 kg.jcu. metre while the weight of masonry is 2240 kgfeu*
metre.
'
SolufioD. Consider one metre run of the dam.

_(|-5+5) X
8 X 2240 kg.
2
H^= 58240%.
Maximum water pressure
=/>= kg.
^ 1000x7-52 ,
2
P=28125 %.
. Distance of the p>oint of application of the resultant force
on the base, from the extreme water edge
I
W'
a^âb+b^
X
3{a+i)
_ l-52-fl5x54-52
metres
jt= r78 metre.s

7-5 28125
58240
1*78 M ll metres ^2*99 metres
'
b
eccentncity~i'-^=2 -
-2*99 = 0*49 metfe

2
The inaximucn and minimum pressures are given by
P mas
f( +f
58240 '
1-
^0 49"
"'5' kgjmetre^
5 ^
184^0 kg.jmelre^
P nun '
-/)
58240
,
(- 6x0 49 5 ^
kgjmetre^
= 4798 kg.lmetre^.
379
masonry dams
ProUem A dam section is 8 metres high the maxi^m

225.
impounded being 7'S metres The top wid n of
depth of water
2240
section is 1 metre. The weight of masonry
the. weight of water is
width required.
is
1000 kg.lcu. metre. Find the
Coefficient offriction between
the dam is vertical-
kg-lcu.
masonry and

masonry ^
is 0 6, The water face of
Solotion. Let the width of the base be b.

Consider one metre run of the dam.
Weight of structure
-j//p
(I -f-ft)
X 8 X 2240 Ag.
ff'-8960 (d+l) Ag.

a~-\-ah-hh^
*
3 (fi+6)
3(6+1)
Maximum water presûre
tv *2
UK)0x''+2
2
P- 18125 fcg.
Mifumum width to avoid tension at the base

For this condition
h P
3
62+6 + 1 7-5 28125 == 6
D"
-:
3 (6l- 1) 8960(6 1 3
62 4-6+ 1+23-55= =262+26

6-2
r6 .
24-55
= 2455+0-25 -24-80
(6+0-.^)2
6+0-5-50
/. = 4*5 metres
fc
Minimum width to avoid sliding

For this condition
yLW>P
0-6xb960 (fc+!)>2SI25
380 STRENGTH Of MATBMAU
28125
06X8>60
l>+l>5-23
b>423 metres.
Hence the minimum bottom width may be made 4 5 metres.
Problem 226, A masonry dwn of trapezoidal section has a
vertical water face and a height of SO metres. Determine the widths
at the top and bottom if the normal pressure on the base varies from
zero pressure at one side to 90 tonnes per square metre at the other
side. The depth of water impotmded is 29 metres. Take the weight
of water and masonry as 1 000 kg.lcu, metre and 2300 kg-lcu. metre
respectively.
Soiofion. Let the top and

bottom width of the daui section
be a and b respectively.
Consider one metre run of
the dam.
30x2300%
JF-34500 ia+b) ...(/)
Maximuin water pressare
1000 x 29* .
2
Fig.38
=420500%
Since tension at the base has
just been avoided
eccentricity e=~
- 90xl000%./m/re*
IV
-45000 .. (0
But from q. (/)

'=34500(a+i)
34500 =45000
MASONRY DAMS 381
(a+6) 45000
34500 1-304
b~
a+6 = l'304 6
6 = 1304*
a^-âb-rb^
3(a+*)
(0 304 *)2+0-J04 **+**
_
~ 3 X 1-304*
- 1396 .
*
3 912
*=0-3569 *
Farther, siace tension has been just avoided
2 t
2= *
3
* P 2.
*+T-
,
29 420500
0 3569 *+
,
X
3 ^
29 x 420^
=03098*
3X45(MX)*
29x47.0500
X 45000 x 0-3098
bM metres
<1=0*304 X 17 metres - 5' 20
metres,
61. Trapezoidal dam sectioB witli battered water face
Fig. 369 shows a trapezoidal dam section ABCD* Let the top
and bottom width of the section be AB=a and CD==b. Let the
water face BD be at 6 with the vertical.
Let h be the depth of the section. Let the sloping length
BC^l
h^l cos
The pressure intensity on the water face changes from zero

at B to wh at Cthe direction of the pressure intensity being normal
to the water face Consider unit len^h of the dam.
Total water pressure on the dam
wh
=i*= ^ sitting normally to the water
2
face at Fso that C/^=-^-C5= -j- . Obcasly the line of action of P

will be at 0 with the horizontal.
Let G be the centre of gravity of the dam section.
A Be vmra
stima
Weight of dam per unit length of dam

a-\-b
*= h
2
Let R be the resultant of W and P. Let the resultant R meet
the base at Z.
In the figur OJ lepresents P

OK represents IV.
The diagonal ON of the parallelogram 70 A'^V represents the

resultant R. We can obtain the vertical and horizontal components
of R by drawing NQ perpendicular to OK
Vertical component of /? V=OQ
Horizontal component of R -H NQ
The vertical component V will be resisted by the normal reac-
tions at the base, and the horizontal component H will .be resisted
by the frictional resistance.
Let the distance CZ=z
Now the eccentricity on the base==e z
^ . The extreme
pressure intensities on the base are given by
V
Pb D-t ]
P -^1 at D
['-t] 1
and
>-r] at C
*
11 ASONRY DAMS 383,
As before if tension at the base should be avoided e shou Id be
less than*
O
Now consider the total water pressure
^^ctiog on the sloping face BC

' wJr
Horizontal piessure on the vertical face CE-~Ph-=
^
sin
Weight of water (wedge portion) BEC^ 6^ /
h 7'2
sin
n
Resultant water pressure on the water face BC
^yh sin2 e
co2 e +/2 sinl
It will therefore be convenient to consider the horizontal

pressure Ph and the weight of wedge BEC
of water instead of con-
sidering the total pressure P in the calculation.
Obviously Ph acts at above the base and the weight of the

^
wedge of water acts at the centre of gravity of the wedge.
Problem 227. A masonry dam oj trapezoided section is Id metres

high. It has a top width of 15 metres and a bottom width of 6 5
metres. The wafer face of the dam has a hatter of 1 in JO, If the water
level is at the top of the dam find the maximum and the minimum
normal stresses at the base. Masonry weighs 2300 kg. per cubic metre
and water weighs 1000 kg. per cubic metre.
Solution. Fig. 370 shows the section of the dam. Consider

1 metre run of the dam. We will now find out the various loads
acting on the dam Let the resultant of all these loads act at a point
Z distant z from the edge C of the base.
Totalmom ent about C
Total vertical load
H4 STRENGTH Of MATERIALS
Fig. 370
The relevant calculations are shown in the following table-
Stability calculations for 1 metre run of the dam.

1
Magnitude Distance Moment

Load due to of loud from c about c
|
\kg) (m) {kgm)
i
1Vi Tiiangle of loasoory : I
1x1x10x2300 ;
itSOO 7667
1
IV2 Rectangle of masonry ; I
1*5x10 x 2300 j
34500 1 75 60375
JVg Triangle of masonry ;
1x4x10x2300 1
46000 1
i

a s
-ft'
176333
f
Trtargle of water : j
IXlxlOxiOOO 5000 i 1667 ;
Moment of horizontal water pressure : ; '
100 lx 10* 166667

ff - -6 6
i
ji
j 1
Total V\j\% 97000 412709

MASONRY DAMS 385
Distance of the point of application of the resultant force on
the base from the edge C
moment about C
_
^
vi .
Total
Total vertical load
412709
97000 !.
eccentricity ez b
I
= 425 ^=1 ni
But -|--^=108 m
o o
e is less than K-
extreme pressure intensity at the base

Total vertical load f , ,
6e\
êa [
97000
'6 5X1
97000
fl 0-923] kglm^
' 6-5
P X 1923 kg.lm^
=28700 kg.lm^
97000
Pm<n = "
6-5
xOOnkg.Infi
= 1150 kg.jnfi.
Problem 228. A masonry dam of trapezoidal section is 12 metres
high with a top width of 2 metres. The water face has a batter of
1 in 12, Find the minimum bottom width necessary so that tensile
stresses are not induced on the base section Masonry weighs 2300 kg.
per cubic metre and water weighs 1000 kg. per cubic metre.
Solution. Fig. 371 shows the section of the dam. Consider
1 metre run of the dam.
Let the bottom width of the dam be b metres. Distance of
the point of application of the resultant load on the base from the
edge C
_Total moment about C
Xotal vertical load
If tension is to be just avoided
2 .
STRENGTH OF MA1BRI\Ls
386
Fig. 371
The various loads on the dam per metre run and their moments
about c are tabulated below.
1

Load due to of load from c about e
ikg) (m) (kgm)
Wt Triangle of masonry :
*x IX 12x2300 13800 9200

i
W% Rectangle of masonry :
2x i2 x 2300 55200 2 110400
Wt Triangle of masonry : 6+6 4600(* 3)

k{b 3) X 12x2300 13800(63) 3 (6+6)
Wt Triangle of water :
1x1x12x1000 6000 i 2000
Moment of horizontal water pressure :

1
1000 xn** 1
2880-)0
**
6 6 !
I
75000 409600
Total -f 13800 -1-4600
(6-3) (6-3)(j+6)
1
409600+4600 {b-^) {b+S) 2

75000+13800 (h-3) 3^
iiasonry dams 387
4096+46(6-3X^+6) 2
750+138(6-3) 3
15006+ 2700^6- 3)= 12288+ 138(6- 3Xi+6)
15006+2766*-8286=12288+1386*+4146-2484
13862+2616-9804=0
62+l-8916-7r04=0
Solving we get 6==752 m.
$62. Rcsaltant thtost meetiBg Ok base at a poM oatsMe the
middle ttaird.
In a masonry dam we know that the extreme slie^CS on any

horizontal section are pven by
where 6 is the width of the section. V is the total vertical

load per unit run of the dam on the section and e is the eccentricity.
In order tension may not be produced at the section we know
that e< .
^
i.e., force on the section must meet the section
the resultant
within the middle This condition should be satisfied at every
third.
horizontal section of the dam in order to avoid tensile stresses.
Now consider the base section resting on the ground. Let

for this section the resultant fall outside the middle third, at a
point Z at a distance CZ=z>|6(Sec Fig. 372). It sbotM be
realized that the nature of stress between the base and the supporting
ground cannot be teninle. Hence there will be a pressure distribiititm
following a different law different from what we bad adopted eaiHer.
.
388 SnfcNGlH or MATBRIAU
Let us assume a law of pressure distribution.

linear Let the
pressure intensity vary uniformly from at the edge D to zero
at a certain point J.
Total upward reaction

area of the pressure diagram D DJ
*
2 PmaxDJ
Total downward load
Since these two should be equal,
~2 DJ~ V
It should also be noted that the line of action of V through Z

must also pass through the centroid of the pressure diagram.
To satisfy this condition
DJ^3DZ
8
Deflection of Beams
In chapter 5 we studied the stresses produced by a bending
moment. In this chapter we shall study the deformation produced
by a bending moment. If a member is subjected to a uniform
bending moment M, the radius of curvature of the deflected form of
the member is given by

M
E
If the member be subjected to
a bending moment which is not the same at all sections the radius of
curvature at any point of the centre fine is given again by the above
relation.
63. Member bending into a circular arc.

Fig 373 shows a member AB of
span / subjected to a uniform bending
moment M
so that the member is bent
to a circular shape. Let R be the radius
of the bent form pf the member.
Let the deflection at the centre of
the soan he~CD=5
But DC.CE=AC.CB
2/iS-S2=-^
4
For apractical beam the deflection B being a small quantity, 8*
can be ignored.
/*
fi't
I R
R El
MI*
389
390 flMNCTH W lUmiAU
Let ia be the dope at the aid A. We find the angle dOCis
also equal to i*.
-
sin
_
I.- _L= l
2EI
Since la is also a small quantity, sin radians
MI
h-=-r^ radums
2Ei
$64. Slope, deflection and radios of carvatn re
PQ=ds of a curve. Let the tan-

Consider an elemental length
P and Q make angles and <i'+d<{' with the Ar-axis. Let the
gents at 4'
normals at P and Q meet at C. Then C is called ths centre of curva-

tro of the curve at any point between P and Q, on the curve. The
distance CPCQ=R is called the radius of curvature at any point
between P nnd'Q on the curve.
Obviously ds Rd'^
But we know that if (jr, y) be the coordinates of P,

dy . dy , , dx
=tan v,-^-~sin
. ,
<}< and-^ cos 9 ,
ds
_d<_ dx sec ^
d^ ~ d^ d^
dx dx
tan 4
'*
dx
Dilfeientiating with respect to jc, we have.
. A
DBFLBCnON OF BEAMS 391
...(lO
dx scc^ tp
Substituting Eq. (i), we get.
sec^ 4^
i?:=
d^y_
dx^
_d^y^
1 ^ dx^
R sec^ 4^
d^y_
~
1 _ dx^
R (sec- 4")^^
db
1 _ dx^
R (l+tan^
For a practical member bent due to the bending moment, the
slope tan 4^ at any point is a small quantity. Hence tan* 4^ can be
ignored.
L
R dx^
If M be the bending moment which has produced the radius of
curvature R we have
M ^_E
y R
1 _ M
R El
d^y
El dx^
MÊl
dx^
65. Cantilevers
(i) Cantilever of length I carrying a point load at the free end
Fig. 375 shows a cantilever of AB w
unifoi'm section and of length / fixed at
the end A and free at B. Let a con-
centrated load IV be applied at the free
end B.
Let the moment of inertia of the
section of the cantilever about the
neutral axis be L
Consider any section X of the cantilever distant x from the
fixed end A,
The bending moment at the section is given by
Integrating, we get
where Ci is a constant of integration

At A the fixed end the slope being zero,
we have at . 0. ^-0
...(i) Slope equation
Integrating again, we get,
Ely^ wi^
Ix^ \
6'^ +
,
C2
2
where C2 is a constant of integration.
At A the deflection being zero, we have
At X -0,
C2 -O
...(h) Deflection equation
Hence the slope and deflection at any section can be deter-

mined by equations (/) and (if). The slope and deflection at the free
end can be determined by putting x^/ in these equations. Let the
slope and deflection at .8 be u and yt respectively.
We have
Elh^- w[i.
EIh=-
WP
2
Wl^
2EI
Also,
IVP
Eiyt^
-K'-t-I)
yf
WP
3EI
Downward deflection of B
WP
deflection of beams 3^3
(ii) Cantilever of length I carrying a concentrated load W at a

distance a from the fixed end.
Fig.
ABC of length / fixed at A and free at
w
C and carrying a concentrated load
at B distant a from the jBêd end A.
Let ib be the slope at B and 3^6 be
the deflection at B
Wa^ . ^ Wcf^
We have it- and >'
2 ^^
The beam will bend only between A and B but from ^ to ;
C it
will remain straight since the B.M. between B and C is zero.
Let the end C deflect to Ci and let B deflect to Bi
Wa^
We have BBi^yb-
3EI
Let B 1 C2 be perpendicular to CCi
Wa^
3EJ
But CtCi^(la)ib
yc ^ CC2+C'2Ci = ^2
El
(Hi) Cantilever of length I carrying a uniformly distributed load

w per unit run over the whole length.
Fig. 377 shows a cantilever AB of length / fixed at A and free
at B carrying a uniformly distributed load of w per unit run o\er the
whole length.
The B.M. at any section X
distant x from the fixed end is
given by.
El
dx^
Integrating,
ting, we get,
g<
dy
El
dx ^ 6 ^
At A the fixed end the slope being zero, we have,
dy
At 0, 0
dx
jv/*^
Ci=
6
wP
6
...( 1 ) Slope equation

394 SntENGTH OP MATERIALS
Integrating again, we get
Sincc at A the deflection is zero, we have

At ,v=0, >-=0
(, V wP ,
wP
...(ii) Deflection equation

From
equations (/) and (ii) the slope and deflection at any
section can be determined.
To find the slope h at putting x=Î in the slope equation,
we get Elib^
EIi=-
^
Tel
To find the deflection yi> at putting .v~-/ in the deflection
equation, we get,
6 '
24 8
^ 87
wl'^
i.e., downward deflection of B- ^
(iv) Cantilever of length I carrying a uniformly distributed load

oj w per unit run for a distance a from the fixed end.
ABC of length fixed / at A and free j
^ n
I
at C and a - '
carrying a uniformly /UMT RUN
distributed load w per unit run for ^
a distance a from the fixed end A ^
Let AB\C^ be the deflected
form of the cantile\er, - '"'"-Hi
Fig. .^8
Deflection at B
veaA
Let jBjCo be perpendicular to CCi

CCi^BBj-M^ OP,,
:
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 395
Ha*
Slope at 5=i<
6/
CaCi " jBiCai* (/ a)

67
Deflection at C==J'e==CCi=CC2+C2Ci
wo* vva'*
-(
8JE7 6EI
The portion of the cantilever from CtoB will remain straight
having a slope of .
(v) Cantilever of length I carrying a uniformly distributed load

of w per unit run for a distance a from the free end.
ABC of length fixed at A and free
I
U a
at C and carrying a uniformly J /UNn RUN
distributed load w per unit run for
the portion BC
of length a.
The deflection at may be C
determined as due to the indepen-
dent effect of the following load
systems
(i) when the whole span is
loaded from A to C,
(//) when an upward uni-
formly distributed load of w per
unit run is acting for the portion
AB.
Downward a-a)~
(/) deflection of
C when the whole length is loaded
artUNIT RUN
HEl r,g 379
(ii) Upward
deflection of due C to the upward uniformly
distributed load acting for the portion AB
= upward deflection of B slope at BxBC
^ I
H'(/~ a)'
ÊI '
6E/
Net downward deflection of the free end C
_j vAl-aY I
wil-af I
iE! ( -El 67~" f

ProWem 229. A cantilever 3 metres long carries a uniformly
(jftnbuted load over the entire length. If the slope at the free end is
/ find the deflection at the free end.
396 SJRESCTH OP MATERIAJS
Solution.
wP __ ^
Slope at free end
6/:/ "180
E/ 30
wP
Deflection ar the free end
bEI
wP I
^ El
'
'8
300
3 927 cm.
30 8
Problem 230. A horizontal cantilever of uniform section of length

I carriestwo point loads, W
at the free end and 2W at a distance of a
from the free end Find the maximum deflection due to this loading.
If the cantilever is a steel tube of circular section 10 ems exttf
nal diameter r>nd 060 cm. thick and I I 50 metres and a^0'60 metre
determine t'le value at W
in tonnes so that the maximum bending stress
is 1^00 kg /cm.- and calculate the maximum deflection for the loading.
Take E 2x Pfi kg./cm!^
-
SoiufioD. Deflection at the free end due to the load W alone

2W W
(L-a)
Deflection at the free end
due to the load 2W alone
Fig. 380
imi-a)^ ,
2W(l-af
3El 2EJ
Total deflection at the free end
^ WP ,
2W(l-aP , WU-a)^_
^ El
3/ [/*+2(/-a)3+3(/-fl)*a ]
=2^[/2+2/3- 6Ca+a^-2a^+3lâ-6aH 3a ]
W -[3/-3/a+a]
3El
For the numerical

Max. B.M.M = '/+2'(/-a)
deflection of beams 397
= W'(3/-2a)=H'(3x 1-5-2x0 6) kg. m.

=33 W kg. m.
/= g~ (10^-8-8*) cm. *
= 196-5 cm.*
Stress due to max. B.M.
/== ^>=1400 kg. I cm ^
3-31VX 100'
X 5- 1400
196-5
1400 X 19 '
5
kg.
3-3x5 A 100
= 166-70 kg.
O' 1667 tonne
Max. dejection
=8 =
W
3EI
166-7
,. .3 X 2-25x0 9 i-0-216j X 100^ cm.
3"x2xl0xl96- 5!^
=0'8894 cm.
Problem 231. A cantilever of length 2 metres carries a unijormly
distributed load of 250 kg per metre for a length of J'25 metres from
the fixed end and a point load of 100 kg. at the free end. If the section
B is rectangular 12 cms. wide and 24 cnn. deep find the deflection at
the free end. Take E~ 100,000 kg.jcm.'^
Solution. Moment of inertia
of the section
\2
12x24*
cmr
12
Deflection at C due to uniformly distributed load on AB
^
8 / 6EI
250X 1 25* , 250 X 1-25* X 0-75 137 3
8/ 6EI El
Deflection at C due to the point load at C
.WP 100x2 266-7
398 STRENGTH OF MATERIAtS
Net deflection at C
_137 3
El
'
,
2667
El
_ ^
El
404x(100)
<^'=0 2922 cm.
105x243
(vi) Cantilever of length I carrying a distributed load whose
intensity varies uniformly from zero at the free end to w per unit run
at the fixed end.

Fig.
AB of length/ carrying the loading
mentioned above.
iULL
Consider section at a dis-

tance X from the fixed end A .
Intensity of loading at A"
w per unit run.
The B.M. at the seed in X is given by.

d^y ==
(l-X)
El \ {l~x) (l~x).
dx^
w(l-x)^
61
Integrating, we get,
Pfdy_w(J-x)* ,

At A the slope is zero

/. At
'*
o-i^+c.
^ wP
24
-*
dy w/
...(/) Slope equation
^'d.~ 247 24
Integrating again, we get.
r,, wOx)^ v/3

,
_
12C7--r4"^+'^
The deflection at ^4 is 0
jc=0.
399
deflbciion or beams
^ _ wl*
120
rw W{l -~X)^ WP ^ t
mi 24 ^^120
...(//) Deflection equation
To find the slope at B the fret end, putting x^l in the slope
equation, we get, Elib-^

^4
S/
To find the deflection at B putting x^l, in the deflection equa-
tion, we get.
wl* ,
wl*
ElVt-
24 "^120
(5-1)=-
r o _
/. Downward deflection of n**
distributed load whose

(vii) Cantilever of length I carrying a
intensity varies uniformly from zero at the fixed end to w per unit run
at the free end.
AB fixed at A and free at B and
carrying the loading mentioned
above.
It is easily seen that the
deflection at B
at B due to a
- Deflection
uniformly distributed load of w
per unit run over the whole
length.
Deflection at B due to a 4
distributed load whose intensity
varies uniformly from zero at the
Fig. 383
free end to w per unit run at the
fixed end.
Deflection at B^yb^ SEI^ 50 eJ
IL ydt '
120
El
+ 1
Problem 212. cantilever of length I carries a concentrated

.
load Wat ns mid span. If the free end be supported on a rigid prop
reaction at the prop Draw also S F. and B.M. diagrams for
find the
the cantilever.
SolutioD. Fig. 384 shows a
cantilever AB at A the free
tixed
end B being supported on a rigid
prop.
Let the load W
be applied at
the middle point C of the span.
Let the prop reaction be R.
The cantilever can be looked

being subjected to the
upon as
following loadings :
(/) Downward point load IF

at C.
[it) Uoward point load R at B.
Since the deflection at B is
zero, we have
Downward deflection of B 5,f
due to the load IV upward deflect-
tion B due to R
'K 2 r 'in
2El 6M,0fA6/iAH
B
37
Fig. 38J
3El
5
R
5
Reaction at W 16
n
1
16
I
W
S.F diayjam
1
S.F. at any section between A and f 16
S.F at any section between C and B = 16

W
B.M. diagram
B.M. at
B.M. at C ==+ Wl
T6
B.M. at A = 1.WI- -Wl

There will be a point of contraflexture between
A and C.
Let the B.M. be zero at a distance
x from B.
Equating the B.M. to zero, we have
0gqjBCTU4 OF BEAMS 401
5
-0
lT*~'+2
11 I
16 2 if'
S 3
Hence the point of oontraflexure is at -j-j / from J or - / from A.
ProUeiB 233. A cantikver of length I carries a msforndy Sstri-

buted load of w per unit run over the whole length. If die free end be
supported over a rigid prop, find the reaction of the prop and draw
S.F. and B.M. diagrams for the cantilever. Find also the maximum
deflection. . .
SoiotioD. 385 shows a cantilever AB fixed at A the end B
Fig.
being supported on a prop. Let the prop reaction be R.
If the prop had not been provided the dowaward deflectioo
wl*
of B would be
8/
RP
Upward de flection at B due to R alone equali-^^,
Since the net deflection at B is zero, we have,
RP
wl*
m '87 lutlum mjN
3
Reaction at B^ y w/
i^l UNIT RUN

and reaction ati4= ^wl
S-F, diagram
li*.
At any section distant x from
B the S.F. is given by
S=wjc 'g
wl
At x-=0.
tance xfrom B. Fis.3SS

402 STRENGTH OP UATEIIAIS
Equating the S.F. to zero, we have
wx\-wl0
B.M- diagrahi
The B.M. at any section distance x from B is given by
m^YÎx
3 , wx^
Y-
At x=0. i.e., at B, AfÔ
At xI, i.e., at A,
wP wP
At
"64 -wP
"* + wP
128 128
Point of conirqflexure
Let the B.M. be zero at a distance x from B. Equating the
B.M. to zero, we get
3 , wx
=0
6I-ix )=0
(
x*=0 and /.
4
Dtftectian
At any section distant x firom j?, the B.M. is given by
d^y 3 . ,
" 8
wlx-
Integrating we get.
At A the slope is zero
f.e.,8t
Ci=
48
dx 16 6 ~ 48
.(i) Slope equation
^
BX* wP ,
_
Ely- -
,6 24
At A the deflection is zero
j.e., at x=/, v~0
wl* wl*
0 24"
'l6
C2=0
>vP
16 24 ~ 48
^
Deflection equation
To find the maximum deflection
Maximum deflection will occur where the slope is zero.
Equating the slope to zero, we get

wx^ wP
0=
6 48
9/x2-8jc3-/3-0
Let x~Kl
KH9-SK)^l
Solving this equation by trial and error
we get Ar=0422
Hence the maximum deflection will occur at 0*422/ from the
prop end B.
Putting jc=0 422/ in the deflection equation,
We get
*
Eiymax^ (^^ 22 / )^-*^(0 422 / )^-.-^( o 422/

16 )
= -0005411 )v/
w/4
;>'<= -0005415-^
wl*
Maximum downward deflection (f 005415
El'
404 strength of materials
Problem 234. A cantilever of length I carries a uniformly distri-

buted load w per unit run over the whole length. The free end of the
cantilever is supported on a prop. If the prop sinks by bfind the prop
reaction.
Solution. Let the prop reaction be R
If the prop bad not been present the downward deflection of
wl^
the free end would be
Upward deflection of the free end due to R alone would be

RP
3EI
Since the prop sinks by 8 the net downward deflection
wP RP .
iEi iEi
RP _ wP .
37 %EI
Simply supported beams
(i) Simply supported beam of span I carrying a point load at mid

span
Fig. 386 shows a simply sup-
ported beam ^4.8 of span / carrying
a point load W
at mid span C.
Since the load is symmetri-
cally applied the maximum deflec-
tion will occur at mid span.
Fig. 386
2
"
jv
Consider the left half AC of the span.

The B.M. at any section in AC distant x from A is given by
2 *
Since the maximum deflection occurs at mid span C the slope

at C is zero
at X"**
^
40S
OEFI-ECTION of
beams
WP
16
dy Wx^ w]^ Slope equation

='T "
(/)
16
A, put x*=0
To find the slope at
WP
Elia
16
_ Wl^
16/
equation, we get.
iDtegrating the slope
EIy= 12 16
is zero,
Since at A the deflection
we have at x=0,
Ca==0
Wx^ ""
Ely= -12 16
equation
...{a) Deflection
at C,
To find the deflection
put 2
EIyc--j2[T)
W [
I Y ^
16
J_
2
WP
4S
V^ J!^
48/
Downward deflection of C
/.
'
Wfl :
= 48/ !
a mifortnly
^ 387 shows a simply

SUf^rted beam AB of span I carry-
ing a nnifomify distributed load w
wr*,
per unit run over the whole span.
Eadi vertical reaction Pig, sg?
wl
2
The B.M. at any section distant x from the end A is given by,
d^y wl wx^
Integrating, we get
ax A 6
The loading being symmetrical, the maximum deflection will
occur at mid span and hence the slope at mid span equals zero.
^
i.e., at
' Slope equation

4 6 24*
..(f)
Integrating agam, we get.
Ely - X+C2
12 24 24
At A the deflection being zero we have at x0, y0
Ca=0
/y-
' 12 24 24
._(ff) Deflection equation
to find the maximum deflection which occurs at mid span C.
Putting x= in the defieetion equation, we get!
12V^ J 24 V 2 24
2
DBPLECnON beams 407
^
V "
384 / !
To find the slope at A, put x=0 in the slope equation.
7/.- -
24 T
1*1 = H'/*
24jB7
FroUeni 235- A simply supported beam of span I carries a

wiifonuy distributed load for a distance 1/2 from one support. Find
the deflection at the centre.
Solatioa. Let 8 be the deflection at the centre when the left

half of the span is loaded [see Fig. 388 (i)J.
ulUHIT ROM
C U/UNIT RUN
B
Fi$.388
If the right half of the span is loaded then also the same
deflection 8 will occur at the centre [see Fig 388 (S)].
Hence if the left half as well as the right half are loaded, i.e., if
the entire span is loaded the deflection at the centre.
- 2*- wl*
384 El
When one half of the span is loaded, the deflection at the centre
5 wl*
*
,
768 El'
Probleni 236. A horizontal beam of untform section is ^tmed
at Us ends which are at the same level and is loaded at the left hmd pin
with an antichdcwlse moment Hand
at the right hand pin with a
doekwlse moment 2M
both Ut the same vertical plane. The leiuph
l^ween thej^ns is 1. Find the atÛs of slope at eodt end and the
^flection of the mid ptrint of the span in terms efii.UE ant I.
408 STRENGTH OF llATBRIAts
r Solntion. Let the

vertical reaction at each
end be V.
_c 2M For the equilibrium
r
I ip. 3?9
f of the member,
Vl=^{2M-M)
y I
At any section distant x from A bending moment is given

by
El
dx*
Vx- M
-j-xM
Integrating, we get
dy
El
dx 21
Mx+Ci
Again integrating, we get.
EIy=^-
61 ^ +C1X+C2
At A the deflection is zero.
At x=0,
y-0
Ca-O
At B the deflection is zero.
At xl.
Cl j^Ml
/. The slope and deflection at any section arc given by
dv Mx . . ,
2 -
M:?
and Ely- '
61
'
2-+T*"
Slope at A
Putting in the slope equation, we get,
2
M
>JFLECnON OF BEAMS 409
- 2 Mj
3 El
Slope at B
Putting xl, in tbe slope equation, we get,
-MI+y l
i"' 5 Ml
El
Deflection at mid span
Putting x= -j '** the deflection equation, we get,
M _P M 1 2 /
Elyc^-
61
8 2 T+ 3 < 2
-li"'*
Problem 237. A horizontal cantilever of length / supports a unh

family distributed load of w per unit run alon^ its length. The canti-
lever is propped to the level of the fixed end at a distance 2 / from the
fixed end. Find the reaction of the prop.
Solution. Fig. 390
or PkR UNIT RON shows the cantilever ACB
fixed at A and propped at C.
Let the prop reaction be R,
We know that the
defied ion at C must be zero.
Hence the downward
deflection at C when the
prop is absent must be equal
to the upward deflection of
C due to an upward force R
applied at C
Let us first con-
sider the case when the prop
is absent. See Fig. 39C(A).
For any section
this case, at
distant x from the fixed end
the bending moment is given
Fig. 390
410 STKBNOTH OP MATBRIALS
dy _w(/jc)8
At A the slope is zero.

/.?., at ^=0
f-o
Er-4l -
ax 6 '
6
Ely
_w(Jx)* wp
24
X+C2
j.e., at x=0.
yÔ
0=- '
+Ca
24
C8 =
24
/y
^ 24 6
^
24
Let the deflection at C be j'
i.e., at x^j-l
y=yc
p/v / J_\* _ H*/ w 3 ,,wP
24 (T) T^-T'+M
2048
hJ*
V _
20^- 1
Hence the downward deflection at C when the prop is absent
.. 171 wP'
But upward deflection at Cdue to X alone

')*
'<-f 9_ iP
3EI 64 El
Since the net deflection at C is zero, we have
_9 XP_ 171 wP
64 El 2048 El
Problem 238. A horizontal cantilever of uniform section and

length I carries two vertical point loads IVi and Wz, fVi acts upwards
at the free end and W
2 acts downwards at a instance a from the
fixed end- Find the deflection at the free end.
Solntion. If the load Ws had been

absent, the upward deflection of the free
end would be
WtP .
'iEI
If Wi had been absent the down-
ward deflection of the free end due to
Wi alone Kg- 39i
(!-a)
3E1 2El
Net deflection of the free end
WjiP ,

3El iEl 2Er
ek 2WiP-2W2a>-3W2<P(l-a)
{ J
PlroUem 239. A canilever of uniform section has a length

AB^l, A is the free end and carries a point load IV, while B is the
fixed end. Find the deflection at a point C distant ~ from the free
end A.
If the cantilever is propped at C find the reaction of the prop

assuming that there is no deflection at C.
Draw also the B.M. and S.F. diagrams for the propped cantilever.
)
412 STRENGIH OF MATERIALS
w Solatimi. For the canti*
lever, the bending moment at
B any section distant x from the
1^-- {
4 fixed end is given by
Fig.392
wh ere C\ is a constant of integration

At B the slope is zero.
at
Ci=0
dv
Ef
dx
7v- W\
Kf)
where Ca is a constant of integration.
+ C2
At B the deflection is zero,

i,e., at xO, 0
C2 = 0
^
To find the deflection at C,
putting jc = -^ / in the above equation, we get
/Jr= /2_i- /3
2 16 6 )
V
64 ;
27
128
WP
27 WP
128 El
If now the prop be provided, let the prop reaction be R.
3
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 41
Upward dcficction at C due to the independent effect of R

alone
\3
Ai-r 3Ei
9 /?/3
64 El
Hence, if the net deflection at C is zero, we have
J- 3H-
64 El 128
El
27 64
R.
128 9
W
-l-H'
S.F. Ccdcuhtions
S.F. between C and A

W
= + F
S.F. between B and C
I
^
=+w. -fV il-
i-H
lai
^'
2
^
=- ^
2
B.M. Calculations
B.M. at /t=0 (b) b.f OIACRAM
/
B.M.at C--fV
B.M. at B
= + m
U) e.M.OtAORAM
Fig. 393
Point of Contraflexure
Let the B.M. be zero

at O at a distance jc from .4 ;c>
(
v < )
/
Equating the B.M. to zero,
we get
fVx==0
Problem 2^. A cantilever of length 1 carrying a uniformly

distributed loadof w per unit run is propped at the free end. If the
prop holds the end at the level of the fixed end find the reaction of the
prop. Draw S.F. and if. A/, diagrams.
Solution Fig. 394 [a)
shows the propped cantilever AB
the end A being fixed and the
end B being propped. Let R be
the prop- react ion. If the prop
had not been present the down-
ward deflection of the end B
wlA
would have been
If the cantilever bad been

subjected to an upward lorce R
alone at the free end, the upward
deflection of the end B would be
Rfi
Yei
Since the deflection at B
should be zero, we have,
_ wl^
'3EI~^SEI
R^ l
wl
S.F. diagram
The shear force S* at any if} e.M. OtAGKAH
section distant x from the end B
is given by Fig. 394
Sz^wx R
/. Sx~wx ^ o
wl
Section at which the S.F. equals zero

Equating the gentral expression for S.F. to zero we have
wx w/=0.
At jc=0.
At X-/,
wl.
pEFUECnrat OF BEAMS 415
B.M. Sagram
At any section distant x from the end B the bending moment
is given by
M'X*
M,=Rx-
2
Jl/x= (37- 4x)
At x=0, i.e., at B,
M*=0
At x=I, i.e., at A,
Mr = ~ i-P)
~ wl^
8
At
At
M.= -g .y/
)
wP.
128
Problem 241. A propped cantilever 6 metres long carries a

uniformly distribute load of 1 t per metre for a distance of 4 metres
from the fixed end. Calculate the reaction at the prop.
{A.M LE., Nov, 1970}
Fig. 395
SotutioB. Let R be the leaction at the prop C. Since the net

deflection at C==0, we have.
x4^ 1x43 Rx6^
%EI + tEI 3EI
R^0 74I t.
416 STRENGTH OP MATERLU4
Problem 242. A cantilever of length I is propped at its

free
end. The cantilever carries a uniformly distributed load of w
per
unit run over the whole span. If the prop sinks by S,find the reaction
of the prop.
Solotion. Let the prop reaction be R.
If the prop had not been present the downward deflection of
j|;/4
the free end would have been g . Upward deflection of the free
end due to an upward force R alone acting at the free end would be
RP
3EI
Since the net downward deflection of the free end is 8, we have
wl* RP^f.
'
iEi 3El
^
3Ei~
_wl^
&EI
_.f.
Problem 24J. A cantilever of length I is propped at its free end.

The cantilever carries a uniformly distributed load of w per unit run.
Find by how much above the level of the fixed end the level of the prop
must be fixed so that the load may be equally shared by the supports.
wl
Solution. Prop reaction=/?=
Levc! of the propped end above the level of the fixed end
=net upward deflection of the free end
RP wP
3EI iEI
/ w/ \ P _ wl*
2 ) 3EI 9El
wl* wl* wl*

~ 6El ~ SEl ~ 24EI
Hence the propped end most be above the level of the fix ed
end by -
Pfoblem 244. A horizontal cantilever of uniform section and

length I carries a uniformly distributed load w per unit length through-
^
'
OLFLEC IiON O! iJiiAMS
out ItsImyjh Thr caniikvcr is supported by a rif'id prop at a distance

Klfrom the Jtxcd end the lercl of tbP bPam at the prop heins the same
which wilt make the
as that at theJiAed nd Dcternrne tli.^ v^fhte of K
heiuliny m mtent at the prop the stone as that at the fixed end.
Sketch the S F and B M dnv^rams for the cantilever and show

tm them all maximum values {Ijy/idon University)
Solution. l-XJt AB be the cantilever fixed at A and free at B

and propped at C at a di'-tance
, ia/tmr RUM
A/ from A.
Ixt the react lor* of the prop

be K
B.M. at the prop Fig, 3%

Ml-Kfl-
B.M. at the fixed end

wl^
RKl 1
Since the bonding: a fixed end equals the bending

moment at the prop, we have.
fVf Af-/-
RKl '
2 2
wl wl
RK 1
(I -ky^
i-i } 2A'-r-]
wi K(2- K)
RK
2
A^
'll a-k)
2
Since at C the dcllection is zero i! follovvs that the downward
deflection at C when the prop is absent must be ccpial to the upward
deflection at C due to an upward force R alone applied at C .
l.el us fist tin i the down-

^
(uJtfNti Ron ward didlcction at C' wiien the
prop is absent I or this
B
kL 1^ condition of the cantilever the
bending moment at any sec-
t ig. W tion distant
,v from the fixed
end is given by
El .vV* P llx \ .P
dx^ ( j
Integrating) we gct
f<fy
0 ;
418 STUMOIH OF lUTHtlAU

where Ci is a constant of integration.
At the slope being zero, we have,
at X0
*
ax
-0
Ci=0
i!L/ /x3
Ely^
2 V 2
" "
i)+Ct
At A the deflection being zero, we have,
at X
>-0
Ca-=0
H' ( /X*
Ely-
2 2 3
+ 12
Hence to fioH *he deflection at C, putting
X - Kl in the above equation, we get,
w_ lifCip :*p
EfVr ]
2 2 3 12 j
2
12-^*'*^+^)

lat/w
4K+6)
or the downward deflection at C
|m14
24EI
^^-4A:+h)
Upward deflection at C
due to it alone
^ _ A(A/)8
3/
_ wl (2-K)K^P
Fip. 398 2 3/
_ wPi2-K)K^
6EJ
Since the net deflection at C is zero, we have,
KHIC-*K+6)-^2-inK^
A2-4A+6=>=4A(2- K)
5A2-12A+6=0
:
jBaBCnON OF BEAMS 419
Solving as a quadratic in K,
12-VT44-120
'
^ '
10
^12-V 24
10
_ 1 2-2V6
10
as 6-V6
5
__6 V6 |
6+V6 \
5 le+ve/
_ 36-6
5(6+ ^6)
_ 6
L6+V6
_y^
V6+1
=07/
S.F. and B M. diagrams
Fig. 399 shows the propped
cantilever
/i=f (2-n
^(-0'7l) Fig.39
=0645 wl
Vertical reaction at 4

~ Vawl 0'64j wl
^0-355 wl
S.F. Calculations
S.F. at /4 =+0 355 h/
S.F. just on the left side of C
=+0-355 IV/-0-71 wl
= -0-355 wl
S.F. just on the right side of C
= +0-29 wl
. S.F. at B=--Q
Obviously S.F. at the middle point of AC-0.

F M. Calculations :
B.M. at 5-0
I 0,
B.M. at C=-
- -0-042 wP
CB 55 ufl
-B.M. at A
B.M. at the middle point of

AC, B.M. at 0 645 / from B
i.c.,
=^0-64? h'/x0'355 /
(b) S r OlAOh'AM
2
-+0 027 m >/2
0 0*1 ml *
0 0*: ml'
id G M OlAOh!AM
Fig. 400
Problem 245. A rolled steel joist 600 mm x 210 mm. is simph
supported at its ends on a span of JO metres and c arries a uniformly
distributed load of I 25 tonnes per metre run invliuliny^ its own weipht,
Jf the maximum deflection is not to exceed 2 ems, and the maximum
strcRs due to hendin}^ is not to exceed MOO ki^ find the greatest
value of an additional concentrated load which may he added to tlh
joist to the middle of the span, steel joist take 7 2^67 '
cm.^ and E - 2 x 10^ kg./cm.^

Solution, (a) Dejlection
Let the point load be W kg.

Central deflection
IVf .
487
1
e*
10^ r
**.
!
11'
I
^ 1000 V X KKP
3^ 4
.2x I0x72867'6x2
8 H' I 62500 -111900

W'-6175 itfi-.
6' 175 tonnes.
(b) Max. stress criterion
Max. B.M.
WX 1^0 ,
r25xl000x 10 "
kg. m.
'
4 8
DLFLriiTION Ol- UEAMS 421
=2-5 1-25 XI 25 XI 00 A'^. HI.
W ax. stress -/= M --

1400 kg./cm.^
{2'5If+r25X 125X100) 100 .
/ 7280716)
V 30 /
>400^72867-6
2 5 l^+r25x 125x 100--
30 X 100
2' 5 If' -t- r25x 125 X 100-= 34000
1K=I3538 kg.
13 5JS tonnes
Maximum permissible value of IP
~6'175 Ionites
Problem 246 A simply supporltU beam of spun I carries a

uniformly distributed load w per unit run over the whole span.
If now
the beam be provided with a prop at the centre
of the span so that the
prop holds the beam to the level of the end supports, find the reaction
oj the prop. Draw S.F. and B.M. diagrams.
Solution. Let All be the
bcani of length / supported at
the ends and propped at mid
span C l.ct the reaction of the
prop be R.
11 the prop had not been
present ihe downward deflec-

tion at C would be
'5^ wtf 5 ji7<
304 ft
Is I 7:7
If the beam had been

subjected to an upward force
R alone at C
the upward
deflection at C would be
RF
48 El
Since the deflection at C is zero, we have,
RP ^ 5 jv/1
4iEI 384 El
5 ,
Vertical reaction at each end support

5
S.F. Calculations
At any section in AC distant from A the S.F. is given by
wlwx
At A i.e., at a:=0.
At C i.e., at x=
3 ,
wl
16 2
ufUNtf HUN Hence for the span AC the. S.F.

changes uniformly from H 3
wl
at /4 to -i^ wl at C. Similarly
JO
for the span CB the S.F. changes
uniformly from + jg- v/ at C to
wl at B.
Let at a distance x from A

5 F OtAQHAM on the span AC the S.F. be zero.
Equating the S.F. to zero, we get,
-^ n
^rfrtrrTniinTTmK ^^fTTt 1 1 rnr&it
_ 1
wlwx0
1
e.M. OtAOHAm
Fig, 402
Consider the span AC
At any section distant x from A the B.M. is given by
wlx-Y-
M=~x{il-Sx)
At x-0 i.e., at A and also at
I
I-
M-0
DEPlJCTtON or beams 423
At ^
16
(3,. .X ' /
ir-il-'
/
At i,e .9 at C
Af E.
16 2 V 2 /
wP
32
Problem 247. 4 uniform girder of length 8 mis stAjeeted to o

lota! load of 20t uniformly distributed over the entire length, the
girder is freely supported at its ends. Calculate the B.M. end the
deflection at the centre.
If a prop is introduced at the centre of the berm so as to nuJMy

this deflection, find the net B.M. at the centre. {AMIE, May 19/2)
Case (i) When the girder is supported only at the ends
SolBtioD.
_ wP _ Wl 20X8
B.M. at ccntie 8 ~ 8 8
20 tm
Deflection at the centre ---8= 5_ wl*

^ 5 WP
384 El 384 ~EI
20 X (800)
^
384 El
400000000
3El
Case (//). When a prop is provided at the Centre.
For this case, B.M. at centre
__wP __ Wl
" 32
""
32
20x8
tm.
32
66 MBcaolays Method
This is a convenient method for determining the defiections of
a beam subjected to point loads or in general discontinuous loads.
The method mainly consists in the special manner in which the
bending moment at any section is expressed and in the mannor hi
which ^ integrations arc carried ont.
424 :7Rr:NnTlf or MATBRIAtr
Fig. ^03 shows a simply supported beam AB supported at A

and /i, having a span / and carrying the loads Wi and Cand D
at distances a and h from the
end A, Let Va and Vb be the
vertical reactions at A and B.
At any section between A
and C distant a from A the
S" II
bending moment is given by 1
j.-a
Mx VaX
This expression for the
bending moment holds gcunl for
ail values of x between a I 1^;. 403
and X a.
At any section between C and 1) and distant a from the

bending moment is given by
iWa Ka A W\ (xa)
This expression holds good for all values of a between xâ
and X h.
At any section between and D B and dislaut a from the end

A, the bending moment is given by
Mj - Vnx IVt (a-u) I4^-(a h)
This expression holds good for all values of a between A'^h
and X 1
In general at any section the bending moment is given by

>
K..A-: >fi(v a)\ W-:,{x-b) ...(/)
TiiC manner in which the above expression is written should be

noted. As the magniliidc of v goes on increasing so ihui the law of
loading changes, ailditional expressions appear.
Fôr values of v between .v - 0 and a a, imly the tirst tc;m of
the above expression should be
considered
For values of A between A -i/ and v h only the tifst two
terms of ihe above expression
should be considered.
i"or values of A between A hand a-/, all the terms of the
above expression should be con-
sidered.
Integrating Eq. (/) wc get, the general expression ft)r slope
dy^ W\ {x ~ a)^ (x- by^

El
dx
-F . +Ci 2
...(/)
It is very important to note the following two points :
(a) TItc constant of integration Ci should be written after the

first term of the above expression.
V
DEH-ECTION of beams 425

(
(b) The quantity (.y a) should be integrated as and
not as
Similarly the quantity (a b) should be integrated as a whole

(x-h)^
IS
(c) The constant Ci is valid for all values of -v.
Integrating equation (//) we get the dellection equation,
r... I,
-./)' lV2(x bp
r:fy Vn Cl \ \~G2
Again it may be noted that (a a)^ has Ixjcn integrated to
and ( \ /;)- has been integrated ti, rheumstant C 2

^
is written after C\ v. The constant Ci is va id for all valties of v.
The constants C\ and < 2 can be evaluated if the end conditions

arc known.
For ijistancc whc!i the beam is simply snj^ported tlic dellection
is /c.o al I and /t, /.c , at v 0 and at v /, y 0.
Putting v 0 and in the dellection equation, we get C 2 0.
Putting A / and y - 0 ia the ilcllection

constant equation, the
C\ can be evaluated Once the constants Ci and C2 are known, the
slope and dcllcctiou at any section can be determined. The following
problems show the application of Macaulay jnethod.
Problem 248 4 beam oj length / simply supported at the ends
carries a point ItHid W at a distance a from the left end. Find the
dejleefinn under the lead and the maximum . ejlection
Solution Ixt AB be the

beam of span / carrying the
^
1
load W at C.
cj
a 6 t
J
Let AC a and f^'
Let a>d Y
1 i;.. 404
It is easily seen tliat the vertical reactions F,. and F* at A and
B arc given by.
Following Macaulays .icthod, the b- -noment at any

section is given *'
^
426 STRENGTH OF MATBtlAtS

dy Whx^ ,
tV(x-a'^
(slope equation)

W(x-ay^
El y == + Cix+ Ca -
6
(deflection equation)
At A the deflection is zero,
I.C., at x=0,
>.=0
C2 -0
At B the deflection is zero,
at x=l.

6 ~ 6
l-a^b,
^ , H'68 WbP
6 T
Mence the slope and deflection at any section are given by

Wbx^ li'b
</a-62)- Wix-a)^
To find the deflection ye under load, putting xa in the deflec-

tion equation, we get
~ 61
a*)
But lâ+b
r. lyba
7v. (a*+4a+7aft_*s_a2)
DEFLBCnON OF BEAMS 427
Wba
~ 61
i2ab)
Wa%'^
3/
3//
To find the maximum deflection
The maximum deflection will occur on the large segment AC.
Further, at the point of maximum deflection the slope is zero.
Hence equating the slope at a section in y4C to zero, we have
O /2*2
A~
3
//2-Z>2 ra^+2ab
V 3
,
V 3
The maximum deflection ym<a can be determined by jutting
A in the expression for deflec-

3
tion.
ay max
Wb
(e->e
61 )"'[v3 ]
Wh
^:^/2 2 vM
9
_ IVb (/2-fc2)3/2
9V3 I
9\/3EI /
or putting l=ia f ft)

Wh (2-f 2aft)2'2
fma,-
ProbleBi 249. A rolled steel beam having a span of

6 metres
carriesa point load of 4 tonnes at 4 metres from the left support. Find
428 STRENGTH OF MATERrALS
the deflection under the load and the position and amount of maximum
deflection, hx for the section=^7 330 Take E 2x 10^ tonnes! cm.^
47 Solution. 1 ig 405 shows

the beam carrying the given
loading.
a-4m h ?m B
Bigger segment
f
I'ig '0:
- AC~â"4m,
Smaller segment
BC -b 2m
Deflection under the load
3zr//
4x42x 2-
"" (loop cm.
3x2x103x7330x6
- 0*97 cm.
Maximum deflection occurs at
Ifi /36^ 3 27 metres from the left
end.
Max. deflection
9V3 Ell
4x2(32p/2xaoO,3
cm.
9v/3x2x 103x7330x6
: / 056 cm.
Problem 250. i simple supported beam of length / carries a load
W at a distance a from one end and h from the other {a>h). Find the
position and magnitude of the maximum deflection and show that the
position is alwavs within approximately from the centre.
{l.ondon University)
Soliitioii. I'ig 406 shows w
the beam AB carrying the load
IT at C so that AC^ a, BC b
and a>b. JB
The maximum deflection

occurs at a distance
Fig. 406
/SZTaS
"
X-
V from A (sec problem 248)
= Wb (/2-
62)3/2
Max. deflection
9s/3ElI .
1)1 FirniON OF BEAMS 429
Hence for all possible positions that the load can take on the
/- ^
V *3 ^ V3
Maximum distance of the point of maximum dcllection
from the mid span
I
2
/ 2-V3 \
I
V 2v3 J
/
13
Problem 251. A horizontal girder of steel having uniform section
is 14 metres long and is simply supported at its ends-, ft carrier con-
centrated load of i 2 tonnes and ^ tonnes at two points 2 metres and
45 metres from the two ends respectively, / for the section of the
girder is 16x10^ cm^ and lu 2 ! < Kf^ kgdrm-. Calculate the
deflection of the girder at points under the two loads.
Find also the maximum deflection.
Solution. Let and Vh be the

vertical read ions at the support A and
B. 4 n
I flu'll y_
Takinji moment about A, we c n
have
F.xl4'--I2x3 1-8x9*"^ I
tonnes
Fig. 407
Fw 20 8 12 tonnes.
The B.M. at any section di.stant x from A is given by
]2x 12 (y -3) - 8(a-9-5)

dx-
Integrating, we get
El ~
dx
6x2-1 Cl -6(.v- 3)2 -4(.x:-9'5)2
7 r -
2r*+ruH C2 -2(.v-3)2 - U-9-5y
At ar=0,
j;=()
C2-=0
At jc-^14,
r-=o
0=2(I4)3-fl4Ci-2(l4- 3y- i(I4-9-5)3

14Ci=-2704 5
Ci= -19318
Hence the deflection at any section is given by
El y-2r- I9318x: \-2 (x-3) - j(x 9-5)3
To find the deflection at C, put jc=3/m in the deflection

equation
/yc^2 x 33-193 18 X3
= -525-54
525-54
El
_ 525-54 X10
^'-
21x1^x16x104
= r564 cm.
yc= 1564 cm. {downward deflection)
To find the deflection at D, put Jc=9-5 m in the deflection
equation
/y<.=2 (9-5)3- 1931 8 x 9-5-2(9-5-3)3
= -669-71
669-71 X 10
cm.
21 X 103 X 16 X 104
= r994 cm.
yd V994cm. {downward deflection).
Max. deflection. Let u$ assume that the deflection will be
niaxiroum at a section between Cand D. Equating the slope at th
section to zero, we have,
El -=6x-19318--6(jc-3)S=0
Solving, we get
jr=6-87 m
Substituting in the deflection equation, we get,
'/V.=2(6-87)3-193 18x6 87 -2(6-87-3)3

= -794-3
7943 X10
yma.- ^'-
2-1x103x16X104
2' 36 cm. {downward deflection)
l^roUem 252. A beam is 10 m. long and
of uniform section
it simply supported at the ends. It carries concentrated loads of lOt
and 6t at distances of 2m and 5m respectively from the left end.
Calculate the deflection under each load. Find also the maximum
deflection. Take l^lSxlO* cm.* and 2 x 10^ kg.jenfl.
deflection op kams 431
SidatkM. Let Va and be the reactions at the left and right

supports. Taking moments about A,
;nt 6t
Fig. 408
F<,xI0=(10x2)+(6x5)
Vi=5t
K= 16-5 = 11/
The B.M. at any section distant x from A is given by,
/0=11a: -10(jc-2 -6 (x 5)
Integrating we get,
EJ^ = 5 Sx^+Ci\-5 (x-2)2-3 (x-S)*

El y = + C, x+Cs;- y(x-2)3|-(x-5>
At jc==0,
^..-0
C2=0
At 10,
0=
y (I0)+ 1 OCi - X 88-5
Ci=-85-5
Deflection at C : putting xlm in the deflection equation
El yc = ^(2>*- 8 5-5 X 2=- - 1 56-67
156-67 156-67X10
'
/ - _ 2xl0*xl8xl6<
^0'435 cm.
Deflection at D : putting x 5m in the deflection equation,
/ y* - (5)8 - 85- 5 X 5 - (3)8 - - 243 33

243-33 243-33 X10
~ ^
'
2 x" 108 X 18 X 104
s
4J2 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS
Max. drfleclion. The deflection is likely to be maximum at a

section between C and D. Equating the slofve to zero, we get,
5-5X-2 85-5 -5 (x - 2)2 -0

a*|40.v-21I 0
x~4'72 m
Th's value of x justifies the correctness of our assumption
about the position of maximum deflection.
Putting X ^472 m in the deflection equation, we get,
Riym.,x - ^.^^(4-72>''-85-5x4-72 x2 72-2
-- 244-25
-244-25
y,..
^ El
244- 25 X 10
_ - O'bJH cm.
2x K)3xl8x 104'
Problem 253. A simply supported beam of uniform section has

a span I and carries two equal loads each symmetrically placed at a W
distance { on either side of ////</ sptin Find the defection at the
midspun.
Solution. Mg. 409 shows
-
//
//^ -j-
the beam carryiiig the loading
1/
*
'
The problem will be solved
A 1
r
J i
V by Macaulay^ method,
4 Jf C
j
At any section between A
1
h-
w ^
i and mid-span and distant x
from Ay the bending moment
rig 409 is given by
fntcgraling, we get,
w(
nJvdx Er'a
~2 r '
-
2l-'- -'f
6 f
At A the slope ^ ^
2
fV /2
0 =y J+Cr 2 9
Cl-
72
^Qx ~ 2 72 i
A* 6 j
DBFLE TION of BEaMS 433
Integrating again, we have.

V{ I \3
V^-6)
At A the dellecLioQ is zero.
i,e., at jc 0, y~0
C2 -O
riv3 <; yL>
To find the deflection jc at mid span,
putting X in the above equation, we get

2
it.
-
-
6
fy 8
8 11"'
7'>
' 7
2 f.
6 77
27
~Wl^{ i- - \
\ 48 144 162/
J3 Wfi
648 >
Problem 254. A uniform beam {] -- 7800 cnA) is 6m long and
carries a central point loud of 5t. Taking F-ÎXU)^ kg.lcm.^
calculate the defection under the load if {a) the beam is simply
supported at its end, and (b) the beam is built in at one end and
Simply supported to the same level as the other,
{AMFT Novemhir 1969)
Solution.
(<3) When the beam is simply supported at the ends,
, W(^ W
500(1 X 600'*^ ^
I
48 X2 1 X 0 X 7 800
) I
JL
- 1374 cm.
Fig. 410
(hi) When the beam is built'in at A and simply supported at B.
Since the defleefion at 5^0, we have
Fig. 4U
434
pw
lo
With B as origin
<=-il
i:X=.A
..= ,4-0
5,,,^
"
96
^-'
96- 32
32 ^
"66VV
At x=0, >>=0
C2 O
At x~ll2, y-yc
r-, ..
5 P WP _ 1. M./3
,
96 ^ 8 32 2 768
^000 x 600'>
v=-i 768
.
2 x lO** x 7800
cm.
768 El I
simply supported beam AB of span

I ant
Problem 255. >4
a pomt load IV at a sec-
uniform Jiexural rigidity El is subjected to
tion C distant a from A and b from B.

Prove by any standara
method that deflection at a section in the part AC at distance x Jrom
A is given by the expression
. Hence calculate the net

deflections at F and for the Q
beam shown in Fig 412(a) if the
^
I
I
A L i value of El is 8400 kg. cm.-

ufdr (A M l E November
,
1966)
Solution. Fig. 4! 2 (fl) shows

w a team AB of span /carrying
I a point load at W C so that

A 2 \ J B AC=-a and BC^b,
f C
Vt
-Let
VT vc'tical reactions at
Va and
A and
be the
Fig. 412 (fl)

Taking moments about the end A, we have,

Wa
Wa
Wa
Fa= W-
f
/ /
The B.M. at any section distant x from A can br written in the

Soim
Integrating, we get.
El
dx 21 2
^ .{Slope equation)

It'h \v
Elv ,-3+Ct.r-t r- ixa)
6/
. 1 1 tefleftion equation)
At A tUf deflect on is zero.
At x~U,
v-U
C2 0
At B the deflection is zero.
At x=Î,
y---0
iVt Jf/
0 ---
6
IV
Ci/-
6 f
But i
Ctl-
0 6
Ci
The dcficction at any section in >be 4t ; h ven by

Ah
Ely - -z^xÊCixEOi
EIy-~x^-^{l^-f^)x
m
436 STRENGTH OF IIATTOALS
-JfX |(/+^))(/-6)-x2 I
!(/+-
--
^ xial+abx^
Or the '^lownward deflection at any 5!Ction in AC distant x
from A is given by
y--=^ x(a/+abx^)
Deflection under the load is given by putting xô in the

above expiession
"
-^1 }
- w;i {('-'t'"
f
Wah
(ahtab)
61EI
iiEi
The above formulae may
be used to find the deflections
at/^ and (> due to the giveu
loading
w-
I
/ bcm * 7
Dcjlection at P
Deflection at P due to the vp^
Fg.4l2(/)) ward load at P
WP
48/7
6 X 30=5
48 X 8400
=0'4018 cm. {upwards}
Deflection at P due to the load of 6 kg. at Q

yi^-^^fXial+ab-x^)
Fy-6 kg.
OEFLBCnON OF BEAMS 437
a=22'5 cm.
b-15 cm.
X r5 cm.
and 78400 kg. cm.^
02-5x30+ 22'5x7-5-15>)o.
-02763 cm. idownwaids)
Hence net deflection of P=îyi--yi)
----(0'40i8 0'2763) cm. (upwards)
O' 1255 cm. (upwards)

Deflection ar Q
Deflection at Q due to the load of 6 kg. at Q
_
mi
.
,6x22-5x7-52
3x30x8400
-"0*2261 cm. {downwards).
Deflection at Q due to the upward load of c Av*. at P
where IV=^6 kg.

a-PB^\5 cm.
h PA 15 cm.
x~ QB^ 7" 5 cm.
6x15x7 5
>2*= (15x30 j ]5xr; -7 52)cm,
'6x30x8400
Yz 0*2763 cm. (upwards)
Net deflection of Q=^ Y2 Yi
-0'2763-0*2261 cm.
- 0 0.^02 cm. (upwards).
Problem 256. A beam of length 1 is simply siwrortcd at the ends
and carries a concentrated load )V at a distant a from each end. Find

the deflection under each load and the deflectian at the centre.
Solution. The loading on
the beam being symmetrical, the
maximum deflection occurs at
mid span. Heuce the slope at A
mid span equals zero. Hence it 4
is enough if we discuss one half f
of the span. *
The bending moment at any

section between A and the mid- Fig. 413
span (Fig. 411) distant t from A is given by
JiJ! r-
-
'Vx - W-'iA a) following Macaulays
Jx*
^cnvci^tions-
}ntcgrH.Ux)f,, A't gt'U
EJ
X-
:
..
iVx^
Cl
mx-a/
't
Ax r i- 4^^-0
2 '
cU
iv r (
i
Y
? 4
< ;'
'
Ui-r
. ii { I-
- '1-
-'I )
8 '
2 ( i
nr- IF ,
H
8 8
K v" HV/ HVi /!)-
ux .
\ / 2
Irjr(,f,ra;<nK .igym. we gel,
li'x .
FT.. - fiV
tJy-" -
^
'
.
X-! ( >z
n 5
At '
,, -0
(.-(>
.'. The dcflcefio;. at any section is given by
H X H'utt -a)^. IFi-V a)3
To find the i*('flecti,on under the load, / e , at C putting x~a in
the deflection equation, we have.
H'cP WaH! -
a)
Efyc=--
W<^
31 3a a)
6
Wj*
(-a/)4
fVaH3I-4a)
y'~ 6El
To find the deflectiop at the centre, putting ~ in the de-
flection equation, we get.

- +
~" W{
^P Y
fV fVa{l-a) I
I
FAy^<--
2
2 ~T\ 2"^ j
.n^ wi. M
^ "(/-')
= ,1
-
2.1 )*
4 6 ^-gC/-
=^[.3- 12Pa-|-l2/fl2-/3^ 3/2(20) - 3i(24H-8a3

]
2
- ^[/3 \lPa^ lld^-P-^ 6 /1 fl-*- 12 /fl*+ 8 a*]
_ WaiV- --4a-)
24 T:j
Problem 257. A Amply supported beam of uniform flexural

rigidity of spun I carrier' a uniformly distributed lead of w per unit run
'hr a distance a from the right end Calcui/uc t'.c value of a for which
b:e maxtmum dejleition will occur at the left end of the uniformly
distributed load.
Ui/uÔl fOh
t-'c
'
^9 I'
7 4
-
h ul ''
Fig. 4J4
Solution. 414 shows the beam AB of spnr^

Fig. / supported at
A and B and carrying a uniformly distributed load of w per unit run
WCJL
^
on BD of length n. Fakiog moments about B, VJ
wa
n = wa- wa^
2^
The bending moment at any section distant x from the end
is given by.
d^y wd-
-j[jt -(/-oF
TT
pjdy _ wd
x^-hCr (/a)] (Slope equation)

dx 41
440 SIRENOTH OF MAIERIALS
Jotegraiing again, we get,
El = C2 - - U-(/-fl)]4
( Deflection equation)
At A, the deflection is zero

/. At x-0, 0 C2 --O
At By The deflection is zero
/. At
0- wa2/2 -f Ci/-
2^4
12 24
hor. the condition, that the rr.axirnum defiecticn si ould occur

at /), we have
at A -(/ a ), .^0
ax
wa
2Sl^{/--a)2-(2/2-a2))=0
*
7a^-]2la \-ip=^0 solving, we get a -0 453}
V/ith the above value of a, Ci=- ~-2'^^^^^^^[2/2-(0'453/)2]

Cl = -0-01 53461 W3
Substituting in the deflection equation,
El 3'ma.- j2f^^*A^~0-453/)2-n 0l5346hv/3(/-0 '^53/)
- -0*0055955 wl*
0 005^^ wl*
El
Problem 258. A beam of unijorm section and length 1 is simply
^pported at its ends and carries a symmetrical triangular loading the
intensity varying from zero at each end to w
at the centre. Find the
slope at each end and the deflection at the centre.
SokrtioB. 415 shows the beam AB of span / simply

supported at A and B and carrying the symmetrical triangular load.
441
DEFLFCnON OF BEAMS
Ui
2iAtX
T
LlZiiJtiiLfcAliiAilliiliÂtiAjJf
tu lAlUA UxAjtA Amt l M.J aLIM
(
Ki
r
Out
r
K, = cut
4
Fig. 4!'
Total load on the beani=Area of the load diagram

1
,
wl
- 2 2
Ko=r. ^ 2
ihc total load---
r-
^
Consider any section .V in AC distant .v from A.
2wx
Load intensity at A
Thc bending moment at the section is given by,
wl i 2wx X H'/
4
^" 2 /

3 4
3/'
Integrating, v/e get.
^ dy 8 12/^
0 since the deflection is maximum at the

At ^
j=
2
dx
centre.
n .^L Jl- . 4 C,
8 4 I2f 16
r .2_ -5 /= ( Slope equation

8''" 12/ 192
dx
S/opc at A. Put .v=0 in the slope equation.
0
442 mrlngth of materials

Integrating the slope equation, we get,
El 192 (Deflection equation)
At X ''0 y=0 C2
Deflection at the centre. Put x-^ !^
in the deflection equation
wl P H
"
24 8 '>)()/ 32
Ei vv
' -
120
wD
120/
or Downward dc flection of ^
Frobiem 259. A beam of uniform section and lenglh is simply

support at it^' mds and carries a distributed load which varh s
utuformlv frem :cro at each end to a maximum intensity of w per mtit
run at a ''ection from the right-hand < nd. Show that the maximum
deflerti^^n *,ccur; at a distance approximately OOJ I from mid-span and

find the mas I mum terms of h\ /, E and /.
d( fleet ton in
{London Umversity )
Solution, f ig. 416 (a) 0
shows the beam carrying
the loading mentioned in
the problem.
Fotal load on the
span
-area of ihe load
diagram
ssr
wl
2
Distance of the cen-
troid of the load diagram
from the left end A
Fig 4\6
Let Vn and Vb be the reactions at A and B respectively.
Taking moments about the end A, we have.
wj
2
;
DEFLECIION OF BEAMS 44 >
Va~ - H/
-Y Jg
Fa- >/
In Fig. 416 (b) the load diagram is slightly amcaded*

Let the line AB of the load diagram be produce J and the point
D be located.
The oidinale BD - v
ficnce we shall consider that the loading on the beam consists

>r (i) :i downward triangniar ioadmg whose intensity varies from
zero rhe left end to -j per and run at the right end, and in) an
upward triangular oadi'tg acting distance from the nght

'
/ 3
cud wlicSv udensitN van'*'-, iron, zero at Irom the nght end to -
w
I
av fiiC rh/tn
Nov' ioilowing Macaulays Uiethod, the htndmg moment at any

section cisen by
) ;
2/ )/ 2i \ 3 ,
2/
'
"
2 I jl 3 )2 1 3 1
. ... </-)
c. 2 ,
M'A- 3.V / 2!

d/-

:/i ^''3 *
dy
j'
wix* wx^ .
^
f-
\ 3 '
n '"T7
dx 9 16/
8W
+ CW+'^' +
At jc-0,
C2=()
At xl, y0
- )
wli w/4 3wfi

f\
tj '
21
'
80
+ Ci/4
80X81 x3/
"'_ wl*
1
1
\
1 ^ - '
27 80 6480
2
Cl- wfi
81
For maximum deflection which will occur between x=0 and
21
-Y ,
equating tnc expression for slope to zero,
^
we have,
,
/vr ,
wx^ 2
A"
161 81
Putting X -- Ki\ we have,
-Z. 2^
KH^.. 161^
81
- K/3-O
9
^ ^
'
16
_ 2
81
0
16 3;
0
9 '
81
Solving as a quadratic in we get
16 236 _128
'" _
;
9
' "
J 8l"_ 81^
'
2
4'69
81
A' -0 5103
Maximum deflection occurs at a distance of 0 5103/ from
the left end A.
Distance of the point of maximum deflection from the middle
point
= 0 5101 /-^05 I
-:0'0103 /
-(?/!/ . (approximatclj
To find tlic nuiximum deflection, putting x -0*5103 / in the
expression for deflection, wc have,

Ely,n...^ 0-5103 (0-5i03/i5
7 -^
--f- U./2 (0-5103Z)

ol
- 0008108 'f-
tii
Problem 260. The free end of a cantilever of length 1 rests on

the middle of a simply supported beam of the same span and having the
same section. Find the reaction of the beam on the free end of the
cantilever, when the cantilever carries a uniformly distributed load of w
per unit tun over its whole length
Solution.
(iTlUNtT RUN D
ar/imr run Fig. -17 ia) shows the

1
1
cantilever AB with its free end
i
l!'!|i!:i' B
JilLdl 1
1
_sjLiiixLiJil
resting on the middle of the
lliil 'Li.
simply supported beam CD. Let
the common reaction between the
beam and the cantilever be i?.
Now con 'ider the cantilever AB.
This is subjected to a uniformly
^ ib)
distnbuied load of w per unit run
R on its length and an upward point
-- ly'2
+ I'/'/' load R at B
^ Net downward deilection

of the free end B of the cantilever

iC) U'i fE/
Fip. 417 1
Now consider the simply supported beam CD. This beam is
subjected to a dt>wnward pciot load R at its middle point B.

Downward deflection of B
'48 FJ
Since the free end of the cantilever is always resting on the
middle point of the beam, the deflection of the free end of the
cantilever is equal to the deflection of the middle point of the beam
w!*_RP_. Riy

%El ilEr ^îEi
6
J?=* wl
17
446 STRSNGTH OF MATERIALS
FroMem 26(. A beam AB of span 5 metres is simply supported

.at A and B. A cantilever DC of length 3 metres which is fixed at
D meets the beam AB at the midpoint thereby forming a rigid
joint C.
A vertical load of lOt is applied at the common Joint C. Find

out the reaction at the ends of the simply supported beam. Assume
IrcL '
{A.M.LE May 1971)
Solution. Let /* be the length of the beam and the length of

the cantilever. Let W
be the loaJ applieJ at C Let R be the
common reaction at C. Deflection at C is the sanie for the beam
and the cantilever.
(H- R)/e Rf:.^

48/ jEI
H'-R (AV -3 456
R \ h )
n ~R^4A5b R
RÔ'22A4W
Reactiv)n at each support for the beam,
W- "R 224411

2 2
0*3878 W
=-0*3878 X 20
-7*750 /.
Problem 262. A cantilever of length 1 carries a concentrated

ioad W at its midspan. If the free end he supported on a rigid prop,
find the maximum deflection.
DHFLECnON OF BEAMS 447
SolotioD.
Let R be the reaction at the propped end. Since the deflection
at the propped end is zero,
We have.
r
Fig. 4!9
m cj -ar
fVi
RP ,
iEj 2FJ
R^j, W
The B.M. at any section distant x from the end fl is given by.
(^ 7 i)
= 10 Wx
,
:
- W
Integrating, we get
s"32 ; y
At
~
0=22'
Cl - 32
5
Iy=f^Wx^-*l~x+Cz
H'P fr
At x=0,
y=0
Cg-o
Maximum Deflection. Assuming the maximum deflection to
occur in BC, equating the general expression for slope to zero,
5 ... - WP
^
x=
V5
-- from 5
Since the value of x is less than ^ our assumption about the
position on maximum deflection is correct.
Substituting general expression for deflection,
we get,
5 /__/ Wiy
Y_iVP( /
/ \
\v/ 5 7 32 I vs']
4W'5 FJ
Problem 263. fig, ^20 shows a simply supported beam of
uniform section whose moment of inertia is 43000 cmA For the loading
shown, find the position and magnitude of the maximum deflection.
Take E--2x 10^ tonnes per cm .^
Solution.
Ta moments about
.ing , , ,
the end A, we have j
^
Kf>x8"4X4x3 A
^
Vb^6 tonnes f
^ ^ f

|/',jrr4X4 6
10 tonnes Fig. 420
In order the general expression for the bending moment at any
seciiun may be expressed in the form suitable for application of
,
4.- am Hm *1 Macaulays method the load-
^
DOWN WARD LOAD or Utiftf c to iHgon thc beam is arranged
^nTTtT) or; r.
shown in Fig. 421.
Now, following Macau-
UPWARD LOAD Of
or Jay*s method, the B.M. at
4tim PROMO me j
VySt any section distant x from ^4

Fj<-. 421 is given by.
4fx-5)2
-r---
2
=I0r-2(x-0* +2(x-5)*
Integrating, wc get,
- -|-(x- H 4-|-(x-- 5)
El
5x+ Cl i 1
Ely^ x+cj- g-(x-l)^+ j(x-5)

X
OEFLI CnON OP BEAMS 449
At A, the deflection is zero

At x=0, j'=0
C2 = 0
At B also the deflection is zero.
At x=8, ^=0
0= Cl i- 74-f-
-I*
X 3*
Ci= -58-33
Position of maximum deflection
Let as assume that the deflection will be betwem
C and D.
Equating the slope to zero, we have,
5;ca (*-8)3=0
58-33I
y(*-8)=5*2-58-33
Solving the above equation by trial and error we get x 3*82
metres.
The value of x obtained confirms that our assumption about
the position of maximum deflection is correct.
Substituting x~3*82 metres in the deflection equation, we get
EIyn...= VJ (3-82)358-33 x 3 82-

o
X2-82*
= -139-46.
139-46(100)3
-
-
2x103 x 43000
=l'62 cm.
Problem 264. A beam ABC of length 31 has one support at the
left end and the other support at a '.distance 21 from the left end. The
beam carries a point load W
at th^ right end. Find the slopes over each
support and at the right end. Find also the maximum upward deflection
between the supports and the deflection at the right end.
Solution.
V, s W Vb
^
Pig. 422
Fig. 422 shows thetbeam ABC.

Let the reactions at A and B he V. and Vs respeotivdy.
4S0 STR8NQTH OF MATBRIAU
Taking moments about B,
At any section distant x from A the bending is

given by
Inflating, we get.
a#--
dx
~+Ci |+^(x-2/)*
Wix-llf
Jy +C1X+C2
El y
Alx0, y=0 Cs=0

ktx71, y0
*

*
0 - 12
:(8/)+Ci{20
^ Ci=

Wt^
3
Slope at A. Patting xO in the slope equation,
//.=
If^
-

.
*
, WP
3 '*3iS/
Slope at B. Putting x=2I in the slope equation,
iy(2/)
EIU
3
-fWP
. 2 7*
*~T
Situate. Patting X 3f in the slope equation,
//.*
6 7
Maximum iqtward deflection between A and B
Equating the slope to zero, we get.
4 3
21
X"
VT
2/
Puttbi X*- in the deflection equation.
V3
0BPLBC1I0N or BBAUK 451
2/ \ ,WI( 21 \
Eiymam'
iVtJ + Iv 3 J
'
12 \ 3
4
VT wt*
ymm
4
pVT Jsy
Diction at C. Patting x3/ in the deflection equation,
El ye
^ W+^- (30+
==~WP
PtoMeni 26S. A beam of kngth L has supports I apart wM

equal overhangs. The beam carries a point load at midspcat. W FM
Y
the ratio -y in order the downward dtfkctlan at the eeatre is equal to
the upward ^flection at either end.

w SeMhn. Fig. 423
shows the beam. Down-
. ' " E ward deflection at the
4'-!
Wl^
Sflope at A otB rjgy.
Fig. 423
.'. upward deflection at D Slope at AÂD

_ Wl^ L-l
iSEI 2
Equating the deflection at the centre to the deflection at
eadi end,
Wl* Wl* L-l
48/l6/' 2
2/83/* a-0
21*=3/* L-31*
5/*-3/L
*
I 3
4S2 STRENGTH OP IIAIBRIALS
67. BeRm subjected ta Couples

424 shows a
Fig.
AB of span /
supported at A and B
and subjected to couples
M\ and A< 2 Let Mi be
-
an anticlockwise couple
and Af3 be a clockwise
e
I
couple. 424
Let
W2
Reaction at each end=-
I
The B.M. at any section distant x from A is given by

#2
EI-^ ~ Vx Mi +Mi following Macaulays rule.
But it must be noted that

When jic< ii only the first expression should be considered.
Whenji;>/i and the first two expressions should be

considered
When x>h and </ all the three expressions should be
considered.
The above expression should be rearranged as follows.
El^- l+mx-kT
l~Mi(x~li) j-M2(x-k) (Slope equation)

^ :
El ^ +C 1 JC+C3
_^Mi^x-kf
(Deflection equation)
AtxÔ. y=0 C2=0
At XT I y ---
0. I'rom this condition, we can evaluate Ci. Now,
we can determine the slope and deflection at any point.
FiroMealt 266. A hemn of length I mth supports at the ends is
subjected to a couple M
at a distance a from the left end. Find the
slope at each end and the deflection at the point of application of the
couple.
M
Fig. 425
OEPUBCTION of bbams
Solation. Fig. 425 shows the beam

Vi^l=M
Vb'
M
V 1
At any section distant x from A. the B.M. is given by.
El X +A/
dx^ /
M- + M{x~aT
/
{Note the rearranged form of the expression)

Integrating,
dy Mjc2
El
dx 71
+Ci +Af(A-fl)
Integrating again.
El y - - + Cl x+ Ct f
2
At X 0, y =0
Ca-O
At x=U y=0
0
Cl
M (2/2-6/ar3a2)
6/
Slope at Ab Put x0 in the slope equation
El (2/-6/a+3fl2)
Dl
*a=- g^(2/2-6/a43fl)
Slope at It. Put jc=/ in the slope equation
El fo- -y- ~ (2/*-6/a4-3a)

--^j[3/2+2/2~6iii+3fl*]
_ 3/(S/2-6/a+3a2)
61
Af(5/*-6to+3a*)
eEii
454 SntBMOTH OF MATBULF
Deflection at C. Put x=ainibe deflection equatimi.
/yc i2P-6la+i^)
Afa(/-aX/-2a)
im
ProUea 267. A beam of span 6 m
and oj uniform flexural
rtgUSty El'^dOOO tn^ is subjected to a dockuise couple of 30 tm
at a Stance of 4 m
from the left end. Find the deflection at the
pobu of appUeation of the couple. Find also the maximum deflec-
tion.
3CIIR
Fig. 426
Soietioe. Fig. 426 shows the beam AB with the couple applied
at C.
Taldng moments about A^
F.X6-30
F*=5rt
K.-5/I
The B.M. at any section distant x from A is given by,
EI^--5x +30
= -5jcI-|-30(x-4)*
Integrating,
Int^mting again,'
^ +Ci |+30(x-4)
EIy^-^-+Cix+Ci + 15(x-4)a ;
At *=0, y=0
Cs*=0
At *6, y=0
0=-5x6+6Ci+15(2)*
Ci=20
OBfLfiCTlON OP BBAMS 4S5
DeflecHon at C. Putting x=4 m, in the deflection equation,
Eiyc=-4
O
(4)8+20 x426'67
26 67 2 6 67 ^
Max. Deflection. This will occur in the large segment.

Equating the slope to zero, we get.
El +20
ax 2
x=2y/Tm
Putting x2\/ jrm ^t\the deflection equation
5 *
Ely -(
2 +20X2V 2
)
u
80^2x100 0'943 cm
3 X 4000
Problem 268. A beam 6 m long is subjected to two couples as
follows :
(/) A clockwise couple of 20 tm at a di.stance of 2 m from the

left end.
00 An anticlockwise couplehf 8 tmata distance of 4 m from the

left end.
Find the deflection at the points of application of the couples.

For the beam take El 4150 tnfi,
SeAtMau.
Reaction at each support
The B.M. at any section distant x from the left end A is given
by
2Ptf7^ 8tm
Vs2l V*2I
Fig. 427
El41y. 2x +20 -8
dx^
The above equation should be rearranged as follows :
'/0-=-2x +20(x-2)* I
-8(.v-4)
STREI40TH Of MAtERiALI
456
7^=-x3+Cr l+20(;c-2)|-80c-4)
ax
Integrating again, ^
Ely^ -^+Cij:+C2;+10(x- 2)2 \4ix-4)^
At x-0, j'-O
C2=0
At x=6, y=0
0 -J-+6C1+I6O-I6
Cl = 12
Deflection at C. Putting x=2 m in the deflection equation,
ElVc - -- 12 x 2 *- 26-67
2
0 <J45 cm.
4 50 1
Deflection at D. Putting jc= 4 m in the deflection equation,
- 29 33
/yd
y - 12 X 4+ 10(4-2)*=
)-=- 7?^^ X 100 cm, = -0-707 m.

Problem 269. Find the deflection at C for the beam haded as
shown in Fig. 428 (a). Take 1^4000 trn\
Solution.
Fig. 428
The load 20/ is acting on the bracket. This load will be

transmitted to the beam at C along with a couple 20 x 0*5= 10 tm Ot
as shown in Fig. 428 (fr).
DfiFLECTlON OF BEAMS 457
Taking moments about A

Kk6=(20X4)+10
K=I5/
K=20-155f
The B.M. at any section distant x from A is given by
E^^Sx -20(x-4)+l0
The above equation is rearranged as follows :
El^ =5jr -20(x4)+10(x-4y

EI-^ =^+Ci i-10(;c-4)2+10(;t-4)

Integrating again,
EIy^~ +Ctx+Ca - (x-if f 5(x-4)2

At x=0, y=0
C2=0
At x=6, y=0
0=5x62 f6Ci- 2^(2)+ 5(2)2
Ci= -28-89
To find the deflection at C putting a 4 m in the deflection
equation, we get,
Elyc^ (4)3- 28 89 X 4
-=-62-23
.
62*33 ^
46oo''^''-
~ l'56 cm.
ProMem 270. Find the slope and deflection at B, C, D for the
cantilever shown in Fig. 429. Take for the cantilever El =5000 tm.^
Solution.
Total couple applied on the cantilever
=20+5-15
=10 /m.O
Reacting moment at A 10 tm.
:. The B.M. at any section distant x from A is given by
/^ =- 10 +20 -15
58 STRENGTR OP IIATEUALS
MgztOlm
Fig. 42v
The above equation Is rearranged as follows :
[El-^ =-l0 +20(jc-2r |-15(jc-4r

EI-^
ax
10.!t+Ci i+20(x-2)!-15(x-4)
At x=0, =0
dx
Ci==0
Integrating again,
Ely 5x^+ C2I+ lCU-2)a - -~{x - 4)^
At x0, >0
Ca==0
Siope at B. Put x~2 m in the slope equation.
10X2--20
f,-

20 =0004 radian
i*
Slope at C. Put x~4 m in the slope equation

El iV= 10x4+20x2=0
*< 1=0
Slope at D. Put x2 m in the slope equation.
/id= 10X6+20X4-15X2= 10
Deflection at B, Put
^
x=2 m
^^_o-oo2 radian
in the deflection equation.
I
yi>=^~^XlQ0=0-4 cms.
Deflection at C.
/ j,,
Put x=4 m in the deflection equation
5 X 16+ 1 0 X 4 = -40
40 40x100
.
.
V
El 5000
^
Y
OBPLBCnON OF BEAMS
Deflection at D. Put x=6 m in the deflection equation.
/ Pd = -5x36+10x16 X4--

68. Moment area method Mohrs theorenm
Let i45 represent part
~
otHaa deflected form of a
y ^TTTIUhi
beam of uniform section. \ j|||
<tu
Let A
point ofhe a.
zero slope and zero deflec*

lU Ifll
tiOD. ^ jS ^ jjp^
Let P and Q be two i i

j
points on the deflection >
|
|
curve whose horizontal dis- i

I
1 1
tances from .8 are x and

x+dx respectively. '
Let the angle between \

the tangents at P and Qhe \ {
dO. Obviously the angle \ j
between the normals at P \ I
and Q will also be equal \ I
to de. !
^
Let R be the radius of i r
curvature of the elemental \
l
part PQ. !
i I
But Pfissdx \ 1
y
n .
1 ^ \
R El
\j
where M the bending mo-
is \
j
ment at any section between
Fand Q. i
^
.
F. 430
Since A is point of zero slope, the total slope at B is given by
of the B.M. diagram between
A and B)
In case, the slope at A is not zero* we have
460 STRENGTH OE MATERIALS
Total change in slope between B end A equals the area of B.M.

diagram between B and A divided oy the flexural rigidity El
Deflection, due to the bending of the portion PQ
dy- xd6
Substituting from Eq. (/)
M.xdx
...Hi)
El
Total deflection at B due to bending of all elemental
portions like PQ
x=BA
1 V Mx.dx
jt-0
== [The first moment of the area of the
B.M. diagram between B and A about B]

In case the point A is not a point of zero slope and deflection,
the deflection of B with respect to the tangent at A equals the
first moment about B of the area of the B.M. diagram between Band A.
The above two results are known as Mohr's theorems.
Though in general, problems on deflections can be solved by
the above principle, it is convenient to use these principles with great
advantage in the following types of problems :
(a) Cantilevers (slope at the fixed end is zero)
Simply supported beams carrying symmetrical loading
(b)
(slope at mid span is zero)
(r) Beams fixed at both ends (slope at each end is zero)
While dealing with members carrying uniformly distributed
loading the bending moment diagrams being parabolic the following
properties about areas and centroids may be of great advantage.
Fig. 431 shows part of a
parabola tangential to the base AB. f
Let AB>=b I
Fig. 431
Area ABJJ
^cCTlON Ot 4^)1
Wc shall now apply Mohrs theorems to some problems for

which the theorems may have their best application.
(i) Cantilever carrying point load at the free end
W
Fig- 432 {a) shows a
cantilever AB fixed at A and
free at B.
Let I be the length of
the cantilever. Let a point '
load W
be applied at B.
r ig. 432 (h) shows the
B.M. diagram for the canti-
lever.
Let the deflection of B

with respect to A (point of
zero slope) be >V>.
I.et the slope at B be Oo.

Fig. 432
Area of B.M. diagram between A and B
El
Area of B.M. diagram
= Wl-
Wh
2
06
~ Wl^
2EI
Ax
El
I'
J57^ /
2EI 3
WP
3EI
in) Cantilever carrying a
uniformly distributed load.
Fig. 433 shows a canti-

lever of length / carrying a
uniformly distributed load of
w per unit run.
Area of the B.M.
diagram
wP
6
462 STRENGTH OF MATBRUU
Since 41 is tiie point of zero slope.
The slope at B
*"
El
6EI
Since A the point of zero deflection.
is
The deflection at B
-n. El
But
w/^ 3
y*=
6r 4
wl*
(m)
~
Sin^tly suntorted beam earrytng
m a point load at mid xpan.
Fig. 434(n) shows a simply
supports beam AB of span /
carrying a point load at mid W
span C.
Fig. 434 (jb) shows the

B.M. diagram for the beam.
Since the loading is s^m-

metrkai on the span the maxi-
mum deflection occurs at the
mid span C.
Fig. 434.
B.M. diagram between A and C

Stopeat A = Area
. .
Area of B.M. diagram between iifandJC

1 *
*
2 4
Wfi
16
Wt*
16EI
Distance of the centroid of the B.M. diagram between A and
Cfrom A
/
bZ- 3
Deflectkmof A to
witti respect C
defleoiion of C with respect to A
DOUCnON OP BEAMS
J7*
16
/
3
El
WP
48/
(Iv) Simply supported beam carrying a untformly distributed
d^lUMIT RUN Fig. 435 (a) shows a simply

support^ beam AB of span/
cariying a miUbrmly districted
load of w per unit run over the
whole span.
Fig. 435 (b) shows the B.M.

diagram for tte beam.
Since the loading on the

beam is symmetrical the maxi-
mum dêction occurs at C.
Fig. 4SS. At C the slope is zero.
Area of B. M. diagram between A and C
Slope at A
Deflection of A with respect to C

Defleeiion of C
with respect to A
Ax

24EI 16
^ ad*
iW JBf
464 SIKENGTH OF MAiatlALS
Problem 271. A horizontal cantilever ABC 5 metres long is built
in at A and
supported at B, 4 metres from A, by a rigid prop so that
AB is horizontal. If AB and BC carry uniformly distributed loads of
3 tint, and 15 tjm. respectively, find the load taken by the prop.
Solution. Let the
prop reaction be R.
The^ loading on the
cantilever can be split up
into the following loads :
(/) Upward (force R

at B
(U) Distributed load
of rs tjm on BC
(Hi) Distributed load
of 3 t/m on AB
The ftM. diagrams
for the separate effects of
the above loading are
shown in Fig. 436.
We have
/<i=+YX4X4/i
= +8i?
The trapezium bet-
ween A and B can be
split into two triangles
-|2=_1-X4X075
=-1-50
Az==- -1 X 675x4
13-50
Ai=- - X4X24
== -32
We know that the
slope zero at A and the
is
deflection is zero at B
S -^',0 for the
portion AB
.'.
Aiî
94 Mm.
(mimericaify Pig. 436
8J(x-|-l'SX J+13-5X *+32x3

DEFLECIION op beams 465
toifMes
=6' 28 tonnes
Problein 272. A beam rests on two supports at the
horizontal
same level and a uniformly distributed load. If the supports
carries
are symmetrically placed, find their positions when the greatest
downward deflection has its least value. {London University)
Solution. Let 21 be the
ârlumr run distance between the two sup-
ports and let a be the overhang*
ing distance on each side.
Let the distributed load

on the beam be w per unit run.

=w(/+o)
In order the greatest down-

ward deflection may have its
least value the deflections at
the centre and at the end must
be equal.
Since the slope is zero at

the centre we have for
one half the beam, about one
Fig. 437 end
Splitting theB.M. diagram into components Ai due to support
FOhCiion and Az due to load, we have
AiXi=Â 2X 2 {numerically)
I
i H- il+a) U } (a+ (/+fl)
) f il+a)
5/+3/*a-9Ai2-3fl=0
Let a=Kl
5fiîKP-9IKil^-3K^P=0
5+3K-9K^-3K^=^0
Solving, bi trial and error
X=0 807
0=0-807 /
But distance between the two supports
.1(2202) CO
a 0'403x distance between the two sig>ports.
69. Relation between maximum bending stress and maximnm deflection
Case L Simply supported beam carrying a point load at mid

span.
Let the span of the beam be /. Let W be the point load at
mid span.
WI
Let the section be symmetrical about the neutral axis
Section modulus
f ._2/ \
(
V dl2 d )
where /"Moment of inertia of beam section
d -depth of the beam section.
A/ Wl d
Z ~
A '
II
Maximum deflection
487
/_
S
~ /2
S-
6Ed
I
'
1 ~
6 E
Case 2.Simply supported beam of span ( carrying a uniformly
distributed load w per unit run over the whole span.
For this case, maximum t>cnding moment

wl^
Section modulus ~Z -r- as before.

d
^
M d
Z S '21
...(0
Maximum deflection
, 5 wl*
_ ...()
384 El
/
5
^
2i Ed
}_ d __ 5_ J_
7 " 24 .(6)
/
Problem 273. A beam is rectangular in section. The beam is
freely supported at its ends and is subjected to a uniformly distributed
load. If the maximum bending strc.ss is SO kg.jcm-^, find the ratio
of the depth of the section to .span in order that the deflection may not
exceed of the span. Take EO'12'x. HP kg.jcm."
Solution. Let / be the spin, d the depth of the section and S

the central deflection.
We have
8
~ L
I
'
I 24
E
d _5_ /_ /
I
24 E ii
5 80
x480
2V 012x 1 ( 1

Problem 274 A beam consists of a symmetrical rolled steel joist.

The beam is simply supported at its ends and carries a point load at the
centre of the .span If the maximum stress due to bending is J400
kg.jcm-., find the ratio of the depth of the beam section to .span in order
the central deflection may not exceed of the span. Take E~-2x l(fi
kgfem.^
Solution. Let the span of the beam be 1.
Let 8 be the central deflection. Ler the depth of the beam
section be d.
We have.
Jr~ /
/ 6 E
1 _d^ 1400
480 I 6 2X10
A 16
/
1400
2x10r
X 480
468 STRENGTH OF MAITOAUI
Froblem 275. The stress in a steel beam is limited to 1400 kglcm,^
and its central deflection is of the span. The maximum moment of
inertia of a beam section 300 mm X 140 mm, rolled steel Joist is 8604
cm,^ Calculate the span for this beam when both the above conditions
are to be satisfied if the loading is uniformly spread on the span. Find
also the intensity of loading. Take E=^2x Kfl kg.jcm!^.
Solution. I^t the unifornily distributed loading be w per unit run.
wl^
Max.
Max. bending stress /

"
M
Z
,
m /2 d
16 /
_ S M'/*
Centre deflection * ~ 384 El
24 dE
- 5 ii~
= J_ JL
24 E '
LX t400
4 2 X 10
7
80
80
-jd .
X 20 cm
=344'3 cm
=3443 metres.
From (i)
16 If
d/2
_ 16 x 8604 X 1400 , ,
30 X (344-3)2
=54*18 kg. I cm.
>^5418 kg-lmetre run.
70. Beams of varying sections

If the section of a beam varies along the span the slopes and
deflections can be determined by rearranging the relation
El Af to the form,
Nowt by successive integrations the slopes and deflections can

be computed.
Problem 276. A cantilever carries a point
of length I W
had at
the free end. If the moment of inertia of the section increases uniformly
from I at the free end to 21 at the fixed end, calculate the deflection
at the free end,
SolDtioD. At any section
4 distant jc from B the moment of

inertia of the section
PiR. 438
B.M. at the section
=Af Wx
^ dx^ /*
Wl HI
I
1-fl
'
-7]'r
1 +
T
,
'
EL
T
where Ci is a constant of integration.

At A the slope is zero.

i.e., at X=
lyri
n'l
^
nz/2
log. 2+Ci
'-(l-log. 2)

^dy Wl
r^+'7
,
WP, ( \
cg.(^l+-yj+ , ,
x ,
WP ,,
(l-log.2)
Integrating again, we have,

Wlx^ .
WP{ , I
x\ { X 1
11 +-27-f'8-i'+-/j-j7- ,*{
WP
"'
+ (I -log, 2)
... ,+ ')-,+g.( H-f

)}
(l-log.2). X+C2
I.e,, at X" /,
U73 U//2
0- {/ log. 2- /+ / log. 2}
Wfi
+ -I- (l-log.2H C2
0= WP + WP
,, . , , ^
Y~
jy/3
C2=
-jY"
7 JJ./3
log. 2
C2 = WP (log. 2-0-5)
Wlx^_^WP{ ,j_x\
.

.
Pv
> ,
'(
1+ ,,,
I-,-
^
WP 2-0-5)
+ -y- x(l-log.2)- (log.
To find the deflection at B, putting x=0, in the above relation,

we have,
WP
Ey,^-JZ^ 2-0-5)
(log.
yi>=--- (log. 2-~0-5)

El
71. Strain energy stored due to bending
\ ig. 439
In chapter 2, we have studied about strain energy stored by a

member due to axial loading. If a member of length / and sectional
area A is subjected to a total axial force S on the section we know
tl\e strain energy storeti
volume
In Fig 439 is shown a beam subjected to an external loading.

C\msider two sections I - I and 2, dx apart Let us assume that
if^c bending moment is practically constant between the two sections.
Let this bending moment be A/.

The part of the beam between these two sections can be taken
u> co-isist of an infinite nunibei of elemental cylinders of area da and
U'ligth dx.
Con^-dcr one such elemental cylinder at a distance y from the
neutral layer.
The stress in this elemental cylinder
where I is the moment of inertia of the beam section about the

neutral axis.
Strain energy stored by the elemental cylinder
f2
. volume of the elemental cylinder.
f2
- IE da.dx
i.-;,
* da.dx
i-fy) 2E
472 SIRBNG1H OF MATOUALS
M^dx /j, 9^
.
'
if/*
Strain energy stored by dx length of the beam
= Strain energy stored by all the elemental
cylinders between the two sections
2f/* ^ da.y^
_ K^dx , .
-2 gjz
M*dx
2EI
This is the energy stored by dx length of the beam.
Energy stored by the whole beam
J 2E1
Problem 277. A
cantilever of uniform section carries a point
load at the free end- Find the strain energy stored by the cantilever
and hence calculate the deflection at the free end,
Solation. Fig. 440 shows
cantilever AB of length fixed /,
^
at .4 and free at B and carrying u x
^
a point load fV at the free end ^

B. -^1 ^
B
At any section X distant , |
X from B the bending moment r " ^

is given by Fig. 440
M^Wx
/. Strain energy stored by the cantilever
j 2EI
I
fV^^^dx
f
J 2EI
Let 8 be the deflection of the free end.

Woriedone >= Average load x deflection
Equating the work done to energy stored, we have.
6EI
lEI
Problem 278. A cantilever of length I carries a uniformly distri-
buted load of w per unit run. Find the strain energy stored by the
cantilever.
Sclation. Fig. 441 shows

the cantilever AB fixed at A and fOrlUNITRUN ^ j
free at B andcarrying unifor-
mly distributed load of w per
unit run over the whole length.
The B.M. at any section Pig. 441
X distant x from B
2
Strain energy stored by the cantilever
f M^ dx
J 2El
'^=J(-2 )~2EI
0
/
\x^ dx-
%E! %EI 5
0
Wir
40E/
Problem 279. A simply supported beam of span I carries a point
load IV at mid-span, Find the strain energy stored by the beam and
hence calculate the central deflection.
Solution. Fig. 442 shows
w
the imply supported beam AB
V v? -I,,-
of pan / carrying a point load t X
H at the mid span C C
-j

*
i.
I
W f
2 Fig. 442
At any section in AC^ distant x from A, the B.M. is given by,
M -zr- X
474 STRENGTH OP MATTKIALS
Strain energy stored by the part AC

r M^dx
2EI
112
>2 x-dx
4 ~2EI
112
W2
x^dx
8/
0
Si rain energy stored by the whole beam
W't- 2 X energy stored hy AC
112
= 2X~| f
.2^.
0
4El
3
8
R/2/3
96EI
Let the central deflection be
Work done=i WB
Equating the work done to strain energy stored, wc have,
H'2/3
961:1
WP
48L7
Frobiem 280. A beam of leniith I is simply supported at its ends.
The beam carries a uniformly distributed load of u pit unit run over
the whole span, find the strain energy stored by the beam.
Solution Fig. 443 shows tafkfHtl RUN
a simply suppt)ried beam AB 3
carrying a uniformly distiibuted

load of w per unit run.
4
Oft
Each vertical reaction ^ 2
^w\ F.r. 443
2
The BAl. at any section A' distant v from A is given by.
,-2
_H.Y
- X-
2
xU- -x)
B
DdFLECITON OP BEAMS
475
Strain energy stored by the beam

M^dx
lEl
I
4 ^ 2/~
2Ix^ \-x^)dx
iEirl
0
- n
m\ 3
-11
4
+4)
5 /
'lAQEI
Problem 281. Find the strain energy stored
by the structure
shown in Fig. 444 and hence compute the vertical
deflection of the end
A. Assume the section of the member is uniform.
1 '
I
Solution.
tTOuiiuii. At any seen
section m in AB distant x
y 1^-. from A, the B.M. is given by.
i w
I M Wx
Strain energy stored by A
- f
j 2/;/
^ f Wdx
i
'
j 2LI
rig, 444
IW
bEI
At any section in BC distant i from B, the B.M. is given by,
Strain energy stored by BC

^ f M -dA
J 27
I
\Vfa-dy
J 2Ei
0
2EI
476 STRENGTH OF lUTBRIAlR
Total energy stored
, n't = - -
6I
. + --Jli
7El
W~a^
ia+3l)
6E1
Let S be the vertical deflection at the end A,
Equating the work done to energy stored, we have,
(a+3l)
._WaHa+3I}
^
3EI
Problem 282. Find the strain energy stored by the quadrantal
ring shown in Fig. 445 of radius R. Hence calculate the vertical
deflection of the end A.
Solution. At any section X, whose radius
vector OX makes an angle 0 with the vertical,
the B.M. is given by
WR sin 0
Strain energy stored
= W',
r M '^ds
J IE!
V2
r (ITRsi n 0)gfjtt/e)
J 2EI
0
rcl2
sin 6 </0
2EI I
W~' n
'
2EI 4
W^nR^
%EI
Let the vertical deflection at A be 8.
Equating the work done to strain energy stored, we have.

WîzP?
SEI
WnR^
8
AEI
Probiem 283- A cantilever of length I carries a point had W
at f"s free end. The member is circular in section having a diameter
D for a distance ~ from the Jixed end and a diameter y- for the
Show that the deflection at the free end

23 WP
remaining length. is
where I is the moment of inertia of the smaller section.

SolntHNi* Fig. 446 shows the cantilever ABof length / carrying
the point load W at the free end.
The part AC is of diameter D
Fig. 446
The part CB is of diameter
Moment of inertia of the section for the part AC^

Moment of inertia of the section for the part
64 \ 2 ) 1024
Let the moment of inertia of the section for the part CD !
Moment of inertia of the section for the part /!C=I6 f
__ H/ _ f i Bending nwment)^dx
'
J 2( flexural rigidity)
HI I
( Wx)^x d ( lVx)'^dx
2EI 2E{\61)
W'2 1 lyz 1
2EI
3 8 3 IE! H"-:]
3
mF, 7 ^2/3 ^
23 Wip
Ai~El l(y%EI '76 < El
Equating work done to strain energy stored,
7^ ~~Er
, 23 we
384 El
ProUea Find the strain energy stored by the frame shown
284.
in Fig. 447 end find the horizontal deflection of the roller end D.
SotatioB. Obviously there will be a horizontal reaction P at A.
478 STKENGTH OF MATERIALS
? P
Fig. 447 Fig. 448
Strain energy stored by the frame

^2 X strain energy stored by AB
-4- strain energy stored by BC,
At any section AB distant y from A the B.M. is given by,
M^-Py
Strain energy stored by the column AB
_ fA/Vr
J 2EI
I
-J 2E/
0
/, Strain energy stored by both the columns
/
f P^^dy
J 2EI
0
jy
El 3
PUjt
At any section in BC distant .x from B, the B.M. is given by,

M^Pl
Strain energy stored by 8C
m f
J 2 El
f '
PV^dx
J 2EI
0
P'l^
2EI
deflection of beams 47.9
Total strain energy stored by the frame

. P^Pa
3 I 2 El
pivi
-6H <''+'>
Let S be the horizontal movement of D
Equating the work done to strain energy stored, we have,
Problem 285. For the semicircular arch of radius R shown in

Fig. 449Jind by the arch and hence find the
the strain energy stored
horizontal defection of the roller end B.
r
^49 Fig. 450
Solution. See Fig, 450.
Obviously the hori/oiital reaction at the hinged end =~-P.

At any section whose radius vector
A' OA makes an ancle B
with the horizontal the B.M. is given by
M ^ P R sin
'
ds
We
\ 2 Ef
nil
(P R sin . (R dll)
-'I 2 El
12
Rl f
sin^ 6 d6
El j
_P^ R^ n
4'
El
Let the horizontal deflection of the roller end be S.
Equating the work done to strain energy stored, we have,
A El
_PRH
2 Ei
Problem 286. A beam of rectangular section has a uniform
breadth B and depth which varies uniformly from at each end JD D
at the middle oj its length. A second beanie made of the same material
as the first beam^ has the same length and breadth but a uniform depth
3D. find the ratio of the strain energy of the first beam to that of the
second beam when each is simply supported at its ends and carries a
central point load (London University)
Solution. (/) Beam of vary-
ing depth.
Fig. 451 shows the beam

whose depth uniformly increases
from D at each end to 3/) at
the centre.
Let the span of the beam

Fig. 451 be/.
At any section .V di>tant .v from A^x<~j^ the depth of the

^
section n' D
il f
-K'+t)
Motnenf of inertia at the section X
B.M. at-V = M= ~
12
A
12 \ n
fAf-rf.v
11/2
III
x^dx
4
4x
:
V /
//2
3H''2 x-^
dx
1
OElUCriON OF BEAMS 481
4ji:
1 .
Let
-v=4 0.--1)
du
i
When .v=-0,
M---I
, .
1
and when X ^
u=-3
3
2w4-l /
dll
EBiy^\ 16 m3 4
1
64
3 IK 73
LB If]
f
pV
\
_
ir
2
)
dll
3 2
u i
(34 u
3 1
64
3 \y'2.i\
3 f
^ 18 H-:)J
64 EBD^
logr 3-
J
(//) ij/ constant depth
""^3
96 /__ fi(3i))3
96 ,-y-
Jf^/3
^3-=^
216 5I3
^ ^ ^
,_i_l2i6 ebd^
Ui 04 '
EBDi_ 9 J 12/3
72. Work done by a force on a member

be very convenient to realize the expiession for the work
It will
done by a force on a member. Let a member be subjected to a force
W (applied gradually). See Fig. 452.
\
4g2 STRKNGTH OF MATFHMLS
Let S be the deflection of the member in the line of action of

the force. In this case the deflection is caused by the force W,
[ 45:
Work done by the force
, rf
=
2
1 ig. 453 shows a inefuber cairvmg a load A'. This load by
virtue of irsown direct action will produce a defleciion.
I Ig. 4V^
le(a moment, consider the load A as a very small load

us, for
Hence the deflection produced by A is also very small and the work
done by K may be ignored.
Suppose now due to the ac' ion of s(^me other externa! agency
the member is subjected to a deform ition. l.et v be the dellection
in the line of action of the load A'.
Now the work done by the load A'-'A.i

Thus wc find that
(/) If a loiul acts on a me'nbcr .tn^l ](..!, \-cs a deflection in

of action, bv
its line î^luo of its (>wn direct aci.on, (he work done by
the load IV-
(a) If a member subjected to a load K is given a deformation
V in the line of acti<'m of by virtue of some K other external agency,
the work done by thejoad Ky
73. Law of reciprocal deflection or Maxwell's reciprocal theorem
In any beam or truss the deflection at any point D due to a load
W at any other jyoint C is the âme as th' :c:7 at C due to the f
same had IV applic at D.

Fig. 454 (/) shows i structure AR carrying a load iranplied at
any point C. Let the deflection at C be \c. Let the deflection d
any other point D be Ad.
Fig. 454 (ri) shows the sam^' structure .4 i? carrying the same
hmd W
at D, Let the deflections at C and D be and respec-
tivelv.
pbFLLClION Oh BEAMS 483
W
\ JK. 455
Ixt the straciurc L>e KuUed as shown in i ig. 434 {/). Work
done on the structure = i IV c, as the structure is loaded with the
load IV at C Let an other equal load be applied at Z). There

will be furti und dj at C and D as shown in
Fig. 455
Total work done in this position
Let now the order of loading be changed.

Let the structure be first loaded as shown in Fig. 453 (it I f or
FIk. 456
484 STRENGl H OP MATERIAL^
tills position, the work done-iH^î. As the structure is loaded with

tiic load IV at Z), an equal load
let be applied at C. Further
deflections of Ac and A^/ will occur at C and D respectively. See
Fig. 456.
Total work done in this position
Equating the two expressions obtained for the total work done
when both the loads arc present on the structure, we have
^\W^d\\WAc\- WAd
^c=Âd
i e ,
The deflection at C due to the load Pk' at D
- the deflection at D due to the same load
WdX c.
74. Bettes Law
In any structure the material of which is elastic and follows
Hookc\s law and in which the supports are unyielding and the
temperature is constant, the virtual work done h\ a system offorces Fi,
^2 Fa, ..during the distortion earned hy a system if forces W\, Woj
,
is equal to the virtual work done by the svstem of forces IV\, 1F2,
]Vz ..during the distortion caused bv the system of forces Pi, Pj. /"a...
Fig. 457 shows the structure subjected separately to the two

systems of forces.
Let IF^^Êxteinal work done on the structure when the system
of forces Pi, P^, P3 be applied.
Let IFc' External work done on the structure when the system
of forces lp 2 IF3 be applied.
>
Fig. 457
DtrLKCTlON OF BEAMS 485
Let Vi, Ka be the deflections caused by the system of forces

f I, /ê, at the points of application of the forces Wj, IV2,
respectively.
Let n, vj, r.'i be the deflections caused by the system of forces

1^1, lf 2t at the points of application of the fo-ês /i, F2, /^3
respectively
Let the structure be first loaded with the system offerees
Fu Pi
Work done on the structure^ FKr
As the struct urc is carrying this system of forces, let now the
vvstera of forces Wis Ha be applied.
Total work done
-W h IV'r ^Piyi bP2n+P:,ys
Let now the order of loading be changed.
Let the structure be first loaded with the system of forces IVu
n'2. Ha-
Work done on the structure fV'> .
As the structure is carrying this system, let the system of forces

Pi. Pî be applied.
Total work done- .4 IV. f Wi Y) 1 Y2+ >'3
Lquitiup the expressions for the total work done when both the
systems of lorsos arc piesent on the structure,
We have
It'. 4 I Pixi 4 I Pm - H' e\ He 4 IVi Yi r Hi >'2 JT'a Y3
PiM ^
P:yi i Pm H ^ 144 HlY^y Ha >4
/. work done by the system of forces Pi, Py, P:i due fo
Virtual
the caused by the system of forces H'x. H'4 H;j equals
deflections ,
\irtiial work done by the system of forces M'V H\ IL:: due to the
deflections caused by ihe system of forces Pi, P2, Ps-
75 . The first theorem of Castigliano
In anv beam nr truw subjected to any load swytem, thy deflection

at any point r is yiven by the partial dijjerential coefficient 0/ the total
'strain nergy stored with respect to a force Pr acting at the pohit r in
(
the direction in which the dejlection is desired.
p? p. p* p
Fig. 45?
486 S.Fi OF MAlIiRIALS
Fig. 458 shows a stnicUire .4/? carrying a load system Pi,

P-U,. Pr,.,Pu,
Let the deflection at the point r be t
Let fFr External work done by the given load system

H'/ Corresponding strain energy stored.
Pig. 459
Suppose the load P^ acting at the point r increases by a small

amount zlP-. The of such an increase
effect in Uie magnitude of the
load Pr can be studied as follows
Let a load APr alone be applied at r
Let the deflection at r due to the load . : / be Ay..

/. Work done - I APr. f
This being tlic product of two nhnitclv smah qu intitics, can he
ignored.
As the structure K canytug ;(ie load \P^ at r.
Let the given load system P\ Pj. P3 , be applied on the

- structure.
Total external work done

y
Let the corresponding strain energy stored hv the structure be

Wi^ÂWi
Wr + APr Jr \W^ -
. . .(//)
FTom equations (?) and (//), we have

APryr'-ÂW^
The above is more justified when i^Pr is an infinitely small

quantity.

y = Lim AW t
" APrÔ APr
^differential coefficient of the total strain

energy stored with respect to Pt.
.
election of BhAM=; 487
Application of tin '

rst theorem of Castigliano to problems on
Jefltctions.
Problem 287. Find the dcjlcciion at the free end of a cantilever

a concent t\}tcd load at the fret end. Assume uniform flexural
i'urrviiig
riguHt V.
Solution, f' ii 460 sliows a cantilever carrying a point load P
at the irec end 1. The bcnJin> moiiient at any section distant a-
f.oin the free end is given by
Fig 4H)
A/
-
-P\
St I ni) energy stored Sy the cantilever
r \edx
VlEI
f P^x^ dx
2Ef
pi /
ir.i 3
p-r-
f>E/
. . By the the first theorcni of Castigliano,
the deflection in the line of action of the force P,
{IP) P PP
dp 6Er 3EI
Problem 2S8. Find the central deflection of a simply supported *
heam carrying a concentrated load at mid span. Assume uniform

flexural rigidits .
Solution. Fig. 461 shows a beam AB simply supported at A and

B and carrying a central load P. Each reaction
P

2
The bending moment at any section in distant x from the

end A is given by
P
Af - ~ X
% Fig. 461
CM^dx
^ 2E/
J
112
_( P^ dx
4' 2EI
J
0
p2 1
/a

4Ef > 8
96 E/
pip
-
W<
96/
The deflection in the line of action t^f P is given by
-
A'_
"
?> 96/7
s-
48E/
Problem 289. A simply supported beam earries a point loa d P
eccentrically on the span. Find the deflection under the load. Assume
uniform flexural rigidity.
Solution. Fig 462 shows a beam AB of span I which carries a
load P at C.
X 1
Fig. 462
- a
defiection of beams 4R9
Let AC and BC^b.
1)
Reaction at
Renction at
The strain energy stored by the beam AB

strain energy stored by /(T
+ strain energy stored by BC
l( Ph Y dx {( Pa \i,2
dx
Ir
0
/ 2El
0
pia%s
6Eifi + bEfP
Since a + /^=/
6-//
Deflection under load /' is given by

n o
iP bCiT
Problem 290. The semicircular arch shown in fig. 463 has one
uf //V hinged while Us other end is on rollers. The roller end is
cniis
piuled with a horizontal force P. Determine the hitrizonial
movement
of the roller end. Asmme uniform Jlexurcd rigidity.
Solatioo. There will be a
horizontal reaction at A.
The bending moment at

ariv section X is given by
Af jP r sin B.

by the arch î
Fig. 463
r M^ds
/2
P*r2sin2e.r</e
2Ei
490 siu,\c;n. uh rims
^
y y 1
0
r -r - r.

4/:/
I lon/oiital movcrih nt of the roller end is iiven b\
. ^ ^ i2P)r^ K
'
rV VE!
Pr^ K
IE!
above examples the deflection vvas determined in the
In the
line of action of a force Rut ifir is lequircd to lind the deflection
at point where ni' force is actnal'v acting* then an imaginary force
0 should be applied at the point and the total tMiergy stored b> the
structure should be determined This expression for Die total
energy should be different fated with respecf to <> In the resulting
expression should be pat ecjual to /er^* The following e< irnpies
will further explain tins point
Problem 29 1 Find the iLilr no/t m tih' cenfro of a h.ooi i>f

spun 1 currymi: u nnif(*rnifr ./, </ LtaJ o/ w pi r unit ran ,>, f //,,,
w'hoL' ^pun /fvs:./ui* uniform rhn'./z'k
Solution Inirodijce an ima^'i:iar\ concentrated load Q ar the

middle pmnt.
U pAf .j n, '*
li ih4
Fach vertical reaction
m7 t
Q
2
Bending moment ai a scctii>r. distant a* from one end

m7 \~Q _ MCV-
2 ^
2
Total strain energy stored by the beam
f dx .
] lEl
OEPMCmON OF BEAMS 491
wl-\~Q wx- T dx
-1[
tii.
wl l
Q \2
To find the central deflection, dilTerenli.itine the total

.ifviin energy .vith respect to Q, we have
in
. Sjf'.

If J u/ \Q II \ > ,
"p ^
: j
>
/:
I 1 fu/ o
H 1
1 J J
0

1
'
wl
Q 1 F M'
1
LI 1
2 3 8 2
1 1
wF wF ,
(JP 1
El i
48 128 4H !
5
I
-1
wC
El ^ 384 48 J
Putting Q 0, we have
5 u/
384 El
Problem 292. Find the dcfhdr^n al (he free ( nd oj u curuitever
<[l length / carrying a uniformly dtarVûud loiuJ of w pci unit run over
the whole span^ Assume uniform jlcwual rigulify.
.Solotion, Introduce an imagnuiiy point load Q at the Tree end.
U' yr:
'hcrjZcxx-x:.C'Cj-i i.:;
be . nJ ^
^-r-r-rvrr cU2CIlCcdl
Fig. ^65
at any section distant x from the free end

The bending moment
.
492
Strum energy stored

by the cantilever
M^dx
2Ef
dx
'2E1
u
total energy w hh VsjLf differentiating the
0
1
r Qp ,
wp 1
Putting {?=0, we have,

f/
F/L' 3'+~Fj
8E/
âcoTmrTd had
""
;SS 5SLS
Sohiflon, Pert/rn/ ,/e;7,,,v,Vm
/ ^
Fie. 466
Fig. 467
The bending moment at any section
making an angle 0 with the vertical is
X the radm< vector OA
given bv
Af>-i>r sin 9
dlflection of beams 493
Strain energy iitoied

A/W.s
f
j 2/;/
'12
_ f P'Y- sin- 0 . n/t'

"j
2F/
0
_ P -V=
'2
LI 4
^~Jli
Vertical deflection of A
a/
8/
Mil
tiorizonlat inovcnicnl of 4
Introduce an iitiapiiiaiy luni/oni.d loite (j at A.

The beniling niuiueiit at any .'cetK>:' \ is now vi\cn by
M -1/Vsin!.' Or(l -cos H)]
Strati! cnciLy sU>rcd by the siiucture
t~<h
-- I S
([
fr sin tt
i (?r( ! cos 0) T ''jH.
J 2El
1 he horizontal movement of A is given by
.'TK
6a
<(?
2 sin 6 |
Qr( 1 ci's U) r( I cos 6) ~
/'(/n
I J 2EI
re/Z 7t/2
^3^ - cos
|-
El I
sin e (1 fl) ^/0+ (J cos 6)- ,/tl
Putting
KJL
sin 0(l-cos )r/e

n/2
;[(i-cos0)2]
Pr^
lEI
Problem 294. The bend ABC
shown in Fi^. 468 carries a concent-
rated \ertical load P at A. Find the vertical and horizontal deflection
of A A\s wne un ifo rm flexural rigidi t\\
Solution. Vertical deflection of A. Strain energy stored by the
frame
strain energy stored by 4/i 4-strain energy stored by BC,
py 4.
6/ 2/
n>
IV. LIB" (a 1-3//)
6FI
To find the vertical deflection of A dilferentiatiiv the loial
energy stored with respect to P, we have,
^ j {2P)a^(a \ 3 h)
~(P ()/
h
B A
T
1
h h
Cl
rrr**-^7r
mjh/n
c

495
T)EFLE( TK)N of br\ms
PaHa ^ 3//)
3El
When i.e., if had been a cantilever
Particular case. I
fixed at B
Pa^
3EI
Horizontal deflection of A
To find the *iori 7 <>ntai JellectiiMi id 1 intn>Jucc an ini<itiinary
force Q hori/ontally at i-
Strain cncrjiy st'Oicd i^y ilu* 'troctioi' is no eiven h'
a /:
ir,
I 1E 2/7
U i)
'
*ui
Differentiating the birain enepiv .vi (J
liorizvintal nioxenicni f '
. II
^ (
I " '
n\_ ' ^ 1
IuitlUj; (J '* '^0 li.i\o

, f'tih
2 /:/
iod the i.ofra //", //o.** o{ the lOnjoroi i'cml

iVoblcin 25. f t
4HCJ)tl'0 sIwM N 07 I Of:.
Solution. Stra n energ> >loic-J \y- hh' whole straetvne

\V 2 tF.ncrpv stored pn AJk and C /^|
K i
hiK. -I7U
496 STRENGTH OF UATCRt/Us
M'-(Is
2EI
j P \2 IP \2
^2 ') fl2 ) +
I
0
r 2EI IK <'+>
r^,.
=2 [P-
14
d
3
j +? ^S.+?
lEI 4 2/ 4
.
J,.
2/
4 jw-.)3|
-
]
=--2
[;24/
'
87
PV
"2x __ _
11
24 El l2 El
Vertical deflection of D
t'W'.^ll (^)a3
()P 12 El'
II /<a
6 El
Problem 2% .4 miU steel bur 10 an. diameter is bent as
\Iiowh
in Fig. 47 1. It isji\ed horizontally at A and a load of 50 kg. hangs at
D. Draw the bending moment diagram for the part.s A B, BC and CD
indicating the maximum value.s. Find the maximum bending .Uress
Find also the deflection at D. Take E --2x 10^ kg.lcni.
Solution. Conventions for bending moments.
For horizontal members, sagging moments will be regarded as

positive.
For the vertical member, bending moment producing concavity

on the right hand side of the member will be regarded as positive.
B.M. at Z)=
B.M. at C as a part of C/)-= -50 X 2= -100 A-gm.
B.M af C as a part of CB= -F 100 kgm.
B.M. at B as a part of BC-Â-mkgrn.
B.M. at B as a part of -4B + 100 kgm.
B.M. at A 50 X 1 = 50 kgm.
= 100 kgm.
M 100 X 100
kg./cm.^
Z x(U})8
32
^mkglcm.*
497
: -r?
'
s'v /'
\ i
1 I
f :
*>y th' I
% M'>''
t\ AT
;., ,ine:.r-s:'r^''r' ^<-\
' ' ..f
"t'M'c'l b'-- D(
I
by BC
^ '
'> f*I
1
r
irj M lik
2EJ
ti
2f./
498 STRENGTH OP MATPRULS
=ZL+i. />*
6EI1EI (f)
T El
Veitical deflection at /)
= S ?^= _P
0> 6 El 3 El
P=50
=2x 10* kg-lcm?
it(lO)*
/= cm.*
64
^=29 50X64
X( 100)8 cm.
3 2xl0Vn(10)*
0'49em.
76. Impact loading on beam

Simply supported beam
f
Fig. 473 (a) shows a simpjy
If 1
supported team AB of span 1.
Let a load fV be dropped

(.) on the centre of the span from a
t height h.

P 1
V? ) maximum
Let S be the instantaneous
deflection.
/. Work done on the beam

(t)
a).
Fig. 473
shows the same beam carrying a gradually applied

Fig. 473 (h)
load? so as to produce the same deflection ^ at the centre. For this
cose the work donc==i ?8.
But 8=
p/3
48?/
1 Pfi
-Work done-^?,^~
96EI
Eqcating the two expressions obtained for the work done, we
have
ppjPLFOTlON OF BEAMS
The above equation is a quadratic equation in P, By solving

equation the equivalent gradually applied load P can be deter-
giincd Once P is known, the maximum deflection is determined
from the relation or from the relation.
The maximum bending moment to which the beam is subjected

in is give by
A^maa "-i
4
ff Z be the section modulus for the section, the maximum
i>t.>ruaiiôus stress
Af
Problem 297. A 500 mm. x 180 mm. rolled steel beam is simply
uiportcdofi a span of 6 metres A load of 2 tonnes is dropped on to
fKhIdfe of the beam from a height of J' 25 cm Find the maximum
iro'U îâncous deflection and the maximum stress induced. Take for
the beam section Lr~ 452 1 8' 3 cm and E~^ 2x 10^ tonnesjem^.
Solution.
2 tomes.
Let be the maximum deflection.
Let P tonnes be the equivalent gradually applied load on the

middle of the beam so as to produce the same maximum deflection.
2(l"25+8)-.4pJ5
2*50 f 2SiPa
54-48-P8
^(P 4)-5
p/3
_ P{600^
487
PX600
48E/
(P-4) -
/(/-4)=
5x48x2xl0x452I8-3
(600)
i(P_4)== 100-4
p-4P^m-4
|
500 SIRENGTH OF MATBUUlS
(jP-.2)2=104'4
(P-2)- 10-22
P=I222 tomes.
Max. B.M.
PI
^Mmaz- '
4
12J2X600 tonne cm.
4
-I2'22x 150 tonne cm.
f
iexiion modulus Z =
y
45218*3
~ cm.^
25
-^1808*7 cm?
=/=
M
Z
_ 12-22x150
tjenu-
1808-7
= 10 14 r/cm.
1014 kg.jcm?
R
^
" 48 /
''
J222 X 6008 on
48x2xi6=x452)8 ^
O' 6084 cm.

77. Laminated Springs or Leaf Springs
This is a commonly occur-
ring type of spring used in carriages
like cars, lorries or wagons. This
spring consists of a number of
leaves or plates of equal width and
thickness but of varying length,
placed one below the other.
These springs get loaded at
the ends and are supported in the
middle.
I
In this type of spring, since ,

: .
:
;
;
{ |
friction between the plates is }-~

V
t-
'
-j
''
--J
negligible, each plate can be consi- - .
dered as free to slide over its Fig. 474

neighbouring plate. Further all the plates may be assumed to
maintain the same radius. Each plate section hence has its own
Ofcl LKCTfON OP BEAMS 501
Fig. 475 Fig. 476
neutral axis. Hence the plates may be looked upon

as being
arranged by side. Hence for analysis purposes the carriage
side
spring can be considered as equivalent to a beam whose depth is
uniform and equal to the thickness of one plate and whose width
uuifornaly increises from zero at each end to nb at the centre where
yiis the number of plates and b is the width of each plate.
The equivalent beam is shown in Fig. 475.
Consider the equivalent beam. Let the span of the beam

be I.
Width of this beam at a section X at a distance v ^less than
s r(>ni the left end
Moment of inertia at the section X
12
nbt^
61
It.M at the section
R El
W 6\
~2
502 STRiiNGiH OF MATBRUU
I 3Wl
constant
R Enbfi
Hence the beam will bend to a constant radius.
Central deflection
/2
8
Enbt^
3
...(/I
8 Enbt^
B.M. at the centre
Wl
A/-
Section modulus at mid span
Z= . -g-
Bending stress
M Wl _
6 _
4"
Z nbt'^
...(//)
^ 2
*
^nb7^~
From equations (i) and (ii)
//2
a--: ...(iii)
4r
It may be noted that the spring has been analysed as a Amo;
of uniform strength.
Work done by the load on the spring strain energy stored by
the spring i IVS
Stiffness of the spring load required to produce unit'deflection
JV
'
a'
ProUem 298. A spring 75 cm. long is required to carry
leaj
a central point load of 500 kg. If the central deflection is not to
exceed 2 cm. and the bending stress is not to e.xceed 2 tjem." determine
the thickness, width and number of plates.
Also compute the radius to which the plates should be curved.
Assume width of the plates = 12 times the thickness and
E=2xJ0hkg./cm.^ {AAIIE, November 1971)
Sointioa. IS cm. b=\lt
ik - ."00 kg. E=2 X 10* kg.lcm.^
S=2 cm.
/=2000 kgjcm.^
t
uBPIECTION beams 503
We know the following relations :
f_ 3 Wl
^ ...(0
2 nb?
___ 3 WP
...()
8 EnbP
...(Hi)
AEl
^ ...(iv)
8i?
fP 2000x752
From (iii)
^ -
' 4S 4x2xl0x2
ft = 12 XO-7=r4 cm.
3 Wl 3 800X75
From (0 fbP 2 '
^xi2(0-7)2
2
=8 plates.
P 75X75
^
From (/v) ^ 8~-2' ^
Problem 299. A leaf spring is to he made of seven steel plates

6-5 cmwide and 6 3 mm. thick. Calculate the length of the spring
275 kg., the stress being limited
so that it may carry a central load of
t., 1600 k^.lcm.^ Calculate also the deflection at the centre of the
spring. i ^ kg.jcm.^ {AMIE, May 1970)
Solution.
K= 7 I
bÔ'Sem. 8 ?
f"=063 cm.
W'=275 kg.
/=1600 kg /cm.^
=21 X 10 kg./cm.
r
" 2
^ WL
nbt^
3 W
7 X 6-5 X 0 63^x1600
''
-70 cm.
'
3 275
* g Enbt^
_ 3 275x70
"T (2-lx10)x7X6-5(0-63)
=/-#/ cm.
I m long is made up of pktes
Problem 300- A laminated spring
cm. thick. If the bending stress in the plates
each 5 cm. wide aid I
504 3 rRt,N(.. 5 H C'J
ii Hmth d if- / how mun^ pines k-i; iuI tliihfi /J,"

spring to cttrr r a cem ral poiti! I -uil of e..
If E-=- y t :< 10^ kg jch'', .!ut: n'

load of 200 kg '
Soititioj*.
/) " 5 an.
t- I cot.
/-K'iM) kgu:
ie j.-n
? ii'V
'
I \n
U I
tbt^
2(10 JiM
RKK' '
5 t-
fl-
4 i:t
K-'OOxUHi !f)<i
4 2
I X 1 (
f*' X 1
- J-l<lcn..
Problem .VU. A carriage spring ir i'd.'i metres I ,ne
up .if plat, 's
HiV/f and lOnd dw ,m,.e.ci of rhtes
! nil. thick
i'.naired f ,r ihi '.'iting if a central point I'.iad
of ÎO I g. in h
and if the bending stress is not to euecd 1400 kg.Lm.^ Find ah
thv r
central deflection. Take E ~7'.< 10^ kg.icm.^

Solution. Bending stress
-f-
'2 itbt-
W!
2
fbt^
3 600 X 125
^
"
2 1400 x 8 X 1
-= / y plates.
Central deflection
8-1
8 Enbfi
600XJ25
8 2xi0xirx8x 13
=^496 cm.
U^CTlON OF BEAMS 505
jbLl
Problem 302. A laminated carnage spring is 80 cms* long and

fwhr leaves of the same thickness and 4 cm. wide. Find
t \hUkniSs of the leaves if the bending stress is to be limited to 200()
when the spring is subjected to a point load of 600 kg. at the
urc. find also the central deflection. Take E~ 2 X 10^ kg.jcm,^
SulutioD. Maximum stress

3 Wf
^
2 nbt^
2 nbf
3_ 6^^80
2 T2X 4X2000
0866 cm. say 0*9 cm.
Central deflection
\V^
EnbV^
_ 600 X 80 '^
"^8 2X10X 12x4(0*9)^

S = /65 cm.
78. CoDjugate Beam Method
We have earlier discussed the slopes and deflections of beams
ubjected to an external loading by various meihoJs like moment
:srca njctbod, Macaulay's method^ etc. The methods discussed
Mflier were convenient for cases where the beam is of uniform
'v \ural rigidity. If the flexural rigidity is not uniform throughout
liC length of the beam, the methods discussed earlier are very
Fig. 477
laborious. The conjugate beam method presents a very easy approach

and the student will find its application very interesting. Before this
ingenious method is introduced, it will be worthy to go through the
following discussion.
Fig. 477 shows the bending moment diagram for a beam A B
with supports at A and B.
Taking A as origin, consider any section X distant x from A.
Let M be the bending moment at X.
See Chijpter 8.
Wc have, with the usual notations,
Integrating from 0 to x, we have,
E! -= /(/*- ia) == Mdx--a>:

I
where as is the area of the B.M. diagram from A to X.
; J_
/.=/+ ...(/)
d^v
Again,
Multiplying by x.
Elxî =Mx.
Integrating for the whole range from A to B, we get
L L
/ X i/x*==| Mxdx
j
L
7 Moment of
H! *
* f the
t whole
]b.M. diagram about
z A,
0
-ax
where flfârea of the B.M. diagram from A to B
A'centroidal distance of this diagram
from A,
We know,
At .^-=0, j-0
At .x=/, y=^0 .
dv
and =io
dx
Substituting the limits, we get
Ell ib=^dx
ax
...()
Similarly it can be shown,
a(/- x) ...(<)
j
~Ell
deflection op beams 507
Again,
(Pv
/x^2
Integrating from 0 to x.
Mxd X
0 0
- Moment of the area of B.M. diagram

between A and X about A
where t//- area of B,M. diagram between A and A'
va-centroidal distance of this diagram from A.

Substituting the limits, we get
Elixir, -y)
ajcXx
y-xu-
Ux
But from equation (/) /x -/ i-b
El
y-^x
i
r.-t
r El
ijC--.Vx)
El
It can be realized that a,{xxr.) is the moment of the area
3 * about X.
y-.X,a
moment of about X ...(iv)
Summary of results.
EIL \ El A ^f) ...(1)
ax ( a \x
...(2)
EIL " \ El ) L
/x=/..+ ...(3)
yf
and ^==j:/x-f-Moment of
1
about X ...(4)
^
5!0 STRENGTH OF MATERIATS
( ^) ( onjuiâle beam Fig. 480 (/>) Conjugate beam
I
diagram us
-
- while the thickness of the diagram is If this
^ tf
method is adopted the total load on the conjugate beam volume
of the load diagram^- area of the load diagram X thickness.
It will be t'ouiid convenient to introduce the diagram in
El
this way. This method will be adopted in the examples that follow.
Problem 303. A beam of length I is simply supported at the
ends and carries a concentrated load iv at a distance a from each end.
Find the slope at each end and under each load. Find also the de-
flection under each load and at the centre.
Solution. Fig, 481 U) shovvs a beam AB ol span / carrying
point loads W each at D and E distant a from the supports.
Fig. 4H1 ib) .shows the B.M. diagram for the beam.
Fig. 481
DEFlECTiON OF BEAMS 511
Fig. 48! (c) shows the conjugate beam carrying the loading
coiTCsponding to the diagram. This

^ diagram is practically
the same as the M diagram except in the case of the ~ diagram,
we should imagine a thickness of

Total load on the conjugate beam

Volume of the load diagram
1
-2x |~ a.WaX-^j |+(^-2a) IVaX
El El
Wa- Wji(l-2a)
El
+ -
El
_ Wa(/-a}
El
Reaction at each support for the conjugate beam
^ the total load
^ Wa{h~a)
"
IE!
Slope at each end of the given beam
--Shear force at each end of the conjugate beam
_ IVad- a)
;
2Ei
Slope under each load of the given beam
Shear force under each load of conjugate beam
Wa[l-a) _ 1
"
2EI Y a Wa El
_ llVa(l-a) Wd^
lEl 2El
_ Wid,l-2a)
2El
Deflection under each load of the given beam
=B.M. under each load of the conjugate beam
-
Wad-a) 1 ^ I
2El 2 Ef
fVaHl-a) IFa*
2El 6El
Wa^
(3/-3a-a)
6El
WdH3l-4a)
6El
Problem 304. A beam AB of span I is simpiv supporicJ .n
and B and carries
a point load IV at the centre C of the span. ;
moment of inertia of the beam section is / for the left half and .? I >
the right half Calculate the dope at each end luufthr centre and
dt flection at the centre
Solution. 1 !g. 482 (a) shows the given beam.
fig. 482 (h) shows the bending moment di.ieram for -e: ee-
lierm (^/-diagram)
Fig. 482 U ) shows the conjugate beam.
Fig. 482
DEFLBCnm OP BBAMS S13
Itie load diagnuD for the conjugate beam is pven by tbe

^diagram. The thidcness of this diagram is for the left
j
half and
^ ^ ^ for the right half.
Prêctks f loads on die conjugate beam an ahomi fceloir.

(Note : Volume of load diagram=load)
'
Load componentl Magnitude Dhtanca Mamemt

of had from A about A
1 1 Wl 1 WP 2 1 1 WP
2
2 . 4 '
El 16/ 3 " 2 3 4SEI
1 /
^
wt \ Wi- /
+ -L . J 2./
WP
2 2 4
2I 1
37EI 2 3 2 3 El
!
Total
3 Wt^ WP
32 El 24EI
. - . . -
Let V-i and Vi, be the reactions at A and B for the conjugate
beano-
Taking moments about A, we have,
^
2AEI
lAEJ
WP
But total load on the conjugate beam=-Y.,-
El
,,_
Va-
3 Wl'^ _ WP _5 WP
-32
El 2AEI 96 El
Now we can easily determine the slope and deflection for the
given beam.
Slope at A for the given beam- Shear force at A for the con-
jugate beam =-^

Slope at B for the given beam = Shear force at B for the con*
jugate beam
WP
24/
Slope at C for the given beam = Shear force at C for the con*
jugate beam
^5
~
WP _ WP
96 El \6El
WP
96JS7
514 STRENGTH (HF MATERIALS
{numerteally)
96/
Deflection at C for the given beam B.M. at C for the con*
jugate beam J _L- /JL \
96 El '
2 \6Ei \ 3 '
2 /
WP
6AEI
ProUem 3#5. A beam ABCD
is simply suppmted at its ends
A and D over a span of 30 metres. It is made up of three portions AB,
BC and CD each 10 metres in length. The moment of inertia of the
section of these portions are /, 3 1 and 21 respectively, where I=2x 1(P
cm*. The beam carries a point load of 1.51 at B and a point load of
30t at C. Neglecting the weight of the beam calculate the slopes and
deflections at A, B, C
and D. Take E-2x
l(fi tfem^.
Scrintion. Fig. 483 shows the given beam. Let vn and va be

(o)
the reactions at the supports. Taking moments about A, we have
V,, X 30= 15 X 10+ 30 X 20
Fig. 483
vj=25t and o=45 25=20t
BM. atB =20x10 -200 rm.
B.M. ate -25x10=250 On.
DEFlECnON OF BEAMS 515
Fig. 483 (b) shows the B.M. diagram for the given beam.
Fig. 483 (c) shows the^ diagram which is the loading on the
conjugate beam. The thickness on the diagram is for the portion
AB, for the portion BC and for the portion CD The

properties of the loads on the conjugate beam are given below :
{Note : Volume of load diagram load)

1
Load component of load from A about A

j
Load on AB 1
1000 20 20000
- X10X200.'< i
4 El 3 3Er
1 oad on BC \
2000 10000
200xl0x--^ 15
3/ El
1 250 50 12500
2 3/ 3 9El
Load on CD
625 70 43750
4 xl0x250x .1,
2 2El El 3 3E!
-
i
7125 293750
Total 1
3El ~9Fl
Let F- and Vj be the reactions at A and D for the conjugate

beam.
Taking moments about A, we have.
293750
Fjx30--=
9Er
2937 5
21EI
= 7125 _ 29315 34750
Va
ZEI 21EI 21EI
Now we can easily determine the slopes and deflections at
A, ft. C, D for the given beam.
Slope at A for the given beam
=S.F. at A for the conjugate beats
,
516 SntENOTH OT MATBUALS
_ 34750
nm
_ 34750 X (100)*
27x2x10*x2XJ0
=0003218
Slope at B for the given beam
=cS.F. at B for the conjugate beam
_ 34750 1000
27Er El
__ 7750
21EI
7750 X (100)*
27x2x Iu3x2xl0
=00007176
Slope at C for the given beam
S.F. at C for the conjugate beam
_ 29375 _ 6^5
21El El
^ 12500
21EI
_ 12500 X (100)*
27x2xT0x2x 108
=0-001157
Slope at D for the ^ven beam
=S.F. at D for the conjugate beam
_ 29375
277
29375 X (100)*
'27X2X1^ 2xl0
' =0 00272
Deflection at A for the given beam
=0
Deflection at B for the given beam
==B.M. at B for the conjugate beam
_ 34750 1000
21 El El
257500
21EI
2S 7S00X (100)8
27 X 2~X10*X2 X 10
=2-384 cm.
DBPLBCillON Of BEAMS 517
Deflection at C for the given beam
B.M. at C for the conjugate beam
^75 X 10-
625
'
27E/ El 3
237500
~ 27EI
237500 x(100)
27x2x103x2x10*
=2' 199 cm.
SelatioB betweoi the given beam and coBjngate beam
The relations between the given beam and the corresponding
conjugate beam- for different conditions are shown in the table on
page 518.
We will now analyse beams with different end conditions.
Problem 306- 4.cantilever of length I cartes a point load W
at the free end. Calculate the slope and defleetion at the free end.
Solution. Fig. 484 (a) shows the cantilever AB carrying the
load W at B.
Fig. 484 (h) shows the Af-diagram for the cantilever.
Fig. 484 (c) shows the corresponding conjugate beam carrying
the loading.
PIS.4S4

<bS.F. at ^ for the conjugate beam
,I.
-j m JL.
- 2gi
STRENOIH OF MATBRULS
I
I
Slope 3f any section S.F 0 t . correspoodiog section
2 Dcflfciion at any sccti B.M.

I at the correspooding section
Given system o^ loading The loadfog diagraxD bteomes tiie

3 I
M disgrao
Free
Slope -iO S.F.-O
Deflection 0 B.M.-0
(o) B M diagram positive
(sagging) , load diagram is positive that ia
Mmi I
the loadtog is downward

(b) B.M. diagram negative hi
(hogging) toad diagram Is negative that it
the loading is upward

DEIlfCTION OF 6BAM!l 519
~B.M. at B for the conjugate beam
2/
3
*
JW3
iEI
Frobiem 367. A cantilever of length I carries a point load at W
a distance h from the fixed end. Calculate the slope and deflection
at the free end.
Solutwn. Fig. 485 (a) shows a cantilever AB of length I fixed
at A and carrying a point load IF at a distance h from A.
w
Pig. 485
F'ig. 485 {b) shows the B.M. diagram for the cantilever.
Fig. 485 (c) shows the corresponding conjugate beam whose
load diagram is the diagram.

S.F. at B for the conjugate beam

=B.M. at B for the conjugate beam
k \
~ 2EJ V 3*
/
Probieni 368. A cantilever of let^th I carries a uniformly
distributed toad of w per unit run over the whole lengtl . cidetdate
the slope and deflection at the free end.
520 $fltBNGtB Of MATERIAU
fiiihHnii Fig. 486 (a) shows a cantilever of length / AB

carrying a nnifiwmly distributed load of w per unit run over the
whcde kngtii.
Fig. 486 (6) draws the B.M. diagram for the cantilever.
Fig. 486 (c) shows the correqranding conjugate beam whose
w per unit run
() !
given beam
Fig. 486
Slope at j8 for the ghreo beam

=S.F. at jB for the copjugate beam
>=VoIuiiie of load diagram
=Ateaxdiidcness
base X altitude xthidmess
JL
3
'
T"
^
1
El
""
w/*
fÊF
,
Deflection id for the givm beam
B.M. at for the ocmjQgatO beam
wfi 3 wd*
~6EI
tEI
Drohlwn 3gg. I is snAjected to a cou^
A emaiFever of latgBt
M at the fits tati. Cekudae rhe dope oad dtfieetim at the free
end. !
I
pBfLECnON OF bbamS 521
Solution. Fig. 487 (a) shows a cantilever AB fixed at A.

The free end B is subjected to a couple Mo.
thickness eJ-
E1
Fig. 487
Fig. 487 ib) shows the B.M. diagram for the cantilever.'
Fig. 487 (c) shows the corresponding conjugate beam carrying
the -^loading.
Slope at 5 for the given beam=S.F. at B for this conjugate

beam
Deflection at
-Molx ~
B for the given beams=B.M.
Mo!
El
at Bfor the conju-
^
gate beam
~ El
2
_ Mo^
~ lEl'
ProUem 310. A cantilever of length 1 is subjected to a couple
Mo at a distance l\ from the fixed end. Find the slope and deflection
at the free end.
^
Sointion. Fig 488 (a) shows a cantilever AB of length / fixed
at A. Let a couple Mo be applied at. C distant h from A.
Fig. 488 (b) shows the B.M. diagnun finr the cantilever.
Fig. 488 (c) shows the corresponding conjugate beam whose

hi
Ho
Cofij'ugate beam
Fig. 488
Slope at B for the given beam=S.F. at B for the conjugate beam
AUi
~ El
Deflection at B for the given beam B.M. at B for the conju-
gate beam
Problem 311. A propped cantilever A B of length I fixed at A

carries a point load W at mid'span. Find the reaction at the prop.
Solution. Fig 489 (a) shows the propped cantilever carrying
the point load at midspan.
Let the reactions at the fixed end A and the propped end B
be va and VI, respectively.
Fig. 489 (b) is the B M. diagram when the prop is absent.

Fig. 489 the B.M. diagram due to prop reaction alone.
(c) is
The above two B.M. diagrams together constitute the final B M.
diagram.
Fig. 489 id) shows the corresponding conjugate beam (note the
end conditions for the conjugate beam) whose load diagram is
the
M diagram. For the conjugate beam, since the B.M. ati?
OEFUCTION Oi- BEAMS 523
T ,
Fig. 489
equals zero, taking moments about B, we have
ProMem 312. A beam AB of span / is fixed at A and freely

supported at B. For the left half AC the moment
of inertia of tht
section is 21, while for the right half it is I.
is applied at the end B.
A clockwise couple
Find the prop reaction and the slope at thi
M
end. Find also the B,M, at the fixed end.
Solodoo. Fig. 490 (a) shows the given beam AB. Let i
be the reaction at B,
Figs. 490 (6) and (c) show the B.M. diagrams due to the sepi
rate effects of Mo and z'ft.
524 SrtBIHTIB (> llAinUALS
Fig. 490
Fig. 490 (d) shows the corresponding conjugate beam, the load
diagram for which is the
M diagram.
The thickness of the diagram is -~j for the Idft half and
for the right half.
Note the end conditions for the conjugate beam.
For the conjugate beam, taking moments about B,
we have,
lEl 2 1 2EI ~A
_i_w
~ JL ^ '
2.1^
2 2EI 3
4. L
^
2-2 *L
2
_i_
2EI
2_
3 *
2
5
Slope at B for the given be8m=S.F. at A for the conjugal
-Mol/ _L 4.
_ jlf +Moju J.
2
_i
2^^
J. w2BI~
2^^ L. i
2~
'Y
^
2
>
~2EJ
.
omaCTKW (> BBAIIS 525
3 M.l 5 ViP ^ Ml 5 5 Mol

4 '
16 16 / 4 El 16
3 El
n MJ_
48 El
Now for the given beam, B.M. at A
=5*/-Afo=-| Mo
Examples in Qiapter 8
1. A
cast iron beam 4 cm. wide and 8 cm. deep is placed od
supports 1*25 metres apart and is subjected to a central point load
3000 kfTo If the central deflection is found to be 6*5 mm., find the
value of the Young's Modulus tor the material.
(Ilxl0%./cw2)
2. Find the uniform bending moment which is to be applied
to a steel rod 18 mm. diameter so as to bend it into a circular arc of
18 metres radius.
If the bar is 3*25 metres long, find the central deflection. Take
=2x10 kg.lcm.^
3. A cantilever of uniform section has a length /. It is
propped at the free end and carries a point load IV at sl distance a
from the fixed end.
(a) If the prop holds the free end at the level of the .fixed end,
find the prop recti on
(b) If now the prop is removed what will be the deflection at
the free end 7
4. A cantilever of uniform section and length /

horizontal
carries two point loads, IT at the free end and at a distance a
from the free end. Find the deflection at the free end.
[3|-{3W-.)+a)]
5. A beam of span 2/ simply supported at the ends carries two
equal loads W symmetrically placed at a distance of -y on either side
of midspan Find the maximum deflection.

r23 WPl
LSI if J
6. A
horizontal cantilever of uniform section of length /
carries two vertical point loads iV\ and 20 W acts upwards at the
free end and IV2 acts downwaids at a distance a from the fixed end.
Find the end deflection.
[- {2WiP-W2flm-a)}^
526 tfntBNGlH Of MATOttU
7. A beam simply supported at the ends has a span I. It is
subjected to equal and opposite end couples Mo. Find the slope at
the ends and the central deflection.
rMi . Mi"]
L 2ET iEf J
8. A beam simply supported at the ends having a span /
carries three point loads W each symmetrically placed on the span at
intervals of . Find the central deflection and the slopes at the
ends.
r 19 wp j_
'
1 384 El 32 El J
9. A cantilever of length / carrying a point load W at the free
end 10, propped
is at a distance a from the fixed end to the same level
as the fixed end. Find the load on the prop.
Show that there is always a real point of inflexion and find its
distance from the fixed end.
I-]
A cantilever of length / carries a uniformly distributed
load of w per unit run for a distance | / from the fixed end. Find
the slope and the deflection at the free end.
5- w/ 117 w/* 1
r .

L128 El 2048 El J
11. A beam
of uniform section of length 1 is loaded by its
own weight only and is supported at two points with equal over-
bangs. Find the distance between the two supports.
13,
(a) so that, with the supports at the same level the two ends
of the beam remain horizontal.
(h) so that, the deviation from the straight
is as small as
possible. fO-5774/; 0 554/]
12. A beam of length 21 has one support at the left end
where it is encasted while it is freely supported at a distance
from the left end. If the beam carries a concentrated load midway
between the two supports find the upward deflection of the right
end.
A horizontal cantilever ACB I units long, is fixed at A

and supported at C. It carries a uniformly distributed load
freely
of w per unit run over the entire length. Find the position of the
supports so that the reactions at the two supports are equal.
(08375 / from the fixed end)
)
DEFLECnON O" BEAMS 527
14. A cantilever of length / carries a total triangular load fV

whose intensity variesuniformly from zero at the free end to a
maximum at the fixed end. Show that the deflection at any point
distant X from the free end is given by
15. A bridge across a river has a span 2/ and is constructed

with beams resting on the banks and supported at the middle on a
pontoon. When the bridge is unloaded, the three' supports are all
at the same level, and the pontoon is such that the vertical displace-
ment is equal to the load on it multiplied by a constant A. Show
that the load on the pontoon, due to a concentrated load placed W
one-quarter of the way along the bridge, is given by
11 fV
i< I+-T
where f is the second moment of area of the section of the beams.
1 6. Two
equal steel beams are built in at one end and con-
nected by a steel rod as shown.
Show that the pull in the tie rod is given by
17.
where d is the diameter of the rod. and 7 is the second moment of

area of the section of each beam about its neutral axis.
The free end of a horizontal cantilever of length / is
supported by a short vertical strut of area A and height h and of the
same material as that of the cantilever. If the cantilever carries a
total uniformly distributed load W
over the whole length, find the
load transmitted to the strut. Assume that the lower end of the
strut does not sink
/ ZAWl^ \
V 8^/-|-24 h )
9
Fixed and Continuous Beams
Fixed beains
A fixed beam is a beam whose end supports arc such that tfe
end slopes remain zero tor unaitereu). Such a beam is also utlleu u
built-in or encaster beam.
Fig. 492 (/) shows a simply supported beam AB carrying an

external load system. Obvi-
ously as the beam bends
slopes and U will occur at
ia
the ends A and B. If these

slopes should be prevented it
is necessary to apply end

couples of certain definite
magnitudes in the appro-
priate order. When the ends
of the beam are bulit-in such
end moments are auto-
matically developed. Such
end moments are called Fixed
End Moments. If an end
support is not able to provide sufficient restraining or reacting moment
some slope will be produced at that support. But if there is absolute

fixity at a support, the slope at the support will remain zero.
80. B.M. diagram for a fixed beam

Fig. 493 shows a fixed beam AB carrying an external load
system. Let F and Fi, be the vertical reactions at the supports A
and B.
Let Af.i and Mb be the fixed end moments. The beam may be
analysed in the following stages.
(i) Let us first consider the beam as simply supported.
I..ct Va and be the reactions A and B for this condition. Fig.
I'ft
493{t) b shows the bending moment diagram for this condition. At

any section the bending moment Afx is a sagging moment.
m) Now let us consider the effect ot end couples M.i and Mb
alone. Let V be the reaction at each end due to this condition.
Suppose Mb> Ma.
528
FIXED AND COmiNUOtrs BEAMS 529
Then y .
jf reaction V is
upwards at B and downwards at A.
Fig. 493 (a) (b) shows the bending moment diagram for this
condition. At any section the bending moment M,' is a hogging
moment.
Now the final bending moment diagram can be drawn by
combining the above two B.M. diagrams as shown in Fig, 493 {Hi)
b.
The final reaction VavaV
and n-ofr+F
The actual bending moment at any section .T, distant x from
the end A is given by.
/ /
M.ax
j
0 0
But at X = 0,^=0
ax
and at
snteiwmf
/
Further ^Msdx 2MSL of the Free B.M. diagram

0
=a
i
|jtfW.Yarea of the Fixed B.M. diagram

0
Substituting in the above equation, wc get,

0==a-a
/. Area of the free B.M. diagram Area of the fixed B.M*
Again consider the relation
Multiplying byx,
Elx^=-Mxx-Mx'.x
t I
I
EIx î^dx f Max (h M'rxdx

I I
0 0 0
/
y
0
where v=^distance of the centroid of the free
B.M. diagram from A.
and distance of the centroid of the fixed
B.M. diagram from A.
Further, at x=^0, >'=0 and ^ =0
dx
and, at x*=l,y~0 and^-=0
dx
Substituting in the above reiation, we have,
0=3Fa x'a
or axâ*y
or x^x*
The distance of the centroid of the free B.M. diagram
from A
=the distance of the centroid of the fixed
B.M. diagram from 4.
FlXfO AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 531
By using the conditions

... 0)
and ...()
The unknowns Mu and Afb can be determined.

Let us now consider some standard cases.
CaseUy Fixed beam carrying a point load at midspan

Fig. 494 shows a fixed beam AB of span / carrying a point load
W at midspan.
L
c
ifffC 7 Of fNO MOMCHl M ONf

w w
2 5
Sf
Fig. 4V*i
Due to symitietry the end moments Ma and Mb arc equal. Fig.

494 shows the free and fixed B.M. diagrams.
Equating the areas of the free and fixed B.M. diagrams, we

have,
a ~a
El
4
WI
8
EL
8
B.M. at midspan M'*

Wl Wl Wl
4 8
,
^8
Due to symmetry the reactions K: and Vb are equal
Now the S.F. and B.M. diagrams for the beam can be easily
drawn.
Obviously two points of contraflcxure occur at from the

^
ends.
Shpe and deflection
At any section in AC distant .r from the end A, the B.M.
given by,
^x- g
~~4
fvxî m ^+^1^
8^
,
(Slope equation)
^dx
at x=0-f^-=0
dx
Ci=0
fVx^ tVlx^
Efy^-jY~ (Deflection equation)
At x=0,y=0
C2==0
Maximum deflection occurs at midspan,
Wl^ iw WP
96 64 192
WP 1
the deflection for a
4
simply supported beam*
(^se Fixed beam carrying a uniformly distributed load
(ii).
ofw
pîmit run over the whole span. '
*It may be noted that for a simply supported beam carry ing a poiot load
W at midspaDi the ceoiral deflection is-^^,
a
1 IXED AND CONTINUOUS BIbAHS 533
Fig. 495
Fig. 495 shows a 6xed beam AB

of span / carrying a uniformly
distributed load w per unit run over the who!e span
By symmetry, the end moments Ma and M are equal.
Ihe free B.M. diagram is a parabola whose central ordinate
Equating the areas of the fixed and free B.M. diagrams, we have,
a
Mal=
3 8
H-/2
iif.
Afo=-jy and Af*=
12
534 iitllENdTtl OF MATERIALS
Hence at any section distant x from the left end A the actual
bending moment is given by
M=Ftee B M. Fixed B.M.

wl wx^ Wp
"2^-1 T2
For the points of contraflexure,
wl (VX Wp r,
2 *-T-T2-'
Jc2~lbc+-^=0
Solving this quadratic we get,
2 *2v/3
Hence two points of contraflexure occur. These are equidistant
from the centre of the span. Each point of contraflexure is at a
distance of centre of the span.
Slope and deflection
The bending moment at any section is given by,
2^2 ^
wl
dx^~ 12
{Slope equation)
dx A 0 \2
Ci=0
wlx^ wl'^x^
12
-24"24- +C2 {Deflection
equation)
At x=0, y=0
C*=0
For the deflection at the centre, putting x= in the deflec-
tion equation, we get,
'
2 j 24 I 2 j 24V 2
'
FJXlD AND continuous BEAMS 535
v_. -yJi:
384 m
It may be remembered that a simply supported beam canying
the uniformly distributed load for over the whole span the oeotml
deflection is
5 wl*
384 El
Hence the central deflection for the fixed beam
=y of the central deflection of the simply supported beam.
Problem 313. A fixed beam of 6 metres span supports ftw pefitf
30t JOI
Fig. 494
0
sis S-ritHMnH OF IIAIEHUIS
l4>ads of 30 tonnes each at 2 metres from each end. Find the fiximr
mmenls at the ends and draw the B. M. and S.F. diagrams.
Find aho
the central deflection. Take 90fi00 cm. ^ and E=2x](fi kg.lcmi
Solntioo. Fig. 496 shows the fixed beam AB carrying the two
point loads.
Due to symmetry the fixed moments Afa and Aft are equal
Fig. 496 shows the free and fixed B.M. diagrams.
Equating the areas of these diagrams, we have,
X 6=
-^^60 1^2+6 ^
Afa==40 tm.
B.M. at the centre

==60 40 20 tm.
Points of Controflexure
Actual B.M. at any section in AC distant x

from A is given by
Af=Free moment Fixed moment
MSOx-40
For the point of contrafiexure, 30x: 40
m from either end.

Slope and deflection.
For any section between A and D distant x from A the beading

moment is given by
70=3Ojc-4O -30(jc-2)
= 15jc*- 40jc-f-Ci j- 15 (a:-2)a {Slope equation)
At x:==0,^=0
dx
Ci=0
7y>5jc* 20x+Ci: 5 {x~lfl {Deflection equation)
At x0, y=0
Ca=0
flXhD AND CONUNUOUS BEAMS
For the maximum deflection which occurs at the centre, putting

x=s3 tn in the deflection, we get,
5(3)3 20(3)2- 5(:)3 _
50
^ ^
X 10=* X 9(),(K)6*
2
- ~0278 cm.
Case (Hi), Fixed beam earryin^^ a concentrate load eccentricalh

placed on the span.
Fig. 497 shows a fixed beam AB of span I carrying a point load

IV dt C eccentrically on the span so ihat AC- a and HC~b.
Obviously the free B.M. diagram is a triangle whose altitude is
Wab
I
Let A/a and Mb be the fixing moments at the ends.
Hence, the fixed B M, diagram is trapezoidal.
Since the areas of the fixed and free B.M. diagrams arc equal,
we have,
(Ma-VMb \ ;
I
,
...10
We also know that the ceniroidal distances v '

and v of the fixed
and free B.M. diagrams from the end A should alse be equal.
We know, for the fixed B.M. diagram
Af. VlMb I .
V
Ma '\ Mb
'
^ from
3
A
and, for the free B.M. diagram,

. IVde
-- t
V from /I
M.rV2Mb I l\a
Ma^Mb 3 3
ajt l I
( A /h )
Afa-f2A/6==(/-f a)
j
But Ma + Af<^ = from equation (/)
il+a) ...Ui)
Subtracting equation (/) from equation {U)

538 STRBNOTH OP MATERIALS
fVab,,, Waft
Mo^~^ iH-a) j~
V
=~fr (^+-0
W<^b
Mo-
~r
W<^b. .
Putdng Mb = in equation (i)
We get.
Wt^b Wab
Af.- /a --7-
... _Wab Wt^b
539
PIXBO AHD continuous beaib
IVab V
= P -a-a)
But l--a=b
Wab^
Afa
Thus the fixed end moments at A and B are,

Wal^
A^= /2
We?b
and Mb
lfa>b then Mi>>Ma
Slope and deflection
distant x from the end A, the bending mom

At any section
is given by,

/-^ - =Free
SSA IVV B.M Fixed
ww B.M.
dx^
MtM<i
But M+
, - 1
' I
*
W(^b Wab^
IVab^,
+ -
/2
2 f
-
X
|2 j
*
*
dx^ /
^ (3oH- I7^ 1- O' (*-<)

540 STRKNGrH OF MATERIALS
Integrating,
.
dy H /.-(3t/f%2 Wat!'
a*4-Ci
(Slope equation)
But at A 0, =0
(Lx
Ci-0
Integrating again.
Wb^ Oa f IVab^x
+C2 - lV(x a)^
6
(Deflection equation)
A' 0, j
Cl -0
Dcjiection under the load
Putting Y -(I in the deflection equation, wc have,

VVh'^ (3a i
/>)aii Vah? (a-)
^
tDc ,
-
Yp:
Wa^lr^
= :/3
_
3f//
Maximum difliction
Let a>b
Maximura deflection will occur between A and C. Foi t! is
condition equating the slope to zero, we have,
(3a-|-6)jc2
~ Wa^'
0= 2/3
'
i'a+b
Substituting in the deflection equation, we get,
IDm. r-
, . , ,
Wb^ OaA-b)J 2al
^_ Waf^
( M_ Y""
^J3 y 2/2 V 3a+fe y
Wt;>( 2al Yf , Oa+byial)"

= -*^1 3a+ J
.
3a+h .
= - 5"
tVb^ .
(35W
4<i*/* ,
O
fixh> and continuous beams 54J
__A
3 (3fl+A)2
V _ 2
""*
3 (ia+bfEI
Points of contrtfflexure
For the point of contraflexure in AC,
^ Wifi .. ... WaH^
_ a/
3a+6
For the point of contraflexure in BC,
- p--<3a+o) jc
^2
tF(x o)^0
Solving we get x=l-
Fi.xed beam carrying a uniformly distributed load for a given

distance from one end.
Fig. 498 shows a hxed beam .45 of span f carrying a uniformly

distributed load w per unit run for a distance a from the end A.
Fig. 498
Consider any section A distant x from the end A.
Load acting for an elemental distance dx=w dx.

Due to the elemental load (h> dx) the fixed end moments will be
as follows.
dMa=(wdx)^^'^^^
(h< 6c)x(/ f)
and
541 STKENOTH OP MAmiAU
Total fixing nunneot at A
= p[k--f+T]
=-^{ )
Similarly total fixing moment at B
-M.=
0
j?.r
/* L
I"** _ 1
3 4 J
For the particular case when the distributed load covers the
whole span, putting in the expressions for Ma and JI/^ we have
Af.= 6/*-8/2+3F )=
flwrf fieom carrying a triangular load whose intensity varies

from zero at one end to w per unit run at the other end.
Fig 499 shows a fixed beam AB of span I carrying a triangular
load whose intensity varies from zero at the end Atow per unit run
at the other end}J9.
Fig. 49
"fixed and continuous beams 543
Consider any section X distant x from the end A.
Intensity of loading at Jf =
IMV
Hence load acting for an elemental distance
dx~^xdx.
Due to this elemental load the fixed moments are as follows :
iw ( wx \x{l~x)^
dMa=l
Y dx
,
I
jji-
_ tt/xHlxy^ dx
mi
__ W3^lx)dx
p
Total fixing moment at A
I
.. fwxH.lxfldx
/3
J
_ wP '
20
Similarly,
_(w}p{lx)dx
Af6'=
J J3
0
^wP
20
wP
Thus, Ma-
|u/2
and
Fixed beam carrying a triangular load for a given distance from

one end.
Fig. 500 shows a fixed beam ABof span / carrying a triangular
loading covering a distance a from the left end A. Let the intensity
of the load vary from zero to w per unit run.
i44 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Consider any section X in the loaded range, at a distance x

from A.
Fjg. 500
Intensity of loading at
X a
X
Load acting for an elemental distance
dx-'^dx
a
The fixed end moments due to the above elemental load are
iiven by,
dM..=[dx) p
aP
a.d
and
-
---^2
Total fixing moment at A,
.. [wxHlx)^
:^.f(lOP-151.+ a)
nXEO AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 545
Similarly the total fixing moment at B
0
= ilF ^ 1
afil 4 5~J
SP )
For the particular case, when the triangular loading covers the
whole span, putting a=l, in the above expression, for Ma and Mb,
we have,
K-^(iOP-15P+6p)-;J
Problem 314. A fixed beam of span 6 metres carries point loads

20t and 15t at distances 2 m and 4 m from the left end. Find the fixed
end moments and the reactions at the supports. Draw B.M. and S.F.
diagrams,
tiOt tst
a I zm. \ zn \ 2m. g-
c b I"
H 4/77, a
Fig. 501
Solution. Fixing momentiat the left end A

tot f5t
zm zm. 2 m fl
546 STRENGTH OF MAITRIalS
_20x2X42j. 15x4x2
+ ^ _
tm
=24' 44 tm.
Fixing moment at the right end B
20x22x4 15x42x2 ^
-22-22 tm.
Free B.M. diagram
Considering the span as a simply supported beam let oa and
be the reactions at the supports A and B. Taking moments about A,
we have.
y-037t
Ma=2d-4itm
n)
M^^22 22tm
V-0-37t
Fig. 503
2Ct iSt
FIs. 304
nXED AHD CONTINUOUS BEAMS 547
%x620x2+I5X4
p!I 6*67 / and == 3 5 16*67 =*18*33 t
Free B.M. at C* 1833 x 2=36*66 tm.

Free B.M. at jD- 16*67 x 2=33*34 /w.
Reaction V at each support due to end moment
24*44-22*22
=0*37 /.
Since Ma>Mb the reaction Fat is upwards and the reaction

V at B is downwards.
Final reaction at i4=Ftt=Z'a+K18*33+037=18*70 t
Final reaction at B= F= 16*67 0*37= 1 630 t
By combining the free and fixed bending moment diagrams,

the hnal B.M. diagram can be drawn. The S.F. diagram is also
drawn as usual.
Problem 315 (SI). A fixed beam of span 6 metres carries point
loads 160 KN and 120 KN at distances 2 m and 4 mfrom the left end.
/JO-37
s.f PI/tSRAM
nt.sia
Ptnd the fixeu end moments and the reaction at the supports. Draw
B.M. and S.F. diagrams.
Solatioo. Fig. 505 shows the fixed beam AB carrying' the given
loads.
Fixing moment at the end A=Ma=

160x 2 X 42 1?0x4x22
6* 62
= 1 42*22 + 53-.33=/P5-J5 KNm

^fVa-h
Fixing moment end B~ Mt,
at the
L
_160x2*x4, 120 X 42 x 2
62 62
=7ril + 106-66- /77- 77 KNm

160 KN \20KN
1 I ?
f
c 0
f/33 33 HN
Fig. 506
Free B.M. diagram
Taking the beam as simply supported at the end, and taking mo-
ments above A,
i;x6-(160x2) I (120x4)
= 133-33 KN
.-. Pa =160+ 120- 133-33 = 146-67 KN.
Free B.M. at .4=0
Free B.M. at C=146-67x2=293*34 KNm

Free B.M. at Z)= 133*33 x-2= 266 66 KNm
Free B.M. at B=0
Reaction V at each end due to end moments
195*55-177 77
=2*96
6
Since the reaction V t A is upwards and the re
K at i) is downwards.
nXED AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 549
Final reaction at Faa+ F=14667+2*96 149*63 KN

and final reaction at Kb 133*33 -2*96 -130*37 KN
By combining the free and the fixed bending moment diagrams,
the final bending moment diagram can be drawn. The S.F. diagram
is also drawn as usual.
81. Fixed beam with ends at different levels (Effect of ainkillg of

supports)
Consider a fixed beam AB of span / whose ends A and B are

Let ^ be the difference of level between the
iixed at different levels.
ends. Let the end /I be at a higher level than the end B, J.^t iia
and Mu be the fixing moments at the ends. Obviously for this case
Ml is negative (hogging) and Mu is positive. But numerically Ma and
Mu are equal.
Let V be the reaction at each support.
Consider any section distant x from the end A.

Since the rate of loading is zero,
we have, with the usual notation
Shear force
S30 rntNOTH OF MATBRiAt
whcfe Cl is a constant
At x=0, S.F.~ + F
Ci^V
B: M . at any section =/ ^= Vx-\- C2

jc-'O,
C2 ~ Ma
El^ - VxMa
Integrating again.
(Slope equation)
But at a:=0,
C3=0
Integrating again.
MaX^
4-C4 (Deflection equation)
Bat at x=0, y=>0

m
II 0
At 1 II 1 09
But we also know that at B, x I and ^-=0

dx
VI
0=-^-Mal
J,
2Af.
/
Substituting in Eq. (/), we have.

Prt_2Af P Ma.P
/ 6 2
En.f
D
fffBJ AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS
6El^
Ma /*
Hence the law for the bending moment at any section distant x
from A is given by
d^v
M=EI^=Vx-M<>
2Ma 6/8
M=~-px-y
For the B.M. at B, put jc=/
,/ 2Ma ,
6EIi
^]2m_6EI^ _6En
/2 2 /a
Hence when the ends of a fixed beam arc at different levels, the
fixing moment at each end^yg numerically. At the higher end
this moment is a hogging moment and at the lower end this moment
is a sagging moment.
Alternative approach
Fig. 508 (/) shows the fixed beam AB whose ends A and B arc
at different levels.
Let 8 be the difference in level between A and

Let Ma and Mb be the end moments. Obviously Mo and Mb
are numerically equal, but at the higher end A, the end moment Ma
is a hogging moment and the moment M& is a sagging moment. Fig.
508 {ii) shows the bending moment diagram for the beam. Obviously
the point of contrafiexure occurs at the midspan.
Fig. 508 {Hi) shows a cantilever AC of length having the

y
same uniform flexural rigidity as that of given beam.
Let this cantilever be subjected to a point load F at C so that
the deflection
ClC-y
Now the deflection curve for this cantilever will be exactly the
same as the deflection curve for the left half of the given fixed beam.
The B.M. diagram for the cantilever should be identical with the
B.M. diagram for left half of the fixed beam.
But for the cantilever, the deflection at the free end

552 SntENGTH OFIIATEMAU
Fig. 508
PD_
UEn
iz~
D ^ _12/S / 6E/S
2 /8
2 /2
Hence each end moment for the fixed beam

_6EIS
/2
Reaction at each support
^ Total cou ple on the be am

span
6E/8 ,
6f8
/2 _/2
/
12E/8
n*"
)
HXED and CONTINUODS BEAMS 553
or alternatively,
reaction Fa Reaction at the fixed end of the cantilever
Hence the S.F. at any section of the beam

12/r/S
Problem 316. A fixed beam of span 5 metres carries a con-

centrated had of 20 t at 3
metres from the left end. If
the right end sinks by I .
ii'id the ,ixing moments

the support.^. For the beam -
section take I == 30,000 cm^

and E==-2 x tjent^. Find
also the reaction at the t-ig. 509
supports.
Solution. Due to loading the fixing moment each support
at
will abe hogging
F moment. But due to
sinking of supports the
moment at each end
will be ~ the nature
j2
of moment being
hogging at the higher
Fig. 310 end and sagging at
Fixing moment at A lower end.
6En
Wah^
P /2
_ n0x3x22, 6y2x10x3(\TO0xn
5
^ 5-x( 100)3
L
= (9 60-)0s8) tm
= 1008 tm {hogi>iii)i ,
Fixing moment at B
Wa^b
/2
+ /-

20 X 3- X
fO-48
s-
^_14-40+0-48 1m.
= 13'92 tm. (hogging)
Reaction at A
= Fu= Reaction due to load
with simply supported + Reaction due to end
condtiion motbents
554 SnUNOTH OP MATBBIAU
Kt
Vd Reaction due to sim- + Reaction due to

p )y supported condi- end moments,
tion
82. Fixed bean sobjected to a couple Ato applied eccentrically on

the span
IlF
Fig. 512
Fig. 512 shows a fixed bean* AB of span / subjected to a con*

entrated couple Mo applied at c. at a distance a from the end A.
The couple Mo may be taken to consist of two equal and oppo-
site loads IF at a small distance Aa apart. Now the fixing moment
iit A
oo-Ma^ Wail-a)^, '(fl-f8a)(/-a-5c)2
^ ^
Ignoring (Sa)^ in the expansion of the above expression
ail-a)^-2aU-a)Aa
+Sfl(/-a)2]
a(/_^)S+8a(/_aX/-3fl)
]
But when ta ia small Mo is equal to the couple Wia

HXED AMO CONTINUOUS BBAHS 555
Similarly, it can be shown,
M=-%a(2/-3a)
Problem 317. A fixed beam AB of span 6 metres is subjected to
a concentrated couple of 30 tm. applied at a section C
4 metres from
end A. Find the end moments from first
the principles and draw the
RM- and S,F- diagram.
Solution. Taking A as the origin, the unknowns are reaction Va
and the end moment Ma, ioim
Assume these in the ^
shown
directions
513 (If these reacting
in Fig.
^ ^ m ^201
olcmcnts work out to be *

J |
negative then it means ,

. *
^
they act in directions 1
>
}
opposite to those | !
>
* '
assumed).
At any section dis-

tant X from A the bend-
ing moment is given by
+30
To facilitate application of Macaulays method the above ex-
pression will be rearranged as follows.
/^=Kx+M. +30(x-4)
'/^= +Mx+Ci +'^x-A){sU>pe equation)

dx 2
At x=0, ^^=0 Ci0

dx
Ely=
0 2
+C2 1 +15(x 4)* {deflection equation)
Atx=0, y=0, C2=0

At B, the slope is zero,
atx=6, ^=0
dx
Q^Va -|Vm.(6)+30(<>-4)
1
556 STRBMOTH Of UATBMAUI
3 Va+Ma = -W ...(0
At B, the deflection is zero,
atj: 6, j^=0
(6)3 M,(6)2
0 = Vo + 15(6-4)*
,
6F<.+3Af.= -10
Solving equations (/) and (i7), we get
y^Qss --
- and 10 ifn
3 *
Fig. 514
The reacting moment Af t and the reacting force Va are shown

in Fig, 514
B. \t. calculations
B.M, at /I - + 10 tm. {sagging)
---x4 tm. {hogging)
. # 50 .40 / V
Meb^ Y +30 + ,
tm.
,
y/\
yx 6+30=0
Fig. 514 shows the B.M. diagram for the beam
fixed and continuous beams 557
S.F. diagram
Obviously the shear force at any section of the beam
Fig.514 shows the shear force diagram for the beam.

8.'^. Degree of fixity at supports in order the maximum bending
moment is as small as poissible
Consider a fixed beam of span / carrying a point load at mid W
span. For this case we know that the hogging moment at each end
and the sagging moment at mid span are both equal to
8
But let us now consider the fixed beam carrying a uniformly
.
distributed load of vv per unit run over the whole span. When the
,
ends are absolutely fixed the maximum sagging moment at the mid *
w/"
span IS , while the maximum hogging moment at each end
wi-
is
ll
degree of fixity at the supports is lessened, the maximum
If the
hogging moment
at the ends will be decreased. This will result in a
corrc'-ponding increase in the maximum sagging moment at roidspan.
Mence for the maximum bending moment for the beam to be
as :>niall as possible the condition to be satisfied is that the maximum
sagging moment and the maximum hogging moment should be
equal.
CSlUNi 7 Ri/N
iagQaonPT:ga-r;vTi:>. I
i nmiaiSUBi u)l/ty
B M Diagram when ihe

ENOS ARE absolutely ftXEO
kyihs
B.M. diagram when the dcgrvc of end fixity

is such that maximum sagging moment
equals maximum hoggine moment.
Fig. 5i5
558 STRENGTH OF MATEIUAU
Hence for the case under discussion,

Hogging, B.M. at each support
= Sagging moment at mid span

16
For obviously the end slope will not be zero,
this condition,
and can be determined as shown below. Further the central deflec-
tion will be greater than the corresponding deflection with absolute
fixed ends.
The bending moment at any section distant x from the left,
support is given by,
dx^~ 2 2 ~16
E!
dy
dx
=-4 wx* w/* ,
_
At =0
dx
w J
6

8 I6 2
w/*
Ci="
96
,dy w/x* wx wP ,,3
^*dx 4 "6
96
{Slope equation^
At x=0. let iaishpeat A)

dx
w/
Elia
96
Wp
la^*
96 El
(This slope is just one-fourth of the end slope for a simply
supported beam carrying the same loading).
Integrating the slope equation again, we have,

wx^ wPjp wP
x-\-Ca
12 24 32 96
But at x=0, y=0
. C2^0
Let the central deflection be y
At
Fig. 516
Theoretically viewing the fixed beam has the following ad-

vantages :
(/) The fixed beam is subjected to a lesser maximum bending

moment than the simply supported beam carrying the same loading.
(ii) For the same loading the maximum deflection for a fixed
beam is less than that cf the simply supported beam.
Practically me fixed beam has certain disadvantages.
(0 It is to maintain the two ends of the

practically difficult
beam cxaaiy the same level.
at Any sub.sidence of one of the
supports, however smali it may be,will set up consi.êrable stresses.
This is therefore a serious disauvanfage. During erection of the
beam, the supports therefore must be aligned with gicatest accuracy.
(//) 'Rniperarure variations also produce large stresses in a
fixed beam.
(Hi) WI.en tl-c beam is subjected to live loads (such as wheel
loads passing over bridges) frequent variatiens of bending moment
and corresponding vibrarions would soon aifcct the degree of fixity
at the ends
The above ohjeettons againsr fixed beams can he obviated by
adopting the double cantilever constiucno... In this method, at the*
points of contra Ilex 11 for the fixed beam, hinged joints are intro-
duce f. Now the beam '\il) therefon. o'nsisi of a central simply
supported girder, supported on the ends of tv c end cantilevers.
The bending moment Jiacram and the elastic curve for this
beam will be the same as foi
the fixed beam- After introducing the
hinges at the poins of coniraliexure i>l the fixed beam, temperature
changes and sinking of end supports will not aflect the bending
moments.
85. Continuous beams
aj/uNU Ru!^
FU 517
shows a beam continuous over a number of supports.

Fig. 517
Fig, 51 7 shows the deflection curve for the beam when it is
(b)
subjected to an external load system.
For the usual loadings on the beam, sagging mon;ents occur at

thc.mid section of the spans and hogging moments occur over the
supports, if the support moments are known, the bending moment
BEAMS 561
nxED AND CONTINUOUS
/Hacram can be drawn easily.
The support moments can be deter-
of Clapeyrons theorem of three moments.

mined by the application
$86. Clapcyrons theorem of three moments
rf AB and BC are any two consecutive spans of a continuoM
an external loading, the support
moments Ma, Af*
beam subjected to
and Mr at the supports A, B and C are given by the relation.
Fig. 518
6fl2^2
_
MJi-\-2Mi,(h+k)+Mrh ii
diagram for the span AB

where ai-arca of the free B.M.
for the span BC
fl 2 --area
of the free B.M. diagram
of the free B.M. diagram
SIcentroidal distance
^
of the free B.M. diagram on BC from C
A 2 =centroidal distance
/i=^span length AB
/,z=span length CD
B.M. diagram for span AB
Let ei'=area of the fixed
B.M. diagram for the span BC
aa'ârca of the fixed
(<J) shows the
given beam.
Fig. 518
show the free and fixed bc-ndmg moment
Figs. 518 (h) and
(c)
AB and BC.
diagrams for the span
Consider the span AB.

562 STRENGTH W MATZBIAU

Let at any section in AB distant x from A the free and fixed
bendhig moments be M> and Ma respectively-
Hoioe the net bending moment at the section is given by.
Multiplying by we get
EIx AfaJC Mx*X

Integratiug from x to lu we get,
/i h h
/| X dx^^Mx dx^^Max dx
n *1 <1
/. Mnxdx- M^x dx
Maxdx-
j j
0 0 0
But itmay be seen, that
(i) At x=0, y=Q
00 At x=7, y=0, and =foo (slope at for AB)

It
(ifO |jlfxd'x==ai xi = Moment of the free B.M. diagram on

AB about A
h
00 dxâ't x'i= Moment of the fixed B.M. diagram on
0 about A
Hence,
El li ha~aixi ai'xi'
ai'= area of the fixed B.M. diagram on AB
=(AfG+M0
2
î'= Distance of the centroid of the fixed
B.M. diagram from A
Afo-f-2 Afb li
Afo+ilfft
3
i y .
I
II.
Ma+Mt ^
~
/i
=(Ma+2M0 -i
o
El hfa=aiXi{Mm+2Mt)
o
0
fixed and continuous beams
6E/foa ..XO
Similarly considering the span BC and taking C as origin it can
be shown that,
6EI ii>c= Me+lMi ^2
where foe slope for the span CB at B.

Ua^-hc as the direction of* from >4 for tbespan AB, and
But
for the span CB are in opposite
direction.
from C
foH-f0=O -t)
Adding equation (f) and (ii), we get '
6FI u>a+6EI fo* 6/(/*o+/*)
JIf Ji+2M(h+/*)+M./i
]
. , I . 6<ii5i ,
6aa^t
Mah+2Mi,(h+h)-\-M.h=i+j-
is called Clapeyrm's relation.

This relation
Particular case
WtiUNft Ru^
Suppose on the span
3531
AB there is a uniformly unit
T,
distributed load wi per
dia-
run. The free B.M.
gram is a parabola having
wi/i*
an altitude of 8
Area of the free
B.M. diagram
Fig.S19
=oi -3
base X altitude
2
= f
3. /ix 8 - 12
- -.Jl
and *1-2
6aixi 1. A2 4
~ir~h' 12
Hence when the span AB and BC carry uniformly distributed

loadsfof HI per unit run and wa per unit run.
Wt /t ^
Mali+2Mi.{li + k)+Mch^ V +
It will be found convenient to use the above relation in case of
distributed loads on continuous beams.
Problem 318. A continuous beam ABC covers two consecutive
spans AB and BC of lengths 4m and 6m^ carrying uniformly distri--
bated loads of 6 tjm and 10 tjm respectively. If the ends A and C are
simply supported find the support moments at B and C. Draw also
B.M. and S F. diagrams-
SolQtion. Since the end A and C are simply supported the
support moments at!>4 and C are zero.
Applying the theorem of three moments for the spans ^4^ and
BCt we get.
10x6
0x4+2M(4+6)+0x6=
4
20M=636
M=3r8 tm.
6x42
Max. Free B.M. for the span AB = 12 tm.
8
B.M. at the centre of span AB
tl "8
-- ^+12= 3 9 tm.
BC= ^ =45
Max. free B.M. for this span tm.
B.M. at the centre of span BC
Reactions
=-
^ +45= + 29 10 tm.
Consider the span AB,
B.M. at B=KaX4-'^=-3r8
Fa=4-05 t
Similarly considering the span BC^
B.M.atB =F.x6- 31-8
K.=24-7 t
:. the reaction K(.=Toral load (Fo+Fc>

=(6X4+10X6)- (4-05+ 24-7)
= 55-25 t
,
f4XBD AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS S6S
6 Urn 10 Urn
Problem 319. A continuous beam consists of three suecesriye

spots of 8 metres, 10 metres and 6 metres and carries loads of 6 t per
metre, 4t per metre and 8t per metre respectively on the spans. Deter-
mine the bending moments and reactions at the supports.
Solution. Applying the theorem of three moments for the
spans AB and BC, we have,
Ma X 8+2Af<.(84- 10)+3fc x 10
But since A is
^
the simply supported end of the girder,
Ma=0
.'.
36W6+10Mc=1768
..
18M(.+ 5Mf=884 ...(0
Now consider the spans BC and CD

Applying the theorem of three moments for these spans, we have
A/x 10+2W.(10+6)+Af.iX6= -+
But, since D is the simply supported end of the girder,
M^=0
.-. 10 Af. + 32 Mr = 1432
5M.+ 16Mr=7if ...()

'
nUBNGTH or IIAfniALji
566
8t/m
/QO?f
Fig. 521
Solving equations (/) and (W) we get,
M6=40*I6 tm. {hogging)
and M=32 20 tm. {hogging)

6x8^
Max. free bending moment for span AB= ^ =48 tm.
4x 10^
=50 tm.
- g
Max. free bending moment for span flC
8x6^
Max. free bending moment for span CP- g 36 tm.
Now the free and the fixed bending moment diagram can be
drawn.
ReactUms
B.M. at B-F.Xg - 4016

K 18*98 t
1
B.M. at C- 18*98 X 18+ F* X 10-6 X 8 X
4Xl0x5=-32*20
n -49*82 t
^vnn and continuous BEAMS 567
Again B.M. at C=VdX 6 -

2
= 32-20
Fd= 18-63 t
Kc=TotaI Ioad-(K.^-K^+^d)
=(6x8+4x10+8x6)
-(18-98 + 49 82+18-63)
=48-57/
,
Now it is easy to draw the S.F. diagram.
Pndrtem -320. A continuous beam ABC consists of two spaas AB

and BC of lengths 6 metres and S metres. The span AB carries a ptdat
load o fl2 t at 4 metres from A, while the span BC carries a
point load
of 16 tat .5 m from C. Find the moments and reactions at the supports.
In this case, it is necessary to draw the free bendinf

moment diagrams for the two spans.
Max. free B.M. for the span AB
12X4X2 =
16 tm.
m Xf
H27t
Fit.S22
566 STRENGTH OF IIATBRULi
Max. free B.M. for the span BC

16x3x5
=30 /m.
8
Area of the free B.M. diagram of span AB
=ai= X 16=48 units
2
Area of the free B.M. diagram of span BC
^02 =
y X 8 X 30= 120 units *
Centroidal distance of free B.M. diagram on span AB from A

- 6+4 10
-m
3 3
Centroidal distance of free B.M. diagram on span BC from C
-- _ 8+5-"= 13
- ^2 - m
3 3
Since each end of the beam is simply Isupported,
Ma^MeÔ
Applying the theorem of three moments for the spans AB and
BCp we have,
Mall +2 + /2 + Me) I2
I
602^2
/l k
/. 0+2Aft,(6+8)+0
__ 6x48^ 10 ,6X120^ J3
6 3' 8 3
28A/:-550
A/-"I9*64/w.
Reactions
B.M a' li- r,xn- 12x2 = -1904

b 1 4-36
V, -iYl-K t
Again,
B.M. at H r x8- 16x3 = -19-64
. , r. 3 .ts t
Vo -(l2+I6)-(0*73+3-55)= 23*72 /
87. Fixed ends of Continuous beams

Consider the continuous beam shown in Fig. ^23. Let the end
A of the beam be fixed.
With the usual notation, the bending moment at any section
distant x from B is given by
and continuous beams 569
fixed
The above rda'ion can be obtained by iniroducing an imagi-

nar\ zero span
Applying the theorem of three moments for the spuns ^ nd
AB, we get,
570 STRENGTH OF MATBRUu
0+2Ma(0+/i)+M/i-0+
h
2 Af a/i + Ms/i n
span AB carries a uniformly distributed load of w\ per
If the
unit run over the whole span then the R.H.S. of the above equation
will be equal to
The above method can be applied to a fixed beam also to find

the end moments.
For instance, consider the fixed beam AB of span / carrying a
uniformly distributed load of w per unit run over the whole span.
Obviously the end moments Ma and Mt are equal. Introducing
an imaginary zero span A\A and applying the theorem of three
moments for the spans AÂ and AB we have
O+2Ma(0+0+M6/=0+ (See Fig. S2S)

4
Since, MoAfi>,
Fig. 523
88. Pn^ped cudlcTer

Consider the propped
cantilever AS, fixed at A
and simply supported at S.
lotrodooe an imagin-
tury zero span AiA. Apply-
ing the theormn of tnc
moment^ we have.
0+2il#.(0+/)+Ar*/
Fig. 326
But
fixed and continuous beams 571
since B is the simply supported end.
ProbleiD 321.A contmuous beam ABC consists of two conse-

cutive spans AB and BC 4 metres each and carrying a distributed load
of 6 t per metre run The end A is fixed and the end C is simply
supported. Find the support moments and the reactions.
Solution. Introduce an imaginary zero span A\A.

BCt we have,
0+2W(0+4) 1 Afi.x4-0+6x y
4
8M+4A/=96
2/Wa+M(. = 24 ...(i)

572 SniENOTH GP MATOUAU

BQ we have,
4S 43
A/a x4-f'2A/'*(4-f4)"f'A/tf x 4**6 X -1-6 X
But since C is the simply supported end,

A/.-O
4A/a^-l6Af.-i92
A/a+4M.-48 ...()
Solving equations (/) and (/i), we get,

fclS
Af: tm. (hogging)
^
72
and A//.= I0'28 tm, (hogging)
6x42
Max. free B.M. for span AB^ - ^ ^12 tm.
o
Max. free B.M. for span BC 12 tm.
Icactions
42
BM. at ^:=-6 85+K.:X4-6x
^
Ka=iri4r
42
Again B.M. at ^-FaX4~6x 10*28
^
Kr-9 43 t
Vt- tx^ ~iri4-9'43

- 27*43 t
89. Continuous beam with supports at different levels
Consider the continuous beam shown in Fig. 518. Let the

support 5 be below A and helow C. h
Proceeding as in 8(>. we have for* the span AB, with A as
origin
ii /i h
/[a- y U. .X ;.x iWx',v./A
J I I
0 0 0
At X /i,> -'S
7{/i / i-bAi) //lA 1 -f/i' v/
/
2
'
8j) -( '/ 2A/{>)
/. 7(/i Vi r
0/r//6
" 6iii Vi h
h
Be\vlS 573
fPCBD AND CONTtNUOOS
Similarly, for the span BC taking C as origin it can be ho wn
. that
_ ea-ih 6FI
6El
.
i
-(M-Fi\t.y.> I '/I
h h
But J,,i4-ll>r=0
Adding equations (i) and (Uh we ge',
^'fll Ai/'2 *2
-
6f/
" 6f/ 5:
6'/ i'r=0' ~
J h
-f J
A/'i/i i 2 A//t(/i + /2 )+^^'fe
_6a,ri^. / S,__^ 8o \
ti h \ 'I h )
If the span AB and BC carry- distributed loads of intensity
PPr unit run, then the above equation

simplifies to,
H>i and W2
6E/
4 4
Fig. 528 .show\ a coniinuou.t beam
carrying an
Problem 322
the support B sinks by 0 25 cm below the level of
external loading'.If
the other .support find the support
momenta Take / for section
= 15000 cm^ and E= 2 X /O* f /rm*-
SolutioB. Consider the spans AB and BC

Ma=0
8i= - 0 25 cm.
I
82 = "O' 25 cm.
2tfm . *
eMififiTOtfi
4ffJ
899tni
t ig. 52s
04-2.Wi.(4-4 4)+4Af.
4x43 A^2xl03xl5fi{H) fO-25, 0-251
= 4x43 '+"4 _ (100)2 \ 400
^
4001
4
^
574 STRENGTH OP MAIPRIals
I6M+4Afr=644-64 - 22-5
163/^,+4A/r=I05 5
4M(.+A/r=26-375
A/d-0
8i = 0*25 cm.
82=0
4M+2Mr(4+4)+0
_ 4x4^ . 2 X4=* _ 6x2x lO^x ISQOO C
_ 025 ?
4 4 (100)2 400 1
4M64- 16Afr =64+32+ 1 r25
4A/(. + 16Wc = 107-25
Solving equations (i) and (/;). we get,

Mii497 tm. (hogging)
and Mc=6'49 tm. (hogging)
X 42
Max. free B.M. for span AB^-4 8 tm.
^
Max. free B.M. for span tm,

24x2
Max. free B.M. for span CD ^
=4 tm.
Fig, 528 shows the B.M. diagram for the girder.
The reactions at the supports may be determined as in the

previous examples.
90. Continuous beam with overhang
In this case the support moment over the support beyond which
the beam overhangs is known. Hence the beam can be analysed as
usual by applying the theorem of three moments. The following
example explains this case.
Problem 323. Find the support moments for the continuous
girder shown in Fig. 529 and draw B.M. and S.F. diagrams.
Solution. Consider the overhang A.E- The support moment at

A is obviously
Afa==2x rsO 3 tm, (hogging)
Consider the spans AB and BC, Applying the theorem of three

moments, we have,
4 V 18 ^ y 'is
jMu(3)+2A/^(3+?)+Mf(3)=

3(3)+ 12M>+3^c=27+ -j-
0
575
fixed and CX)NnNUOUS beams
l2Af.+3J/o=3825
4 A/6"{"Affl2 75 ...(0

Obviously Md
Applying the theorem of three moments, we have,
Mb(3)+2M[e{3+3)+0
1 y 03
^ h
5 X 3-
^
3M,+\2Mc^54
M[b-{-4Mc^]i (ft*)'
Solving equations (/) and in), we get,

Mc=3*95 tm and Mft 2*20 tm
4X
Max. free B.M. at the centre of span --g- = 4*5() tm.
3 X 3
Max. free B.M. at the centre of span BC- g

=3*375 tm.
Max. free B.M. for the span

5x32 =5*625 tm.
2i
Fig. 529
576 STRBNCIH OFMATERtALs
Reactions
B.M. at B ^^-2x4'5=-2 20
V^ - i ll t
B M at C=8 27x6+KhX3-
-4x3X4'5-2x7-5=- 3 Qn
F:~9-64i
Again B.M. at C= t'.iX3 =_3-95

t j-618 t
Total applied load on the girder
-2+(4x3)+3(3)+5(3)-.38 t
K.:-38-(8-27+9-64-|-6-18)
K,-!3-91/
91. Continuous beam with differeut moment of inertia for different
spans
Let AB and BC be
two successive spans of a continuous beam
Let /], k be the span lengths AB and BC respectively.
Let A/a, A/' , Mr be the support moments at A, B and C
respectively.
Let /i and / be the moments of inertia of the beam section for

the spans AB and CD. With the usual notations, the bending moment
at any section in A 13 is given by
Eh SD-M's
u\-
Mulliplying by v.
Eh.\
~Jx'i
Integrating from .V 0 to
/t /. /.
dv 1
L "dx
y
J ^ )
f
r.V <lx-
I
M 'axd.x
0 0 0
We know that
() At 0, v=0
dv _.
(iO At .v= /l, y--0 and
lx
(fi7) ( MtX dx~aisi

jlXl D AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 577
h
(iv) M'xx dx-aixi
I
0
Elih ibaâixi~aixj/
/ Ma'\~Mb
' ~ , Ma-^2Mb l\
2 y
=(A/+2M6)4^
Ehh 1 0a ~ (Ma + 2Mb)

{Ma-^lMb)
6E Z6a =
ll
. hh h
Similarly considering the span BC it can be shown that,
6E /^, = j
hh h
But z<>(jf*Zi)c ~0
Adding equations (/) and \ii)
6E(^>)a-\ ibc) = *7^+-^;*--

'
6a-+*-)- +2(77 +-^)
602x2
" /i/i
,
/*/*
For the particular case when h = hI the above relation

simplifies to,
M/] +2M<.(/i+/2)+Afc/2= -yp-

Problem 324. A continuous beam ABC consists of spans AB and
BC of lengths 3 m and 4 m respectively the ends A and C being simply
supporte If the spans AB and BC carry uniformly distributed loads
of 3 t per metre and 8 t per metre respectively determine the support
moments at A, B and C. Draw S.F. and B.M. diagrams. The moments
of inertia for the spans AB and BC are I and 21 respectively.
Solatiou. Since the ends A and C are simply supported
We have,
Applying the theorem of three moments for the spans Ai and
BC
1
W2h^
4I\ 4/2
5x3 8x43
0 + 2M*(+^)+0
41 +4(2/)
10 3/*=97'75 A/s 9'775 tm. say 9'78 tm.

12
Maximuta free B.M. for span AB=5 x 562 tm.
Maximum free B.M. for span BC=i x = 9 rm.

Actual B.M. at centre of ^B=5 62-J (9 n)=0'73 tm.
Actual B.M. at centre of BC=900J (978)=47/ tm.
Reactions
Consider the span AB,
B.M. at B=K.x3-5x-y--9-78
Similarly considering the span BC,

4S
B.M. at B-Kx4-8x ~=-9'78
V,=13 -56
K*->(5 X 3)+(8 X 4)-(4-26+ 13*56)
-2P-/8 t
pxBD AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS
579
PioUems fw Elxcfcise
t. A fixed beam of span

/ carries two points loads
each
placed symmetrically at a distance a from each
support. Find the
fixing moment at the supi^^*. the bending Soments at the d
centre. Find also the deflections under
cither load and at the
centre.
L
;
W?!
;
5^- 3a) (^-Aa) 1
/ / 6E/J
24E/ J
2. A beam of span
both the ends. It-is subjected
I is fixed at
to a couple Af applied
at the middle point of the beam about
a
horizontal axis normal to the beam.
Show that Ihe fi:xmg couple
at each support is
^ in the same direction as M and that the slope
at stbc centre is
^ metres carries a uniformly distribu-

ted load of 3 r per metre. Find the fixing
moment at either support
and the bending moment at the
centre. (4 tnj, 2 mi.)
;
on /4 ^ ^ metres carries two point loads, 1 5 t
TTinm^ V ^
2m and 4m from the left end. Find the
maximum sagging moment. Draw S.F'.
end
and
B M ^diagrams
(24 tm,
left Support 17 33 t
; 28 tm, ; 1 5*33 tm. Reaction at
;
Reaction at the right support 21 67 r)

beam of span 5 metres carries a point load of 10 r
Of fu ^
of 4 r at 2 m from each end. Find the
mor
maximum positive and negative moments.
beam of uniform section and span / firmly encastcred
of
ne ends carries two point loads,
^
each symmetrically W situated at
from the ends. The beam

^ is propped at mid span by a force of
greatest bending moment to which the beam

as smaJJ as possible, (a) Determine
magnitude of the
y^8j^rce at mid span, ib) Sketch the bending moment dia-
beam showing on it values required for drawing it to
^be resultant deflection at midspan in terms of M\
<! rr
/fhf u ^* f
whether it is upwards or downwards. Neglect
/the weight of the beam.
^ Fixing moment =
WI
downwards]
28 iWf?
(London University)
7.
trained at U is so cons-
at the '* restraining couple
e finnnnrtc
supports is pf. Prove that the magnitude of the restraining
580 STAENGTH OF MATtAu;.;
coupie at each end is (p/+2^/) and that the magnitude oi

O
the central deflection is
{London University)
8. A beam of span
12 m
carries two point loads 10 t rad IS t
at distances 4 and 8 m m
respectively from the left end. Find the
fixed end moments and draw the B.M. diagram.
(3ril tm. and 35'56 tm. ; 275 m from left end
and 2'6 m from right end)
10.
9. A
beam of uniform section and span / is firmly built-in at
the ends and carries a load whose intensity varies from zero at the
left end to w at the right end. Determine the fixing moments and
the reactions. Find also the position and magnitude of the maxi-
mum sagging moment.
A uniform beam simply supported at the ends carries a uni-
formly distributed load which produces a maximum deflection of 2 5
cm. and a maximum bending stress of 300 kg.jcm.'^ An equal beam,
built in at the ends carries a uniformly distributed load of a different
magnitude. For the built-in beam determine (a) the maximum
bending stress if the maximum deflections of the two beams are equal,
and (b) the maximum deflection if the maximum bending stresses for
the two beams are equal.
(.1000 kglcm'- ; 075 cm.)
IL A beam of uniform
section simply supported at its ends
carries a concentrated load of 8
/ at mid span. Find the concentrated
load which the same beam will carry at mid span when its ends are
built-in and (a) the maximum deflection remains unchanged (fi) the
maximum beading moment remains the same.
(32 r ; 16 1)
12. A fixed beam AB of span 6 m carries a uniformly distributed
load of 2 r per metre run over the left half and 3 t per metre run
over the right half and a concentrated load of 4 r at the centre of the
span. Calculate the fixed end moments. Assume uniform flexural
rigdity.
13. A beam AB 6
metres long is fixed at A
and simply suppor-
ted at B and
carries a point load of 20 r at 4 metres from A. Find the
fixing moment at .1 and the reactions at the two supports. Draw
(Af*=l7'7S tm. Max. Sagging moment 2074 tm.
K.=9-63 r and K=10-37 t)
14. A
beam .4B 6 metres long is fixed at A and simply
supported at B and carries a uniformly distributed load of 4 r per

metre over the whole span and a point load of 10 t at mid span. Find
t
FIXD and continuous beams 581
the fixing moment at A and the reactions at the two supports. Draw
lAfa=2925 tm. Max. Sagging moment = 18'375 tm.
Va----2\ 875 t, Ffc --12 l25fl
1 5. A
continuous beam ABC
8 metres long consists of two
spans AB="i m
and BC=5m. The spati AB carries a load of 5 t/m
while the span -BC carries a load of 3 tint. Find the support moment
at B and the reactions at the supports.
[M(.= K)-625 tm. ; F.=3-96 t ; Fi,^20'66 t ; Fr=5 38 t]
16. A continuous beam ABODE 12 metres Jong consists of four

spans of 3 metres each. The beam carries a distributed load of 4 tjm
over the whole span. Find the moments and reactions at the
supports
27 18
Mo=*A/=0 tm. ;
tm.
t ; t ;
F,-
J
17.
18.
continuous beam ABC has two spans AB^h and BC=h.
A
The beam simply rests on the end supports and it carries a unif or
distributed load of per unit length on its whole length. If the
support B sinks an amount S below the Ie\'el of the supports A and
C, show that the reaction at B is
_ w- (/1 +I2) .
rv 3E1 St/iH-fe)
2 8A/n 7,2/22
ihmJon llniversity)
A continuous beam ABC consists of two spans AB of length

4 m and BC of length 3 m. The span AB carries a point load
The span Bi' carries a point load Of
of 10 t at its middle point.
12 r at m from C. Find the moments at the support, and the
1
maximum positive moment for each span Find also the reactions
at the supports.
f JWa-=A/c=0 ; .M),---- rm.
A1
Max. -fve Moment lor /Ifl- rj tm.
P?
Max. 4 VC Moment for EC~- --2 '
im.
][00
F=
T ]
10
Torsion of Shafts
92. Fare torsion

A ^
A shaft of circular pure torsion when

section is said to be in
it is subjected to equal and opposite end couples whose axes coincide

with the axis of the shaft. While a beam dei^s as an effect of bending
moment, a shaft twists as an elfect of torsion. At any point in the
section of the a shear stress is indued or more exactly, the
shaft,
>' one of
state of stress at any point in the cross-section of the shaft
scs, we
pure~sheaT, By the principle of complementary shear strc'
know that in a state of simple shear there are two planes arrying
the shear stress of the same intensity. These planes mu t be pci oendi-
cular to each other.
In the case of the shaft in torsion, the planes of shear at a poi/it
are (/) the cross-section itself and (ii) the plane
containing the point
and the axis of the shaft.
93. Theory of pare torsioo
Fig. 531 shows a soGd

cylindrical shaft of radius R and
length / subjected to a couple
or a twisting moment at one T
end, while its other end is held
or fixed by the application of a
balancing couple of the same
magnitude. Fig -^31
Fig. 532
Let AB be
a line on the surface of the shaft and parallel to
the axis of the shaft before the deformation of the h.ift. As an
elfect of torsion this line, after the deformation of the shaft, take^
the form AC.
582
torsion of shafts 583
The angle CAB=^ represents the shear strain of the shaft

material at the surface. This angle being small, we have.
BC=l^
Ui)
I
Let the angle BOC be the angular movement of the radius OB

due to the strain in the length of the shaft. Let BOC^^, Lcty* be
the shear stress- intensity at the surface of the shaft
We know, fs=-^C ..Xu)
where C Modulus of rigidity of the shaft
material.
/ 1-- / BC
^
' F
( r
But R&
JS
RB
/
C0
Xiii)
R
The shaft may be taken to consist of innnite number of de-
meotal hollow shafts, one surrounding the other.
If the deformation of a line on the surface of any such interior
cylinder, at a radius r be considered it can be similarly visualized
that the shear stress intensity q at the radius r is given by the
relation,
^ C0
r /
U _q _ Cl_
R 7~ I
Since C, 6 and /are constants, it follows that at any section

of the shaft, the shear stress intensity at any point is proportional to
the distance of the point from the axis of the shaft. Hence the shear
stress is maximum at the surface and the shear stress is zero at the
axis of the shaft.
94. Moment
of resistance
Fig, 533 shows the section of a shaft
of radius R subjected to pure torsion. Let ftt
be the maximum shear stress which occurs at
the surface.
Consider an elemental area da at a
distance r from the axis of the shaft.
Shear stress offered by the elemental
r ^
area=^=-^/-.
Shear lesistanoe offered by the elemental area
da
Moment of resistance offered by the elemental area
= -^f*da.r
Total moment of resistance offered by the cross-section of

the shaft
J\
.Hut represents the moment of inertia of the section of

the shaft about the axis of the shaft, i.e., the quantity ^day^ is the
polar moment of inertia Ip of the section of the shaft.
T-
But from eq. (iii)f
95. Assumplions in the theory of pure torsion

The theory of pure torsion is based on the following assump-
tions :
(0 The material of the shaft is uniform throughout.

(a) The twist along the shaft is uniform.
(i7i) The shaft is of uniform circular section throughout.
'^0 Cross-sections of the shaft, which are plane before twist
remain plane after twist.
(v) All radii which arc straight before twist remain straight
after twist.
96. Polar modulus

Let T be the moment of torsional resistance of the section of a
shaft of radius R and Ip the polar moment of inertia of the shaft
section.
The shep stress intensity q at any point on the section distant
r from the axis of the shaft is given by
T
torsion of SHAFl'S 585
The maximuxn shear stress occurs at the greatest radius R

ii
or
or 11
Where z,.=
R
Polar moment of inertia of the shaft section
maximum radius
This ratio is called polar modulus of the shaft section. The

greatest twisting moment which a given shaft section can resist
^maximum permissible shear stress x polar
modulus.
Hence for a shaft of a given material the magnitude of the polar
modulus is a measure of its strength in resisting torsion.
Given a number of shafts of the same length and material, the
shaftwhich can resist the greatest twisting moment is the one whose
polar modulus is greatest. Shafts of the same material and length
having the same polar modulus have the same strength.
For a solid circular shaft of diameter d
32
d
2
7;
Moment of resistance
. z.
f nd^
16
For a ^ ollow shaft whose external and internal diameters are
di and dz.
n
Zp
\6di
586 SnENGTH OF MAmiALs
. 2.P
Torsional rigidity
Let a twisting moment T produce a twist of 0 radians in a
length /.
We know the relation^
T
/
/;>
I'or a given shaft the twist is therefore proportional to the
twisting moment In a beam the bending moment produces a

T.
bind or (hjbrtion the same manner a torque produces a iwi;,t
; in
in a shaft. The expression Cl. corresponds to a similar quantity
El* in the expression for defection of beams. The quaniity
i called forsional rigidity. Obviously the quantity Ch stands for
the torque required to produce a twist of radian per unit length of I
the shaft.
97. Horse power transmitted by a shaft
Let a shaft turning ar N rpm transmit P horse power. Let Ih^

mean torque to which the shaft is subjected be T kg. m.
/. Work done per second
- Mean Torque x angle turned per second
N
T 27c kg. m. per second.
H.P. Transmitted
(2kNT\
"75'
4S()0
Problem 325. Jn a tensile te.r, a test piece 25 mm. in diameter,

200 mm. gauge length stretched 0 0^ ^5 mm. under a pull of SaOO kg.
In a torsion test^ the same rod nr/.r. .7 0 025 radian over a length of
200 mm., when a torque of 4000 kg. cm. was applied. Evaluate the
Poisson s ratio and the three clastic moduli for the material
(A.M.I.E., Winter 197S)
The quantity EJ in expressions for beam deflections is called flexural rigidity.

SolntioD.
d2'S cm., 120 cm., = 5000 leg.
, 5000
Tensile stress f- = 1018-59 kg.lcm.^
0 0975
Tensile strain =e -
Elastic Modulus
/ _I018'50x200
^-1- 10^ kg./an}
OW7S
h 7
Tl 4na!x20
0\sJ4xJ0Hg.lcm.^
/i? ^(2 5;*
'0025
We know.
,
vr 2 089xll>'*
2r 2
(.834>ril)
Pois.wn's Ratio 0'J5J

We know,
-3A:(
2 089 A 10
kg./cm,^
3(1-2x0-252)
"1404 X kg. I cm
Problem 326. steel shaft 140 horse power at

transmits
160 rpm- If the shaft is 100 mm. diameter^ find the Torque on the
shaft and the maximum shear stress induced. Find also the twist of the
shaft in a length of 6 metres. Take d < HP kg.jcm.^
Solution.
,
STRENGTH OF IfATBXIMLS
140
_ 2gyl60x7
4500
__ 140 x 4500
^ ,

2JtXl60
-6:6-6 kg. m.
-62(>60 kg. cm.
16
167 ^16X62660
/ kg.!cm.^
nD'^ nxlO^
3i9 l kg.jcm?
T^CB
VT
I
1. ^ radians
62660 600
radian
8x105
f' 047 S 6 radian

2 4y
Problem 327. Find tiu li /^ that can be transmitted by a shaft
60 mm. diameter, at r r if the permissible shear stress is
^50 kg-lcm.^
Solution.
850X:i{6)^
r fr kgdem.^
ih 16
'
kg cm.
~ 3 ^0 kg m.
I'zM .
2 Ttx] 80 x 360'6
H.P. transmitted
500 4500
^'3 // P
Problem 328. ^4 solid circular .diaft tranmits 100 hp at 200 rpm.
Calculate the shaft diameter if lie " /u in the shaft is not to exceed
1* in 2 metres length oj atul the shearing stress is limited to
500 kg I cm^. TakeC= /
*

mr (AMJ E, Summer 1979)
Solution.
2-.\i
H.P. of shaft -100/;;?.
4500
4500X100
=358*10 ^g.m.= 358 10 kg^cm.
^ 2nx200
(0 Twist consideration
h I
Tl c^.
IL
Co 32 ce
#-= ITl
nce
' 0 X 200 X 1 ^ _ 4179-8
*7: X ! X 10** X It
d-=8 04 an.
(ii) Shear stress consideration
T==L'^ - 35810
16x35810
- =364*76
500
/. rf-=7 l4 cm
Hence we should provide at least a diameter of S 04 cm.
Problem 329. A shaft has to transmit 140 HP. at 160 r.p.m.

If the shear stress is not to exceed 650 kg. ! cm. ^ and the twist in a
length of 350 cms. must not exceed l\find a suitable diameter. Take
C^8 X 10^ kg.lcm!^
Solation.
450U
140=
2nxl60xr
4500
7= 140X4500 kg. m
2itxl60
=626 6 kg. m.
=62,660 kg. cm.
From shear stress consideration,

nD
T=^f. 16'
16T
f.n
^ 16 x 62660
~ 650 X It
r)z=7'89 cm.
590
From stiffness consideration,
T
I /
_ T1
32 rtJ
32 Th
r. C
6266 0 X 350 X 80
1
/ ] - il
^
8 X 10**^ X TT
*
TT
D-~Ji'25 cm.
Hence the required diameter
- 11-25 cm.
Problem 330. A .solid shaft h of WO mm. diameter. It trans-

mits 160 HP at 200 rpm. Find the maximwri intensity of shear stress
induced and the angle of twist for a length of 6 metres^ Take

C^HxJO^ kgfm.'^
SolatioQ.
- '^nNT
H.P. transmitted
60x75
2Tix200r
160-
60x75
160x60x7^5
kg. m.
27rX200
-572-8 kg. m.
-57280 kg. cm.
Polar moment of inertia

nd*
/i>
=
32
h R
/.= JL '
h
16 X 57280 2
kg.lcm.
nxl0
29l'l kg-lcm.*
591
torsion of shafts
572SO X 32 6ti0
=^0'04375 radian.'
required to traits-
Problem 331. Find the diameter of the shaft
mt 80 horsepower at 150 r.n.m. if the maximum torque ,s likely to
by 25% for a maximum permissible shear
exceed the mean torque
Find also the angle of twist for a length of
stress of 600 kg.lcm^
2 5 metres.
Take C8x 70 kg.lcm?
Solution
P _
75x60
2 x 150X7-
4500
^ 80 X 4500 ,
2 .x 150
-381-9*)?. m.
=--38190 kg. cm.
The torque calculated above is the mean torque.

Max. torque Tmax = r 25 X mean torque.
=
= r25x38190 kg. cm.
= 47737-5 kg. cm.
Jp _7tJ4 X 2 niP
Polar modulus
^
rmax 32 X 16
rra*=/<x Polar modulus

1C(fi
47737-5=600 X --g-
47737-5x16

600.
d=- 7 40 cms.
T C9
h " I
47737-5x32 250
X radial
ityTA* ''8x1^
=^0 0507 radian
^-T 54\
Problem 332. A hollow shaft is to transmit 400 hp at 80 rpm.
If the shear stress is not to exceed 600 kg.lcm.^ and the internal
diameter is 0 6 of the external diameter, find the external and internal
diameters, assuming that the maximum torque is 14 times the mean
torque. (A.M.I.E. Winter 1976)
Solution.
H.P. of the shaft = =400

4500
^
4S(0 X 400
^3580 98 kg. m.
2nX80
r...x=l 4 = 1-4x3580 98 = 5013-37 kg. m.
==^501337 kg. cm.
iz
(Di-d*)
32
Polar modulus Zk
_D 16D
2
~ [Z)-0-6D-]=0-1709 I>3
16D
rm.,=/.Zv=501337
600 x0 1709 Z)3-501337
501337
Z)8= -==4889 18
_ 600 x 0- 1709
D=I6'97 cm.
rf=0-6x 1697=70 /5 cm.
Problem 333. A hollow shaft with diameter ratio | is required to
transmit 600 horse power at 120 rpm with a uniform twisting moment.
The shearing stress in the shaft must not exceed 600 kg./cm.^ and
the twist in a length of 2' 5 m must not exceed /*. Calculate the
minimum external diameter of the shaft satisfying these conditions.
Take the modulus of rigidity C^SxlO^ kg./cm.^. {London University)
Solution. Let the internal and external diameters of the shaft
be d and D respectively.
i-
D* 5
IkNT
H.P.
4500
2Xl20xr
600 =
4500
.
!> 5 Si 00 Lg cn:^
,
/, 2/r
Polar modulus
"
(f)
2n
3 2 i)
(6 D
7t XJ
"" D*- ^
16 D ( 625 /
TC 554
""
16 625
i) 1 70*) cm
tn'H) kg*
T'-- X poj'ir
rr
i
Poiar nioduias
f.
358 .uy_
0'i7rHi /)S
ttbo
,'17 i>n
WhfH the in a hn-;th of 2 2 m i< /
/. ;y,/<w,- (c-
)
S14
r/0'
32 X U1
i t.f*
ff
0
c /
Tc 25U__ -?58j(iUx35x625
l iSi)
8 X 10 ^ 544 n >1
/)4 = 7500c.
i) = 1655 a.
In order that the shear stress should not exceed 600 kgicnfl and
^
mUBNOTH (ffMAmULS
that the twist in a length of 2'5 should not exceed 1* the outside
m
diameter of tlie shaft must be at least 16 55 cm.
334. A solid ahiminium shaft 100 cm.

long and of 5 cm.
FmUeu
a tubular steel shaft of the sowie length
diameter is to be replaced by
and the same outside diameter (i.e., ^ cm.), such that
cMn of i etwo
same angle of twist per unit torsiotud moment
shtffts could have the
over the total length. What must the inner diameter of the tubular
times that of
steel shaft be ? Modulus of rigidity of steel is fftfoe
{A.M.I.E., Nov. ivoo)
aluminium.
Soludou.
moment
If a torsional
T be applied to a shaft f
^ \ z x \
/
'
of length /. the twist 0 for the / \ if \ i
length / is given by
I j
J_
h /
\ ^J
where polar moment
of inertia
and 'CModulus of rigidity saio Aiumnion

. 5 c
JUBUIAH iJtU
s^rr SHAFT
Angle of twist per unit
torsional moment Fig.
l 534
1f~~hC
/
/
"
~hc
r unit
Since the angle (of twist j>er torsional moment is the same
for the two shafts, we tiave^ ^ should have the same value for
Y'jJ j
the two shafts. Since the two shafts have the same Jlength, ihC)
should be the same for the two shafts.
Let [a and It be the polar moments of inertia of the aluminium
and steel shafts.
Let Ca and C< be the modulus of rigidity of aluminium and

steel. Let d be the internal diameter of the steel shaft.
Hence we have
fa Ca^ ItCt
/Ca=/..3/a
/.= 3/.
X5*
S*-d*
J
^
= 625 -'';^
,, 1250
d=4'518 cm.
Problem 335. The shaft shown in Fig. 535 rotates at 200 r.p.m.
with 40 hp- and 20 hp taken off at A and B respectively and 60 hp.
applied at C. Find the maximum shear stress developed in the shtfft
and the angle of t ist {degree) of the gear A relative to C. Assume
G=0'S5 X iO kg-lcm^.
Solution.
Shaft between B and C
H.P. of the sh"^- g c
=60 Ap.
Let the torque in ~ . m r=:
|
t5Cm.OiA.
n
|
part of the shaft be

this
7t>e.

J i
[ |
HP=2uAT
75x60 ,
>*
2X200
4500 Fig. 535
60 X 4500
kg, nt.
=214*8 kg, m.
21480 kg, cm.
Let/* be the maximum shear stress in this part of the shaft.
-T,,
10
16x21480 . , 2
-
,x7-5
-259-2 kg.lcm.^
Shaft between B and A
H.P. of the shaft =60- 20 =40 hp.
Let the torque in this part of the shaft be Ta
40
2nx200xra*
T _^X4500,kg. m.
^
^
Tai,
il41'2 kg. m.
i * 'll' kt. cm.
596 STRENGTH OP MATBRU^^
Let/i' be the maximum shear st^ss in this part of the shaft
//- 16' I
1 6 /aft
162U43M
kg.lcm^
itx 5
=583'3 kg.jcm^.
Hcncc the greatest shear stress -icijurs iri the 5 cm diameter
shaft.
Max. shear stress 583'3 kg.lcm.^

T\vist of the shaft
Let (! be the twist of the shaft BC.
200 2) 480x32
radian
6'85x 108 nX7 5>
=0*01626 radian.
Let 0(ii> be twist of the shaft AB
400 ^ 14320X32 ..
"0-85xl0 ttx5^
>= 0*1 098 radian.
Angle of twist of A with respect to C

=6o6"1"6i)c
=0*i098 +0*01626
=0I2606 radian.
-7* 13'
Problem 336. Show that for a given maximum shear stress the
minimum diameter required for a solid circular shaft to transmit P
horse power at N r.p.m. can be expresed as
d constant x
N
What value of the maximum shear stress has been used if die
constant equals 7'70, d being in centimetres.
Solnthm.
2nNT
H.P.=P=
4500
597
SHAFTS
tORStON OF
4V '
m.
T-
-
^
450,000P .
2A
j'=.
'16
_i6r
/.
4^^0WP
16X450,000
A'
r
A ,
V 'a'
2/ 16><4MyOOO
where A
V
iipx_450^w[0
V
16 > 450,000
(7'7)S-
IrM,
16x450,000
iM'lf
r SOO k^ 'Crr^' iio
vropelwf i
1., ',7 4 hi, How marine r,, the expert-
T %t^fhorr.I'powX
SolutiOB.
FK,
F kg.
exerted be
Let the thrust
per secon
.-. Useful work done ner second
sec.
==rfxn kg. m. per
ne
Useful work do
Efficiency of the shaft
B^rgy
fxl2 ^0-68
1450x75
STRENGTH OF MATERIAL
0*68 x 8450 X 75
kg.
12
=35910 kg.
Let the external diameter be D cm.
.. Internal diameter
=a=-y- D cm.
Area of the section
\
I
- 4
4^^
-fe ^
^Stress due to direct load
35910
=80
D^32'07 cm.
2
.'. internal diameter </=> ^x 32*07 cw.
^21' 38 cm.
-/p*=^[32*07*-21*384 jcOT.4
=83300 cm*.
2i*JVT
H.P.
4500
4300 xp
T
1%N
4500 x 8450
X 100 kg. cm.
2RX110
=5501000 kg. cm.
T fj_
U~ R
599
XORSION OF SHAFTS
5501000 3207
83300 ^ 2 kg.lcm*.
1060 kg.Icnfi.
ProMem 338.Two shafts of the same meterial are subjected to
the same torque. If the first shift is of solid circular section and the
internal diameUr is i of the
second shaft is of hollow section whose
outside diameter., compare the weights of the two shaft^^^
The maximum torque a shaft ssciioa can safely

Sulutifto.
resist is giveî by
J=/. . Z,
where /.--pcrsr^siibh' shear stress
Zp -polar modaiui of shaft section
in order the two shafts ina> have tiie same strengft to resist
; torque, the polar tnoduii of the shafts must be cc,ual.
Let jD be the dimeter of the solid shaft.
Polar modulus of the solid shaft hccHob
r.tfi
It)
Lei Di be the external diameter of the hollow shaft.
. Internal diameter -
2
Di
. Polar modulus of the hoilow shaft ssetion
" 16 Di
65
81 16
Equating the polar moduli of the two shaft sections, we have,
65 nDi^
^ 16
""
16
8)
D V 65
r075
Since the two shafts are of the sxuae material and are of the
same length.
Weight of hollow shaft

Weight of solid shaft
Area of hollow shaft section
~ Area of solid shafk McJltM
I
fiOO STRENGTH OF MATERIau
ff /).-
)
1i 'f
y w> /
= ~ ( 075)3
--0-64r
"
rp.,,.
cirruhr fhatt h i.j tran^mH -ÛO hn "^
//, /r ;io.' in e::c(:od h-.K k - 3 tm / *.tt u*^;
',
UTi'îer .yf life s^^qfL

'
/ - **3^#
ext^ fuJ ihu - ', ', r, ,?<,.

lengilif (he mau nai u '
,; the muximvm v,V -.'-
v.v summer lyT!':,

S4!tliit^Q.
Horse pc-^'-.'r
4 TN r;-;.
rj^'/'/s ij.
jv*/- "i
' ij
-
V iHf *
* *
-O- J2\. ['
7 ?.
1 ,
a shr.ft is prrn J
Exiernal diarritstr
Inrernali
Polar nioJvPas I jt
of hoHow haft "'

"" f/'J --
j)
) i ti)
---U'870
(6
Polar modutug ) r/jO
of solid shaft ^ -j^
ZhattCfil Zifia
(mo 4^^
16 16
7 ' 5
601
torsion of shafts
\3
(?) = ri489
Percentage saving in weight

A \
( A. 4 J I
-{ --I'::-: ]"-<
-_.,i
I
0'^4 X I 04'7)
iransniit 10^ I-P

OmWfin '140 4
A'Trlkin, alM: sJuar
-tS
the
able ihanu'Wr of the .'.toft, >J
ounneter of
Solution. ^
_ i yi
H.P. 01 jhuit '-
4500
?50ti - lOi)
-;l5S10#ie n:
2r. y 201)
31{ i0 kg. cm.
T iBHiiTi
'r ,
.
-
r5
1
/
'' issitt
-
^ 46:i4} kg. ttti.
, . Fmar-'-l 3 .'
.solid 'hafi is pros id ed

Cace (i>. Vi' hen a
T x
Fm ' n
' -46 ' 53
I ^
.3
465r^>':16 ,,3>i-7
7!!0
d'^0-97 an.
ratio 0 7 ts pronded
Case Hi). When a holloye shaft of diameter
Externa! diameter
=
Internal diameter^-- 0'7/)
Polar modulus- (D- O'l'M-O'lSW.V

J?Aol*or -fiZsoIiii
D 638 cm.
347 cm.
diameter 01 D 0.1 x.T 63 S
*~
Internal
602 STVfiNOTH OF MATmtlAls
Problem 341. A hollow shaft having an inside diameter 60^/^

of its outer diameter is to replace a solid shaft transmitting the same
power at the same speed. Calculate the percentage saying in
material, if the material to be used is also the same.
{AMIE, Summer 1975)
Solution.
Let the diameter of the solid shaft be D
Let the outer diameter of the hollow shaft be Di
Inner diameter of the hollow shaft -0 6i>i
Polar modulus of the solid shaft
nJD^
-
/Lt. ltd .
10
Polar modulus of the hollow shaft
yT;.. )i(> -
l6Dt
-0 8704
16
Since both the shafts should have the same polar modulus.
Zhcil.u
kDi^ Jt/)
0-8704 -
16 16
(fl T" 0 8704

Di
7r047
Percentage saving in weight,

A sit ltd Ahollov
A.ol*d
-[ ]=<"
=[ 1-0-64 ^jx 100%

(1 -064 X 1 047) X 100%
^29-84%.
ProUeni 342. A solid shaft is to tranmit 450 H.P. at 120
r.p.m. If the shear stress of the material must not exceed 800 kg Icmî
find the diameter required.
What percentage saving in weight would be obtained if this shaft
is replaced by a hollow one whose interrud diameter Itquals (f6 x exter-
nal diameter the length, material and maximum shearing stress remain^
ing unchanged.
Solution.
IkNT
HR 450(i
2n a12():<T
450---
4S00
45( X
/ - ^
,
kf' m.
2r.xi20
=^^2683 kg. m.
- 2,6J5 500 kg. cm.
Bin
167
16x2,68.500
^^
'
80()xV'
D-iI'05cm.
Let Di be the external diameter of hollow shaft
Internal diameter of the hollow shaft '=^06Dt
Since the solid and the hollow shafts have to transmit the
torque at the same maximum shear stress their polar moduli must be
equal.
Polar modulus of the solid shaft section
Polar modulus of ihe hollow shaft section
32
JiDi
-0-8704
16
Equating the polar moduli of the two shafts, we have,
nPi^ . ..
0-8704-
~i6 16
2)*_
2)1 *
0-8704
602 STHfiNCrra OP MATBRIALS
Problem 341. A hollow shaft having an inside diameter 60%

of its outer diameter is to replace a solid shaft transmitting the same
power at the same speed. Calculate the percentage saving in
material^ if the material to be used is also the same.
{AMIE, Summer 1975)
Solution.
Let the diameter of the solid shaft be D
Let the outer diameter of the hollow shaft be D\
Inner diameter of the hollow shaft -^0 6Z)i
Polai modulus of the solid shaft
Z* ifKl
16
Polar modulus of the hollow shaft
rc
Zi.i Uo r
i6bi
-(V8704
16
Since both the âfts should have the same polar modulus,
Zholtan
0'870*
JO
^
16
v3
(
D
Y=.
= 1 1489
\ J 018704
87
Dl = r047
Percentage saving in weight,
so tid Ahollou)
X 100%
I Asot%d ]
AjtOllOU'
=[
'
]xl00%
Aioltd
X100%
I -0-64 X lOOf/
=[^
-(l-0-64Xl047)x 100%
^29'84%.
Probkm 342* A solid shaft is to tranmit 450 H.P* at 120
r*p.m. If the shear stress of the material must not exceed 800 kg jenP.
find the diameter required-
What percentage saving in weight would be obtained if this shaft
is replaced by a hoUow one whose ^tenutl diameter ieqaads (f6 x ex/er
ml diameter the length, material and maximum sJuâring stress remain^

ing unchanged.
Solution.
InNT
HP,
450U
450-
In 120 . : T
45(H^
45(> A 4500
T- kg, m.
r:x i20
- 2685 /vi; ;>i.
- - 2,6S.500 kg. cm.
Bia T /- if)
16T
y>
[6x2,68.500
800 X n
D-iro5cm.
Let Di be the external diameter of hollow shaft.
Internal diameter of the hollow shaft
Since the solid and the hollow shafts have to transmit the same
torque at the same maximum shear stress their polar moduli must be
equal.
Polar modulus of the solid shaft section

nD'*
Polar modulus of the hollow shaft section
32
I
~2~'
- 0-8704
16
Equating the polar moduli of the two shafts, we have.
0-8704-
16 Ifi
i)3_
0-8704
-
404 STRENGTH ORMATHRUIS
(ii:95P_
*
0.8704
DxÎ25Icm,
Since both the shafts are of the same material and length, per-
centage saving in weight
Area of solid shaft area of hollow shaft
j \
\ Area of solid shift j
_ f area of hollow sly ft ? ^

"
/ area of solid, shaft >
- (0-6 x! 2-51)]|
f
I JLt 1-952 X J
4
Prohleii? 343 The propeller shi ft of a 'Ueam 5 /;//) has to trans-

mit HKOOO fl.P, a! 240 rpoi. The shaft has' an internal diameter of
/5 6'W- Cakulafe the rninimum exti^rnal Juimeter if the iJitanng s^re^s
in the shaf /s he Utnited to k\fx'rn^. (lAoidon tniver^îty) '
Solirtiou
45>o
2^.^ lAiXf
1 0,000
'4501)
HL(V>ox 4500 ,
A'g, m.
="-29840,
"2984(H0 kg cm.
Let the exterrul diameter be di cm.
Internal diameter* ~ 15 cm..

r ^ ^ A rl
i f 4
)jcm.i
(.-15^ i
Polar modulus
(J, 4 - 50625) ^^3
... cm.^
fA )
V 2 J
_ _ Tc W,- 50625)
T6 dt
T^f.Zp
TORSION OF SHAFTS
605
2984000=1570 X -50625
i 6 \ di
Rearranging,
9840(t(>x 16
^#1^- 50625=-
J ^ /\):t
</i^-9679t/i 50625-0
Solving by trial nnd error, wc get
= -V fV>7.
Problem, M4 .( hollow .h,.fr :4 z^-

internal diarneter is to be replaced hr a ,olid
allov skull. If both the
shafts should have the same P'-dur moduhajind
th\>
torsional rigidities.
diuLter of
C
Z
^^2
4^ for alloy'"
If alternatively, the two shafts should have
Take for steel
the same torsional

rigidity,find the ratio oj their polar moduli.
Solution. Case (i). When the polar moduli of the two shafts
are equal.
Z^tet I
=2 a;i< ,
Polar modulus of the steel shaft
" r D^t.. i).,s

]
(24 -16^ c.3

16 ',24 j
2ll80:t
Let the diameter of the solid alloy shaft be d

cm.
Polar modulus of the alioy .shaft
'
16
Equating the polar moduli of the two shafts, we gel
_ nd^ 201-0
j3
3 2080 X 16
d^ 22-30 cm.
Ratio of torsional rigidities
rigidity of steel shaft

Torsional rigidity of alloy shaff
606 STRENGTH OF MATERlAUi
But siace the polar moduli are equal

/> h
r r:
* Jl.
h rj
Ratio of torsional riiîditics
Ca
r.'
12
--2*4 X
- 2' 586
Case (ii), When the torsional rigidities of the two shafts are
equal
Cnh -'Cain
C, . ^(24-l6*) Ca
= (24* -16*)
==2'4 (24<~ 16^)

d 28'28 cm.
2. Ratio of Polar moduli
Z. L ra
Z7 I
/.
/s r tt
/ rs
Since the torsional rigidities are equal

Cf/* Cala
C 1
fa G '24
4^ 1 14*14
Zo 2 4 12
Problem 345. The stepped steel shaft shown in Fig. 536 is sub-
jected to a torque T at the free end and a torque 2T in the opposite
direction at the junction of the two sizes- What is the total angle of
twist at the free end if the maximum shear stress in the shaft is limited
to 700 kg- per cm^ 7
Assume the modulus of rigidity to be Q'84 X 10^ kg-fcm *
{A.M.IE^ May 1967)
SMikNi. Torque on the shaft BC
=r kg. cm.
.JQK5I0N OP SHAPTS 607
son
%
=T2T^-T kg. cm.
Hence the two shafts are subjected to a torque of same magni-

tude but of opposite sense.
Henc$ the shaft BC which is of smaller diameter will be sub-
jected to a bigger shear stress than shaft AB.
Equating the torsional strength of the shaft BC to the external
torque, we have
gd*
/.
16
1C V
T:-.700x-^-kg, cm.
lo
=17180 kg. cm.
Let the twist of the shaft BChe 0< radians,
X
Ist l%e
17180 180
'
radian
wxS^ y'Ô 84X10*
V 32")
=0 06 radian.
Similarly me twist 0a^ of the shaft AB \s given by.
17180 120
radian
' ttX lO^ 0-84x104
(
V 32
= 0 0025 radian.
Since the directions of twists 9b, and 0^ are opposite to each
other.
Net angle of twist of the free end
= 0bc Dtfb
=0 06-0'0025 radian
O'OSTS radian
=3 -295
jy i* 18'
Pfoblem 346. A solid shaft 650

metres long is securely fixed
at each end. A tor fue of 900 kg. cm. applied to the shaft at a section
is
2' 50 metres from one end. Find the fixing torques set np at the ends
of the shaft.
If the shaft is .1.^0 cms. diameter find the maximum shear stresses
in the two portions. Find also the angle of twist for the .section where
the torque is applied.
Take C -0 Kdx kg./cm-.
Solution
Fig. 5.^7 shows the shaft .48. Let the fixing couples at the
ends A and B be T<, and Tu respectively.
Since the tix'ng couples must oppose the applied couple,

Ta\n-.^9mkg.cm. ...(f)
Further, the ends being fixed the angle of twist in the length
AC of the shaft must be equal to the angle of twist in the length
CB.
1 he twist G for a length I is given by
Since C and F, have the same value for the two portions
We have Tol. AC- T. . CB
r. .(2-5)l()0-7.(4) 100
7fl=l'67 ...(t'O
Substituting in equation (i), wc get
I -67;. 4 J - 90(t
cm.3462kg. cm.
r..- 900-346-2 kg. cm.

Tn ^-553-ft kg. cm.
ICtf t5X3-5=*
Polar modulus Zr~ 16 C/3
16
Maximum shear stress in the portion AC

n
609
TOFMON OP SHAFTS
5538XI6 , .
,
- 65' 7 5 kg.jcm.^
Maximum shear stress in the portion CB

n
_M:2x16 2
Ttx(3 5)'
=4]'] kg.lcm.^
The angle of twist can be determined considering either the

part AC orCB.
TI
0_L
Clp
Ta.AC
" Clp
5538X 250X32
radian
u4X 10X7tx(3'5)*
=0'01 1 18 radian
= 0* -64
=0* 38' 24"
Problem 347. A 3 cm. diameter circular steel shaft is provided

with enlarged portions A and B as shown in Fig. 538. On to th^s
enlarged portion a steel tube O' 20 cm thick is shrunk. While the
shrinking process is going on the 3 cm. diameter shaft is held twisted
by a couple of magnitude 800 kg. cm. When the tube is firmly set on
the shafts this twisting couple removed. Calculate what twisting couple
is left on the shafts the shaft and the tube being made of the same
material
I _T i
i
r
-1
1
Fig. 538
Solution. When the shaft is subjected to a couple of 800 kg. cm.
let the angle of twist of the shaft be ^
Polar moment of inertia of the shaft section

81
>/,.== (3)*cm4= jc cm*
-jj 32
Tl 800 /x3:
radian.
Clp Cx81w
610 strength op materials
800 X 32 /
Now consider the sleeve

External diameter =</i=6+04=64 cm.
Internal diameter =cl2= 6 cm.
Moment of inertia
/' = -^l64^ cm.*
X 76 96 x 4 96 cm.*
32
Let Tt be the couple left on the shaft
Corresponding twist of the shaft
r./
fl
Olf
T.lx32
~~ radian.
C81 Ji
32 T.l
radian.
81 n' C
Corresponding twist in the sleeve
n
cr
TJx}2 radian.
cX 75 X 7696 X 4'96
But 0-)-6#=0
Til,. 32 T.l 32X^00 I

c ^x7696x4*96 C 81 75
"
C
Ta 800

76-96 X 4-96
81
r,[
,
111
81 +381-7 J"
81
800
81
462-7 800
81 X38I -7^- 8r

800x381-7,
462-7
=660 kg cm.
Problem 348. A composite shaft consists of a sled rod 6 cm.

diameter .surrounded by a closely fitting tube of brass fixed to it. Find
the outside diameter of the tube so that when a torque is applied to the
composite shaft, it will be shared equally by the two materials. Take,
Cfor steel (kSdy.Vfi kg fcmi*. and Cfor brass =042x10^ kg.fcnfl.
TORSOH of shafts 611
jf the torque is 100,000 kg. cm. find the maximum shearing

stress in each material and the angle of twist in a length of 4 metres.
Solution. Let the twist of each shaft
be 0
Polar moment of inertia of steel shaft
32
Polar moment of inertia of the brass
shaft
If 7 j and Ti> be the torques in the steel

and brass shafts. Fig. S39
We have
T. c.e ^
h /
But r.-r*
_/*_C.^084
"^
It Cb 0 42
h=2I,

f2
D*-d*-2xd*
D*-3xd*-=3x6*-
.'. D 7' 898 cm.
T.
100-000
50,000 kg. cm.
for the f tee! shaft, maximum shear stress

Tt
=-?=zT
50.000X16
^ '^3-
tc
, , 2
kg.jcm.^
<1179 kg lcm.^
For the brass^shaft, maximum shearing stress
a To
=*9b
Zb
50,000 xl6D
n(b*-d*)
612 SIXENOTH OF MAT/SRIals
Since J)*-d* 2d*

50,000x16x7 S98
kg,lcm:
nx2x(6)^
77(5 kg^fcm.^
The common angle of twist
Td
= 0=
Cl$
5 0,000x400x32
radian
0*84X10^X11X6^
=0*1871 radian
42'
Problem 349. A solid alloy shaft 3 cm diameter is to be coupled

in series with a hollow steel shaft of the same external diameter. Find
the internal diameter of the steel shaft if the angle of twist per unit
length of the steel shaft is to be 75% of that of the alloy shaft. Deter-
mine the speed at which the shafts are to be driven to transmit 250 H.P.
if the limits of shearing stress are to be 560 kgfcm.^ and 800 kgjcm.'^
in alloy and steel respectively. Take C$ieei^2'2 Cmioy.
{London University)
Solation. Angle of twist per unit length of a shaft is given by
A= L
/ ~C/;.
T =0*75
T
CJs Cala
=0*75 X 2*2
5 0 75x2 2
</=625-378-8=246-3
(#-3-962 cm.
Also for a shaft, we know the relation
r I
=c.
f ^ (
ft \
rttetl ( 1 ) ii$9l
and
rmo^ V / j aittff
fiCei _c. r#
X 075 22x 075 1*65
falloy Ca ra
tORSION OF SHAFTS 613
^ (e( '
' 165 /o(to
when Atfi '800 kg.lcm.^

'
/ono=| ' =484'9 ig./cm.* (this is less than
the permissible stress of 560 kg.jcm^.)

Now the torque can be determined by considering any one of
the shafts.
1 Jfalien ni)3
16
_484-3xw(53)
kg. cm.
16
11890 kg. cm 118-90 AjeTM.
_2nNT
HP- 4500'
.4500(H.PJ
N--
2nT
4500X250
27tXll89
NI505 rpm.
Problem 350. A steel shaft A BCD having a total length of

240 cm. consists of three lengths having different sections as follows,
AB is hollow having outside and inside diameters of 8 cms. and 5 cms.
respectively and BC and CD
are solid. BC having a diameter oj 8 cms.
and CD a diameter of 7 cms. If the angle of twist is the same for each
section, determine the length of each section and the total angle of twist
if the maximum shear stress is 500 kg.jcm.^ Take C^0'82y. lO^
kg.jcm.'^
ji. 5^ 5
..
A\
! p V-H D
Fig. 340
Solatioo. Polar moment of inertia of the shaft sections are.
For shaft AB, A - jj ( 8- 5* ) cm.*

-340*9 cm.*
For shaft BC,

( * )
'
-402*4 cm.*
614 SniBNOTH OF IfATEitUU
For shaft CD, h 7 j* em*

=235-8 cm .4
Since the angle of twist for each lensth is the saint
must be the same for each length.
Since T and C are the same throughout the shaft,
=^3
h h h
h _ k _ h
340-9 4024 2358
/i=1-44/8
and /g- 1-71/3
But /i-(-/2-f-/3=240 cm.
1-44/8+1-71/3+/3=240
4^1 5 /a=240
h=57'8 cm.
/i = 1-44 X 57-8 cm.
Ii*m83'2 cm.
/8=240-57-8-83-2-99 cm.
Twist of the shaft AB
-ei-4^
* Cr
500X83 2
radian
0*82xr0<5x4
0 01269 radian
Total angle of twist of the whole shaft
3 X 0*01 269 radian
s= 0*03807 radian
ir.
Problem 351. A steel shaft ABCD
has a total length of 127 5 cm.,
made up as follows. AB^SO cm. BC^37'5 cm.f and ^60 cm. CD is AB
hollow its outside diameter being 10 cm. and inside diameter di cm. BC
and CD are solid having diameters of 10 cm. and 8 75 cm. respectively.
If equal opposite torques are applied at the ends of the shaft Jind the
maximum permissible value of difor the maximum shearimi .stress in
AB not to exceed that in CD. If the torque applied to the shaft is
90 t cm. what is the total angle of twist 7 Take C=^0'8x 70^ kg.jcm.^
{London University)
Solution. Let the common torque on the shaft be T kg. cm.
Let internal diameter of the shaft AB^
X0IISKIN SHAFTS
Bt c oâe.jscm. n
D,=wan.i I
3QCfJi 31'5 Cf3. *1* -^Q cfp.
Fig. 541
For the shaft AB,

r=<7lZi

16 V Di )
r_ n / lO*-dl* \
^
^M6 V 10 )
1607-
Tt(104-rfi4)
For the shaft CD,

Tq-iZz
n (875)3
= 3
16
_ i6r
n(8 75)3
/
Since
160r 16
(875)3
10 I
(8 75)3
104 -</i 4- 10 (8 75)3
</i4=3301
di 7'5il cm.
We know the twist of a shaft is given by
ri
Civ
In our case.
6 --2
Cl,.
_ TlsX
~ C Ip
30,00,000 30 37-5 60
OSxlO* + +W
|j(10-7-58) -^(10*)
616 STRENGTH OP IIATBMALS
00214 radian
-/* 12'.
S98. Keys
A key is a wedge-like piece inserted
between two machine parts
so as to prevent relative movement between them. For instance a
key is a necessity for connecting a shaft and the surrounding hub
(Fig. 542).
Let / and b be the length and

width of the key.
Let fk be the safe shearing stress
in the key. The resistance set up by
the key is fk lb. Jf the diameter of
the shaft be d the moment that can
be transmitted by the key
Ib .
U/t be the maximum shearing

Fig. 542 stress in the shaft the aximum m
torsion on the shaft
n<f*

16
Equating the torsion on the shaft to the moment transmitted
by the key, we have.
f99. Coaplbig
A coupling is used 'to connect two shafts so that the rotary
motion of one car be transmitted to the other.
Fig. S43
Fig. 543 shows an arrangement for such a coupling.

The coupling surrounds the two shafts to be connected. Con-
nection between each shaft and coupling is provided by the key. The
two parts of the coupling arc held together by bolts. The bolts arc
arranged along a circle called the bolt circle.
Let the diameter of the bolt be db. Let n bolts be provided on
a bolt circle of radius R.
Let Jf be safe shearing stress in the bolt.
Maximum load that can be resisted by one bolt
r
^Jb.
ndifi
7
Moment that can be transmitted by all the bolts
x/ft/
ndb^
- X R.
_
4
Equating the maximum torsion on the shaft to the moment
transmitted by the bolts.
'
R,
4
Problem 352. A 10 cm. diameter shaft transmits 140 HP at
120 rpm, A flanged coupling is keyed to the shafts the key being
2*5 cm. wide and 14 cm. long. Six bolts of 2 cm. diameter are symme-^
trically arranged along a holt circle of 28 cm. diameter. Find the
shear stresses induced in the shaft, the key and the bolts.
Solution.
2nNT
HP. "4500
4500 X 140
X 100 kg, cm.
2tcX120
83540 kg. cm.
d ^db^
We know r Kd^ r tL f
~4~' ^n
16 2
83540=/. - =/* 1 4 X 25 X 5
=6/. }-(2)xl4
4
/.=425 kg.lcm.^
fi~.477kg.lcm.*
and f>3l7 kg.fcm.*
618 STRENGTH OF MATERIaU
$100. Shear aad Torsional resilience
Shear resilience
Fig.544 shows a square block ABCD of

side / whose thickness perpendicular to the plane
of the drawing is unity.
Let the faces AB and CD be subjected to
shear siie.ssts of intensity q.
With respect to the face CD let the face
A be deformed to the position AiBi. Let the
angle Obviously rcoresents the
shear strain. Let BBi*^^.
Fig. 544
Shear force on the face AB=Pq ABx 1 =gl
Work done by /(if gradually applied)
=i P. 8
But
Work done
^
This is also the energy stored by the block.
Volume of the block =/^ x 1
2C
Torsional resilience
When the cross-section of a member is subjected lo aTconstant,
i.e.^ uniform shear stress of intensity wejjknow thatj the energy
<1 -
stored by the member X volume. But in case of a cylin-
drical shaft the shear stress due to torsion varies uniformly from
zero at the axis to a maximum value /? at the surface.
Let the shaft be a solivi shaft of diameter D and length /. The
shaft may betaken to consist of an inlinite number of elemental
concentric hollow shal js.
Consider one such elcmcmal hoilow shaft of radius r and thick-
ness dr. The shear stress q at the radius / is given by
r 2r f
f
' - -
x ff'
Strain energy stored by the elemental cylinder
X volume
2C
TORSION OF SHAFTS 619
Inrdr. /
1C
4 tc/
-/s^r^dr
Strain energy stored by the whole shaft

Dll
_
~ CD-] r^dr
CD-
4 16
16 C
/
^ A AC
/s2
= X volume of he shaf
Similarly for a hollow shaft of internal diameter d and cxternaJ

diameter D.
D/2
Strain energy stored = r^dr
dl2
_
~CD'^^ 4Vl6
f
> U^ d*\
16/
/.2 D*+d^ i
(Z)2-J2)/
4ct |-^
/.2 Z)2-FJ2
4C V
f
lx volume of the shaft.
-D
10t. Torsion of shafts of noncircular sections

The theory of pure torsion described in the preceding sections
is correct only for shafts of circular scciions. (See article on assump*
tions in the theory of pure torsion) rstirnation of twisting moment
on a shaft of non-circular sections is a highlv complicated problem.*
This is due to warping of the cross-sccfion during the twist.
Let on a rectangular bar of rubber, a system of small squares be
traced. If now the bar be twisted, it will be seen that the lines which
were originally perpendicular to the axis of the bar will now be
curved. The distortion of the small squares varies along the sides
^Shafts of noDCi'rcuIar .secnons have been analysed by St. Venant. An
account of this work can be seen in T dhunter and Pearsons History of the
Theory of Elasticity, Cambridge, Vol 2, page 31 11893.
of the cross-section, the distortion being a maximum at the middle

of the side and zero at the corners. St. Veuants investigations lead
to the following results.
(0 Rectangular section.
v2y2
Torsional re8istance=r=
3>-+l-8jt
where x=short side.
j; long side
The maximum shearing stress A occurs at the middle of longer

^\dt.
(ii) Square section.

Torsional resistance=T=0*2lJ8
where jc==side of square
The maximum shearing stress occurs at the middle point of a
side.
{Hi) Twist for rectangular and square sections is given by
== TL . JIIl
C
when the ratio is less than 3
X
AÂrea of shaft section.
102. Close Coiled helical Springs
Fig. 545 shows a closely coiled helical spring carrying an axial

load W. Let the spring consist of n coils. Let the 'diameter of
the rod of the spring and R be the mean radius of the coil. Every
section of the rod is subjected to a torsion WR.
R
i
Fig 545
Maximum shear stress at any section of the rod
T
torsion of shafts 62)
_
16'
Tt</*
Length of the rod l~2nRn

Strain energy stored by the spring
X volume
==1
/
16 tt'R Y 1
2nRn
I 4C 4
j^Rht
32
Cd*
If S be the deflection of the spring, i.e., the downward move-
ment of the load.
Work done on the spring = I IKS
Equating the work done to energy stored, we have,
51^ 8 = 32 -^,
64 WR^n
S =
Cd*
Strain energy stored by the spring
= work done on the spring
lyx
Stifi'ness of the spring
load required to produce unit deflection
W Cd*
8 SAR^n
Problem 353. A closely coiled helical spring is made out of

10 mm. diameter steel rod, the coil consisting of 10 complete turns with
a mean ameter of 12 cms. The spring carries an axial pull of 20 kg.
Find the maximum shear stress induced in the section of the rod.
If C0'8y. l(fi kg-lcm.^yfind the deflection of the spring, the stiffness
and the strain energy stored by the spring.
Sotatton.
f 161VR
16x20x6
X(I)3
kg.lcm.^
=611 kg.lcm.^
5
622
Cd*
64x20x(6V*X10
0-8x106, <( 1)4 cm.
cm.
StiiTness
W
20
" 3-45
- per cm, of deflection
5
Energy stored
= X 20x3-45 kg. cm.

2
== 34'
kg. cm,
Problem 354.
and , U, wi.
12
Calcnkle Ikesf dlamcar, If tha maximum
S
Solotion.
shear stress is iko^Z'i
/)= 2 /f=W
R=-4-5 d
W'-t 2 Ag.
f If'lVR
10 ( 10 -
* 2 x4 '
5 (/
K(P
,
2
12 <12x4-5
_
lOOOre
d ~ (} 4? cm.
/)=(r45.^9 cm.
^****-'
f / /
kg. Ian
tn ''
oj
; ...I.
" coUcd
^
hc.ica! spring is
IS w
to nave
have a stifincK^
of I eompres.oim under a oiaximum loa
'
of 4'5 kp and n
i
maximumxsheanngstre..of!:tit kg Icm The miul length fftfe
.wing (when coil.y arc
ten the coils t,s.-t;,u,\ ts
are Umel.im'i vs^ cm
>o <c ^
'
meu r of the wire, tl.c ouum Jiaon t, r cj the eoill

coils required
and\Z ^
Modulus of rigidity C -42 x /(}* kg ^
Icm
( i ''Z May 1965)
Solution.
kr cd*
StiiTness
S 64R^n
42x1Q*x</^
1_
~ 64R'n
...(0
f \eWR
16x4-5/?
1260= -^3
J260xnj3
16x4 5
/?=55 ()
Solid length of the spring, when the coils are touching
=</=4-5 cm.
..(Hi)
Substituting the values R and n in equation (i) we gel,
42x104

/4_
'64x553x4-5
d=0'3059 cm.
-
/?= 55 { 0 3059)3
= 1-575 cm.
D=3'150 cm.
4-5
0 3059
= 14 7
Problem 356. A of 26(1 k!;. /v dropped on a closely coiled
weifht
helical spring consisting of lo Find the height hy which the weight
coils.
is dropped before striking the spring so that the .spring may be compres-
sed hy 22. cm. The coils hare a mean radius of 12 eni and the diameter
of the rod of the spring is 3 cm. Take C ^ O' 2 y. .'(!* kg.fcm.'.
Solution. Let P be the gradually applied load producing (he
same compression of 22 cm.
64PR^n
Cdi
22 0 9 10 '^. ( 3' )' ,,
64( 12)3 > 16
= 906 3 kg.
'
624 SlRBNCra OP MAIEUALS
Equating the energy supplied by the falling load to the energy

stored by the spring,
/>S.
260(A+22)=yX 906-3x22
A+22 =38-33 cm.
16' 33 cm,
Problen 357, A close coiled helical spring has a stiffness of

coils
10 kgjcm. Its length when fully compressed, with adjacent
40 cm. The modulus of rigidity of the material
touching each other is
of the spring is 0 8X I(fi kg. Icm,^.
Determine the wire diameter and the mean coil diameter

(i)
if their ratio
(a) If the gap between any two adjacent coils is O' 2 cm.,
what
maximum load can he applied before the spring becomes solid, i.e.^
adjacent coils touch ?

(Hi) What is the corresponding maximum shear stress in the
spring ? (AMIE May, 1976)
SolutioB,
~ --10 kg. jcm.
ndÂO cm.
C=()*8x 10 kgjcm,-
Gap between adjacent coils

-0 2 cm,
^
a/4
H' _ CJ' ~ 1 o
<)
4/<'
64x 10
R^n
d*
O'Sx 106
d*^ R^n
40
But nd- 40 . n =
d
and d= 0-1 D- 0-2/?
iorsion of shafts 62S
R=5d ...(C)
From (0 and (ii).
d* = xl25 d*x
d*=4 d=lem.
= 40 _

40
=20 lumr
d 2
RS d=5x2i0 cm.
D20 cm.
Gap between adjacent coils

=0 2 cm.
Max. deflection = 8=0 2 x 20 =4 cm.

But '=10 x4=40*^.
/.itd3 16X40X10
r=lFit=-^ f
}. -
=254 65 jfcif./cm.*.
Problem 358. It is required to design a close coiled hetteol

spring which shall deflect I cm. under an axial load of 10 kg. at a
shear stress of 900 kg.lcm.^. The sprite is to be made out of round
wire having a modulus of rigidity of 8 x 10^ kg.fcm.^. The mean
diameter of the coils is to be 10 times the diameter of the wire. Find
the diameter and length of the wire necesssary to form the sprit^.
{AMIE Summer, 1978)
Sotatkm.
8=1 cm.
IF-lOfcf.
j,=900 kg.lcm.^
C=Sxl(fikg.lcm.^
>=10 d
/l-5d
r- IF/l-
f lOWR
1*d3
d=02829
d'^0'532 cm.
j?=5XO'532-26Ci.
m STRENCrH OF MATliRULS
, 64 WJ^n
Cd*
""M
_ ^
ca?*
~
8xl05(0-532)x l
64 X 10 X 2-66*
_^
Length of wire required
=2nJtn
=2wx266x5'32
88'9I cm.
Probiem 359. A vehicle weighing 2500 kg. and running at

2 metres per second has to be brought to rest by a buffer spring. Find
the number of springs of 15 coils each required to absorb the energy of
motion during a compression of 25 cm. Each spring is made of 25 mm.
diameter rod forming a coil of 20 cm. mean diameter. Take
C9'45xl(fi kg.lcm.^ and g9 8 m.jsec.^.
SoIntioD. The kinetic energy of the truck
kg. m.
2g
2500>^
kg. m.
2 x 98
=5102ifcg. m.
= 51020 kg. cm.
Let P kg. be the gradually applied load on one spring so as to
/Ompress it by 25 cm.
6^h
25- ^
25X9'45xI05x(2-5)< ,
Wioi^ xTs *
-07 kf.
/. Strain energy stored by one spring
X 9607X25 cm.
=12000 kg. cm.

Number of springs required
51020 , ,
=i^QQ4 25 say 5 springs.

PwMcm 360. The following data apply to two dose-coiled
helical springs.
torsjon of shafts 627
Number Diameter Diameter Uncompressed

Spri*^g of turns of coil of rod axial length
n n d (cm. )
(cm.) (cm.)
A H i to i
1
060 7-00
t 1
B (0 '
054 7-^0
[
Spring B IS placed inside A and both are compressed between a pair of

parallel plates until the distance between she two plates measures 6'00
cm. Calculate (i) the load applied to the plates and (ii) the maximum
shear stress in each spring. Take C-= 0 'fi 2 x. 10^^ kg.jcm
Solution. Spring A. Let the load on the spring be Wj kg.

Compression of the spring
=81-700-600=1 cm.
64 1K| /?,!,
81 =
Cdi*
St Cdi*
64 Rx^ni
_ 1 x0-82xl0(0-6) .
64X53X8
= 1-662 kg.
Spring B. Let the load on this spring be Wt kg.
Compression of the spring

=82=7-50 -6 00 =1-50 cm.
82 C</2*
Wi^- 6
4 R^^ns:,
X 0-82 X 10fi(0j54)
- 1-50
Wt kg.
64(4)3 xio
= 2-554 kg.
Total load applied on the plates
= 1^1+ H^2
= -662+ 2-554 itg.
1
=4-2/6 kg.
Shear stress for the spring A
Ri
62g STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
r662X5xl6
~ t(0-6)3
kg.lcm.
=^195-8 kg /cm.^
Shear stress for the spring B

f WzRz
=Jt2
(f) 16
2-5MX4X 16
' kg./cmr-
' n(0-54)
^330'4 kg.lcm.^
ProMem 361. Find the maximum permissible load for a closely
made out of 8 mm x 8 mm. square rod with JO coils of
coiled spring
8 cm. mean diameter, if the maximum shearing stress is limited
to 700 kg. per cm.* Find also the deflection of the load. Take
C^0'9 X 10* kg.lcm.*
Sotadm. Since the rod is of square section
r=-0-208 *3/.
=0 208 (0-8)3 X 700 kg. cm.
=7456 kg. cm.
But r=-- WR
W'X4=74'56 kg. cm.
W-- 18- 64 kg. cm.
Twist of a rod of square section
ft
7 -11 Tl
-a?-
711 TlnRn
Cx*
7-llx74-56 x 2nx4Xl0
~ 0-9xl0X(0-8)
radian
=0'3616 radian
S^R. e
=4x0-3616 cm.
=14464 cm.
{163. TwrfM of tapertaV aliaft
Let a twisting moment T

be applied to a tapering shaft of
loigth / whose radius change unifofmly from ri at the left end to rs
at ttie right end
Let />i maximum shear stress at the left end
/s=maximum shear stress at the right end
and / ^maximum shear stress at a section X
distant x from the left end.
619
shafts
torsion of
Fig. 546
Let the radius at the section A" be r.
7t n
^ == J/ i 2 r n '2* f
r
2
^*2
/airi *=/a2^2^
shaft.
Consider a short length dx of the
be considered as having
a
For this short length the shaft may
uniform radius r.
the shaft
Angle of twist of the small length dx of
2T dx
"Cn
But.
1 _ 'I'''!
where 7
2T dx
rfe=
Ck (ri+fcx)^
length of the shaft
Total angle of twist for the whole
/
= 0=[ d
r 2T dx
|Cn(ri+fcx)*
)
I
2T 1 r _L
C3ifcL ('i+fc*)* 1
0
2 rr 1
~2k CnL('i+W) "r?]

'
ra ri
Put k>
kl^rtn
0
630 STRENCTH OF MATERUis
H .J T[1 I-l
'
3k 6L/-2* ~ri J
,2 r r 1 1
3A- C>'Ul^ r2
2

0 =
3
.Lf-/_
CnUi-M
a 27/ Fri^^-f a^2+r2^1
3c 4 nW J
For the particular case of the shaft of uniform radius,
ri-n^r
0
2 Tl 3r 2
and,
3 Crt
U!
Cnr^
7 /
^
1. A
shaft running at 140 rpm is required to transmit 50 H P
If the maximum torque is hkel> to exceed the mean ic^rqu: by
find the diameter of the shaft, if the maximum ^htar stress is ((
A'g./cm-. Find also the angle of twist for a length of 2*25 metn's
Take C--08x 10^* kg Icm^. i6 474 cm ;
2' .*'5^
)
2. Find the H,P. that can be transmitted b> a 6^) mm. diameter
^ the
shaft at 160 rpm if the permissible shear stress is 800 kg. I cm
maximum torque beine 30?/, erealer than the mean torque
i5S\^7HP)
Find the size of a squaie shaft to transmit 100 h p at 120
rpm if sheai stress is not to exceed 500 kc^.jem ^ {S3 mm. x S3 nun.)
4 A
shaft is 2 metres long. 6 cm, dian.cter at one end, and
tapers a uniform rate to 8 cm diameter at the other end. The
at
larger end is firmly fixed and a torque of 350 kg, m, is applied t(> the
smaller end. Find the maximum shea-r stress and the total angle of
twist. Take C-=0*8 10^^ kg.lcm - . .
kg !cm .^ 2 /6'} ;
5. A hollow shaft of diameter ratio 3 is required to :
transmit 800 HP. at 110 rpm the maximum loique being 2/;. i
greater than the mean The shearing stress is not to exceed 4 tons
per sq. in. and the twist in a length of 10 ft. is not to exceed one
degree. Find the minimum external diameter of the shaft satisfying
these conditions {London University) C^dS in)
6. A hollow shaft of circular section is to have an inside
diameter one half the outside diameter. It is to be designed to
; : ;
transmit 40 H P. at a speed of 480 rpm and the shear stress is not

to exceed 850 kg.lcm -
Calculate
() the external diameter of the hollow shaft

the angle of relative
() twist in degrees between two sections
2 metres apart
(c) percentage difference in the weight of the hollow shaft
compared with a solid circular shaft designed for Ihe same conditions.
Take C-0 84 10 kgjcm ^ {3^38 cm 6^ '8 2i 7%} ; ;
7. A steel shaft having a total length of 120 cm is
made up of three lengths AB, BC and CD

each 40 cm long AB and
BC are solid having diameters of 45 cm. and 5 5 cm. respectively
and CD is hollow, having outside and inside diameter of 5'.> cm and
3*5 cm. respectively. When an axial torque of 16000 kg cm. is
transmitted from one end of the shaft to the other, the total angle of
twist from A to D is 2 degrees.
Determine :

(a) the maximur shearing stress in the shaft and state where
this occurs ;
(h) the angle of twist for each of the three lengths AB, BC
and CD ;
(c/ the modulus of rigidity of the material

( /*{*<!) occurs in the shaft AB. fttnajt " 895 8 kg jem '
1" -01
;
0' 45 ;
0 54 9 036x105 kg.lcm^.)
8 A hollow shaft subjected to pare torque, attains a maxi-

mum shearing stress f,. Given that the strain energy stored per unit
/ 2
volume is , where C is the modulus of licidity calculate the
ratio of shaft diameters (V-T).

9.A hollow steel shaft 8 in. externa! diameter and 5 in.
internal diameter transmits 1800 K.I*. at a speed of 150 R.P M.
of the
Calculate the shearing stress at the inner and outer surfaces
shaft and the strain energy per foiu Isngih
fake
f.V-p.J;.,
S40 6
Ibs.lin- (Lond'hi i5.>50 !in.- : '''^'^0 Ibs.lm.-
Vnher.slty) ;
in. !bs.)
the weight of a solid shaft with that of a

hollow
10. Compare
at a given sjwed with a given
one to transmit a given horse-power
maximum shearing stress, the outside diameter of the hollow sna t
{0 644)
being U
times the internal diameter.
at one end
11. shaft tapers uniformly from a radius (r+a)
A
If it is under the action of an axial torque T
to (r-a) at the other.
percentage error in the angle of twist for a
andu Ô'lr, find the
of a instant
given length when calculated on the assumption
f.
{London University) {J 2i/)
632 12. S1RENGTH OP MATERIALS
A shaft AB of length / is fixed at both ends. A torque

T is aiq>lied at a section X. If AX=a and BX^b and a>b, find the
diameter of shaft in order the shear stress may not exceed /
13. A shaft ABC has pulleys at A, B and C. If through pulley

A 500 H.P. is transmitted to the shaft, and through pulleys B and C
200 H.P. and 300 H P. are drawn off, find the ratio of the diameters
of the shafts AB and BC. Find also the ratio of the angles of twist
ct these two parts if AB=li and BC-h
14. A shaft AB
(Vt- i
of length /
VO
is fixed at both ends. Two like
twisting moments Mi and M% are applied at sections C and D. If
AC a, CDb and DB^c, find the torque in each portion of the
shaft
15.
( Afi(h+c)+M2C
V ]//;
maximum stress, is the controlling factor
not the
. MiaMzc
Determine the diameter at which the angle of twist and

. Mia+MsCo+h)
in the design, if
\
C=0'84xl0 kg.lcm.^, and /=210 kg lcm.^ and the maximum

allowable twist is r per metre.
{When the diameter is less than 1146 cm., the angle of twist is
die controBlng factor).
16. A close coiled helical spring is to have a stiffness of 400

per inch and subjected to a maximum load of 500 lbs.
is If
(he mean duiineter of the coils is to be 3'S in. and the working stress
it 14 tonslia.^, find the number of coils and the diameter of the steel
rod from which the spring should be made. Take the modulus of
rigidity as 12x 10 lb.s.lin^. (London Unirersit )(5'93 ; O' 51 in.) \
17. Close-coiled helical springs having n turns are made of

rcrand wire such that the mean diameter of the coils (in) is 10 D
tinm the diameter of the wire. Show that the stiffness in lbs per in.
for any such spring is - - x a constant and determine the constant

ft
if the modulus of rigidity of the material is 12X10 Ibs./itfi.

Such a spring is required to support a load of 200 lbs. with an
extension of 4 /r. and a maximum shea ring iiicss of 50,000 Ibs.lin^
Calcolate (/) its weight, (ii) the mean diameter of the coils and.
(itt) the number of turns. The material weighs 0'28 lb. per ctdtic inch
(London University) (2' 15 lbs . 3' 2 in . 9'6.)

; ;
.
11
Principal Stresses and Strains
104- Normal and tangential or shear stresses
Case L Member subjected to axial loud
Fig.
rectangular
547 shows a
bar ABCD
0 BA
of uniform sectional
area A. Let the mem- p
ber be subjected to
an axial tensile load
IT producing a tensile
stress p on sections
normal to the axis of loading. O.i such sccti.ni normal to ihe axi.s
of loading only normal stresses arc induced and no tangential sticsses
are induced.
Consider any oblique plane B at an angle B lo the cross-

section. On the plane BE normal and tangential stresses arc
induced.
The sectional area of the member alone tiie nl.ine BE A -
sec f*.
Normal stress on the plane BE

Total force normal to the plane BE
~
Sectional area along the plane BE
.
COL?
^ sec 0
P==pcos''0
Tangential stress on the plane BE

_ Tangential force
along the plan^ BE
Sectional ate,i along the plane BE
_pA sin 0
sec 0
sin 6 cos fl
P (=2 *'26
633
1
634 STRtNOl/I (H MAILJ lAis
Fron; the expressions obtained for pn and Pt it follovss that Pn

is nuixinium when and the maximum value of /' p cos^ o _
p
ft, is minimum when G
a 90'
Minimum value of Pn^-p cos^ 9(r' 0
Also, Pi is a maximum m'/i 2^ is a niaxif iUMi,
ic when sin 20 -
211-90^'
Maximum value of Pt -
^
- sin
5 90-f
when 0-.O or 90'
P/- 0
Hence, we
find that, if a member be subjected to axial tensile
load, the plane normal to the axis of loading carries the greatest
normal stress and the plane inclined at 45* to the plane carrying the
greatest normal stress, carries the maximum shear stress and the
intensity of the greatest shear stress is one half the intensity of the
greatest normal stress-
Suppose the tensile strength of a member is greater than double

the shear strength, if such a member is subjected to axial load up
to failure, the failure of the member will occur by shear. But if the
tensile strength is less than twice the shear strength, the failure of
the member will occur due to maximum normal stresv
For the planes corresponding to 0- 0 and 090", , for the
sectional planes 8,4 and /iC we find there arc no shear or tangential
stresses. Such a plane, on which no tangential stress occurs is called
A principal plane If at all there is a stress on a principal plane,
itshould be normal to the plane. The only normal sti esses occur-
ling n the principal planes are called principal sire :iSvS
In our case
the pnncipal stress on the principal plane BA equals />. But the
principal stress on the pii' clpvil plane i?C equals zero.
C.MM' inlh'' Afih 'n'ff.J fit like principal \cs
C^neilcj a rectanguLo
jsjock \vi,ns., tlnckiêss
pcrpcnJicu! r to the plane
of V c papei is unity.
Lei the block be s>iib

,
jeeted to principal stresses /o

and pj as shown.
Consider any oblique

sectional plane BE at an
angle 0 with tiie principi! "2
plane BA. Fig. 548

'
rKiNCiPAL SriRKSSBS AND STRAINS 635

Toia foro- normal to the plane IfE
l
Pn
Sectional area along the plan
Pi BA cos ^ \-P> EA sin t'
Pn
BE
Pn Pi cos t*
f p^ C
P\
\ t Ci>s 2ft I
I cos 2<
^ ^ ^
Pi .
P: . P
LUS
Tangential stress on the plane BE

Total force tangential or parallel to the plane BE
^-P
Sectional area along the plane BE
p\ BA sin -~f >2 E i cos I
Pi-
BE
~
p{ Pi coi i* sin ^ />> sin 0 cos 0
(pi pA sin Cos
P\ Pz
2U
Hence ou tlie phtne BE li e fc ultant ^tICS^ p is the lesuUant of

Pn and Pt
/. = \/ (/)] c
'

p> sih* \~(pi P'z) sin cos^ 0
This simplifies to,

'*
P pr <> 01 .**^ '
p*jr 0
The angle tliat(he hnc .iction of the rc ullaio stress mak* ^
with tlic normal to the plane od** d li.c ohUquitx
If the obliquity be vsv I'ase,
V
tan tfi
Pn
Let P> be the Krcc on unu area of the pkoê Bf\ p null 1 to ilic
direction of tlie principal stress p\.

Let Py be the force on uiu* ne t of the jiK uc Bfl jaI;lllc] to the
direction of the principal stress /-
h
We haN C Pi co>
and Vn p^ M I
Resultant strv'ss
P
'
V
or p V pr c n^- 'ûi'
a result obtained earlier.

'>36 SlftENGTlI OF MATERIALS
Fig. 549 Fig. 550
Let a be the inclination of the resultant stress with the principal

stress p\.
We have
tan a - ~ tan 6
Px Pi
Now consider the expressions obtained earlier viz.
,V-=^t2_,.a^cos2fl
Pts 2t)
I'or the principal planes, Pt should be equal to zero,
i.c. sin 20-0

20 0 or 180
Or 0-0 or 90*
when 0=^(1. +
when 0 9(f, P- î^(-l)=P2

Further Pt is itiaximum when
sin 20=1
20 = 90 or 270*
or 6=45* or nr
Max. shear stress
Pumvty Pl-Pt
2
PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND SIRAINS 637
Hence there are two mutually perpendicular planes along which

the greatest shear stress occurs. These planes are at angles of 45*
and 135* with the principal plane carrying the principal stress p\.
Problem 362. The pri^r/pal tensile stresses at a point across
two perpendicular pLnies are SA) ki\ fetn ^ and 100 Find the
nornmif tu/i(tcntial îri ^ses and the resultant stress and its obliquity
on a plane at 20* with the waior principal plane. Find also the inten-
sity of stress which acting alone ean produc*^ the same maximum
strain. Take roisson\s ratio
Solution.
^ a00Kg^:.m*
wniiTriTiTi] r' r
'i
Pig 551
Fig 551 shows the principal stresses at the point. On a plane

at 20* with the major principal plane
P1+P2 ,
COS 20
Pn 'I "T~ **
800+400 800 -^400

2
+.
~2
40*^
-=600+200 cos
Pn~ 753'2 kgjcm.'^ {tensile)
P1 -P2^ ^D. 800-400 .
Pt- sin
.
20^= ^ sin 40
-=200 sin 40*

Pt r-. 12S'56 kg.lcm.^
Resultant stress
- V ~PJ+P^ = i 28-5^
764 kg.fcm}
Obliquity
^ ^
=^=tan *
P.
,
tan ~128 56~
t ^ 2
49" 41'
rt
E _ mE
Pi
MaximoiD sitain
of the major and minor axes of an ellipse formed as a result of the
deformation of the circle marked*
Take E-2x in'* kfi lcm.^ and

m 4
00 rri-
/j=800 kg./em.^
/>'=200 kg-lcm.*
I=400 kg.jcm.^
Hence the principal stresses are given by
P+P'
2
and kg.lcm}
The principal streases are SOOiv/ 3002+4002 kg.fcm.^

*mS005O0 kg./cm*
Pi *1000 kg.lem.* and pi0
^ E mE fHW 2000
principal stresses and îns $41
Increase in length of diameter of the circle,
2000 ^
P2 Pi 1000 1
4x2xl0 8000 ,
Decrease in length of diameter =e 2 d-i-g^^ X lO^* cm.
Thus the circle will become an ellipse whose major axi8=I0+-4c:

200
10' 005 cm. and minor axis
^9 99875 cm.
Graphical Methods
First Method
Let Pi and p2 be the two
principal stresses. Let pi be the
major principal stress. Let
be required to find the normal and
it
tangential stresses on a plane at an angle 0 with the major principal

plane.
Draw two concentric circles with centre 0 and radii OA=pi
and OB=pi. Mark the plane XOX at an angle 6 with major
principal plane. Let the normal OCD to the plane XOX intersect
the two circles at C and D. Draw DE pernendicular to OA and CP
perpendicular to DE. Join OF. OF represents the resultant stress
on the plane XOX. Draw PG perpendicular to OD. OG represents
the normal stress and GP the tangential stress on the plane XOX.
A
The angle GOP^^=obliquity.

The inclination of the resultant stress with the direction of the
major principal stress = a /*?.

Proof ; Let CF be perpendicular to OA
Now OE=OD cos Pi cos 0=p*
EPFC==OC sia 6 =p2 sin 0=pi
'The resultant stress p being the resultant of P and Pt ^

we have OP^^p
Hence OP represents the resultant stress.
Fig. 553
The Ellipsecf Stress
In the above graphical construction the co-ordinates of P with
0 88 origm, are
xOEP*=p\ cos 6
y=EP^pv=spi sin 9
Hence the coordinates of/* for any plane XOX are given by
the above relation.
^-f^=cos* 6+sin* 6=1

W* />a*
jc* y*
The above is the equation to an ellipse.
Hence the locos of P is an ellipse whose major axis is 2 pi and

minor axis is 2 ps- This ellipse is called the Ellipse of Stress.
Two like and equal princQial stresses
From the relations

p=l+/?*+Pl-P?cos20
and Pv ^ sin 26
we find that whenpi=ps

and Pt =0
principal stresses and strains
Hence all planes are principal planes without any tangential

stresses.
Following the above graphical

construction we find that the two
concentric circles coincide. Points
/>, C, G, D
also coincide.
Hence the resultant stress which

isrepresented by OP is normal to the
plane XOX
Two equal and unlike principal stresses
Let the major principal stress

be pi and let the other principal
stress be p2 =
Pi
we have
p
A'n ^ Pi-Pz COS 2v
-j
Fig. 554
p ^ 26=:px cos 26
sin 20
Pi+Pi
sin 26
2
Pt *pi sin 26.
Since cos 26 and Pi

Pn=pi
=pi sin 26 follows that the
it
nwultant stress is at an obliquity of
In this case the graphical

solution may be obtained as
follows.
Draw a circle with centre 0
and radius pi.
Mark the direction
the of
two principal the
stresses. Mark
plane XOX
at an angle 6 with the
major principal plane. Draw the
normal OQ to the plane. Draw
QP perpendicular to OA and obtain
Fig. 555. the point P (see Fig. 555).
The resultant stress is given by OP, Draw PG perpendicular to

Now OG==OP COS 26Pi cos 2^=P
and GP=OP sin 28=pi sin 26 pt.
It is worth remembering that
(i) IFftenthe two principal stresses are equal and like, the
resultant stress on any plane is normal to the plane and equal in
magnitude to either of the principal stresses.
in) When the two principal stresses are equal and unlike, the
resultant stress on any plane equals in magnitude to either of the
principal stresses, but at an obliquity of 20 where 6 is the angle
between the plane and the major principal plane.
Second Method
Let pi and P2 be two unequal like principal stresses. Let it be
required to find the resultant stress on a plane inclined at angle 6
with the major principal plane. The stresses pi and pz can be written
as
_ _ Pi+Pe
2- + pipz
-2j
PI
and P1+P
j 2 _ Pi Pi
Pi
~Y-
Hence theprincipal stresses pi and pz may be split up into the
following systems of principal stresses.
(i) Two equal like principal stresses of intensity
(il) Two equal unlike principal stresses of intensity
^ Let A'OA' be the plane

' i at 6 with the major
principal plane.
Draw OS perpendi-
cular to XOX and equal to
-
OS represents the
resultant of the first system

of stresses.
Now draw mak-
ing an angle 26 with the
direction of OS.
i Let SP be equal to
I
PI Pi
Fig. 536 2
Now SP represents the resultant of the secondl system of stress.
Hence the resultant stress on die plane XOX
is the vectorial sum of
OS and SP and is given by OP.
Draw PQ perpendicular to OS
^
principal STReSSES AND STRAINS 645
Now OQ represents the normal stress and QP represents the

tangential stress.
4
Angle 20P=^==obliquity.
and PO/4"=
Even by studying the geometry of Fig. 556

We have Og =05+56=05+ SP cos 20
and QP=SP sin 20 = sin 26 -.p<
Third Method
By Mohr^s Circle
Let pi and p 2 be two unequal like principal stresses. Let it be

required to find the resultant stress on a plane inclined at an angle 6
with the major principal plane.
Vig. 557
On any axis OX set oflF OA --pi and OC--p%, Describe a cirhle

with AB as diameter. Let C be the centre of this circle. This oixcle is
called Mohr's circle. Set ofi* CP at 26 with the line OX. Join OP,
Draw PQ perpendicular to OX.
Now, 0C
= Pi+Pa
2
AB-OA-OB
~P1P2
Radius of the Mohrs circle
=CP-R
STRtNCTH OF MATERIALS
646
_ Pi Pi
2
OQ=OC+CQ=OC+CP cos 26
^ W+P2 1
cos 26
2 2
=pn
fiP-CPsin 20
-eira. sin 20
Hence OQ and QP represent the normal and tangential stres^.

OP therefore represents the resultant stress and the angle POQ
represents the obliquity.
We find from the
Mohr's diagram as
circle
the inclination 0 of the
plane with the major
principal plane goes on
increasing the obliquity
also increases. But there
is a certain plane on
which
the obliquity is a maxi-
mum.
For this condition,
the line OP representing
Fig. 558 the resultant stress should
be tangential to the Mohrs circle.

The plane on which the obliquity is greatest is given by
20 "2"
or
Further,
. . _ CP _ 2
. . sin pma* -
.
_
Pl+PS
stresses
Mohrs of stress for two unequal unlitce principal
circle
Let the major principal stress be pi (tensile) and the other

principal stress be pz (compressive).
normal wd
Taking pi as positive and pz as nejgative, the
an angle 6 with the major principal
stress on any plane at
plane are therefore given by
'
FKINCIPAL sikesses and strains 647
and pt sin 26.
Maximum shear stress equals
Hence the radius of the Mohr's circle represents the maTimum

shear stress.
Along any axis set

off OA and OB along
opposite directions to
represent pi and p2 .
Describe a circle
on as diameter. Let
Cbc the centre of this a
circle.
Draw CP
at an
angle 26 with CA, Join
OP and draw PQ per-
pendicular to OA-
Radius of the
Mohr's circle
r:=BC^PCÂC
^Pipa
2
OC^BC-BO
.^Pi+Pt
2
PI-
OC=OC+CC=OC+CPco8 20
= ^28
=p.
And, eP=C/ sin 28 28
=/
Hence QO and QP tepresent tiie noimaland tangential stresses.

OP therefore represents the resultant stress and the angle POQ re-
presents the obliquity. Further the greatest shear stress
..^^^=>ndas of the Makr's dnJe

648 STRENGTH OP HATERIALS
Am iimponottt mote :
When the prtneipal ttretses are unUke, in the Mohr's eireU, the normal
amd reeubant streseee vAU be negative for points on the circle to the left of the
vertical axis through O.
Determination of principal planes and principal stresses

Case L At a point the complementary shear stresses of intensity
q are induced. To determine the principal planes and the principal

presses.
Fig. S60
Fig. S60 shows a rectangular block ABCD in a state of simple
shear.
Let the thickness of the block normal to the plane of the paper
be unity. Consider any sectional plane BE at an angle 0 with the
plane AB.
Let the normal and tangential stresses on the plane BE be Pn
andPt.
qAB sin ^^qEA cos 0
BE
P9 sin 0 cos 0+g sin cos 0
P9sin20
_ qAB cos HpEA sin 0
BE
mmq COS* 0^ sin* 0
Pt q cos 20
For the principal^lanes, equating the tangential stress to zero
an have
q cos 200
20-90* or 270*
1-45 or 135'
q
principal STRESSES AND STRAINS 649
Hence the two principal planes are at 45 and 135 with the
plane AB. The principal planes are also at right angles to each
other.
The two principal stresses are
Pl=q sin 2^q sin 90*=
and P2q sin 29= sin 210'=
Thus on one principal plane there will be tensile stress and
the other principal plane will carry a compressive stress. These
principal stresses are called diagonal tensile and diagonal compressive
stresses.
Further for pt to be maximum

Pt=q cos 26 should be maximum,
when 20=0, i.e., when 6=0, pt =q
when 26=180 i.e., when 6=90, Pi = q
This is so, since the planes AB and AD carry the shear stress
of intensity q.
Fig. 561 shows the planes carrying the maximum shear stress
and the principal planes. Planes AB
and AD carry the maximum
shear stresses. Planes LM and MN carry the principal stresses.
It is worthy to note that

(i) The two principal planes are normal to each other.
(it) The planes carrying the maximum shear stress are normal
to each other.
{Hi) The planes carrying the maximum shear stress are at 45*
with the principal planes.
Case II. At a point in a strained material the normal and
tangential stresses are given. To locate the principal planes and to
determine the principal stresses-
Fig. 562 shows a rectangular block ABCD whose thickness
normal to the plane of the paper is unity. Let it be subjected to the
normal stresses p and p' and the tangential stresses 9s shown. ^
Consider a sectional plane BE at an angle 6 nilb the piaae jAB

esc STRBNOm OP JUATBIUAIS
P>
Fig. 562

pAB 9+p'AE sin &+qAE cos ^+qABsva
=/=
cos
^
Pn^p COS 6+p' sin fl+g sin 6 cos 9+^ cos 0 sin 6
Pn=p cos fl+p' sin* 6+2 q sin 9 cos 6
= (1 +COS 26)+ (1 cos 26)+? sin 26

2
+ ^ 2^ cos 29+?sin 29
Tengential stress on the plane BE

p _ pAB sin tpAE cos 9+qAE sin 9qAB cos 6
BE
Pt^p cos 9 sin 9p' sin 6 cos 9+? sin* 9? cos 9
sin 20? cos 29
In order a plane may be a principal plane, the tangential stress

on the plane must be zero. Equating the tangential stress Pt to zero,
We have
sin 29 ? cos 29
tan 29 -J3.
PKINCIPAL STRESSES AND STRAINS 6S 1
There are thus two values of

26 differing by 180* satisfying the
above relation. Let 26 i and 262
be the solutions to the equation 2 (y
tan 20=--^
P-P
P-p'
we have, Fig. 563
sin 201=:-
V

(/>/?
-
r+4^
-
cos 201= - ^ ^ ,
V' Xpp^+Aq^
and sin 202= '
\/
-

ipp )^+47*^
and cos 202= P-P_
V {pp)^+ 4q^
Obviously 0 i and 62 differ by 90 . Hence the principal planes
which are at 0 i and 62 with the plane AB are normal to each other.
To determine the principal stresses pi and p2 we should substi-
tute the values of 20i and 262 for 26 in the expression for the normal
stress Pn.
cos 201+^ sin 201
P+P P-p' , ^P^P ^ +-

2 y/ (p_p)2+4^2 -y/ (p_p')14- 4â
(p-p')+ 4q*
^ 2 x/(p-;,')*+V|
^
2
I
I
-P+P' i
5- +Tv'(i-/)*+ 4*
.
P2 = -^^ COS 202+9 202

^
^p+^ p_p'_ ipp) 29^
2 2 V(/> />')2 + 49 * V (/?/>* +49*
I
ppL
'2 [(p-pT+ 49]
W(^-plP+ 4q*
632 STRENOm OP MATERIALS
/8 = p+pL 1
2 2 y/(p~p'l^+Aq*
These principal stresses may be like or unlika, Once the

principal stresses and the principal planes are known, the pian*^ of
maximum shear stress are easily determined. The planes of maxi-
mum shear stress will be at 6i-i-45 and fli-|-135 with the plane AB.
Fig. 564 shows the principal planes.
Fig.S64
Greatest shear stress
Pi Ps
2
Problem 368. A rectangular block of material is subjected to a
of 1 100 kg./cm.^ on one plane and a tensile stress of 470
tensile stress
kg.fcnu* on a plane at right angles, together with shear stresses of
630 kg-lcm.^ on the same planes. Find :
(i) The direction of the principal pUpies.
(ii) The magnitudes of the principal stresses.
(Hi) The magnitude of the greatest shear stress.
SoiatioB. Let pi and pt be the principal stresses.
The inclination of the principal planes with the plane AB
carrying the tensile stress of pa=1100 kg.lem.^ is given 1^
tan 26==
P-P"
2X630
-a2
U00-4>0
principal SntES^ and strains 655
26 =r, 3 26' or 243* 26'

6=31* 43' or 121* 43'
Major principal stress
kg.jcm?
=785+704 kg.lcm.*
= 1489 kg-lcm'^ {tensile)
Minor principal stress
=785-704 kg.[cm.^
~81 kgjcm.^ (tensile)
-
=?mo.= ^
PiP2
2
=148981
~
2
, ,
o
= 704 kg./cm.^
This will occur at planes at 31* 43'+45*=76* 43'
and 76 43' +90*= 166* 43' with the plane AB carrying the normal
stress of 1100 kg./cm.^
Problem 369 (SI). A rectangular block of material is subjected
to a tensile stress of 100 MNfm^ on one plane and a tensile stress
of 50 MNim* on a plane at right angles, together with shear stresses
of 60 MNInfi on the same planes. Find :
*
(0 The cBrection of the principal planes.

in) The magnitudes of the princi^l stresses,
iiii) The magnitude of the greatest dear stress.
654 STRENGTH OF MATERULS
SolutioB. Let pi and p2 be the principal stresses.
Let AB represent the plane carrying the normal tensile stress

of 100 MNIm?
Let 0 be the inclination of a principal plane with the plane AB.
J? 2X60
tan 20=-
P-P' 10050
'
22 or 247 22'
6=33 41' or 123 41'
Major principal stresses
=Pi=-y-
100+50
~ 2
75+65=140 MNlm^ {tensile)
Minor principal stress
=P2=
P'^P'-
yJC j-f+e
..
-756510 MNjnfi (tensile)

140-10
*"
2
=65
MN/rn^.
The maximum shear stress will occur on planes at 33* 4r+45*
=78 41', and 78* 41 '4 90*= 168 41' with the plane .45 carrying
the normal stress of 100 MNfm*.
Pndriem 370. When a certain thin-walled tube is subjected
to internal pressure and torque the stresses in the tube wall are
(a) 600 kg. per cm.^ tensile.
(b) 300 kg. per cm.* tensile in a direction at right angles to (a).
(c)Complementary shear stress of 450 kg.] cm.* in the directions

of (a) and (b).
CalaJate the normal and tangential stresses on the two planes
tfhieh are equally tndined to (a) and (b).
WhtU are the resubs if due to an end thrust, (b) is compressive,
(a) and (e) being unhanged ?
SolRtlMi The nonnal and tangential stresses on any plane are
l^ven by
cos 2t+q sin 26 ..,(/)

655
55
principal stresses and strains
sin 20*^ cos 20 ...()

and
In our case p*=600 kg.lcm.\

p'=300 kg lcm.^
and q=450 kg Icm.^
inclined to the directions of (a) and (o) are
The planes equally
corresponding to
e-45*
and 6=135*
when 0=45*.
p^JOO+300 ^600-300
+450 sin 90*=450+ 450

=900 kg.lcm^ (tensile)
600-300 9o*_450 cos 90*
and p,
*750 kg-lcm.^
Similarly.
0 1
when
p,=450+150 cos 270*+450 sin 270*
= 450450 -0
P(-150 sin 270-450 cos 270
and
= l50 kg.lcm.^
In the case with end thrust*
p=600 kg.lcm^
p = 300 kg.lcm.^
9 = 450 kg-lcm.^
when 6=45.
600 300 600+ 3W^^gQ.^_45QgjQ90>
Pn= 2
'*'2
= 150+450
=600 kg.lcm? (tensile)
n,_62l^?29 90-450 cos 90

sin
and 2
= +450 kg.lcm.^
when e-135*.
150+450 cos 270* +450 sin 270
= 300 kg.lem.^ (compressive)

Pt -450 sin 270-450 cos 270
and
=450 kg.lcm?
656 STRENGTH OF MAIERIALS
Problem 371 (SI). In a stress element, the normal stresses in
two mutually perpenaicular directions are 600 MNItrfi and 300 MNjnt^
both tensile. The complementary shear stresses in these directions
are of intensity 450 MNIm^. Find the normal and tangential stresses
on the two planes which are equally inclined to the planes carrying
the normal stresses mentioned above.
Solution. p=600 MNjm^ : />'=300 MNfm^ ; ^*450 MNIrn^
corresponding to the planes equally inclined to the planes which
carry the above normal stresses,
0=45* and 135*
Normal stress 26+^ sin 2#
yVhen 6=45 90+450 sin 90

=450+ 450=900 MN]m^
600+300 600- 300 ...o
When pn= 2
,
2
cos 270
+450 sin 270*

=450-450=0
Tangential stress sin 26 9 cos 26
When 6=45, Pn<- sin 90 450 cos 90

<=150~MNIm^
When 6=735*, p. = -^ sin 270 -450 cos 270*
^-150 MNIm^.
Problem 372. At a certain point in a strained material the
principal stresses are 1000 kg.lcm.^ and
400 kg. per cm.^ both tensile.
normal tangential and resultant stresses across a plane through
Find the
principal plane, using Mohr's circle of
the point at 48 to the major
stress*
Solution. Draw OA and OF to represent the two principal
stresses. ,nnn kg./cm 22
= 1000
D/4 =pi
, I
05=P2 400 kg.lcm.^

P
""v. OA pi = 1000 kg.fcm?
Hi \ 05=P2=400 Ag./cm.
/ 1
I
) \
/>.= OQ = 668-6 kg.jcm?-
j
]
BT c~e
pt=Qp=2n'3 kg./cm.^
~Y
\ / 2
'
=*0P5=23 58'
Fig. 566
principal stresses and strains 657
On AB as diameter describe a circle.

Dra,w BPso that = 8 =48*'
Draw PQ perpendicular to OA.
Now OQ represents normal stress on the given plane. By
measurement, Og-=6686 kgjcm.^ QF represents the tangential
stress on the given plane. By measurement, gP 298 3 kg,lcm^.
Obliquity = 24* 2' by measurement.
Resultant stress is given by OP.
By measurement OP =^732 3 kg.lcm!^ {tensile)
Inclination of the resultant stress with the direction of the major
principal stress
aÔPD
s= 0 ^
- 48 - 24 r *

58\
Problem 373. Draw *^Mohr^s stress circle^'* for principal
stresses of 800 kg.lcm.'^ tensile and 500 kg.lcm,^ compressive^ and
jind the resultant stresses on planes making 22* and 64* with the major
principal plane. Find also the normal and tangential stresses on these
planes.
Solutloo. Fig, 567 shows the Mohr s circle corresponding to
Fic. 567
!
658 SI RENGTH OF MA I tKlALs
the given pi incipal stresses. Since pi and p2 arc unlike OA and (jb
have been
OA*pi=800 kg.lcm.^ (tensile)
OBpz^500 kg.lcm.^ (compressive)
OQi=^Vni^6l7 5 kg./cm.^ (tensile)
P\Qi=Pti^45t5 kgjctnr
OQ2^pn2=250'2 kg.jcm.^ (compressive)
kg./enu^
BPiO=ôiiîr IV
?'
BPiO^î-^Sr
draw.i on opposite sides of O. P\ and P2 correspond to the 22 and
64* T lanes. The results are given in the figure.
p At a point in a bracket the stresses on two rnutih
roblem 374.
ally pefpenJicularplanes are 1200 kgjcni.- tensile and 600 kg jim -
tensile. The shear stress across these planes is 300 kgdemr Find,
using the' Mohr's stress circle ; the principal stre^se^ and maximum
shear stress at the point.
n
Fig. 568
Solution. Mark OE and OD

to represent the normal stresses of
1200 kg.Irm*' (tensile) and 600 kg.J^trd (tf re;;pc;'tively. Draw
i)F--/:(/- ^hear stress nf 300 With C, the :niJdie point of
DE as cemrc describe a circle with CF or C(i as radius and obtain
the points A and B.
Major principal stress
^piÔA^ 1324 tensil {by rneasurement)

P2^0B^424 kg.jcm.^, tensik* (measurement)
ProbieiD 375- At a point the principal stresses arc 1200 kg
cm. and 800 kg.lcm,^ both tensile. Find by the ellipse of stress the
resullant stress on a plane inclined at 30* fo the major principal stress.
PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND STRAINS 659
Solution. The given plane is at 30* to the major principal

or at 60'' to the major principal plane.
stress
See Fig. 569. With centre O, draw circles of radii OA^pi

1200 kg.lcnh'^ and OB kg.jcm.^
Mark the plane CD at 60^ with the major principal plane. Set
off the perpendicular offset OEF intersecting the two circles at E
and F. Draw EP and FP respectively parallel to OA and OB and
obtain Resultant
the point F. stress OP =9 1
6*6 kg.jcm.^ by
measurement. Obliquity 10* 54' ;
a =PO/4 =49 6'.
Problem 376. A rcctanyûlar block of material is subjected to

stresses on perpendicular faces as .shown. Using MohFs circle of
stress find
(/) the nortnal and shear stresses on a plane for which
(a) the magnitudes of the principal stresses and the inclination of

the plane on which each principal stress acts.
Solution. Mark off 07) -900 kg jcm3^ andOE-p^

1400 kg.jcmr Step of perpendicular offsets EF^DC^q^
500 kg./emfi From Cthc middle point of DE, draw a circle of
radius CF or CG, and obtain the points A and B. Principal stress
p\--OA^1709 kgjc/n.^ bv measurement. Principal stress p2^0B^
59/ kgdem,^ by measurement. Position of the first principal plane is
given by 0, ^FBA^JF 4iS' by measurement
0
S1RENOTH OF MAIOtlALS
660
and tangential stresses
For the plane on which the normal
are
required, draw CJ so that JCF- 2x 30=60*. Draw JK perpendicular

to OC.
Now the normal stress on the plane
= J?* 850 kg.lcm.^ (by measurement).
Tangential stress on the plane
mKJ=472 kg-lcm.^ (by measurement).
Fig. 570
105. Combined bending and

Torsion
Let a shaft of diameter d be subjected to a

bending moment
M and a twisting moment T sA & section.
At any point in the section at a radius r and at a distance y

from the neutral axis the bending stress is given by
/ being the moment of inertia of the section about the neutral

aîis
principal STRESHeS AND STRAINS
The shear stress at the point is given by

T - r
h
Ip being the polar moment of inertia.
The location of the principal planes through the point is
given by,
tan 26
-^^
,
P
and the principal stresses are given by,
'"2+V4+
The effect of bending moment and torsion will be most pre-

dominant at the points A and B
the maximum bending
At these points,
MM stress
A\
is given by
32M
(Compressive
HeUTKAi AXU
at A and tensile at B)
At these points the shear stress srevtM
is given by
T
^ r _ i6r
16
Hence the position of the princi-
pal planes through any of these two
points is given by
tan 26 =
P
. T
tan 26=
Fig. 571
The principal stresses are given by
Px=f+
and
The maximum shear stress is given by

a
'imaw
_
Pi- Pi
- -
^
16 , _
== V M^+
Problem 377. At a certain section of a shaft 80 mm. in dia-
meter there is a bending moment of 35 tonne cm. and a twsitin^
moment of 50 tonne cm- Find the maximum direct stress induced in
the section and specify the position of the plane on which it acts-
Taking Poission's ratio as 0 28, find what stress acting alone can
produce the same maximum strain.
Solution. M=35000 kg. cm.
T= 50000 kg. cm.

d=i0 mm- = S cm.
pi=-~3\M+y/Mt+T2
J
and
/2-Jr j [
i6
^^|35000+ V 3 5,000M- SO^dOO^j'
'
kg.j'cm.^
^955 kg.lcmr
35000- VaSGOO^+SODOOÎ
j
kg-jem.^
= 260 kg.lcm.^
The position of the principal planes is given by
.nOB- r 50,000
AT ~
^ " ^
3S,<'00
26=55
6=27' 30'
Maximum strain
5+0'28 x 260|
Principal swesses
and strains
10278
" E
/be the stress producing the same maximum strain,
If
1027-8
/
E" E
/=-- 1027-8 kg.lcm?
PrAhlerntTg (S.l). A shaft section WO mm in diameter if sub-
which acts. Find also, what stress acting

the plane on it
same maximum strain. Take Poisson s ratio

âlonc cm produce the
'0 25.
Solution.
M=4000 ym= N 400,000 cm.
r=6000 A'/w=- 600,000 A cm.
</=100 mmlO cm.
The principal stresses arc given by
16
K/i3
Pi* - 400,000 f ^400,0002 f eOKl/W

nXKrV ^
= n X lO^V
40 X 1 0 M- 1 0* 40-^'
r60* )
/
:^57/0N/cmK
40X 10- 10V4bH^ )

~-J63S N/cml
Position of the major principal planes
tan 26 - T 6000
5
20 = 56 * 18
'
9'
0=2r
Maximum strain
êi=-. = (5710+0-25 X 1635)

^ E ntE EIt
'
^4 SIREhCTH OF UAtmiAi^
Let /be the stress acting alone to produce the same maximum
strain.
/ _ 6H8 75
E~E
f^6118-75 N/cm.^
Problem 379. A crankshaft 20 cm. in diameter is subjected to a
bending moment of 185000 kg. cm. and a twisting moment of 277500
kg. cm. Find the greatest shear stress. Find also the plane of the
maximum shear stress with respect to the axis of the shaft.
Solution. M= 185000 /eg. cm.
r= 277500 kg. cm.
16 ,
= 85000)2 h (277500)2 kg.lcm:^
=212 3 kg.lcm.^
The position of the principal planes is given by
tan 26= T ^ 277500

M Tssogo
2e=56 18'
0=-28* 9'
Angle made by the principal plane vAth respect to the axis
of the shaft =
90 - 25* 9' --- 60^ 5
1
Angle made by the planes of maximum stress

-61 51' 45"
^106^ 5J' mth the axis of the shaft and
76" 5r with the axis of the shaft
105. Stram Energy in terms of the principal stresses
Let a strained element be subjected to the principal stress pi

and p 2 .
The strains in the directions of the principal stresses are
El
E niE
and
mE
where
HI
is Poisson's ratio
Per unit volume the strain energy stored

1
Pi O j
|--y pz c.'
/i!-f ii V ( PI PA
2 \ E inE J'^ 2 \ E niE.)
Problem 380. A cros.s-section of a shaft 90 ,nm. diameter i v svb-

jected to a bending moment of 60 tonne cm. and a twisting moment of
90 tonne cm. Find the direct .itress which acting alone will make the
shaft store the same maximum strain energy per unit volume. Take
-- = 0-i.
m
Solution. M =- 60000 kg. cm.
r=90000 kg. cm.
d=90 mm.=9 cm.
and
60000+ v'600002 f 90000*^
= ^1174 kg.lcm.^
and Pi ---3^600(K)-v/600002 + 90000

)
= 134 kg.{cm.
Maximum strain energy per unit volume
- 2 p\ Pi \
1 / 2 ,
the direct stress acting alone to store the same energy

Let / be
per unit volume.
P =
1
2e(i
/ 2 1 2 2 pi P2\
2E
r 9 I _ 2 2plP2
/=Pi^+P2 m~
/2=11742+1342+2x 1174(- 134)0-3
f=1221 kg.jcm.^
666 STRENGTH OF M/vTEKIALS
Problem 381. fn a circular shaft subjected to an axial twisting

moment T and a bending moment M
show that when Af= V2 J, the
ratio of maximum shearing stress to the greater principal strelss h
approximately O' 566,
Solution. Let Te be the equivalent twisting moment to produce

the maximum shearing stress <ImaT
=7r= Z.
where Zj polar modulus of the shaft section
Zo
Let M.- be the equivalent bending moment to produce the

maximum bending stress equal to the greater principal stress />j
AL-J M-\- V MHT^-=piy']

^
-
qmaz^ VM^+T'_ _
p\ jW+VAfM-r-* ^2T+v(vfr)HT
v'2l44
I'l+y/lAA
Problem 382. A beam 3 metres Ions, of / section is freely

supported at its ends with the web vertical. It c'arries concentrated
loads of 10 tonnes at 0 6 metre from each end- The flanges are each
15 cm. wide and 2' 5 cm. thick, the overall depth being 40 cm. The
thickness of the web is T 25 cm. Calculate the principal stresses and
the maximum shearing stress in a section of the beam where the bending
moment and shearing force, both have maximum values.
SolatioD. Moment of Inertia of the section about the neutral

axis
._15x403_ 1375 x 353
^ ir~ 12
= 30870 cm.
Max. B.M. =A/=10X06=6 mi.
=600 t cm.
Max. S.R -5=101

Max. bending stress in the
M
pRlSCtpAL STRESSES AND STRAINS 667
600X17*5
~0'34 //ow (compressive)
30870
Max. shearing stress in the web
_ 5îJP^10x15x2-5x 16 25
^ Jb 30870x1*25
=^0'16 llcm.^
P A /
The principal stresses aie given by ^ ^ \/ 'V
B M. Oiagrom
Fig. 572
668 MJUiMUlH OF MATERIAU
= -017v'0i72+0-162
pi-\-0 06 tjcnt.^
and p2 = 0 40 tlcm.^
Problem 383. A steel shaft ABCD of circular section is ISO
cm. long and issupported in bearings at the ends A and D. AB
=67'5 cm., BC=45 cm. and CD
67' 5 cm. The shaft is horizontal
and two horizontal arms, rigidly connected to the siutft at B and C
project from it at right angles on opposite side'. The arm B carries a
verticai load of 1600 kg at 30 cm. from the shaft axis and the arm at
C carries a vertical balancing load at 37' 5 cm. from the axis.
If the shearing stress is not to exceed 800 kg /cm.^ determine the
minimum permissible diameter of the shaft. Assume the bearings give
simple point support to the shaft.
Solution. Fig. 573 shows the centre line of the shaft and the
loads applied on it.
For rotational equilibrium,

IFX 375= 1600 X 30
W-=m0kg.
The shaft Is subjected to uniform torque between B and C.
This torque
=1600 X 30
=48000 kg. cm.
Fig. 573

Va X 180=(1600 X 6r5)+(1280 x 1 n S)
K<i=I400 kg.
Ka=I600+l280-1400
= 1480 Arg.
PRINa?AL STRESSES AND STRAINS 669
Max- B.M. for the shaft occurs at B

B.M. at B =Af=1480X67-5 = 99900 kg. cm.
Just on RHS of the section B,
=jJ/=99900 kg. cm.
Torque =7=48000 kg. cm.

Let T* be the equivalent torque to produce the same max. shear
stress
T*= \/Af*+r = \/(99900)2+ (48006)2
1600 kg 1280 kg
67_S<-1T* i 67 5 cm
V,sU80kg VjrKOOko
Fig. 574
=1 10830 kg. cm.
Permissible shear stress /=800 kg.jcm.^
110830=800
16
3/n0830xl6
800 t
agpO cm.
Problem 384. A flywheel weighing 600 kg. is mounted on a

shaft 8 cm. In diameter and midway between bearings 60 cm. apart
in which the shaft may be assumed to he directionally free. If the
.shaft is transmitting 40 horse power at 360 rpm, calculate the
principal stre.sses and the maximum shcatinst sirt in the shaft at the
1
670 STBENCTH OP MATERIALS
ends of a vertical and horizontal diameter in a plane close to that of the

flywheel.
Solution. H.P. 4500

40x4500
kg. m.
2 tcx360
=79 58 kg m.
=7958 kg. cm.
=7958 t cm.
.j_. -j
^
3vCITi jutrn f
i
300 kg 300 *<9

- -J
W>600I(9
r-ig. 57-!
Max. shear stress due to torque
â- T _16-t-7958
^
=0079 t/cm^.
n X 8
Max. B.M.-=Af=300 x 30 =9000itff. cm.

9t cm.
Max. bending stress at
mities of the vertical diameter,
the extre-
(i.e., at the 0
points 1 and 2). (See Fig. 576)
32X9
t/emS
It X 8^
32
0179r/rm.2
At the points 1 or 2 Fig 576
0 179
0'0792
2
principal STRESStS AND STRAINS 671
0 20^ tlcin^ comptc'-siYc at 1 and tensile

at 2
V />-
4
I
iU 1
O' 03 tjemr tensile
(vul compii ssivc at 2

At these points
V- 4
'V
^0119 tienfi.
Now consider the points 3 nnd 4, i c. at the ends of the

iioii/ontal diameter.
At these points.
Stress due to bending is zero,
P-A)
Shear stress due to torsion -r/' - (>'079 tjenr.
Shear force at the section S -^300 Ag
Shear stress due to shear force

4
- q <l
3
300
l<i;.lan 7 96 ks^Jem.^
3
(r)
say 0 (K)7 tlmr
Total shear stress
- 0*t)79 1
0*007
=r- V 0,^6
Since at these points on'y these shear stresses exist the principal
stresses at these points arc aiô 0 0<S6 {compressive as well as
tensile) ^
Problem 385. A solid diaft of 15 cm, diameter transmits 2400

h.p, at 600 rpm and is aho sidqcctcd ttf an axial thrust of 2SOOO kg,
ff the maximum principal ;.fn^s.v is not to exceed 800 kg, jem^^ find
êhot addiiional bending mono nt mav /n safely carried. What will be
the direction of the rnaKirrmt principal stress ?
Ixr the be t'> a 'orque T
45W"
_ 4500 x 2400,
2nx6dr^^'-
=2864 %m. 286400 kg. cm.
= 2864 t cm.
Shear stress due to torque
16T
^ nd^
jtx 15
=0432 //cm
Compressive stress due to thrust
P 2500 , ,
-0142 //cm.2
Consider a rectangular stress element at the upper end of the vertical

diameter. Let fx be the total compressive stress due to direct stress
caused by the thrust and due to bending moment.
/x^^direct stress due to thrust + bending stress.
We will now determine the value of / in combination with the

shear stress of 0'432 tjcmr so as to produce a principal stress of
800 kg.lcm,^ (0*8 tjcnr).
Consider the wedge ACB of the stress clement taken such that
the face AC is in the pnncinal pi uic Let the area of this princi a^l
plane /IC be tmhy.
principal STRESSES AND STRAINS 673
Area of face 5C 1 x sin 0=sin P
Area of face B = x cos

1 0 -
cos 8
where 8 is the inclination of ilie prhicipa' wiih ihc axis

of the shaft.
Resolving vertically, 08 sin t' 0'4'2 cos 8
tan 8 0 54
'
0 =^ 2 ^!' 22
Resolving horizontally,
()8 cos 6--/r cos 0 } 0'432 sin 8
fjc cos 0 -~t)'8 cos 0- O' 432 sin 6
X-O'S -0-432 tan 0
- O'l -0'432>>'0 M

0 567 tfrin.-
But the compressive stress due to thrust alone -=() 142

Compressive stress due to bending moment
-/ 0567 0 142 0-425 -
Let the B.M. producing theabo\e bending strcs.s / be M t cm
M-
f
... nePf
32
:r(l5)''>- 0 425
1409 t cm.
107. Kquiâlent bending moment and equivalent torque
Lei a shaft of diameter d be subjected to a maximum bending

moment M and a torque T. We know principal stresses are :
and p
and the maximum shearing stress

16
rzip
Let Mr be the equivalent bene! in* icting alone

pioduccs the maximum tensile strrss eqiMi .o
Mr 32
then Pv M.
7rrf3
32
SIRENG1H OF MATERIALS
i/,-
j
Similarly let 7V be the equivalent torque which acting alone
produces the maximum :^hearing stress qnvix
nP" T.P
16 r.
16
if. - --
Piobicm 386. Two views of an overhung crank arc shown in

fig. 5 78 a force of 2000 kg. being applied io the crank pin in the
direction shown and at a distance of /3 cm from the centre of the
adjacent bearing. The crankshaft is of solid section of 7^5 cm. diameter.
Cahulaie the maximum principal stress and maximum shtâr stress
the section of the shaft at the centre of the bearing
iStm - #i
TocntfCb c' bfformgi
Fi.c, 578
Soiutioii.
Torque on tiie shaft 7^2000 x OA

- 20fi0vl5vn 60' .6-J80 >ts cm.
=.25'98 t cm.
Mkx. B.M. = M==2000x 15 =-:i 0<xy! At. cm.
^-30 t cm.
j,IIINCII*AL stresses and strains 675
Equivalent bending moment M

1 <
A/+v/
=-yi
30 + V' 302-f25-982| t cm.
34*85 t cm.
Maximum principal stress
__
i^_ 32_Aj^
IT
32x34*85
" =0-841 ticni^.
nx7 5^
- 841 kg'Cm.^
Equivalent torque 7.
-=a/ 30-*' 4- 25-98*
= 39-70 t cm.
T. 16 r.
16
16 x39-70
^ 0 479 tlcmr
71X7*5^^
479 kg.jcm.^
rl08. Principal Strains
These arc the greatest and least direct strains in a material

subjected to complex stresses. These strains are produced in the
direction of the principal stresses.
In geaerdl. if there exist at a point three like principal stresses

.^ 1 , and (73 acting on tlir*e principal planes, the principal strains
are given by
p\
E mE
P'Z P^-^Pi
E mE
P3 P\ -+ P2
and '
E mE
where Poissons ratio
676 STR^NGNH OF MAIERlALs
Problem 387. Tests on a brass plate subjected to principal

stresses gave the following results :
Principal strain ei= 7'7 x I0~*
Principal strain e%=r67x W-*
Find the principal stresses Find also the plane on which the
normal stress is 0'6 t!cm.^ Take E~0'Hx JO^ tjcin.^ and

m
Solution*
"-i( '^-m)
/>i- -^3 -=0-568 .. (f)
67x10-'*= Pi
1
0-8 X 103 \P^ 3 ) )
1
P2~- - 0-134 ...(//)
Solving equations (/) and (n) we get pi=^07() tjcm,^ and pz

=0*J5 r/rm.2
Let 6 be the inclination of the plane on which the normal
stress is 06 t/cm.2
p = P\ El.
Pi
cos 26 = 0 6
P'^
2
+ 2
Pi+Pi 0'70+0-35
But -0-525 1/cm .3
PiP2 0-70-0-35
and _ ' 0-175 tjcm.^
2 2
r^-O- 525+0 175 cos 26=0-6
0075
0-175
20=64*^36'
*. 0 = i2"y<5' with the major principal plane,
109. Straio energy in terms of principal stresses
Let pi and p2 be the principal stresses at a point in a strained

material.
The principal strains are given by

Pi P2
Pi pi
and t2'
E mE
Hence strain energy stored per unit volume
= ipi Pi+ ip-i t2
+
Pi
-2(f mE )
Similarly it can be shown, if three principal stresses pi, P 2 ,P 3

exist then the siraiii energy stored per unit volume
_ 2/?iP 2 i 2p2P34-2/>3Pll
m J
110. Criterion for failure
Wliile designing a member various theories are adopted. These

are given below :
(/) The maximum principal sirens theory of Rankine, According

to this the maximum
theory principal stress shall not exceed the
safe stress for the material.
Hi) The maximum strain theory of St. Venant. According to

thistheory the equivalent direct stress acting alone which can
produce a strain equal to the greater principal strain shall not exceed
the safe limit.
Let pi and p2 be the principal stresses. Greater principal

strain
J!^\
mE )
Let /be the stress acting alone producing the strain ei
El
E mE
)
This stress / should not exceed the safe limit.
The maximum shear stress theory due

ini) to Sir JJ. Guest*
Let Pi and p2 be the principal strains.
Max. shear stress-^maa;= ^^ 2^
This shear stress should not exceed the safe shear stress for
he material.
(/v) Maximum Strain energy theory due to Beltrami and Haigh.

Let pi and p 2 be the principal stresses.
(
= 2 )
Let /be the stress acting alone to store the same energy per
unit volume
"
P ^ n 2 r n
2 ~2E V m }
f-yj pr^+P2^-
this stress should not exceed the safe limit.
111. To determine the strain in any direction in terms of the

principal strains
Fig. 579 shows a rectangular plate A BCD subjected to a stress

system so that the principal strains are ei and ^ 2 After the deform- -
ation the rectangle ABCD takes the shape AiBiCiDi.
Fig. 579
The strain in OA due to the principal strains ei and e2
= HJ-hJAi
_ GF+JAi
OA" OA " '
OA
_ /4Fcos 6+îsin 0
OA
_ \DA d cos 0+i AB ez sin 9
iAC
6+^2 sin^ 0
The strain in a perpendicular direction (shear strain) is given by

AH
OA
pRINCfiAL STRESSES AND STRA!^
,, AG--HG AG-Jtl
^
OA ^ O'A
AF fsin -A jFcos^
OA
iDAei sin OiAIh'i* cos B
UC
112 Ellipse of strain
and cz are the principal

If rj strains, the strain in the direction
making an angle 0 with ei
ti cos- 0 J
sinÔ ...(i)
The strain in a direction perpendicular to the above direction
sin 20
In Fig 580 oh represents the

Strabo in the direction at 0
I
with the direction of ei and

hd represents the strain at right
angles to the above direction.
RcuUanr strain is given

by cd
Let oa X and aJ - y
oa ex cos ^
andad ^yez sin 6
I this is the equation to an ellipse having a
major axis of length 2ei and a minor axis of length 2^2* This ellipse
is the locus of the point d. This ellipse is called the ellipse of
strain
Problem 388. A rosette of three main gauges on the surface of

a metal plate under stress gave the following readings :
No, / at 0^ : A-0000592
No, 2 at 45^ : +0 000308
No, 3 at 9(f : +0 000432
the angles being measured anticlockwise from gauge No^ /. Determine
the magnitude of the principal strains and their directions relative to
the axis of gauge No, 1,
If E 2' lx Kfi kgfem.^ and m 3 find the principal stresses.

0
STRENGTH OF MATBRjîg
^latioa Let rhe principal strains be
<'i and e2. Let the axis nf
gauge No. 1 b-j at a with n
For gauge No
For No 2, 6=-- 45 -j-x
For gau .;c No 5, 0= 90'-f-
If < IS UK- tram iti the direction inclined at n with the direction
of Ci
Then Il C) <*2
COS 20
2
when
<1 I'l ('2

- -
COS 2x ...fi)
when 0 45 . -0 (Hi'oOS
Il
cu, (90 i-2y
when ; r.
< _^=
- - o
{i (/
01 -t':;
O' OOti308 0 ()'. O' în 2x
t'l - <

sin 2 1 --- -
0'00(U28 Aiv)
Similarly substituting for fo) in

( , equation (/)
0 1)00592 ()'(U)008() ! cos Iv
2 cos/ --0 000512 ...(v)
Dividing equation (/v) by equation (r)
tan2^-''''"2i8-=-0'446
0(i005i2
2a -156-'
a=78'
Substituting in equation (h)
156* *=-0 000228

1
|.RJ^'CJFAL STRESS! S AND SlRAINS
ci-e2^-(y00\\2
but ci'4-c2 0*00016
Solving the above equations we get 0 00048
and ^ 2 --^0*00064
Thus the principal strains are () 00048 ana 0 00064 the * first
being at 78^ measured clockwise from t!ie dirccti<n of gauge No. i.
Let pi and P 2 be the principal stresses

1 P2 "i
-
/:
/' - J
-(K4S
> f ri !
/:['" n:
0*00064 n.-
/- 1
2T X 10 i; i
From equations (.4) and ^ B) wc gel

Pi 6-^0 /vg /cm. 2 (ro/^ rrv.s/uO
and /?2 - Ag./r/;; (tcnsii )
I xainpics in Chapter 1
1. The plate of a boiler is subjected to principal stresses of

L^.lcnir and 600 Ag jemr both tensile Inrul the intensity of
Stress which acting alone will produce file same maximum strain,
fake Poisson's ratio - 0 (1020 Ag./Vvn.'^)
The piincipal stresses at a ceriatn point in a strained
2.
materia! are 1200 Ag jem/^ and 480 Ag Inn - both tensile. Hnd the
norma! and tangential stresses on a plane inclined at 2if with the
maior principal plane. (Pn ^ 1 15*7 Ag Pt 231*4 Ag./em
1 ;
3. At a point the principal stresses arc i4(i0 kg and

750 Ag both tensile f ind the m)rma! and tangential stresses
on a plane inclined at 60"' to the axis of the major principal stress.
(/>- 1237*5 Ae /cm - Ft -281' 5 Ag./rm ;
4. A rectangular steel bar is subjected to a tensile stress of 800

Ag. as well as a shear stiess of 300 kg.jrm*^. Determine th**
principal stresses and the principal planes. Finvl also what stress
acting alone can produce the same maximum strain Take - 0 3.
(900 kgjcmr tensile. 100 Ag./rm ^ compressive

0] - 18^ 26' ; 1^2 - HkS' 26' ; 930 kg.lan:-)
5. At a point in a strained material the principal stresses are

600 kg.jcm ^ and 400 kg.jcm Find the position of the plane across
which the resultant stress is most inclined to the normal and deter-
mine the value of thL stress.
(50" 4"^' with the major principal plane 490 kg ;
^
682 STRENGTH OF MATERIaUs

6. At a point in a beam section there is a longitudinal bend-
ing stress of 1200 Ag /an, 2 tensile and a transverse shear stress of
500 Att Find the resultant stress on a plane inclined at SO""' to
the longitudinal axis. (1060 kg.lcm.^ at 13^' 40 to longitudinal axis)
In a circular shaft subjected to an axial twisting moment
r and a bendipg moment show that when T the ratio M^Vl
of the maximum shearing stress to the greater principal stress is
nearly 0566. (London University)
8 At a certain point in a piece of elastic material there arc
normal stresses of 480 Arg./cm.^ tensile and 320 kg compressive
on two9. planes at right angles to one another, together with shearing
stresses of 240 Ag /cm.^ on the same planes. If the loading on the
material increased so that the stresses reach
is times those given, K
find the maximum value of K
if the maximum direct stress in the
material is not to exc eed 1280 kg j cm and the maximum shearing
.
stress is not to exceed 800 kgjcm.^^ (London University)

(K^2 342 for direct stress condition :
K
1*715 for shear stress condition)
A solid circular shaft is subjected to an axial torque T and
to a binding moment M. If M=~KT, determine in terms of the K
ratio of the maximum principal stress to the maximum shear stress.
/ K [
V
\ VI \- K^ )
10. At a certain section of a shaft I Of) mm. diameter there is a

bending moment of 40000 kg. cm. and a twisting moment of
kg. cm. Find the maximum direct stress induced in the section, if
Poissons ratio =^0*25, find what stress acting alone can produce the
same maximum strain. (."^70 9 kg I cm.^ 61 k 3 kg. I cm. ;
fi
:
11. A horizontal circular shaft of diameter d and diametral

moment of inertia i is subjected to a bending moment M cos 0 in a
vertical plane and to an axial twisting momenf sin B. Show that M
the principal stresses at ends of a vertical diameter are
{ MK {cos 0I),
where K ^
21
If strain energy is t c criterion of failure, show that,
5 _ _ iSo V2
V
cos^ 0 1 ^)+(i + 0) (
where S~ maximum shearing stress

So maximum
shearing stress in the special
case where 00
^7 -Poissons ratio (London University)
12. A circular shaft of external radius r and diametral
moment of inertia / is subjected to a bending moment cos a and M
a tw'isting moment M
sin or. Show that the magnitude of the
maximum shearing stress has a constant value i for all values MK
of where A Show clearly on a diagram the planes on which
y
the maximum shearing stresses occur when a =45*.
12
Thin Cylinders and Spheres
113. Thin Cylinders

Fig. shows a thin cylindrical shell whose internal diamelcr
.581
is d, the thickness of the shell being t. Let the length of the shell he
/. Let the shell be subjected to an internal pressure of intensity p.
'
y
fig. 581 F(g. 582
Let US consider a longitudinal .section XX through the axis,

dividing the shell into two halves A and B. Now let us consider two
elementary strips subtending an angle 86 at the centre at an angle 8
on either side of the vertical through the centre.

Normal force on each strip
^Pn ^~pr 86 I,
where r-radius of the shell.
The resultant of the two normal forces on the two elemental

strips = 8?=^ 2/;r/ 80 cos 0 acting vertically, i.e., normal to XX.
Total force normal to XX on one side of XX

-total bursting force
r/2
- P- 2prl cos 0 d6
J
0
Jprl^pdl
= Intensity of radial pressure x projected
area
683
684 SrRENGTH OF MATERULS
Let /i be the intensity of tensile stress induced in the metal

across the section XX.
Resisting force offered by the section XX
=/i Vt
Equating the resisting force to the bursting force
/i 2U= pdl
f Pd
/i=2r
Just like the section XX^ if we had considered any other longi-
tudinal section, the intensity of tensile stress would be found to be the
same. Hence the direction of this tensile stress is along the
circumference of the shell A stress so induced is called a hoop or
circumferential stress.
Let us now consider a section YY normal to the axis of the
shell. Let the section divide the shell into two parts C and D.
Force acting on f.ie end of the shell
In order the shell may not be split up at the section YY^ this
section will offer a resistance Let /a be the tensile stress on the
section VY,
Equating the resistance offered by the section YY to the total

force on one of the shell
Tid-
fy Tzdt -p
pd
/2=
At
This stress is called the longitudinal stress.
Hence at any point in the metal of the shell there are two
principal stresses, namely a hoop stress of acting circumferentially
j
nd a longitudinal stress of acting parallel to the axis of the shell.
Greatest shear stress
it
Circumferential strain
=
ei
A_ /2
E mE
1
where E is Youngs modulus and *
is Poissons ratio
m
THtN CYLINDERS AND SPHERES 685
2tE 4tEm
2m
Longitudinal strain
^'2-
f2 A pd __
pd
mE AtF 2lEm
pd I \
\\
^2= "
2tE \ 2 m I
change of circumference
original circumference
_ndd
r^d
W -ei
d
But "Strain of the diameter

d '
*
Change in diameter original diameter.
Longitudinal vStrain
change in length
-2
original length
^('2
I
/. Change in length -
^2 ^ original length
Capacity of the shell
4
Change in capacity of the shell
=sk=4-
a
>
44
SK_~ S/ . Sd
V ' I
^ d
y -2
+-i<J .
From this relation it is possible to find the change in the
capacity of the shell under the radial pressure p.

Let /be the permissible tensile stress for the shell material.
Hence for the shell to be safe the maior prin'ri.al stress /i shall not
exceed /
From the above relation, for a given radial pressure, the thick-
ness of the she!! may be deterrruned for a given diameter for a given
permissible stress.
Problem 389. seamles s pipe SO an. diameter contains a fluid
under a pressure of 20 If the permissible ttnsile stress be lOOQ
kg find the minimum thickness of the pipe.
SolutioD 20 kg.icmr : dSO cm. diameter
and 1 000 kg, / cmi^
_pJ 20x80
^
2/ 2x1100^""
0 cm. .5
Problem 390 (SI). A 90 cm.

diameter pipe contains a fluid at a
pressure of 250 Nienr. If the safe stress in tension is 102 -00 N/cnir^
find the minimum thickness of the pipe.
Solutioo. p 250 Njcm ; d=^90 cm.^ fi 10,000 fifcm.^
f =. ' 2X10,000
pd 250x90 = j, i .. c cm.
2/i
Problem 391^ A cylindrical thin drum 80 cm. in diameter and

3 metres long has a shell thickness of I cm. If the drum is subjected to
an internal pressure of 25 kg.fcm.'^y dct<rtvdne{i) the change in diameter
iii) change in length, and [in) change m volume. TukeE2xi0^
Poisson's ratio ^ -- iA.M.LE., Summer 1918)

kg. /cm ;
Solution.
- pd 25 X 80 ^
Hoop stress -=/i= - 1000 kr !tm
Longitudinal stress
5(H) '.em.'^
/.
/* niE
i
rUlN CYLINDERS AND SPHERES 687
(100(;-0-25x500)
=
2x]06
=00004375
Longitudinal strain
" E mE
= JL( i
EV^ : )
= 00001250
<.,=2trfc'2 = 2(0-0004375i r0m;s2-o
= 0-001
Increase in Iengt/i^^h-e2lOXi{)i!\250
=^00375 cm.
Increase in diameter
0*0004375 X 8(
- 0'035 cm.
Increase in the volume
= 8F=fF=0-001 (801" 3(K)

q
^--1507'96S cc.
Problem 3^2. The air vessel of a torpedo is^'53 cm. externa!

diameter and I cm. thick, the length being 1^3 cm. Find the change in
the external diameter and the length when charged to 105 kg. /cm ^
internal pressure. Take E - 2/ X 10^ kg. !cm a}id P dssons ratio - 0 3,
i/i. .M. /. t '
. Wo vemher 1905}
Solution. Internal diameler^^SV 2 51
Circumferential stress
. pd 105 51 , 2
-
257# 7,2 /< m
IjMJgitudliiai stres.--
-
=1339 A',; ,..^.5!
i.ircumfercntial strafo
j\
b mE
h
2276-3
^ 2678 - 03 x) 339 )=;
2nrr()< 2 I XIO
=0 001084
Change in external diameter
-
t'l X original external diameter
= 0 001084 x 53 cm.
-0 05742 cm.
lôngitudinal strain
(1339-0-3x2678)
=.()- 0{)02551
/. Change in length = <2 x original lengt
- 0'000255I X 183 cm.

.=0 04669 cm.
Problem 393- ^ metres long, 1 metre in diameter is

subjected to an internal pressure of 10 kg jemP- If the thickness of
the shell is 10 mm.,Jind the circumferential and longitudinal \tres\es
Find also the maximum .shear stre.s.s and the changes in the dimensions
of the shell. Take E^2y. l(fi kg femP and - =03.
SolutioD. /?-l0 kg.lcm:"

/- 325 cm,
(1^ 1 00 cm.
/ 1 cm.
Circumferential stress
10 V 1 00
kg jcm.^
- 500 kg icnu-
Longitudinal stress ~f2
At 2
~250 kg. fen.-
riQN CYUNDBRS AND SPHERES
689
_/i-/2_500-2)
=,
2
2
, , ,
kg. fern*
125 kg.lcm,^
E 'Ê
mE i( m)
(500-0 3x250)
.425
E
Longitudinal strain
= ^2" = h Ji
E mE
.
(250-0 3x500)
.100
E
Strain of the capacity
SK
=<*2 \- 2ei
y
^ 100 ,850
E ^
E
^950
E
Change in diameter eiX original diameter
_425 . 425
==0 02125 cm.

Change in length ~e2 X original length
100
I cm.
100
x325 cm.
2x 10
-r-0 01625 cm.
Change in the capacity
ecX original capacity
^
69U STRENGTH W MATERIALS

I
-2S" T-OWxszs
-^1213 cm.^
Problem 394. A water main 80 cm. diameter cmtains water at a
pressure head of 115 metres. If the weight of water is 1000 kg. per
cubic metre, find the thickness of the metal required if the permissible
stress is 250 kg.jcm.^
SolutioB. Pressure intensity inside the pine

wH
= 1000x 115 kg.lmetre^
1000x115
kg. I cm.
(100)2
rS
1 kg.jcmr
.'. Thickness required for the pipe
PJ.
If
11-5x80
2x220'
--I HA cm.
Problem 395. A cylindrical shell 90 cm. long, 15 cm. interna!
diameter, having a thickness of metal -8 mm., is filled with a fluid
at atmospheric pressure. If an adJitional 20 cm.'^ of fluid is pumped
into the cylinder find (/) the pre.ssurc exerted by the fluid on the cylinder,
and (ii) the hoop stress induced. Take E2x 10* kg.lcm.^ and
^ lA.Al.I.E.y Summer 1977)

Solution. Let the internal pressure be p kg./cm.^
Hoop stress
^ kg./cm.^
Longitudinal stress
f2 ~ ^-==4-6875 p kg.lcm.^
(9-375-0-3 X 4*6875)
=7*96875
^
jHIN cylinders and spheres 691
Loogitudinal strain
='^(4-6875-0 3X9-375)
= 1-8754:
E
Volumetric strain
=ei;2î+e2
=(2x 7-96875+ 1-875)
^
= 17-8125 4:
E
Increase in volume
=8K=eF=20cm.3
p= I4V2 kg.jcm^
141-2x15'
'1
2^ 2 x o -8
=I323'75 kg.lcm.^
Problem 396. A cylindrical shell 100 cm. long, 18 cm. internaJ
diameter, thickness of metal 8 mm. is filled with a fluid at atmospheric
pressure. If an additional 20 cm^ of the fluid is pumped into the
cylinder find the pressure exerted by the fluid on the wall of the
cylinder. Find also the hoop stress induced. Take E=2xI0^ kg. Jem.*
and
'
m
==0"3.
jgnl ff tbm Let the pressure on the walls of the cylinder be p

kg.lcm.^
Circumferential stress=/i
It
kg.lcm.^
2x0-8
= ir25/> kg.lcm.^
Longitudinal stress -/a
_h 5-625 p kg.fcm,^
SnesOTB OF UATOtlAu
E-mE
, 1*25 P-0-3X 5-625) p

E (1
9J6^p
~E
Longitudinal strain
* E mE
= -1/ /_iL\
eV^ mE)
= ^(5-625 P-0-3X 11-25
h
/)
2-25 p
=
E
Strain of the capacity
=Ci>=e2+2ci
2 25p 25^-5625 p
E + E
'
_ 21-375 p
8 V
But ev-
SV 21 -375 p
V ~ E
But 8 F=20 cm.^
SK E
1 V 21-375
20x2x10*
182 kg.jcm.^
Tcx -f-x 100x21-375
4
= 73-52 jtg./cm.2
Hoop stress =/i
p
It
73-52X18
k%l.cm?
2x0-8
=8271 kg.lcm.*
thin CYllNDEIlT AND SPHERES
m
$ 114
. Rireted cylindrical boilers
A boiler of the desired capacity can be made by

bending
plates to the required diameter and connecting them,
usually by a
butt joint. The desired length of
the boiler can be obtained by
connecting individually fabricated
shells by usually a lap joint. Thesp
joints are shown in Figs. 583 and
584
In the case of riveted shells
the circumferential and longitudinal
stresses are greater than what are
given in the previous articles. This
is due to weakening of the plates
due to rivet holes.

If ll is the efficiency of the
longitudinal joints, hoop stress
Fig. 583 = fi^~ on the section through
rivet holes. Similarly if is he efficiency of the circumferential

joint, the longitudinal stress
=/2 = on the section through rivet holes.
Fig. 584
The
thickness of the shell in order the hoop stress may not
exceed the permissible stress is given by
f-
2p)i
Problem 397. A riveted boiler is made out of 2 cm. thick plates,

to a diameter of 200 cms. If the efficiency of the longitudinal and
êumferential Joints be 75% and 60% find the safe pressure in the
^ler if the maximum tensile stress on the plate section through rivets
"'ay not exceed 1200 kg.lcm.^ Find also the longitudinal stress on the
section through the rivets.
^4 smBNom Of kuteruu
Solntioa. Circumferential stress
1200x2x2x0'75,
= ,
o
200
mi 18 kg.jcm^
Longitudinal stress
=-Pj- !8x200 2
f -4
, ,
*
Afiii X 2x0-6
=---7j!0 kg.lcm-
Problem 398. A boiler is subjected to an internal pressure of
20 kg./crrfi.The thickness of the boiler plate is 2 cm and the permissi-
ble tensile stress is 1200 kg.jcm^. Find the maximum permissible dia-
meter when the efficiency to the longitudinal Joint is P0% and that of the
circumferential joint is 40%. {AMIE, Winter 1976)
Solution. Limiting the hoop stress to 1200 kg.jcm.^
P ^ =1200
h- 2tn
1 200
X2X 2 X 09
d^ -
-216 cm.
20
Limiting the longitudinal stress to 1200 kg./cm.^
5^-1200
.
1200 x 4 x 2
x 04
Cl :r 192 cm.
20
Maximum permissible diameter 192 an.
Problem 399. A riveted boiler 225 cm. in diameter has to sustain

an internal pressure of 5' 6 kg.jcm^. The efficiency of the riveted joints
is 70y^ and a safe sjress of 600 kgjcm.^ is allowed in the material
Find the thickness of the shell and the necessary pitch of rivets for the
longitudinal joints.jvhich is a single rivetted butt joint. Take diameter
of rivet d=^r9\/ t where t thickness of plate in cm.
{AMIE, May 1976)
Solution.
Hoop stress
pd 5 6X225
VS cm.
2x'660x67
Diameter of rivcts-i 9v< tV9^ r5=*2*33 cm. say
thin CyUNDER^ AND SPHERES 695
EflScicncy of the joint
_ pitch diameter of rivet

pitch
pitch 2*4 =0*7 X pitch
0*3 X pitch -2*4
pitch cm.
il5. Wire bound thio pipes
Suppose a wire under tension is wound round a pipe at a close

pitch, compressive stresses will be initially de\cloped in the pipe
section. If now a fluid under pressure be admitted into the pipe, ihe
bursting force will be resisted by the pipe as well as the wires, offer-
ing tensile stresses. A pipe closely bound by wires can therefore with-
stand a higher fluid pressure than an unbound pipe. The following
problem explains the analysis of such a pipe.
ProUeni 400. (SI). A 20 cm. diameter cast iron pipe has a thick*
of 12 mm. and is closely wound with a layer of 5 mm. diameter
steel wire under a tensile stress of 60 Njmm.^ If now water under a
pressure of S' S N/mm'^ is admitted into the pipe, find the stresses
induced in the pipe and the steel wire. For cast iron take Er-I X 10^
Njmm.^ and Poisson's ratio ^0^3. For sieel take E'<^2x. 10^ Nlmm!^
SointioD. Consider one centimetre run of the pipe. For this
length number of sections of steel mre]
2x 4 (two on each side)
Crushing force for I cm. run of the pipe
4X X5^X60=47I2 N.
Let/c be the intensity of compressive stress induced in the pipj

section,
. . Resisting force ^2/X 10 N

fe2tx]0==47l2
/,= ^2x12x10 =19-63 A^/mm.2

'
Hence before the water is admitted into the pipe, the stresses are
as follows :
In the wires : 60 Njmm? (tensile)
In the pipe : 19*63 Njmm.^ (compressive)
Stresses due to fluid pressure alone
Letfp and fw be the stresses in the pipe and wires due to the
independent effect of fluid pressure of 3*5 N/mm.*
Consider 1 cm. length of the pipe.
:
srmmB opmatboau
Bursting force =/><// 35 X 200 x 10= 7000 N
Resisting force fpllt+fw'KAx -^(5)*
= /X2X10X 12+ / w(5)*

=240/^+78-54/.
240/p+78-54/v,=7000 ...(/)
Circumferential strain in the pipe
=3 L P^
Ec m AtEe
Yc
Circumferential strain in the steel wire
-k
E,
Equating the circumferential strains of the wire and pipe
L _/p-4-375
Et Ec
/w=2(/,-4-375)
Substituting in equation (i)
240 /,+78-54x2 ( 4 -4'375)=7000

39708/=*768T225
fj, ^-19 36 Nlmm^
/=2(19 36- 4 375)- 29-97 N/mm.*
The stresses in the pipe and wire are as follows
Pipe Steel wire
Initial stresses 19*63 NImnP {compressive) 60 N/mm* (tensile)
ucsiet due to fluid 19*36 NImm} (tensile) 297 Nfmm* {lemsiki

pressure alone
1
Final stresses 0*27 Nlrnrnl^ (compressive)

t9yiN/mm.*iUmtk)
0
thin CYi INOERS AND SPHERBS 697
Pioblem 401. A 20 cm diameter cast iron pipe has a thickness

of 12 mm. mid is closely wound with a layer 5 mm. diameter steel
wire under a tensile stress of 600 kg.jcm^. If now water under a pres-
sure of 35 kg.jcm^. is admitted into the pipe, find the stresses induced
in the pipe and steel wire. For cast iron, take Ec^JxlO^ kg.jcm^.
O'
and Poisson's ratio 3. For steel take Es2xl(fi kg-lcm^.
Solotion. Initial stresses.
Consider one centimetre run of the pipe. For this length

number of sections of steel wire
2x qIj =4 (two on each side)
Crushing force for 1 cm. run of the pipe
x^-(0-5)*x600
= All ! kg.
Let/ be the intensity of compressive stress induced in the
pipe section.
Resisting force =/c It
/. 2t=471-2
f 471-2 , , ,
= 196'3 kg.lcm.^
Hence before the water is admitted into the pipe the stresses
are as follows.
In the wires : 600 kg.fcm.^ (.tensile)
In the pipe : i96'3 kg.jcm.^ (compressive)

Stresses due to fluid pressure alone
Let ir and / be the stresses in the pipe and wires due to the
independent effect of fluid pressure of 35 kg-jem.^
Consider one cm. length of the pipe.
Bursting force = pdl
=35X20X 1 kg.
=700 kg.
Resisting force =f ,.2 /t+./^x4x (O'S)

=/x2xr2+/.nX0-25
=2*4
2-4/,.+0-7854/=700 (0
Circumferential strain in the pipe
fv \
Ee m \ AtE }
698 SFRENOrH OP MATmiAU
1 pL)
~e {
-
^ m 4i /
--i-f 4-0-3 X ^^4?)
cV 4X1*2;
J'*-4yis
Ec
Circumferential strain in the steel wire
4_
E,
Equating the circumferential strains of the wire and pipe
/> _ 4z4375
E>~ El
/-=(4) (/p-43-75)
4=2(4-43-75) ()
Substituting in eq. U),
2-4 4+0-7854 X 2(4-
43-75) = 700
3-97084=7687
4= 193 6 kg jemp' (tensile)
4=2(193-6-43-75) Arg./cm 2
4=299-7 Ag./cffi. (rm//e)
The stresses in the pipe and wire are as follows :
Pipe Steel wire
Initial stresses 1 96*3 kg. Icm.^ ( compressi ve) 600 kg Jem} {tensile)
Stressesd Je to fluid 193*6 hg IcmJ^ tensile 2997 kg Jem.- (tensile)

pressure alone 1
Final s'rcsses .'7 kg fem,^ {compressive) 899*7 kgjcm} (tensile)

- - -
116. Thin spherical shells
shows a seamless spheri-

Fig. 585
cal shell of internal diameter d and
thickness t and subjected to an internal
pressure of intensity p.
Let us consider a section ,
XX
through the centre of the shell.
Bursting force projected
area
Let f\ be the tensile stress induc-

ed on the section of the metal at the
section XX,
XHIN cvlindihs and spheres 699
.
. Resisting force=/i
f,ndt-~=p~
f.^Pl
4t
Similarly if any other section through the centre of the shejl

had been considered, it can be similarly shown that the tensile stress
for the section would be
In the case of the thin spherical shell, the principal stresses /i

an J ^2 ^t any point are equal and like. Hence, every plane through
pd
the point is a principal plane with an intensity of stress equal to j*
Obviously, no shear stress exists anywhere in the shell.
The strain in any direction
E mE
= -A
E mE
- >-
4 (
'('-S-)
The increase in diameter due to internal pressure is given by
the relation
d 4iE \ m )
4
Original volume y
I- L\
V 4tE\ m )
the above relation, the change in voiume can be
From
determined.
700 STRE^GTH OF MATERIALS
If the shell had been riveted, the stress in the plate would
given by
'
Atr,
where ij is the efficiency of joint.

Problem 402. A vessel in the shape of a spherical shell 4Q cm in
diameter and I cm. shell thickness is comphtely filled with a fluid at
atmospheric pressure. Additional fluid is then pumped in till the
pressure increases by 50 kg.fcm^. Find the volume of this additional
fluid given that p.=0 25 and F=-lxl0^ kg-lcm.^ for the shell
material. {AMIE, Winter J978)
Solution.
pd _ 50x80
1000 kg Icm.^
4t 4X1
fi _ h _ 1000 _ 0-25x1000
E mE E E
^ .
__ 'I __ 3 x 750 750
ev-aei
2 X fo
Increase in voluaie SK==e,F=

2 x^1 % ^3" ic(40)
''(40)*
=603- 19 cc.
Volume of additional ftuid^603' 19 cc.

Problem 403. A thin seamless spherical shell of V5 metres
diameter is 8 mm. thick. It is filled with a liquid so that the internal
pressure is 15 kg.fcm^.
*
Determine the increase in diameter and
capacity of the shell. Take ^0 3 and E^2x 10^ kg.jcm^.
Solution.
ition. /i=/2 =
==-
15x150, ,
.
4 ^ 0-8
=703 kg.jcm.^
Strain of the diameter
=.=A- /i
E mE
-i( -ir)
- 22?^
X 109 V
(
- -
)
/
-=0 00246
Increase in diameter
eXorigiDal diameter
thin cylinders and spheres 701
=0'000246X 150 cm,

~0'0369 cm.
Strain of capacity
=3 x 0-000246
=0-000738
Change in volume
=ev X original volume
=0-000738 X C/7J.3
o
1304 cnfi.
Problem 404. A thin spherical shell 140 cm. diameter is sub-
jected to an internal press-arc of IS hp.lcn-?. If the permissible stress
in the plate material is 1400 kg.jcm.^, and the joint efficiency is 75%,
find the minimum thickness.
Elution. p=18 kg.jcm.^
f 1400 kg.fcm.^

1
= 75 %
18X140
4x1400 x 0-75
cm.
117. Biaxial stresses in doubly carved walls of pressure vessels

Consider a closed thin walled vessel whose form is a surface
of revolution. Let the vessel be
subjected to an internal pressure of
intensity p. Let t be the thickness
of ,the wall of the vessel. This
thickness is so small compared with
the principal radii of curvature and
hence the wall may be taken to be
incapable of offering any resistance
against bending. Hence the wall
acts as a thin membrane. The
stresses in the membrane are taken-
to be uniform and acting tangen-
tial to the middle surface of the
wall. These stresses are called the
membrane stresses.
These can be determined by the conditions of equilibrium.

Consider an elemental part of wall bounded by two meridiar
and two circumferential arcs.
702 STRbNGTH OF MATFIUALS
Fig. 587
Let /i be the in the circumferential direction.

stress intensity
This is Let /a be the stress intensity along the meri-
the hoop stress.
dian. This stress is called the meridional stress. Let ri be the radius
of curvature of the circumferential arc. Let ra be the radius of the
meridional arc.
Let dOi >= angle subtended by the circumferential elemental arc.
^62:= angle subtended by the meridional elemental arc.
r/5i=length of the circumferential elemental ate.
</s2 length of the meridional elemental arc.
The forces acting on the edges of the elemental part of the wall
are, /i ds^t in the circumferential direction and fzdsit in the meridio-
nal direction.
Resolving the forces on the elemental part along the normal to
the elemental part,
fi dsztd9f{-fz ds\1d^2=pds\ds2
But <fei=ând ^62 = -^

ri rg
/i 4. /a ^
n n t
This is the most general equation giving the relation between

the circumferential and hoop stresses and the internal pressure in the
vessel.
Particular cases
(i) If the vessel is spherical
/i-'/a^/and ri=r2=r
L...
r t
thin cylinders and spheres 703
J
2t
(it) If the vessel is cylindrical r2
-h ^ [
/a _P
ri oo t
ft
(Hoop stress)
In this case the longitudinal stress is due to the preslTlti=rt^'

ends of the cylinder
n 2
Longitudinal stress =^-/2 =*
^
It
Stresses in a conical water tank
Fig. 588 shows an open
conical tank uniformly suspended
around its upper rim. Let h be
the depth of water. Consider any
level XX
distant y from the
apex O.
At this level r2 00
A ,
/2 iL
cjo' t
_pr^
/i==
t
where ri=^ radius of the circum- 0

ferential curvature. Fig. 588
But ytanoL-
p = w(h-y)
ft \
mdj ri=
where tv = weight per unit volume of water.

f = w (hy) tan a
r cos ot
This is the hoop stress at the level XX.

Maximum hoop stress
For the hoop stress to be maximum.

dh tv tan a ft, f\
704 STRENGTH OF HATQttALS
Patting y= in the general expression for the hoop stress,
we get
wl? tan
yi(mo*)=
4r cos ec
We can also
calculate the stress fi in the meridional direction.
The weight of the shaded volume of water must be resisted by
total
the vertical component, of the induced meridional tension on the
circumference XX.
For this condition
fi lay tan a t cos ci=w{lty) tan* a+wny^ tan*
ir tan a1 /' \
h- 2/ cos a V 3
MaxinmiB moidioiial stress
For the meridional stress to be maximum,
_ w tan
dy ~2rcos
y^~~h
Putting j* A in the general expression for the

y
meridional stress we get,
SwA* tan
fumax')
16 t cos a
1. A seamless pipe 100 cm. diameter contains a fluid under

a pressure of 15 Arg per cm.^ If the permissible tensile stress be
1000 kg cm.^ find the minimum thickness of the pipe. {0 75 cm)
A cylindrical shell is 4'J cm. internal diameter and O'S cm.
2.
thickand 100 cm. long. Find the change in the internal diameter
and the length, when the cylinder is charged with an internal
pressure of 80 Ag./cm.
Take =2x
10 Ag./cm.* and Poissons ratio=03.
(0 034 cm., 0 02 cm.)
3. A
cylindrical shell is 3 metres long, 1 metre in diameter and
is subjected to an internal pressure of 10 Ag,/cm.* If the thickness
of the shell is 12 mm. find the cit .mmferential and longitudinal
stresses. Find also the max. shear stress and the changes in the
dimensions of the shell.
1
IH{N cylinders and sphbrbs

705
Take E~1 X 10 kg.jcmr and - =/ 1

m
^416-7kg.lcm.^\mAkg.lcm.^
104-4 kg.lcm:^
6^/-0018 cm
^/-0 012 cm.
93! cnfi).
4. A water main 60 cm. diameter contains water at a pressure

bead of 100 metres. If the weight of water is 1000 kg. per cubic
metre find the thickness of the metal required if the permissible
stress is 300 kg.fcm^. (1 cm.)
5. A cylindrical shell 120 (Vh, long,
20 (vn. internal diameter
and 10 mm. thick is filled with a fluid at atmosphere pressure. If
an additional 30 cm. of the fluid be pumped inti the cylinder,
find the pressure exerted by the fluid on the wall of the cylinder.
Find also the hoop stress induced
Take E -2x lO kg.jcm ^ and --

m
18,3-75 kg. 'cm.^ : 837 5 kg jcm.^)
6. A riveted boiler is made out of 15 mw. thick plates to a
diameter of 18t> cm. If the efliciency of the longitudinal and
Circumferential 75% and 6l/' respectively, find the safe
joints be
prc'^sure in the boiler if the maximum icn.sile stress on the plate
section through risets may not exceed 1200 kg.'cm ". Find also the
hmgitudinal stress on the section through the rivets.
( 1 5 kg jcm ; 750 kg.jcm.h

7. A thin spherical shell of 1 JsO metreK diameter is 10 mm.
iliick. If is filled with a liquid so that the infernal pressure is
10 kg.lcm.'^ Find the increase in diameter and capacity of the
shell.
Take E -2 . 10 kg fern.- and

*
--0'3
m
(0 028 cm . ; 1443 cm.)
8. A thin special shell 150m diameter is subjected loan

internal pressure of 20 kg.lcm.^ If the permissible stress in the
plate material is 1400 kg/cm.~iind the joint efficiency is 80% find
the maximum thickness. (0-7 cm.)
Thick Cylinders and Spheres
118.' Thick Cylinders
In the case of thin cylinders, the hoop stress was ^determined

assuming it to be unifoim across the thickness of the cylinder. But
actually, the hoop stress will not
be uniform across the thickness
and it will be seen that the hoop
vary from a maximum
stress will
value at the inner circumference
to a minimum value at the outer
circumference.
Fig. 589 shows a thick

cylinder of external radius and
Internal radius rj and length /. Let
the cylinder be subjected to an
internal pressure of intensity Po
The thick cylinder may be taken to
consist of a number of
concentric
elemental rings. Consider one such
elemental ring of radius x and
thickness dx. Let the rridial pressure intensities be p* and {px-^dpt)
at the inner and outer circumference of the elerneutal ring. Let the
hoop stress intensity induced in the elemental ring be/,. Consider
a longitudinal section XX.
Bursting force ~Px{2xl)[^ x-\-dP<t)l{x-\-dx) /
Resisting force ~fj- 2dx I
Equating the resisting force (o the bursting foicc, we have,

fx2dxI^2P,xl-2{Px+dP.)ix+dx)I
fxdx^-Pxdx-xdPx-dPJx
Ignoring products of very small quantities, we have,
dx
Now we obtain another relation between the radial pressure

will
and hoop stress by using the condition that the longitudinal strain at
any point in the section is the same.
706
:
fUlCX Cy&lNOfiES AND SPHERES 707
F:g. 590
The longitudinal stress
P ___ pr2*^
x(ri2 r2^) r2*
Hence at any point the section of the elemental

in ring
considered above, the following three principle stresses exist
(0 The radial pressure Px
(/i) The hoop stress fj>
{Hi) The longitudinal tensile stress Po
Since the longitudinal strain is constant, we have,
E

mE + mE
_ == constant
where
m is the Poissons ratio.
But since Po, m and E are constants
/ Constant
/. Let fxPm^2a
Putting /'={P+2a) in equation (i), we get
{Px+2a)=--Px-x^
_2(pxa)_
dP 2dx
px+a X
OiSTRlBUrm
Fig. 591
The above two equations are called Lame's equations. From tht
known conditions, namely at x==r2 Px==Po and at
, r*=0 tb<*
constants a and b may be evaluated.

thick cvunders and spheres
After finding the constants a and b the hoop stress at any radius
can be easily determined.
Fig. 592 shows the radial pressure distribution and hoop stress
distribution across the
thickness of the shell.
j
Fig. 592 also shows V.

the radial pressure and
^ y i
hoop-stress variation. i
the
In this representation
two curves are parallel
distant 2a apart vertically. dt
^ ^
iL^
i-
I .L\ 592
Problem 405. A pipe of 40 cm. internal diameter and 10 cm,

thickness containsa fluid at a pressure of fVO ki^^jerfr Find the maxi-
mum and minimum hoop stress across the section Also^ sketch the
radial pressure distribution and hoop stress distribution across the
section
Solution. Let the radial pressure intensity and the hoop stress
at any radius x be given by
At A' -^ 20 cvn.,
px -80 A.? /e/n 2 and at cm.
V, 0 .
p^âokgjcm
41)0
^
and a -0
Solving! the above equations

wc cct b -57600
593
~
and. a 64
Hence the hoop stress at any radius \ is given by
At a~20 c/n., ^21 )*^ "

i
Ai; 'enir
4UtJ
At x 30 enuy /ao'ti
'
+ 64- /2.S !
a
Fig. 594 (fl) and 594 ib) show the distribution of radial pressure
and hoop stress across the section.
Fig. 594 (ft)
Problem 406 (SI). A pipe of 400 mm. internal diameter and 100
non. thickness contains a fluid at a pressure of 8 Njmm^. Find the
maximum and the minimum hoop stress across the section.
Solution. Let the radial pressure intensity and the hoop stress
at any radius x be given by,
Pm
and
At *=200 mm., P.=8 Nlmm.^

and At *=300 mm.. -0
-
LmDEKS AND SPHERES 711

thick
b
^ '
40000
b _
^ ^
90000
Solving the above equations, we get / =576,000
and a-64
Hence the hoop stress at any radius x is given by
576,000
_j
M x=200 mm.. /*.* jiJfio
At x-SOOmm., /i"3oox0
Problem 407. Find the thickness of metal necessary for a
steel
shell of internal diameter 15 cm. to withstand an internal

rvlindrical
pressure of 500 kg./cm^. The maximum hoop stress in the section ts
not to exceed 1500 kg-lcm^.
Solution. Let the external radius be n cm.
the radial pressure and hoop stress at any radius x be

I.et
given by
P,~ -K a
.V-
and fx-^--{-a
7'5 cm.
At
Pi-- 500 kg.jcmr
5 ^0 =
S6-25"
. .in
At ,v -7 5 cm.
/i=-1500 kg I cm.
b
1500- -I a
56 :5
...()
Subtracting equation (/) from

equation (ii)
1000- 2a
a -50*
in equation (0 f ig. 595
Substituting
-500
56 25
a .
SIltlNGItl OF MAllJtULS
-1000
i-56250
We also know that at x rj, />x==0
/. 0= -
rr^ a
2 b 56250
= 112-5
fl 500
ri= 1060 C/M.
Thickness of inetal^/==-10'60-~7 503' J cm.
Problem 408. (S.I.) Find the thickness of metal necessary

for a steel cylindrical shell of internal diameter 150 mm. to mth-
stand an internal pressure of 50 Nlmm^. The maximum hoop stress
in the section is not to exceed 150 Nlmm^,
Solution. Let the external radius be ri mm. Let the radial

pressure and hoop stress at any radius x be given by,

Px= --s
b
;

and
At 75 //7/M., px50 Nlmm.^
50 = a ...(0
5625
At.X' 75 /M/M., /x=^ 150 Nlmm,^
i
50
562 > ^ . -f a ...(//)
Solving equations (1) and (/i), wc get,
u-50 and 6-- 562,500

We also know that'at
x^ ru PxÔ
a
^-^-11250
ri = 106 mm.
Thickness of metal
= f=ri ra
= 106 75=i//n.,
o
ni:CK CYLINDERS AND SPll<LS

713
$1
19* Compoand Cylinders
In the examples shown above we find that when the cylindrical

shell is subjected to internal pressure the hoop stress across thc'scc(ic>ii
is not uniform 'llie maxin.um
hoop occurs at the inner
stress
circumference and the hoop stress
decreases towards the c uter circum-
ference. Hence the maximum
pressure inside the shell is limited
corresponding to the condition that
the hoop stress at the inner circum-
ference reaches the permissible
value.
But, suppose the shell is made

by shrinking one tube over the
other. This will initially introduce
hoop compressive stresses in the
inner tube and hoop tensile stresses
in the outer tube.
If now the compound lube is subjected to internal perssuic both

ihe inner and outer tubes will be subjected to hoop tensile stress, due
to the internal pressure alone. Adding the internal stresses caused
while shrinking and the stresses due to internal pressure alone, the
final hoop stresses in both the tubes can be determined. By this
arrangement the hoop stresses throughout the metal will be more or
less uniform.
Let ri and r 2 be the outer and inner radii of the compound

tube. let the radius at the junction of the two tubes be ra.
Let Pj be the radial pressure intensity at the junction of the

tubes after shrinking the outer tube oê^ the inner tube.
Let Lammes relation for the outer tube be
given by,
D
T,-- - ai
2
and ^
JC
11 o
At x=ri.
0=
A
*1
ri^
ai ...0)
and at
...()
714 STRfeKGni OF MATBRSais
The constants ui and bi can be determined from equations

(/)
and (it)
Let Lammes relations for the inner tube be given by
II 1
II
and
At x=r2. P,=0
-* 0= ^ -
...(Hi)
and at II
>
Pj== 2
The constants 02 and b2 can be determined from equations (Hi)

and (iv).
Now the hoop stresses for the outer and tlie inner tube can be
easily determined.
Suppose the compound tube is subjected to an internal fluid

pressure Po. For this analysis, the inner and the outer tubes will
together be considered as one thick shell. The stresses due to internal
fluid pressure alone can now be determined. For this condition
let Lammes relations be,
and. x=---::+A
x~
At x~riy Px ^-0
0= ...(v.
rt*
At .V rs, P' =P.,
B ,
- ...{vO
The constants A and B can now be esaluated. The l.oop stresses

across the section can now be easily determined.
By algebraically adding, the hoop stresses caused due to
shrinking to the hoop stressescaused by internal fluid pressure, the
final hoop stresses may be determined.
0
thick cylinders and spheres 715

Problem 409. A
compound tube is com-
posed of a tube 25 cm.
internal diameter and 2 5
cm. thick shrunk on a tube
of 25 cm. external diameter
and 2' 5 cm. thick. The
radial pressure at the
junction is 80 kg./cm^.
The compound tube is
subjected to an interal fluid
pressure of 845 kg.jcm^.
Find the variation of the
hoop stress over the wall
of the compound tube.
Solution. Stress due

to shrinking the outer
tube on the inner tube. Fig. 597
Outer tube
Let Lammes relations for the outer tube be given by
and fx
At cm.y P=0
...(0
At jc= 12'5 cm.y Px^%0 kg./cm.
8_ ...00
Solving equations (i) and iii), we get
fli-1818 and 6i- 409l()

Hoop stresses for the outer tube are given by,
f 409 1
'12 5= kglcm.^ (tensile)
{ 40910
^m-^-^363'6 kg.lcm.^ (tensile)
2I 5
Inner tube
Let Lammes relations for the inner tube be given by
and
STRENGfH Of MATERIALS
At v - 1
2 5 cm P* 80
, kg.lcm.^
80- -^"'0
At A ~ 10 cm.y Px=0
hy
0==
,, 7
,
7 -<J2 .Ah)
Solving equaiion > (Hi) and (m ) vvc g.:t and
h^- im 2
Hence Ihc hoop i,lrcsses for the inner tube are given by,
2^220
r
/12.5 - - :7-,7 -222
5')
.
1 25
364' 2 kg 'cm.^ {compres.sive)
f10 _ 2222CI
-22
^444 2 kg.jLni ^ icojnprcsshc)
Fig. 59J>
Stresses due to internal fluid pressure alont

For this condition both the tubes together will be considered as
acting as one cylinder.
Let Lammes relations for this condition be
and
At a:= 10 cw., Pa!=845 kgjcm.^

fHICK CRLINDERS AND S>rilRlS
717
845 ...(v)
100
At 1 5 cw , Pt~
r725
^ ^^ .X\i)
Solving equations (v) and (v/), we get,
A- o7(V] and i?- 152200

Hence the hoop stresses due to internal fluid ptessiire alone are
given by,
^
^ ^ ^ =2198 I (tensile)
YoO

'^'>00
/i2-5
S625^
^'76* I
* 1650 ! /emr (tensile)
{
'-'>*>00
1
/ir> " V>5 *^676 1 = 135 1 kp^ j cm. (tensile)
Hence due to the com'^MicJ elTect of shrinking the outer tube

on the innei tube and intern. fluid pressure the final hoop stresses
1
will be as follows :
Outer tube
Fvier 44 ?' 6 + 1650*1 (tensile)
615 '63 6 - ]352'2 - J715 S kp.lcm (tensile)
Inner tubi
f}2 :r 364*2 j- I650I 1285 9 kp.lcm Htensilc)
Fm 444 24 2I98I " 1753 9 kp. I cm Htensilc^
^jl20. Initiul difTerence in rtu; at the junction of a compound cylinder

on the outer
In order to shrink
tube over the inner tube, it is neces-
sary that the radius of the inner face
of the outer tube should be slightly
ic'^s than the radius of the outer face
of the inner tube, so that after the
tubes are fitted the required radial
pressure at the .ipction of the tubes
may be reacbf !
I .-t /V . JUS of iu.iCtjtm after

inking on.
tV'--- differencebetween the
radius of the outer
face of the inner tube
and ra.
Hr" difference between the
radius of the inner
face of the outer tube
and rs-
:
718 SWENGTH OF MATERIALS
Original difference of the radii of the two tubes at the

junction
=8r3=Sr'+Sr"
Now, for the outer tube let Lammes relations be
and /x=-^+i
Circumferential tensile strain for the outer tube at the
junction
where />'=radial pressure at the junction.

1
and e
Poissons ratio.
m
Similarly, for the inner tube, let Lammes relations be
n -02
and f
Jx-
_ f2
+^2
Circumferential compressive strain for the inner tube at the

junction
Subtracting equation (i/) from equation (/), we get
...(z70
Algebraic difference between the hoop stresses

tnhQS at the junction

*
ra E
Problem 410. For the compound tube of problem 409 find the
original dijference in diameter of the two tubes before shrinking' on, so
that after shrinking on the radial pressure at the junction may be
80 kg-lcm^. Find also the minimum temperature to which the outer
tube should be heated in order it can be slipped on the inner tube.
Take E^2xl(fi kg./cm.^

Solution. Due to the radial pressure of 80 kg.lcm? at junction
the hoop stresses for the two tubes at the junction arc as follows
Outer tube : hoop stress at the junction

= +443*6 fcg./cm.2 {tensile)
thick cylinders and spheres 719
Inner tube : hoop stress at the junction

= 364"2 kgjcm.^ {compremre)
^^443-6+364-2 ^ 80T8
rs 2 X I0 2 X To
=00004039
Sr3=0 0004039xl2-5=0-005 cm.
original difference in diameter=2 x 0 005 0 010 cm.
Let T be the temperature by which the outer tube is to be

heated in order to slip it on the inner tube.
ar(jcd)=JtW
0010
(12xi6)1s
=-33'-34C.
Problem 411. A steel tube of 20 cm. external diameter is to he

shrunk on to another steel tube of 6 cm. internal diameter. After
shrinking the diameter at the Junction is 12 cm. Before shrinking on
the difference of diameter at the junction is 0 008 cm. Find the hoop
.stresses developed in the two tubes after shrinking-on, and the radial
pressure at the Junction. Take E~2x
/O kg.lcm^.
Solution. Let Lamraes relations for the outer tube be given by
Now let Lammes relation Fig. 600

for the inner tube be given by,
bz
and
720 STRENGIH OF MATERUtS
n ^2
=3 cm., Px = 0 0=^^

At j: 02 -(Hi)
At x6 cm., P, -
Pi
n
...(iv)
36
From equations (i/) and (iv), we get.
bx hi
P- -oi - 3^02 ...(V)
36
Finally,
Ir-i _.^08_
rs 6 (/$)+"*]
From eciuations (i) and (fiV), we have.
-
/> I 1 (K'fli
and 9^2
Substituting for hi and b-i in equations (0 and (r/)
lOOfli 9fl2
~6.1
_27
o\- <12 ...(vii)
64
/ lOOo,
/ 9^2
[
36 ^ * 1
' 36
34 5 ()()08
Ôl- -02- 3
xio
34
Ô,-
5
02 =
mm .( ii)
^ 3
Solving equations (v) and (v/if), we get
02 - -937 8 and 01 - 395-7

f)2 = -9?7 8x9
- - 8440-2
and />i = 395-7x100
39570
Hence, Lamme's relations for the two tubes are as follows.
Outer tube
3 9570
P.~- 395-7
39570
and /*- +395-7
Inner tube
8440-2
f937 8
IHICK CYLINDOtS AND SPHERES
721
/, = -
S440r2
and -937-8
At the junctioo, at jc=6 an. be radial pressure
M570
395-7
36
.
8440-2
or alternatively -+937-8
36
= 703' 4 kg./cm.^
Now the hoop stresses can be calculated as follows

Outer tube
39570
/io =
- +395' 7 79 / 4 kg.lm.~ (tensile)
100
kg.lcm^ (tensile)
Inner tube
/<> " ll 72' 2 kg.lcm.^ icompressive)
^
/a 937*8 - 1877 6 kg,jcm} (compressive)
121. Thick Spherical Shells
Consider a spherical shell of

external radius r\ and internal
radius r2 subjected to an internal
fluid pressure p.
Consider an elemental disc

of the spherical a radius x,
shell at
having a thickness dx. Let this
elemental pan subtend an angle
c/d at the centre.
Consequent to the internal

pressure, let the radius increase
from X to ( A' h u)
Fig. 601 Circumferential strain

1 iiW0 xJO
xd^
!L
ew^ ...(/)
X
The radial strain

722 tnUSNGTH W MATBRULs
The above strains are tensile if positive.

Now consider an eiement spherical shell at the radiusx having
atiiidmess Let the radial pressure at the radii x and {x-\-dx)
htPamd(Pm+dPm) respectively.
Let f be the circumferential stress which is equal in all

Erections since this is a spherical shell.
The bursting force on any
diametral plane on the section
of the elemental shell
^PaV]?ifa -f- dPa)lc(x h duc)*
Resisting force
=^x2x dx
Equating the resisting force
and bursting force, we have,
MlKXdx)=PaKX^
(P*+dP*)n(x+d*)*
Neglecting squares and pro-
ducts of very small quantities. Fig. 602
2fa = -2P* X - .(hO
At any point at a radius x the three principal stresses are

(0 The radial pressure Pa {compressive)
(If) The hoop stress fa {tensile)
{Hi) The hoop stress fa on a plane at right angles {tensile)
Radial strain
i rrtjLa rrt
{tensile) Fig. 603
Prom equations (i) and (</)

IHICK CYUNDER8 AND SPHERES
ex=et+x
dx
Substituting for ex and et from equations (ii>) and (v) in
equation (vi), we have,
d/x , dPx
dx m dx 3
on simplification,
m+l )-( m-l) -g-+ |i=0 ...(vff)

)(
But from equation (i/i)
dP,
fx^-Px-i dx
Differentiating the above relation,
dfx dpx
dx dx
dfx
Substituting for/e and ' in equation (vif) and on simpli-
fication
we get,
(PP
* _i_/i i\ .(vrii)
dPx
putting
dx
we get,
X r +4y= 0
dx
do dx
^
0 X
Integrating, we get
logv= 4 logc jc+log Cl
where log* Ci is a constant of integration.
I Cl \
a
724 STAENviTH OF MATERIALS
dPz = Ci-^
Integrating we get,
where Ca is a constant of integration.

But we know
dPr
dx
_ Cl Ci
3x3 2x3
'low consider the two expressions obtained for Px and /x namely
r+C2
and
patting Ci^--6b and C2 =

we get.
II 1c ...(/x)
and f* ^'A-a ...(x)
The above two relations will be found very useful. From the
known initial conditions the constants a and b can be evaluated.
For instance corresponding to the external radius.
x=*ri and Pm =0
...(A)
But at x=r2 (internal radius) px^P

...(B)
Solving equations (^4) and (i?)
we get,
and b ~
201*^
THtCC crUNDEU AND SPHERES 725
Problem 412. A thick spherical shall of 10 cm. imemal diameter

is subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 300 kg,lcm\ If the per-
missible tensile stress is 800 kg.lcm^,find the thick"ess of the shell.
Solution. Let the radial pressure aud th** hoop stress at any
radius be given by,
D 2*
At x=5 cm., Pa =300 kg./cm.^ ...a)
At x=5 cm., /c=800 kg jcm.^
800- .Mi)
Solving equations (/) and Hi),
we get.
1300
n=
and b=~
, 137500
Let the external radius be n

Atxrj, 0
2x137500 1300
0~
~fri8 3
ri==5*96 cm.
Thickness of the sheU=^5'965=0'96 cm.

Problem 413 tSI). A thick spherical shell of 100 mm, internal
liiameter is subjected to an interned fluid pressure of 30 N/mm^. If
the perrt.hsible tensile stress is SO Njmm.^, find the thickness of the
shell.
Solution. Let the radial pressure and the hoop stress at any
radius be given by.
and L .il+a
X
At x = 59 mm,. Px ~ 30 Nlmm^
2h
^
7~ 125,000 ...fO
\t X *50 mm.. /.=80 Nlmm.^

726 SntBNOfH OF MAntlAlS
Solving equations (/) and (i7), we get.
IM
fl*=
3
13750000
and 6=
3
Let the external radius be n
At acri, Pm0
^ 2x13750000 130
3
Jf?
- *_2x 13750000
130
ri=2 11538-46
ri==596 mm.
Thickness of the shell
rir%
= 59-6-50
=9-6 mm.
Ezamplea in chapter 13
1. A
pipe of 50 cm. internal diameter and 10 cm. thickness
contains a fluid at a pressure of 60 kg./cm^. Find the maximum and
minimum hoop stresses across the section. Also sketch the radial
pressure distribution across this section.
(Hoop stresses 152 4 kg./cm., 59 8 kg Icm.^)
:
2. Find the thickness of metal necessary for a steel cylindrical

shell of internal diameter 20 cm to withstand an internal pressure of
400 kg.Icnfi. The maximum hoop stress in the section is not to exceed
1500 kg.lcm^ (315 cm.)
3. A compound tube is composed of a tube 20 cm. internal
diameter and 2 cm. thick shrunk on a tube of 20 cm. external dia-
meter and 2 cm. thick. The radial pressure at the junction is 60
kg.jcm^. The compound tube is subjected to an internal pressure
of 800 kg.lcm^. Find the variation of the hoop stress over the wall
of the compound tube.
Initial stresses : Inner tube kg /cm.^ (compressive)
kg./cm.^ (compressive)
outer tube /io=*^32-7 kg. jcm.^ (tensile)
/i2=2223 kg Icm.^ (tensile)
Final stresses : Inner tube fsnil'l kg./cm.'^ tensile)

/io=12877 kg./cm.^ (tensile)
outer tube /io= 18937 kg.jcm ^ tensile)
fit 1602-3 kg.lcm.^ (tensile)
4. Athick spherical shell of 1 6 cm. internal diameter is subjec-
ted to an internal fluid pressure of 400 kg.jcm^. If the permissible
tensile stress is 800 kg.jcm.^ find the thickness of the shell. (21 cm )
14
Columns and Struts
btroAKtiM
We come across various instances of members subjected to
compressive loads. These members are given different names depend-
ing on the particular situation in whicA thev are ])laoed.
Columns and stanchions are vertical members used in building

frames.
A post is a general term applied to a compression coember.

A strut is a compression member of a truss.
A boom is the principal compression member in a crane.
122. Axially loaded compressioi memben
^04 shows a short column of uniform

Fig.
sectional area A, subjected
of the column is
to an axial load P.
The stress intensity p induced on the section
obyiously
1
P

Let the load on the member be gradually

increased till the member fails by crushing.
Let Pr. be the crushing load. Let ft be the
ultimate crushing stress.
Crushing load=?e/cA.
..
A
very short column will fail at the
above load by crushing. By dividing the crush-
ing load by a suitable factor of safety the safe
load for the member can be computed. Fig. 604
But the comivession members which we come across do n^

fail by crushing. These members are considerably long in
entirely
comparison with their lateral dimensions. Hence, these membm
start bending, i.e., buckling when the axial load reaches a certain
727
728 STRENGTH OF MATBRIAtS
critical value. Once a member shows signs of buckling it will ]<^d

to the failure of the member. This load at which the member just
buckles is called the buckling load or critical loa / or crippling load.
The buckling load is less than the crushing load. The value of
the buckling load is low for long members and relatively high for
short members. The value of the buckling load for a given member
depends upon the length of the member and the least lateral dimen-
sion. When an axially loaded compression member Just buckles, it
is said to develop an elastic instability.
605 shows a column loaded axially,

Fig.
which has just buckled, due to the applied load
P Let / be the length of the column
and y4 the sectional area. The maximum
has occurred at the middle
lateral deffection e
point of the column.
The extreme stresses on the mid section
are given by
where section modulus ot the

section about the axis of
bending
stress due to direct load
extreme stress due to bending.

Fig. 60S
PmaFo+Pi'
and Pmin^^PoPb
When Pmm reaches the crushing stress /. for the column
material the member will fail. Thus it should be realized that the
failure of the member is not caused by Pa alone but due to tne
combined effect of Pa and P*.
$123. Eulers Theory of long columns

low
We willdiscuss the case of very long columns having
now
is ve^
crippling loads. In this case the stress Po due to direct load
small in comparison with ihc stress P due to buckling. wi We
that the failures of these members are entirely due
therefore regard
to Ending. The following four cases arise :
Cfw I. When both ends of the metrhcf are pinned.

Case 2. When one end is fixed and the other is free.
Case 3. When both ends are fixed.
Case 4. When one end fixed and the other is pinned.
Sign conventions for bending moments.
presen
bending rooinent which bends the column so as to
A ^
convexity towards the initial centre line of the member wiii
Hoarded as positive.
H
COLUMNS ANN SI RUTS
In Fig. 606, BA represents the initial

centre line of a member. Whether the
member bends taking the shape BA' or
BA'" the bending moment producing this
type of cui vature is positive.
I -L-
In I ig. 607, HA represents the

initial centre of a column.
line If
the member bends taking the shape
'iCH <>r AC
presenting concavity
towards the initial centre line of the
member, the bending moment pro-
ducing this type of curvature is re-
garded as ncgatiNC.
Case 1 . When both ends of the column are pinned or hinfêJ,
Fig.608 shows a column AB of length

/ and uniform sectional area A, hinged at both
the ends A and B. Let P be the crippling
load at which the column has just buckled.
Consider any section at a distance .x from

the end B, Let y be the dcllecrioii (lateral
displacement) at the section.
The bending moment at the section is
given bv.
1 i
I
1
i
*1
,
P n
ip
ii
pig, 60 K
730 &TitfiNCTH OF MAIOUAU
The solution to the above differential equation is
(.yi)
where Ci and C2 are constants of integration.
At By the deflection is zero.
At jc 0, ;?==(J
Ci-0
At A also, the deflection is zero.
/e. at x iy
0-C2sin(/Â)
Since Cl 0, we conclude that C2 cannot be zero.
This is because if both Ci and Cg are zero the column will not
bend at all.
Hence sin(
/
^ j-=0
w, 2n. 3, 4 k
I xl
V E!
=0,
Considering the least practical value.
^-El
P.
Case 2. When one end is fixed and the other is free.
609 shows a column AB

K'ic.
/ of length
whose lower end is fixed, the upper end A
being free. Let due to the crippling load P the
column just buckle Let a be the deflection at
the top end.
At anv sect'On distant x from the fixed
end B, the bendii-g m 'racii^ is given by
El y - V)
dx'-
where y is the deflection at X.
El Py~Pa
dx*
d*y,P_ Pa
dx*ÊI El
731
OOtOIINS AMD STRUTS
The solution to the above differentia] equation is
+ C2 sin
y=Ci cos
(
X
^^ ) (
JC
y^
of integration.
where Ci and Ca are constants
At B, the deflection is zero.
.-. At JC=0, J'=0

0=Ci+a Cl o
The slope at any section is given by
Jr
V/ ('V El
At B the slope is zero,

cos
(W /)
At =0
0-C2 p
V El
C2 = 0
At A the deflection is a
At xU ya
a--=-acos(
COS
^
3n 5rt
p_
'V El 2 2
Considering the first practical value,
P
'V El
^4/2
Case 3. When both ends of the column arejixed.
Fig. 610 shows a column AB of length t who'e ends A
there will be a restraint moment y
are both fixed. Obviously
at each end. Let / be the crippling load.
*
distant x from the lower end
B.
Consider any section X
oending moment at the section X, is given by.
^
STRENGTH CM MATERIAU
<Py_
El Mo-Py !P
El +Py=-M.
dx^
d^ P ^ A/
rfx* El El
The solution to the above differential equation

IS,
y^-Cx cos|
+ C2Sin(x^ 1+-^- ...0)
C
where, Ci and 2 are constants of integration. The IP
slope at any section is given by Fip. 610
dy p
dx El
.Mi)
-(-Vf/-)
At B. the deflection is zero.
At 0, y- 0
^ r-
<- Me
At /?, the slope is zero.
*(
At A=0, 0
dx
0-C2 \/ ^ -
C-i 0
V El
At Ay the deflection is zero.
/. At jc /, y 0
V tv )
'V )]"
/ ^ / =0, 2it, 4, 6w,

V El
COLUMNS AND STRUTS 733
Considering the first practical value,
V->.=2n
E!
4jt2 /;/
r-
Case 4. When one end iJtnc cu>lunin is fixed and the other irnd
pinned or liin\*cd
Fic shows a column AR of length
/, whose upper CTid 4 is hmged while its lower .p
end B is I'ixed.
Let P be the crippling load. Studying

the nature of bending wc reaii/c that there
will be a restraint moment Mh at the lower
fixed end.
The existenceof the restraint moment

therefore justifies theneed for a horizontal
force also at the top end A without which c
no bending moment can occur at B. Hence

the hinge at A must exert a horizontal force H
at A.
Consider any section A' at a distance x from

the lower fixed end B.
The bending moment at the section is
given by.
Fig. 611
Elf^~-Py mi- \ x)
dx-
Etfl+Py-=HU x)
(l-x) y=
H
dx^ El El
The solution to the above differential equation is,
[x
y=Cj cos(a: J^)+C2 sin J ^ ...(/)
where Ci and C4 are constants of integration, The slope at

any section is given by.
dy
dx
"(* ,///>
At B, the deflection is zero.

734 SIKBNGTH W MATBKIau
/. At x0, y=0
0=Ci+^/ . r -
Clyl
At B, the slope is. zero.
Atx=0, ^=0
dx
El
El P
At A, the deflection is zero.
Atx=/,.F=0
^ EI \
(
V
1
V1 /
]+4-l
r p aJ P
1
.f
sin ( / 1
V V EI J
Simplifying, we get
Jbi)
The solution to this equation is
/ ^ A' 5 radians
a/ EI
tip
(4-5, 2=20 25
20 25 /
I- fi
Approximately 2()25 ^ Zn-
Summary of results :
(ij When both ends of column are pinned (hinged)
Crippling load =
(ii) When one end of the column is fixed and the other end
is free.
Crippling load-=i*=^^^
(Hi) fNTien both ends of the column are fixed.
Crippling load=P
ffv) When one end of the column is fixed, and the other end
is pinned (hinged).
Crippling load=P=^^^
;124. Effective length of a cofaunn

The effective length of a given column with given end condi-
tions is the length of an equivalent column of the same material and
section with hinged ends having the value of the crippling load equal
to that of the given column.
Actual tength of eobim=l, tffectiit length-L
End conditions of Crippling loud Relation between equifalent

column length and aetuai length
Case I : Both ends iÊ!

hinged /2
* 2 L^l
Case 2 : One end fixed

one end free 4/* L^ll
Case 3 : Both ends ArtÊf nÊl

fixed 1
* " L2
Case 4 : One end fixed L

one end hinged
2 \//
If L be effective length of a column, the crippling load,
12
The of columns conesponding to different end condi-
effective length
tions are given in the above table.
In the above formula / should be taken as- the moment of ineitia
of the section about the axis of least resistance Hence / should be
taken as the least moment of inertia ol the section.
Putting [=AK^
where JC= least radius of gyration of the column section.
rti!/; A K-
We have, crippling load ^2
or, the stress intensity corresponding to the crippling load

P 2r ^
-7 L>
effective length
The ratio ^ is called
K least radius of gyration
the slenderness ratio of the column.
12^ Assumptions made in Eulers theory

^>^^The Eulers formula for the crippling load is based on the
folloiving assumptions
(0 The column is initially perfectly straight and is axially

loaded.
(/7) The section of the column is uniform.
(fii) The column material is perfectly elastic, homogeneous and
isotropic and obeys Hookes law.
(iv) The length of the column is very large compared to the
lateral dimensions.
(v) The is very small compared
direct stress with the bending
stresscorresponding to the buckling condition
(vi) The self-weight of the column is ignorable.
(vi7) The column will fail by buckling alone.
!S126. Limitation of Eulers formula
The validity of Euler's formula is subject to the satisfaction of
the assumptions mentioned in the above article. Further accepting
the formula for the cripping load,
K^/:/ tc-E /f
L2 /2
The stress at failure
From the above it can be realized that the stress at failure -

A
according to the formula will be high when the slenderness ratio is
small But the stress at failure cannot be greater than the crushing
stress for the column material. Hence when the slenderness ratio is
lessthan a certain limit, Eulers formula gives a value of the cripplifig

load even greater than the crushing load.
For instance, consider a mild steel column. The crushing stress
for mild steel f, '-
A:g/cm% Youngs Modulus for mild
3300
stecl*E=^^2'l X 10 kg.lcrn^- Equating the crippling stress to the
crushing stress corresponding to the minimum value of slenderness
ratio.
We have,
t^x22xl0**
- F. =6282
\ K } 3300
=79-27 say 80.

^
Hence when the slenderness ratio is less than this limit for
mild steel columns, Eulers formula will not be valid.
Problem 414. A mild steel tube 4 metres long 3 cm. internal
diameter and 4 mm. thick is used as a strut with both ends hinged- Find
the collapsing load. Take E~ 2' I X JO* kg.jcm.*
Solution. Moment of inertia of section
-/= -
'
JL
64
^
'64 [3-8-3<J cm*
-6*259 cm*
Since both ends of the column are binged
Effective length =L 4 m=400 cm.
tÊI
Crippling load =rP=
it2x2 lx 10x 6-255
~ (40oy
--81I kg.
Problem 415. A strut 2' 50 metres long is 6 cm. in diameter.
One end of the strut is fixed while its other end is hinged. Find the
safe compressive load for the member using Euler's formula, allowing
a factor of safety of 3 5. Take E^Tl X /0 kg.tcm^.
Sohitioii. Since one end of the strut is fixed and the other end
is hinged, effective length of strut
V2
250
176-8 cm.
V2
nd* _" It X 6*
cm.'
64 64
=63*62 cm.*
Crippling load- -E- jj,
n2x21XlOx 63-62
(176*8)2
kg.
=42190 kg.
738 mBNCTH OF materials
Crippling load
Sate load
Factor of safety
42190
" 3-5
12,050 kg.
FMUeni 416. Calculate critical load for a strut which is

the
made of a bar circular in section and 5 metres long and which is pin-
jointed at both ends. The same bar when freely supported gives a mid
span ^flection of 1 cm under a load of 8 kg. at the centre.
{A.M I.E., Summer 1979)
Sdotion. Anlay.sis as a beam
tVP
7=500 cm, S=1 cm., S=
8 x 5003 125
~ 48x X I0 kg.icm.-
488 1 6
Analysis as a strut
Euler's critical load
nÊl
"
7
125 I
.V
5 I0
^^H2y48 kg.
Problem 417. .4 bar of length 4 metrc'i when used as a simply
supported beam and suhieeted to a uniformly distributed load of 3 tjm
over the whole span deflects / 3 cm at the centre. Determine the
crippling loads when it is used as a column with the following
condltons.
U) Both ends pin jointed

(h) One end fixed and the other hinged,
(iii) Both ends fixed (AMIE. Summer 1977)
Solotion.
Analysis as a beam
, -^000
kg /cm. 30 kg.lcm.
, , , ,
f/m -
/=400 cm, S= 1*5 cm.
5 h-7*
384 El
EI= , 01.
384 6 384
columns and struts 739
Analyst as a column
(i) When both ends are hinged
Crippling load
=c2x|-xl0io ^^^=^411235' 4 kg.
(fj) When one end is fixed and the other end is hinged
Crippling load
.
==2X411235 4^ 822470-8 kg.
iiii) When both ends are fixed
Crippling load 3^
=4 X 41 1235*4- 164494 r 6 kg.
Problem 418, A round steel rod

of diameter cm. and length
1'5
200 cm is subjected to a gradually increasing axial compressive load.
U>ing Euler\s formula find the buckling load. Find aho the maximum
lateral deflection corresponding to the buckling condition. Both ends of
the rod may be taken as hinged. Take E-2'1 x lO^ kg.jcm.^ and the
yield stress of steel- 2400 kgfem^
Solution. Area of the rod
= /l= X rs* -1 '767 cm2.
ux rs
64 64
=0*2485 cm.
Since both eods of the member are binged, the effective length
=L=200 cm.
Buckling load (using Eulers formula)
_ jt2^

X I0x0-2485 .
200)2 (
121-8 kg}
Direct compressive stress
.
740 STKEMGTH OP MATtRm^
^288
vm kg.lcm*
=72-90 kg.lcm.^
Let the maximum bending stress corres-
ponding to buckling condition be Pt>.
Pn-l-Pa yield stress

-2400- 72-90
-2327-1 kg./cm.^
Let Af be the maximum bending
moment which occurs at the centre.
237-1
-X 0-2485 kg. cm.
*P-t20-aly.
=77ri kg. cm. Fig. 612
Let the maximum central deflection be a cm.

A/=Pfl= 128-8 0=771-1
771-1
^ ^
128 8
127. Empirical formulae
Rankine's formula.In the case of a short column which fails

by curshing the load equals P, = FcA where F.' is the
at failure
crushing stress for the column material and A is the sectional area
But, for a long column which fails by buckling, the load at failure, / e
7^2 J
the buckling load equals P.- where /, is the effective length
of the column. The struts and columns which we come across are
neither too short nor long. The failure of the member will
be due to the combined effect of direct and bending (buckling)
stresses. Rankine devised an empirical formula for the collapse load
which should cover all columns whether they are short or long.
Let P be the aetual crippling load- Rankine stated his empirical
formula
1
i . J_
P P. + P.
where P<-=Pi4 crushing load
P- Buckling load according to Eulers formula
-Eulerian load--^|^
should be noted that for a given colunsn niAterial the crushing

If
stress a constant and hence the crushing load FeA is also a
jFc is
constant for a given sectional area of a column. But the Eulerian

load depends upon the effective length of the column.
If the column is short Fe will be large and | will be small
enough to be ignored compared *

Hence aa vuv length of the
JTr
column is decreased.
1 1
P ~P
P ^ Pc
Similarly if the column is long Pc will be small and 4

r*
will be
large enough compared with ~ and we may ipore

*0
re
Hence as the length of the column is increased
1 1 .
P P,
P Pc
Hence the formula
gives satisfactory results for the extreme cases of long as well as

short columns. Hence Rankmes formula is taken to be valid for all
lengths of columns.
Hence,
1 Pc-\-Pc
P Pc . Pc
Pc+P.
FcA
_fyA__
1 + itÊI
Material Ft Ft
kg.lcm,^ Nlmm 2
1
Wrought Iron 25(0 250
yO(HJ
Cast Iron 5500 550

16C0
1
Mild Steel 3200 320
1!
i
7500
Strong Timber 500 50

1
Studying Rankines formula
Crushing load
we find
The factor ] +a has thus been introduced to take into
account the buckling effect.
FroMem
419. An ISMB 250 R.SJ, is to be used as a column
4 metres long with one end fixed and the other end hinged^ Find the
safe axial load on the column allowing a factor of safety of 3. Take
F, r- 3200 kg I cm and ~ 75"^^- Properties of column section are as
follows :
Area 47 5^ cm.^^ lxx~ 513]'6 cm /vj^ 334^5 cmfi

Solution. Effective length of the column
L 400
- cm.
\2 \^2
'
7032
A 47 5.^
Crippling l<âd
3200 ^
4
1 4(H) X40 (f
^^ 7500'^ 2x7
033
--60450 kg.
Allowing a facTor of a safety of 3*
Sale load on D'.c column
60450
20150 kg.
3
A hollow cylindric al cast iron column is 4 metres

Problem 420.
long, hath cruU being fiXi^d.Design the cidumn to carry an axial load
of 25 tonnes. Use Rankinc's formula and adopt a factor of safety of
5. The internal diameter may he taken as O'Su times the external
- *
diameter. Take F. '5 >00 kg icmf^ and
Solution. Let the external diameter be D em.

Internal diameter D cm.
Area of the section
= /!=- "j cm.-

4
.
=-0*0971; /)" cm.2
cmA
744 STR^GTH OF MATOUUS
K'^ cm. 2
U +d-
c/n.*
\6
I 64
D^cm.^
16
-0 1025 /)> cm.^
Safe load on the column 25 tonnes
Crippling load = safe load x factor of safety
=25 x5125 tonnes
Effective length of the column
400
'^L ^ /
=20u crn.
Applying Rankine's formula

FcA
l+ô
K-
5500 x 0 09nD'^
12500*!-
200 ^
I 1. *
X
^1600 OlOifD*
55C*0_x 0 09jt/)
1 25000 --
7)2 u
300x200
1606 x 0 io25
1555
i25000= 2)2.-243-9
1555 I>^= 125000 f)J- 30487500

J5^-80-40 i)- 19610
(Z)2 40-2)-(4U 2)2-1- 1%!0 21220
i)--40-? -=145 7
!)-= 185-9
/> 1363 cm. (say 14 cm.)

Internal diameter -^0-8 x 13 63 cm.
10' 904 cm. (say 1 1 cm.)
Problem 421. A hollow C.I. column whose outside diameter is

200 mm. has a thickness of 2o mm. It is 4' 5 metres long and is fixed
at both ends. Calculate the safe load by Rankine's formula using a
factor of scfeiy of 4. Calculate the slenderness ratio and the ratio of
Oder's and Rankine s critical loads. L4.M.IE.. Wmter 1979)
COLUMNS AND SIRVTS 745
Solution. Z)== Outer diameter^ 20 cm.
^==Inner diamcrerr.20 4=^ 16 cm.
Area
= J-(262-I6--!)^1]Vio cm*
Moment of inertia of section
^4 (204- 1'5'>) = 4637 4
Let A= radius of gyration

^37 =41
c/w.'
113!
V 41 =6'4() cm.
Effective length = =333 cm.

>25
Slenderness ratio = . = 35' 15
6 4
Rankines critical load
1
For cast iron. /c=5500 kg.lcm.^ and a =
1600
55(X)x n3'l
Pf = -'51098 kg.
1+ J. 225x 225
X
41
.^51098 .V7774-5
Safe load kg
4
Euler's critical load
X '40.000 X 4^37
Taking =910 ticm.-. /'. ==
225 x:y
--849770 kg.
Eiiler'.<i crilical load _849770_ .
Rankines critical load 351098
Problem 422. A I '5 metre long column has a circular cross

section of 5 cm. diameter. One end of the column is fixed in uirection
and position and the other end is free. Taking a tacior of safety of 3
calculate the safe load using
STRENGTH OF MATfiRUtS
0) jRafikwe'sformula : Takefe =^J600 kgfcm- ^
a = pinned ends
(a) Euler's formula : Young's modulus for CI~ r2x 10^ kg,lcmr
May 1976)
Solution, (i) By Rank ine's formula
d 5 cm. Effective length" 21
= 2x1 '5 -3 w=300cm.
(5)*= 19-635 cm2
^
_5x5_25
16 16
D- 5600 X 19-635
r = 297 1-78 kg.
, ,
_ 300 X 300
^1600 /25 \
2971-78
ao
Safe load- =990-59 A^.
(//) 5v Euler' s formula

P-ti
/.2
TE ^
^xi- 2 xl 06 x -4012 22 kg.
300X300 64
.*. Safe load=-^^-^~ 1337-4 kg.
Problem 423. A column 9 metres long has a cross-section shown

in Fig. 613, The column is pinned at both ends. If the column is
subjected to an axial load equal in value 1!4 of the Euler critical load
for the column, determine the factor of safety on the Rankine ultimate
stress value. Take Ff^3'26 tjcm Rankine' s constant '^
-=2000 tlcm.^
I ig. 613 Fig. 614

Properties, oj one R.SJ,

A rvu ^ 2' 05 cm .
^
^ 5945' I cm.^
hy-~-85'^ cm A
''
Thickne^ ^
of web - o 7 mm.
Solution. Properties tSc (\tmhmed rectum .
Area of the combined section

-.4 ^2 0Sx2r///
104 10 cmr
Moment of inertia about the va axis
/r. 594ri+857-S cm.^
^ fiKOO 6 cm.^
/ V > h.
I 68 ( 0*6
K-
2x5205 cm
-
A
^5 '4 ^
tAFJ
Euler critical load tStL
Ir
'< 2ihi0 y 6800 b
tonnes
9(M)x90()
~ 65 8 tonnes
1
Safe load . 16^ 8 41 45 tonnes

4
Crippling load as per Rankincs formula
ir
A2
1 26 X 104 I
,
I 900x000
^7500 65 34
20-^ 4 tonnes
Safe load ^4145 towels
Factor of safety on Rankincs ultimate stress value

7054 ,
41 45
Problem 424 A uniform bar of cross sectional area A and

flexural stiffness El is heated so that its temperature varies linearly
from I t at one end to t at the other end One end is pinned to a
rittid foundation ; the other end is pinpointed so that it can slide in the
direction of the length of the bar^ the thermal expansion of which is
748 STRERG1H OF MAIBUAU
resisted by a compression spring of stiffness k. If there is no load in
the spring when tÔ, obtain an expression for the stress in the bar when
it is heated and show that it buckles in flexure when
4v?U .EA\
-2// ,,EA\ ,
where a.= col fficient of linear thermal expansion.

Solution. Average temperature of the bar
Au
Free expansion of the bar - oitl
Let P be the force exerted on the bar by the spring

Decrease in length of bar due to this force
PI
ran
AE
Net expansion of the bar
3 - PI
4 AE
Decrease in axial length of spring
cssa
P
A'
But net expansion of the bar decrease in axial length of spring

3 . PI P
Stress in the bar
A I A
E A'
Corresponding to the buckling condition of the bar
AE^ K
11 ^- /
128 The straight line formula
It may be noted that Euhi's formula and kankines formula

are not exact compared with aciual results by experiments, due to
the following reasons :
(i) The effect of direct has been neglected in the

case of Euler*:: formula
(a) The loading is not e\ u: . jpplied as desired.
(ill) The pin-joints are n. i t r unically frictionless.
(iv) Absolute hxalion ol enn i> not pos^-ible.
(v) The members are not perfectly straight, uniform and
homogeneous.
The formulae therefore lead to results which are approximate
and may be taken to agree within 5 to 10 percent. Hence approxi-
mate empirical formulae are often used in practical designing. Some
of them are given below :
(i) Stress at critical load for structural steel
^ =3675-20 kg-icm:^
(U) Stress at critical load for cast iron
^238-6^ kg.jcmr
(Hi) Safe working stress for mild steel
IsOO r I 0-0038 ~^kg.fcm.-
Johnson ^ parabolic formula

Accordipir to Prof. Johnson the rtress at critical load is
given by
-
v; -^- for pin-jointed
( )
struts, where,
/, compressive yield stress,
;?*=a constant depending on the column

material and is
taken as ^ , where
E= Youngs Module
^129. Factor of safety
This is the ratio of the critical load to the safe load on the
column.
Where, otherwise mentioned, the factors of safety may be
taken as follows.
Column material Factor of

Safety
Timber
Wrotijht Iron, Mild steel

Medium steel
Cast Iron
130. Choice of a column formula

The suitability of a column formula will depend upon the
slenderness ratiof -j,, ]. The following table indicates the suitability
of column formula.
Slenderness Ratitf Range

Column formula
1
fought Iron Cost Iron,

or steel ! fimoer
1
Straight hre formula ! 0-140 0-140
Johnson^^ parabolic
'
U-lOO 0-60
lorMiu.a
i !
1
11
"
!
1
Rankinc's formula any value 1
any value
j
Euler's formula I1
over 90 over 50
j1
131. Formula given by the l.S. code for Mild steel
The direct stress in compression on the gross area of the section

of an axially loaded compression member shall not exceed the values
of Pc calculated as follows and given in the table below.
/v
Pc^P/ =
for between 0 and 160
where Pc the allowable average axial compression stress

Pc a value obtained from the above secant formula
/tr^the guaranteed miniinum yield stress
m=factor of safety taken as r68

_L =slenderness ratio
K
=modulus of Elasticity - 2,047,(K!0 kg, 'em.''
For values of = 1 60 and abo\ c.

A
p. -pA V
ri-
8("tA
^
)
/
wiicrc
Safe stresses in axial compression in accordance wjih the formula

suggested by ^lie l.S code are tabulated below for various values of
slenderness ratio.
SIcndt r>iey^ rat.o Svfi ' V in hi; i ni I

j
i) ]?MJ
'
0 1: u,
20 :2i <
30 !::i
40 j;(*t
50 172
60 :P0
70 07n
HO 1007 1
90
100 HÔ
1JO 7^ i
120 071
1
no 597
'
no 5K
i 150 474
i 160 423
\
170 377
IK) 366
190 3 (X)
:()0 270
210 243
220 219
2^0
i
1
199
240 1
181 1
250 166
300 109
350 76
752 STRWOTH OF MATBRIALS
Probleoi 425. Fif> 615 shows a compound stanchion made up of
two channels H^JC 200 weighh}^ l39 kg. per channel and two 250 mm,
X mm, plates riveted one to each W
Jiange, Calculate the safe load that
~r5C^
can be carried by the column The
"
/c7?' column is 6 metres long and both Us
I
i
in
, I
ends are fixed. Allow a factor of
'I
raf'^ty of 3' 5.
i i
W Properties of one channel are

-H- '
1(
) j
gh'cn below :
A -=17 77 cm.'^
Tr^J]6r2 cm,^
JL
fCfn -^84"2 cm,^
r ],j.j
Distance of centroid from hack of

hi:. ol5 web P97 cm,
i
'T'j'tl' /T, - - S' 1 ~ /inii rt .
Solution. Proper! ie^> of the ct^mposite section :
Area = /I^ 2[17'77 l 25 1] cm.-

- cni.'
/r*=2x Il6r2+ - f 25 1 X lO'S^) cm.*

2^
*
-2322'4+45l6-6=6839 cm
/vi/-2[ 84 2 4-17 7x6-972 .

cm*
J
= 4499 <w.^
*^499
T .
Least I-
A*-** cm.*^
H> 54
- 52*59 cm.-
EfTcctive length of the member = h- cm.
FcA
Crippling load /2
3-2x_85-^_
__ tonnes
1 3'>Ox30j)
^ ,
7500 ^ 52-59
222-9 tonnes
Crippling load
Safe axial load
Factor of safety
222-9
" tonnes
3-5
,637 tonnes-
il32. Colamn subjected to eccentric loadinc
(0 Rankine's method. Consider a short column subjected to an

eccentric load P. Let e be the eccentricity from the geometric axis.
Let A be the sectional area of the member.
/. Maximum compressive stress
P P.e
==p.=-j+ y-p.
P.e
+ AK^'
eye
]
PmamA
P=
Let /be the safe stress for the column material.

Safe load for the column at the eccentricity e is given by
/A
P= eVc
If the effect of buckling be also included, the safe eccentric !
fA
2
where L=eflFective length of the column.

(a) Eulers method
Consider a column AB of length
/ subjected to an eccentric load P at
eccentricity e. Let the top of the
column be free and the bottom of
the column be fixed. Let y be the
deflection at any section X
distant x
from the fixed end B. Let a be the
deflection at A.
The bending moment at toe

sîon X is given by,
El =P(a+e-v
dx^
(fiy _P P(a+e)
dx^ El El
The solutiafi to the abo/ e diffe*
leotial equation is given by ^ Hg.617
/ j
lumns and struts 755
y = Cl COS ;c ^-^+C8 sin yj

~ +(a+e) ... 0)
The slope at any section is given by,
cos X p
dx El El
dy
MB, x=0 and V'-O, and -f =0
dx
0=Ci+(a+e)
and
V El
C2*0 and Ci^<i4 e)
At A, and y=â
a={a+e) cos I a/-- +(+)

V El
a (a+^)^l cos /
(fl+c) cos a/ J^=c

V EI
a+e=e sec /-y/

P
EI
The maximum bending moment for the column occurs at and
js equal to P (a+e)
Max. B.M. M=Pestcl
EI
Hence the maximum compressive stress for the column section
at B
Pe sec /
P
V' EI
-i+
Ifboth ends of the column had been hinged, it can be shown
that the maximum bending momeut
Ai=Pe sec / ^
EI
For cases we will remember the above expressions and take
all
L as the effective length of the column.
Problem 426. A column of circular section made of cast iron
^0 cm. external diameter and 2 cm. thick is used as a column 4
metres long. Both ends of the column are fixed. The column carries
a load of 15 tonnes at an eccentricity of 2 5 cm. from the axis of the
column. Find the extreme stresses on the column section.
756 SIRENCIH OF MATERIau
Find also the maximum eccentricity in order there may be no

tension anywhere on the section. Take =940 tjcm^.
Sdotion. Area of the column
=^=-^(20*- 16*) cm 2
4
= 113- 1 cm.
Moment of inertia of the section about a diametei
= (204- 164) cm>
4637 cm 4
Section modulus
-=463-7 cm?
JKmaa 10
Effective length of the column

-2 metres==200 c /
MPe sec
Let us determine the angle ^
0 radian
V/ 94!ix.
=0 1 856 radian
= 10* -64 = 10* 38'
say 10 40'
Sec lO* 40' =10 17
M^lSx 2-5x1 017 t cm.
=38- 14 r cm.
Maximum compressive stress
15 .
38-14 . ,
1131 463-7
-0-2/3 r/cm.
^2I5kglcm*
columns and struts 3/
If tension is just to be avoided corresponding to the maximum

eccentricity.
A ~Z
P.e. sec -^
^ ^/ El
A
15 1 4XCX 1-017
1131 463-7
463-7
e
1131X1-017
Problem 427. ^ Fig, 618 shows a compound stanchion made up of
two channels ISJC 200 weighing 13 9 kg, per metre per channel and
two 250 mmx 10 mm
plates riveted one to each flange. If the maxi-
mum permissible compressive stress is 800 kg./cm,^ find, the maximum
eccentricity of a 40 t loai from the YY
axis of the column. The load
line lies in the vertical plane through the XX
a^s. Take E=^2xl(fl
ticrrfi, the effective length of the column being 3 metres.
SolatioD. Properties of the column section (sec problem 425)
Area of the section
85*54 cm.^
hv^4499 cm,^
Po -4o8 kg.jcm.
1 1
20 m.
w ctn~*
JC
A
h
IS
Fig. 618
==800 kg lcm.^
=800 468 - 332 ifcg /cm 2

^
/DO STRENGTH OF MATEIUau
Section modulus about the YY axis

Z.v=-^^-360
Max. B.M. =M^332x3&i kg. cm.
M =Pe sec ^
j
N El
-^=332 x 360 kg. cm.
Now, F
tJ: El
.,50j'. 40
.radian
10X4499
=03i60 radian
.18 r
sec -j sec 18*7'=r052

^ ^ El
. Max. B.M.
-P.e. sec -40,00nxexr052 =3j2x360

^ J
332X 360
40.0b0xr052
2' 84 cm,
133. Prof. Perrys formula
This is a formula which is found useful for cases where we

have to determine the safe load that can be applied on a column at a
given eccentricity.
Let L= effective length of the column.

/^maa)=" maximum permissible compressive stress
p
Po* stress due to direct load"* A
maximum compressive stress due to
bending moment
M __ My,
759
COLOUNS AND STRUTS
- Peye
sec
ir
2 j
N

P.
where P.=
L2
Pmam
P ,Pe Pc ^ \ W
-A-^ ~llp.
But
Pma~Po + j^sec ^
1
rJlA
According to Prof. Perry sec -j
J
Ip Tc
~
1*2
is approrimately equal to p^_p
n
Pi
- -P*
Let p
~p ~ l'2P. _ r2P.
sec
JL /
"pi
^P'
2 V pr~
. ePo 12P. 1
[
.
Pma 1^
ffi ax*==r i+ey, IIP, 1
Pi-pJ
^
/pma* ,
Vp. V KP^-Po
/P*
^
V ^
Pi )
( Pa )v
...(Prof. Perry .i formula)
ProUem
Problem 428. tor the column m
For me in probUm 427
of ^ J
m
load tha cm be applied at an eccentricity -
, bqq ./cm*
gl
is limited toS
The maximum permissible compressive stress
Take E=2xl(F tjcm^
52-59 cm*
SdiitioB' ^"1 ^4
u* F.I
Eularian load Pi= L*
itx2X^* x4499 tonnes
(300)*
=987 tonnes
m STKENOTH OF MATERUU
987
Pr- //cm.*
8554
= 11 53 //cm.*
Pmaa-iOO kg.cm.^tlcm.\
Applying Perrys formula

,0-8 . V .
Po \_l-2x 2x12-5
' >7* A '11-53 y 52-59
/ 0-j< - P\ ] 1Jt3 p_ 1 X 2 X 12'5

2
(153 ^52-59
V 7'u )
1-2x2x12-5x1^3po
(0 8-/)(ir53-/>=
52-59
Po^- 12-33 P<,+ 9-224=6-577 P,
P, >*-18-90 P+J-224=0
(Pu-9-45)*=-9-224+(9-45)*
(P.-9-45)*=80-08
P0-9-45--8-95
P<,=0-50 //cm,*
Safe load -P=Pov4 =0 50 x 85 54=42-77 tonnes
PFoUem 429 A strut of length I is encastered at its lower cm/;

.
that
itsupper end is elastically supported against lateral deflection so
the resisting force is A times the end deflection- Show that the crippling
load P is given by
tan al _ .
where * sss
a/ ^
Kl El
Solation. At any section distant x from the lower fixed end B,

the bending moment is given by
Elfj[=P{a-y)-Ka{l-x)
d^y, P Pa-Kajl-x)
dx^ Er El
. C
columns and struts 761
The solution to this differential equa-

tion is,
JP ^
P
cos X 1 (^2 Sin
^
I
Pa Ka{lx)
I rt

v=Ci cos ax+Ca sin ax
,Pa-Ka(l-xl
P
^ Cia sin ax+C2 a cos ax
dx
+ Ka J
x=0, >'= 0 ,
At
Pij- Kal
0=Ci + P
^ a{P-Kl)
^1
p
At X =*0, 4i.m)
dx
Ka
0 2*
r
Ka
C2==-
Px
At xh yâ
Ka
sit-" cos
>x
sin a/+fl
P
KA ' a(P- Kl)
cos a/
sin a/=
Pa P
tan/--(^p^')/*
Pa
tan a/ +a/
a:
ana/
t
= 1
_
A/
al
134. Column with initial curvature (axial loading)

of length / with ^th

Fig. 620 shows a column AB central
an initial curvature having a
pinned.^ The column has
deflection d ^ u
U1 at a disuocc a ftoa. the
analysis let us assume a sme curve tor
y. For purposes of
A
the initial profile of the centre line of the
column, so that
r.x
i a sin
/
t/v JTfl nx
j ~r cos -f-
dx 1 1
~'dx^ /-
1
When the loading on the column

reaches the critical value P, the column will
deflect to the form ACB^ so that the
x'
^1 V
//
.v changes
deflection at from y to y. This
happens due to the bending moment Py.
1 / /
dHy-"')
dx^ El ^
f o'
_ ^
dj^ El'''
~dx^ /
! I
Let the solution to the above dififerential equation be given by
y^Ca sm-^-
'Where C is a constant of integration.

dy ^ X nx
-^-C .
yCO.
J
l^x
and
J2 I
(fh .
Substituting the expressions for y and in equation (ii). we
'have.
Co , It .
sin +P
nx
,
,
Ca
,
sin
. TtX
-j sin /
P I
C ~EI /2
1 .
I
pft
1
-
n*EI P.
P.
C= P>-P
'
COLUMNS AND STRUTS
Henoe the equation to the deflected form of the column is

given by
Pe , . ViX
.(hi)
The deflection will be a maximum at the mid-section C.

Let a be the central deflection
/
At ^ = -2 .
>=
^ Fe-F^
Maximum
=B.M. at the mid section
=Fa
FF. ,
~F.-F
_ ,
_ P ,
M P ,
MVc
jP PP. , 3'r
A Pe-p" AK^
- aV^ F.-F K-^ J

r,. P' a>1
=P[ J
r P,. a'vc "]
= PL , ,
or rearranging,
r Pm,^ , If ,
P"! a^c
i-p.
$135. Laterally loaded struts
Case (/). Strut pinned ot both ends and subjected to an axial
thrustP and a transverse point load at the centre. W
ng. 621 shows the laterally loaded strut.

764 STRENGTH Or MATERIALS
Consider any section in AC distant x from the end A. The
A
bending moment at the section is given by,
EI-
dx 2
^y, P y'
Wx
El 2 El
The solution to the above differential equation is.
yCi cos x'^ +

El
Ci sin x\l ...(0

\ El IP
The slope at any section in /4C is given by.
V i"*V /
+
w ...(b)
7
El El 2P
At .v-0,7-0
Ci = 0
dy
At
2
dx
JV
El 2P
P
C2=
2P v?-^v-
V P V """
2 El
Hence the deflection at any section in AC, is given by,
1p~
7* 2 V El
Wx
sin X
VI,- 2P
The maximum deflection will occur at the centre,
J
At a:, y^ymaoi
>
p
v? sec
Wl
w p
El
V El 4P
yrnax--
w
2P Vp
/ w /
2
^
V El
^ Wl
4P
COLUMNS AND STRXJTS 765

Afrtio* Pymax w
2
w I
Ef tan
2 J-p 'rJ El
Wc know, the expansion.
When 6 is sma]].
+T
-^MiJ P El
+43 EM P S
/
J
-[EL+ EH p
L 48/
4 1 ,
Case (//) Strut pinned at both ends and subjected to an axial

thrust P and a lateral uniformly distributed load of intensity w per unit
run-
Fig. 622 shows the laterally loaded strut. Consider any section
distant x from the end A. The bending moment at the section is given
*>y.
= -i>_y +
P wj (lx)
:
EI^~ 2 El
solution to the above differential equation is,
The
r'F ^2 sin Ip
^
.
_v= Cl cos XjJ ;+C

,
X
^
wx{lx) _wEI
2P P*
766 SIRBNGIH OF MATERIALS
C2 /~ cos X ^
p
^ El j
El P 2P
At jf=0,
wEI
0=Ci- pi
wEI
Cl- pi
At L
2'
^l-o
dx~^
wEI p sm j
. 1
P^4ei 2
i p /
El
r, tan l-P.
-f ^ El
Substituting the values of Ci and C2 in the deflection equation,
we have
wEir > P
y -pi
cos X
[_'
tan sin x j
1
2 ^/ El *J El J
2P P-
Let .Ve be the deflection at the centre.
~ 1
>=>r
2
wEI r
p- L
cos
/
1
2 a/
/
'~p
Ip
1
+tan
~
1
/si El
sin -;r-
2 ^ H]
wl^ wEJ
8P pi
'
wEl\
sec-:;r
1 >
P 1
^ , I
w/
pi\ 8P
2 V /
,
J
Maximum bending moment which will occur at C is given by^

wt^
COLUMNS AND STRUrS
767
fA wP
wEl (
(
sec '2
a/ /- 0
%P ]
wE .
P
/
P 2 ^/ El ]
Wc know the expansion
sec 6 - +
1 -+,??l+'%.
When 0 is small,
5^4
sec6=l-f-- -f
I
A
= 14-
^
6^
-
5
2 24
- wE/fl, JL ^
>12 4 /
I* 2 -]
+ 245. 16 2/2 1
^_r)v/2 ^ wp 1
4. L 384 /^J
1 . A strut 3 metres long is 6 cm in diameter. One id of the
strut is while its other end is hinged.
fixed^ Allowing factor of
.safety of 3 find the safe compressive load. Use Eulers formula.
Take =2 x 10 kg jcmP {9303 kg.)
2. A mild tube 8 metres long, 3 cm internal diameter and
steel
4 mm. thick is used as a strut with both ends fixed. Find the
collapsing load by Eulers formul; Take =2 x 10 Ae./cvti.^. 1
{fill kg.)
3. A column of timber tiion 15 cm. X20 c/n. is 6 me/res
mng both ends being fixed. Finn the safe load for the column. Use
Eulers formula and allow a factor u*' safety of 3. Take 1 75 t/cm
^
{36 tonnes)
A
steel column consists of two channels ISLC, 350x388
Ag./m. per channel the clear spacing between them being 22 cm.
rind the crippling load for the column if it has an effective length of
10 metres. Take =
2 X 1 0^ tlcm.-
For one channel, 4 = 4147 cm.- Flange width = 10 cm.
overalldepth =35 cm.
/ = 93I2 2 cm.*
394-6 cm.*
Cvi/2'4i cm.
tv0'74 cm.
tf =V25 cm. {336-8 r)
768 strength of materials
5. An 1 section 300 /nwxlSO wm is piovided with aflange

plate 200 mm. x 1 2 mm. for each flange. The composite member is
used as a column with one end fixed and the other end hinged.
Calculate the length of the member for which the crippling load by
Rankines formula and Eulers formula will be the same.
Take =2100 r/cm.^, /c=3'3 tjem.^ and *

jjqq
{12 60 m)
6. A hollow circular column 2 metres long has one of its ends
fixed and the other end free and has to support an axial load of
50,000 kg. The internal diameter is 0 8 times the external diameter.
Allowing a factor of safety of 4 calculate the external diameter and
the thickness of metal. Use Rankines formula
Take /f =3300 kg.jcm.^ and
(/77 cm., 18 cm.)
7. A steel bar 2 cm. x 3 cm., 2 metres long is subjected to a

gradually increasing axial compressive load. Find the buckling load
using Eulers formula. Find also the maximum lateral deflection
corresponding to the buckling condition. Both ends of the rod may
be taken as hinged. Take '=2'1 xlO* kg.jcm.'^ and the yield stress
of steel=2400 kg./cm} {1036 kg. ;
4 3 cm.)
8. In a compression test on a short length of a tube of 6 cm.

external diameter and with thickness 0 5 cm. it failed at a load of
37 1. When the same is tested as a strut with both ends hinged,
2 metres long, it failed at a load ofl8r. Find the value of a in
Rankines formula.
ilOfiOo)
9. A strut 3 metres long with both ends hinged consists of
two equal angles lOOx lOOx 10 mm. the spacing between the angles
being 1 Find the safe compressive load for the strut allowing
cm.
a factor of safety of 4. Use Rankine's formula. Take /c=3200
kg.jcm.^ &nd Properties of one angle are given below
v4=19 03 cm.^
cm.* {13298 kg.)
10. Find the minimum value of the slenderness ratio of a

mild column for which Eulers formula
steel is valid. Take /f=3300
kg.lcm.^ and =2'1 x 10 kg.jcm.^ {79'27)
15
Riveted Joints
Rivets arc used to connect together permanently two or more

plates. Rivets are permanent fastenings. Rivets have their greatest
application in boiler work, connections of truss members at joints,
built up columns, plate-girders, etc.
Riveted joints are mainly of two types,
viz.. Lap joints and Butt joints. Two plates arc said to be
connected by a Lap jointwhen the connected ends of the plates
lie in parallel planes. In a butt joint the connected end of the plates
lie in same plane. The abutting ends of the
the plates arc covered by
one or two cover plates or strap plates.
BUTT WITH coveff rfhSf
r\ ns
^7
Fig. 623
Lap joints may be further classified into

single riveted, double
riveted, treble riveted, depending on whether one, two,
etc., joints
three, etc., rows of rivets are used for the connection. Very often
single and double riveted joints are used. Fig. 623 shows single and
double riveted lap joints.
Butt joints may be classified into single riveted, double riveted
and treble riveted butt joints depending upon whether one, two or
three rows of rivets are used on each side of the Joint.
769
STRENGTH OF MATERUU
1136. FsUon of a riveted joint

A riveted join* may fail in any of the following manners :
(0 By tearing of the plate between the rivet hole and the edge of
the plate.
Such a failure is due to insufficient margin. If </ be the dia-
meter of the rivet, then the effective margin, t.e., the distance between
the centre of the rivet and the nearest edge of the plate should be
It least 1 'Sd, in order a failure may not occur.
(a) By tearing of plates between rivets.

This failure is due to excessive tensile stress in the plates on the
section corresponding to the line of rivets. Let n be the pitch of
rivets. Consider one pitch length. Fig. 628.
uivBrmJoum m
r*- pr "
Fig. 626
The safe tensile load that the plates can withstand fo^ one
pitch length is called the tearing strength.
Lei /(==safe tensile stress in the plates,
and f=thickness of the plate.
Hence tearing strength per pitch length

j X net area of plate
- >(p-d)t
Fig, 627 Fig. 628
(ii7) Failure due to shearing of rivet
Fig. 629 shows a single riveted

lap joint. Consider one pitch length
of the rivet. When the load per
pitch length is large it is possible
that the rivet may shear oiF,
lf/*=safc shearing stress for
the rivet then the safe load per
pitch length to prevent failure
For the case cited above, only

one rivet covered by a pitch
is
length. If the joint liad been a
double-riveted joint, two rivets
would be covered inpitchone
length, and
for this case the
shearing strength per pitch length
4 Fig. 629
*
RIVtTED JOINTS
in nenninl. in a lap joinl if a ri,s a cowrf p piw, lt,
the shearing strength |)er pitch length would
be nx ^/,
fail by shea^. there i.

only
of a lap joint are said to be in sinjfc shear ^ "^***
The strength ofone rivet in shear is/, -
This is called the

shear value of one rivet.
But in a butt joint when a
rivet will
simultaneously
planes
fail by shear,
along two
fail
Hence rivets used in
it will
r~L- Qtip
h
such a joint are said to be in \ r
double shear. l ig
Safe load which a rivet can withstand in double shear
4
Strength of the joint per pitch length
where = number of riv ets covered per pitch length,

n- I for a single riveted butt joint.
n2 for a double riveted butt joint,
for a treble riveted butt joint.
(iv) Failure by bearing or crushing of rivet or plate.
Suppose in the lap joint shown,
the top plate is weaker than the
bottom plate.
top plate be pulled bear-

If the
iiip induced
stress is between the Vi
plate at A and the rivet. If these V.
stresses are high it is quite possible
that the plate or rivet may be crushed,
hig 631 shows a case in which the
top plate has failed due to excessive
bearing stress.
I f/ allowable bearing stress,

then for design purposes the s^c load
on the mtt-Pt)==fidt.
where if diameter of rivet

Fig. 631
and /thickness of plate
Pb is called the bearing value of the rivet.
774 mENQTH OP UATEMAIS
Hence safe load per pitch length of the joint
=B / dt, where n is the number of rivets covered per pitch
length.
1137. Efficiency of a joint
Consider one i^tch length of a joint.

Let Pt, and Ph be the
safe loads per pitch length from tearing, shearing and bearing con-
siderations. Let p bo the pitch of rivets and t the thickness of the
plate.
Safe pull on a solid plate for a length p would be P=fipt

least of Pt, P, and Pt
Efficiency=l=
138. Diameter of rivet
The diameter of rivet to .-it the thickness of a plate may be

determined from the following empirical f 'rmulae.
1. Unwins formnla
<f>dia. of rivet (mm.)
t -= thickness of plate (mm.)
d-6 05 V~r
t. The French forrouia
d - dia. of rivet (mm.)

r-^ thickness of plate (mm.)
not exceeding IS mm.
d = V5t+4
3 The German formula
(/-dia. of rivet (cm.)
t - thickness of plate (cm.)
d^V5t-0-2
Problem 430. Find the efficiencies of the following riveted
joints :
(i) Single rveted lap joint for 8 mm. thick plates with 16 mm.
diameter rivets at a pitch of 5 cm. centres.
(a) Double riveted lap joint for 8 mm. thick plates with 16 mm.
diameter rivets at a pitch of 7' 5 cm. centres.
For each case, take the finished diameter of rivets to be 15 5 mm.
Adopt the following working stresses :
Permissible tensile stre.vs in steel plates 1500 kg.jcm^.
Permissible bearing stress in rivets 1575 kg.jcm*.
Permissible shearing stress in rivets = 785 kg.Icnfi.
Solution. ( ) Single riveted lap joint for 8 mm. thick plates at a
pitch of 5 cm. centres.
RlVlTBD JOINTS
Fig. 632 shows the single riveted
lap joint.
Diameter of rivets
= 17'5 mm.
= r75 cm.
the
Consider one pitch length of
joint. .
Mumber of rivets covered per pitch
length =1
Rivets are in single shear.
(a) Tearing strength per pitch
length ^Pi={p-d)tft
(5 -1 75)0-8 X 1500
9min\ n
=3900 kg.
rnziJ 1
{b) Bearing strength per pitch
length ^ ,
Fig. 632
= 1 X 1575 X 1-75 x0-8 A:g.
-2205 kg.
'trength per îtch length

-
<= P.'*-1 x /, x -^
= lx785x-j(l-75)2Jkg.
= 1888 kg.
Least strength per pitch length
=1888 kg.
without any joint, the strength of

If the plate had been solid,
the solid plate would be,

P=p t ft
=JX0'1 X 1500 kg.
=6000 kg.
Le^tjtrragt^perjit^cqgt^ jQQ
efficiency of the joint = Strength of solid plate
1 888 .
nrfi/
-31-47%
rMedhploM for S vm. Mek phur a < plldr
7 Double
(, )
750 cm. centres.
776 STRENGTH OF MAT6RIAIS
Fig. 633 shows the double

riveted lap joint. Consider one
pitch length of the joint. Number
of rivets covered per pitch length=2.
Rivets are in single shear.
(a) Tearing strength per pitch

kngth
Pt{pd) tft
=(7-5- r75)0-8x 1500
-6900 kg.
(b) Bearing strength per pitch

length
=Pi.-2 (/ d/)
=2x(l575xr75x0-8)ytg.
=4410 kg
(c) Shearing strength per pitch
length
Fig. 633
=2X785X
j (V75)ng.
= 3776 kg.
Least strength =3776 kg.
Strength of solid plate
tfi
= 7-5x08x1500 kg.
=9000 kg.
Le^st strength
Efficiency
_37J6 j
.
,0/
"
9000
^ 41 95
-
%
Problem 431. A single riveted double cover butt joint in plates
14 mm. thick is made with 22 mm. diameter rivets at a pitch of 9
cms. If^ the allowable tensile, shear and bearing stresses are 1400
kg.lcm.-, bOO kg.lcm.^ and 1600 kg./cm.'^ respectively, find the safe
load per pitch length of the joint. Find also the efficiency of the Joint.
Solution. Since this is a butt joint with two cover plates, the
rivets are in double shear. Since the joint is single riveted, number
of rivets on one side of the joint, covered in one pitch length
equals 1.
Consider one pitch length of the joint.

5
riveted joints 777

Tearing strength tft
=(92-2) r4xI400jt^.
= 13330 *^.
Shearing strength
= lx2x800x^ (T2fkg.
= 6082 Kg.
Bearing strength ~Pt, - I X(fhdi)
= 1 X 1600 a22x r4
=4928 kg.
.'. Safe load per pitch length
=-4928 kg.
=P~ptft
=9x r4x 1400
= 17640 kg,
.'. Efficiency of the joint
_ Least strength of joint

~ ^
4928_
X 100
1/640
=27-94%
Problem 432 (SI). A singh- rh eted butt joint is used to connect
two plates 12 mm thick. The rivets arc 2") in mm
diameter and are
provided at a pitch of 10 cm. The permissible stresses in tension,
shear and bearing are ! 20 N j mm. 94 i\jmm.~ and 212'5 Njnwt^.
Find the efficiency.
Solution. Single riveted butt joint,
r - 12 mm.= 1 2 cm.
d25 mm.- 2' 5 cm.
/;=10 cm.
/, =94-5 AYmm.2 9450 Nfcm.-
/i,=2I2-5 Nlmm.^ ^2\25() Njcm-
/i = l20 NImm? 12000 Nicm.^
The rivets are in double shear.

Number of rivets covered per pitch length = 1

-
SrRENCTH OP MATERIAts
Shearing strength per pitch length
-A -11) 2/.^)
(
= Ix2 x 9450xtc: kg.
--=92775 Newton
Bearing, strength per pitch length
=P>=[l](i.<//)
= 1 ". 21250 V 2-5 X 12 kg.
63750 \ewton
Tearing strength per pitch length
^PtMp-d) tf.
- (10-2-5) r2x 1.2000 Newton
=108000 Newton
Safe load per pitch length
Newton
Safe loa d per pit c h leng th
Efficiency X100%
Ptfi
63750
!0X 1-2 <1200
>.'
100 %
=44-27%
ProUem 433 . Twoplates of 12 mm. thickness are to he con-
nected In a double riveted double cover butt joint using 18 mm.
diameter rivets at a pitch of S cms. if the ultimate tensile, shearing
and bearing stresses are 4600 kg.' cm?, 3200 kg.!cm.* and 6400
kg.lcm.* respectively, find the pull per pitch length at which the joint
will fail Find also the efficiency of the joint. (4 MIE, May 1974)
SolatioB. Since this a butt joint with two cover plates, the
is
rivets are in double shear. Further, since the joint is double riveted,
the number of rivets on one side of the joint covered in one pitch
length equals 2.
Consider one pitch length of tiie joint.
Tearing strength - Pt =(p ~ d) t ft
-(8- !-8)i 2x4600 Ag.

- 34.220 kg.
Shearing strength
-2x2x3200x k.g.
=32570 kg.
juveted joints
Bearing strength
^Po^2x(hdi)
-2x6400xr8xl-: kg.
=27650 kg.
The joint will fail at a pull of 27650 kg.
Ultimate strength of solid plate

m.p=ptft
=8X1-2 X 4600*:.?.
=44160 kg.
27650
EflTiciency > 100
)4160
=62-62%
Problem 434- ^ single riveted double aner butt jf'nt in a struc-
ture is used for connecting

two plates 12 mm. thick. The diameter of
rivet* is 24 mm. The permissible stre.vses are 1200 kg.jcm.^ in tension,
mo ke.lcm.* in shear and 2000 kg.jcm} in bearing.
(A MIL
Calculate the
May 1967)
nece 3 .tary pitch and the efficiency of the joint.
Sointion. Since this is a butt joint with two cover plates, the
rivets are in double shear.

Further, since the joint is single riveted,
number of rivets on one side of the joint covered per pitch length
equals 1.
Let the pitch length of the joint be p cm

Consider one pitch length of the joint-
Tearing strength
= Pt-ipd)tf!
-(p-2 4) r2,- 1200*?.
:..I440(p-2-4)*?
Shearing strength
2-^.n;/"
= Ps = lX^ .
)
7t X 2-4
= 1x2 X 1000 X 4
=9050 kg
Bearing strength
/>(,= ! x(h dt)
= 1x2000 x 24/1-2
= 5760*?.
Equating Ft to lesser of?* and Po,
1440 (p-2-4)=5760
^=6*4 cm.
,

=Ppt{t
=6-4x 1-2x1200
=9216 kg.
Sim
Efficiency ~ xlOO
9216
--62'5%
Problem 435. A
double riveted double cover butt joint is used
for connecting plates }'2 cm. thick. The diameter of the rivets is 2 2
cm. The permissible stresses are 1000 kg-jcm.^ in tension, 800 kg /cm.^
in shear and 1600 kg.jcm.^ in bearing. Draw a neat sketch of the
ioint and calculate the necessan pitch and the efficiency of the Joint.
{AMIE, November 1966)
SolotioB. Since the joint is a butt joint the rivets are in double
shear. Further, since the joint is double riveted, the number of rivets
on one side of the joint covered in one pitch length equals 2.
Let the pitch be p cm.
Tearing strength
=Pt{p d) f/t
=(p-2-2) 1-2 X 1000 Jfcg.
= 1200(p-2-2) kg.
Shearing strength
\
=/'.=2x
}
2 2
- 2 x 2 X 800 X n hg-
4
= 12160 itg.
Bearing strength
^Po--2 .-.h Jt
- 2 ,1600 a 2 2x1 2
= 8448 kg.
Equating Pi to the lesser of /* and Pi>,
1200(y;-2 2)=8448
p9'24cm.
say 9 25 cm.
=P=pift
=9 25 X 1-2 X 1000 ig.
= 11,100 *g.
riveted joints
_ XlOO
11,100
=761%
t\ '2 cm.
d=2'2 cm.
p=5 cm.
ft=4S00 kg.lcm.* ultimate
/.=3000 fcg./cm* tdtinuae
/t6000 kg.jcm.* ultimate
.
782 itntCliIGTa OF MAmULS

Single riveted lap joint.
The rivets are in single shear.
Number of rivets covered per pitch length =1

-/>.=[/.
"f
222
= ]x3000xnx
= 11404 frg.
Bearing strength per pitch length

=Pft=fl]/i. dt
x6000 x 22xr2
I
= 15840 A:g.
~Pt{pd) tft
=(5-22) 1-2x4500
=- 15120 itg.
Least strength per pitch length

= 11404 kg.
Least strength pe r pitch ~ XI00%
lengt h
Efficiency
Ptft
11404
xlOO
5x1-2x4500
%
-
^ 42 24
Problem 437. Find the efficiency of a double riveted two

strap butt joint, if the main plates are 20 mm. thick, diameter of rivet
is 22 mm. and rivet pitch is
8'4 cm. The safe stresses in tension,
bearing and shear are respcctivelv 800, 1400 and 600 kg./cm.^.
{AMIE, Winter 1976)
SoiotioB. Double riveted butt joint.
t=2 cm.
d2'2 cm.
p=--Z'4 cm.
/f=800 kg.jcm.*
/(.-= 1400*g./c/n.2
/i-600 kg-lcm.^
The rivets are in double shear.
Number of rivets covereJ per pitch length=2
2
gIVETED JOINTS 783
Shearing btrength per pitch length
=2 : : '.600 -KX ~f-

4
=9123 2 ix
Bearing f.trength per pitch kiigth
-A=[2] dt
= 2 '
1 400;: 2 <2
= 12320 kg.
Tearing strength per pitch !> ngth
= Pt=(p- d)tft
=(8 4 -2 2)2x800
= 9920 kg.
.'. Safe lead per pitch length
=9123 2 Ag.
Safe load per pitch length
Effic^'ncy
Strength of the solid plate per pitch length
0123 2
84. xlOO
2 X hOO
=<57'Aa'' ;
ProUem 438 Find the suit Me pitch for a riveted !ap Joint for
plates I cm. Vvrk if âfe worLin-.: .strcisn in tension in the plates and
crushing and '-M'-aring oj the rwe: material are respectively 1500
kg./cm.^, 2125 Lg.lcnu- and 9 ' kg. jcm.^ in the following types of
joints :
(/) Singi- riveted, and Double riveted.Find also the

ffficicncy of the ndnt in the abort r.-oci.e.'.. Take d]9\/ t.
{AM IE, Summer 1977)
Solution Diainc'er of rivc-r
r9v t r9\ i
- 1'9 cm. say 2 cm.
d) Sine! rheted lap Join Rivets are in single shear.
Number . rivets covered per pitch length^ 1.
Shearing t-ength per pitch length
2S
c= 1
945 X rt X
4
=29t'5!'8 kg.
w STRENGTH OF MATERUU

dt
= x2I25x2x
I 1
=4250 kg.
=(/-</) r/
=(p-2)lxl500
= 1500 (p- 2)
Equating the tearing strength to the lesser of bearing and
shearing strengths
I500(p-2)=2968 8
p=3'98 cm.
Generally pitch should not be less than
3d=3.^2
=6 cm.
Hence provide a pitch of 6 cm
tJiR VI least of Pt.Pb.Pi
- ...
Elnciency , x 100
pt ft
_ 2968 8
lOoy
6x1x 1500
00 Double riveted lap joint. Rivets are in single shear.
Number of rivets covered per pitch length =2.

Consider one pitch length of the joint
r.tP
=P.=[2J/,
4
rex 2
=2x945x
4
=5937-6 kg.
=F-[2]/e. Jt
=2x2125x2x1
=SS00 kg.
=P '^{p~~d) t ft
=(p-2)lxl500
=1500 (p-2)
s
RIVETED JOINTS 785

Equating the tearing strength to the lesser of bearing and
shearing strengths,
1500 (/)-2)=5937-6
p=5'96 cm. say 6 cm.
-MP7%.
139. Aviveted joints in
Strnctural steel work
A truss or bridge is
fabricated by connecting
a number of members. A
joint for connecting a
number of members is
made by riveting the mem-
bers to a common plate
called the gusset plate.
The members meeting

at the joint A for instance
may be connected as shown
in Fig. 635.
The number of rivets

required to connect a mem- a
bcr to the gusset plate Fig. 635
_ Force in the member

Strength of one rivet
The minimum number of rivets for the connection of a member
to a gusset plate is 2.
Problem 439 Four members OA, OB, OC and are to be OD

connected at a joint O* Details of the members and the loads carried
by them are shown in Fig 636. If the connection to the gusset plate be
made by 20 mm- diameter rivets find the number of rivets required to
connect each member. Thickness of the gusset plate is 8 mm. Sketch
the hint. Take f == 700 kg.lcm.^ and fb- 1400 kg jcm^.
Solution.
Member OA
Load in OA
=*12700 kg.
Rivets connecting
this member are in
double shear.
Rivet value in
double shear
Fig. 636
786 STREN01H OP MATBRiAUt
-2x700x-ix2*A:g.
=4000
Rivet value in bearing /d dt.
= 1400 x 2 xO8 kg.
2240 kg.
/. Number of rivets required
_12700_^
2240
= 6 rivets
Member OB
Rivets connectiag this member are also in double shear.
/. Number of rivets required
_ 1J330
2240
^ 7 rivets
Member OD .
Rivets connecting this member are in single shear.
Rivet yalue in single shear
=700x " x22

4
=2200 kg.
Rivet value ia bearing =/i>

= 1400 x 2 x 06 kg.
= 1680
Least rivet value 1680fcg.
Number of rivets required
26%
*"1680
This is less than 2. Hence let us provide two rivets.

Member OC
Rivets connecting this'^member are in single shear.
Nnmher of rivets required
3720
HlVGllfiD lOINTS 787
Fig. 637 shows details of the jointO.
Fig. 637
140. Chain riveting and diamond riveliig
In the case of bridge truss members it will become necessary

to provide a large number of rivets to connect a member to the
gusset plate. The strength of the joint Will depend upon the actual
arrangement of rivets. Suppose a flat plate is used as a member of
a truss. Let 9 rivets be required to transmit the load in the member
to the gusset plate. Let a butt joint be provided. Two arrangements
are possible as shown in Figs. 6.^8 and 6,^9,
In the arrangement shown in Fig. 638 the nine rr ets h? c been

arranged in three rows with three rivets in each row. This arrange*
ment is called chain riveting.
Chain rivetiog
Fig. 638
788 STRENGTH OF MATBRlAtB
The width of theflat needed to transmit the tension

must P
be determined such that the tensile stress on the weakest section does
not exceed the permissible stress/*. In the chain riveted
arran^ment
Diamond riveting
Fig. 639
shown in Fig. 638 the section is weakened by three rivet holes. Let d
be the diameter of rivet holes. The minimum width b of the plate
shall therefore be such that
P-=ib3d)tA
or *=
lo the diamond-riveted arrangement the nine rivets tiave been
arranged in four rows with one rivet in the first row, two rivets in the
second row, three rivets in the third row and three rivets in the fourth
row.
Suppose wc assume that the section 1 1 passing through the
hole is the weaTcest section.
first rivet The width of the flat plate
required is given by
or
The width of plate required in this arrangement is less than

what is required in chain riveting by 2d. This reduction in the
requiKment of widA of the flat plate is a considerable saving in the
SimBDXXNTS 789
cftseof lon|! members of bridges. Hence diamond riveting is usually

preferred to chain riveting.
Generally in diamond riveting the weakest section is the section

1 passing through one rivet hole of the first row. The successive
1
sections 22, 33 and 44 are stronger.

-If /(is the limiting tensile stress for the plate the pull required
to tear the plate at section 1 I
^Pi={b-d) tf,
If the plate section 22 must fail, the rivet in the first row
should also fail. Hence the pull required to tear the plate at the
section 22
=P2--ib2d)t ft -f strength of 1 rivet in the row 1.
Similarly if the 3 must fail, the rivets in the

plate section 3
and second rows should also fail, i.e., three rivets must fail.
first
Hence the pull required to tear the plate at section 33
-=Pi~{b-3d) r/(+strength of three rivets.
Similarly, the pull required to tear the plate at section 44

=Pi=ib3d) t fi + strength of six rivets
/
Comparing Pi. P and 2. /*3 4, we find generally Pi is the least
Hence in diamond riveting the section 1 I is generally the weakest
section. The efficiency of the joint==T)
^Pi _{b-d)tr, b- d
P~ btfi
"6
Problem 440. In a hridiê truss, a tie bar consists of aflat 24 cm
wide and 2 cm. thick and is connected t>a gusset plate of the same
thickness by a double cover butt joint with 2 cm. diameter rivets. If
the permissible stresses in tension, shear and bearing are 1400 kg-lcm.^
900kg.lcm.^ and 1800 kg.jcm'^ respectively, design the joint.
SolatioD. It is usual to adopt diamond grouping of rivets

(Fig. 640).
Rivet v:;]ue in double shear
=2 X 900x ^X2*
4
= 5660 kg
Rivet value in bearing
==/b dt
=1800x2x2
=7200 kg.
Lesser rivet value** 5660 kg.
790 nUENGTH at MA1ESIAU
Safe poll on the {date at section 11
ib-d) t
=-1400 {24-2)2*g.
=61600 kg.
Safe pull at the section 22
=Pi=Sj{b 2d) t+Strcngth of one rivet in
front of section
= 1400 (24- 4)2+ 5660 kg.
=61660 kg.
Safe pull at the section 33
=Ps~f* (6 3</) /+ Strength of three rivets in
front of the section
= 1400 (246)2+ 3 x 5660 kg.
=67380 kg.
Safe pull at section 44

/*4=/<(6-4<0 t+strcngth of six rivets in
front of the section .
-1400 (24-8)2+ 6 x 5660 kg.
=78760 kg.
Hence ne find that the sectionscloser to the joint are stronger

than those away from it. The weakest
section is therefore 1 1 and
the maxinr-um fu<l that can be applied is 61600 kg.
Minimum number of rivets required on each side of the joint
~ P
lesser rivet value
61600
,*
5660
Let us provide 14 rivets on each side of the joint

KIVETCD joints 791
141. Eccentric riTeted connections
lo the discussions we had so far, the resistance offcrcu by a

rivet was
entirely to prevent a linear or translatory displacement of
the plate or member connected.
The are some circumstances in which the rivets (ised for a

connection have to offer not only resistances to prevent translatory
dispalcements but also resistances to prevent rotary displacements. A
bracket connection is one example of this type of connection. Fig. 64!
shows an eccentric riveted connection for a bracket. It consists of
two bracket plates riveted to the flanges of a rolled steel ccltinin. If
IV.
a load fVhe applied to the bracket, a load of is transferred
to each bracket plate. The line of action of the load P on a bracket

plate does not pass through the centroid of the rivet group.
The perpendicular distance between the line of action of the

load P on the bracket plate and the centroid of the rivet group is
called the eccentricity.
it/
m MKENOTH OF MATBRIAU
The rivets connecting the bracket plate and the flange of the
oolomn have to offer the following resistances.
(0 Resistance against translation
This resistance is assumed to be uniform for

all the rivets.
If P be the load on the bracket plate, resis-
tance against translation per rivet
n
where n= number of rivets on
one bracket plate.
(//) Resistance against rotation
The load beihg eccentric, there is a tendency
for the bracket plate to rotate about G the
centroid of the rivet group. The rivets therefore
have to offer a resistance to prevent such a rotation.
Such a resistance offered by a livet is called the Hr. 642
torsional shear in the rivet.
It will be assumed that the torsional shear in any rivet is
directly proportional to the distance of the rivet from the centroid
of the rivet group.
Let S be the
torsional shear in a rivet
distant r from
the centroid of the rivet
group. The direction of the resistance S is
at right angles to the line joining and the G
rivet.
Hence S=K r where is a constant.

Hence the resisting moment offered
by the against the rotation
rivet of the
bracket plate is Sr== Kr^.
Total resisting moment offered by
all the rivets
-S Kr*
-K.
But the external moment applied P.e.
K'S.r^^F.e
Pis. 643
If (jc, y) be the coordinates of rivet distant r from G,

Jic*+y*=.r*
\
riveted jo.nts 793
Now consider the rivet A (Fig. 644) which is most distant

from 0 Torsional shear in the rivet
~ Sa~ Kra
P
Resistance against translation
n
These resistances are shown in Fig. 644.
The greate.st resistance offered by the ri\'et is the

resultant of the above two resistances offered by the
rivet A.
For the design to be safe, this resultant resistant
must be less than the ksser rivet value.
The resultant resistance may be calculated
follows.
Total vertical component on the met 1

-=r-- S', sin I'
Total Horizontal component on rivet i
cos
Resultant resistance ===/?= \/ F- /7^
an
Problem 441. A line shaft transmits a load of 2500 k^. at
of 50 cms. across a bracket plate meted
to^ a stanchion^
eccentricity
row.
Two rows of rivets 10 cms. apart arc providid w^tli li\t' riyts per
force itiducca
The pitch of rivets in each row is 6 cm I'lnd the ^reate^t
in any rivet.
SoiotiOD. Resistance againJ>t translation per rivet
P
n
2^00
- ,
1.1
=250 kg.
from the centroid O' of

Torsional shear m any rivet distant r
rivet group
= Kr
where ifrt)-
In our case,
2jj2+2/=10 (5y-+4( 12)2+4(6) cm.
-970 cm.
794 STKENGTH OF MATERIALS
Fig. 645
2500 X 50 '
970
= 129
Now consider the rivet A distant ra from G.
Torsional shear on the rivet ASa= Krt* 129 ra
Sa acts normal to the line GA.

Total vertical component on the rivet A
= F=
n
+Sosin e
=250+129 To sin 6 kg.

=250+ 129 X 5
=895 kg.
Total horizontal component on the rivet A

=H=S, cos 0
= 129 ra cos 0 kg.
= 129X12 kg.
=1548 kg.
Resultant force on the rivet A
=R=y/ vmi^
n/8958+1548**:!?.
= 1787 kg
PktoMen 442. A load of 15000 kg. is applied to a bracket plate
at an eccentricity of 30 cms. Sixteen rivets of 2 cm. diameter care
amaggJ in two rows with eight rivets per row. The rows are 20 cm.
apart. The pitch of rivets in each vertical row is 8 cm. If the permissi-
Jbk stresses in shear and bearing be 800 kg.jcm.* and Id00kg.lcm.*
SIVETED JOINTS 795
respectively, investigate the safety of the connection. The bracket plate

in 1'25 cm. thick.
SotatiOB. Resistance against translation per rivet
-
P

15000
16
.
**
=.937*5 kg.
Torsional shear in any rivet distant r from the centroid 0 of
the rivet group is given by
S^Kr
P.e
.
where A
In our case, 2jc2+23i2=i6(io)2+4(28)*+4(20)2-l-4(l2)-*

+4(4)'* cm.~69i6 cm.^
15000 x 30
-64*51
6976
Now consider the rivet A
Torsional shear on the rivet A
.5 Kra
=64*51 r
79fi STRENOTH OF MATEKIAIS
S.. acts normal to the line joining G and the rivet A.

Total vertical component on the rivet A
= K= ^+Sasm0
=937 3+64 51 r sin 0 kg.
= 937-5+64-51Xl0 kg.
= 1582-6 kg.
Total horizontal component or. the rivet A
H=S28 kg.
= 1806*3 kg.
.'. Resultant force on the rivi t A
R --V K-+//-
-\/ 1582 6-4 1806-3- ky
- 24V 2 kg.
The rivets are in single shear.
Rivet value in single shear

_r nd-
--
80()v' " 2- kg.
-2514 kg.
Rivet value in bearing ,f dt
= loOO X 2 1-25 kg =4000 kg.
Lesser rivet value 2514

Since the maximum force on the rivet. I is less than the lesser
rivet value, the design is safe.
ExftBDples in Chapter 15
1 . A
single riveted lap joint is provided to connect 10 mm,
plates with 20 mm. rivets at a pitch of 80 mm. State how the joint
will fail* Calculate also the elliciency of the joint. Takc/ 800
kg,lcm?^ 1600 kg.lcm.^ and fi 12r0 kgdenr.
(By shearing of rivets ; 26* 2%)
2. A double lap joint is provided to connect 8 mm.

riveted
plates with 16 mm. a pitch of 6 cm. Calculate the stren^h of
rivets at ,
the joint per pitch length. Find also the efficiency of the joint.
Take f 8(X) 161 0 kg.jcmr and /i 1200 kg.lcm^. =
(3216 kg. 73.3%)
riveted joints 797
3. A riveted double cvner butt joint in plates 12 mm.

single
thick is made
with 20 mm. diameicr rr. els ai a puch of 9 an.
Find the safe load per pitch length of me jomt. Find also the
efficiency of the joint. Take / = 800 /?> -- 160;) A e./evn - and
fi^lAOO kg./enr. (5024 A<.,^ 33-2*;/) ;
4. Tvvv) plates of 10 mm.

thickness are to be connected in a
double riveted double cover butt joint with 2J mm. îvcl^ ai a pilch
of 7 5 a;/. If the ultimate tensile, shearing and bearing ^tresses are
4600 kglcm'^, 3 00 kg.jcm and 6400 kg. I cm - respcciively, find the
pull per pitch length at which the joint will fai! f ind also the effi-
ciency of the joint. kg 73 3%) ;
5. A single riveted butt joint is to be provided for connecting

two plates 10 mm. thick with 20 mm. diameter rivets. Calculate the
necessary pitch and the efficiency oflhc joint. Takef^^lOOd Aîf./cm 2,
fh 2000 kg.jcmT^ diwdft - 200 kg j cm- 1 (p^S3 cm 62*3%) ;
6. A
double riveted double cover butt joint is to be provided
for connecting JO mm. thick plates with 20 mm. diameter rivets.
C alculate the nece'^sary piicii and the efficiency of the joint. Take
/-j 1 600 kg /cni.'^, f'i == 60o ki:. 'em - and f 200 kg / cm^.
1 / 1
(pÎ(r4 cm; 82^4%)

1. A bridge diagornd consists of a flat of thickness 20 mm. and
has to transmit a tension of 45W>0 kg. to a gusset plate by a double
co\er butt joint, using 20 m/n. rivets. Find the number of rivets
required with diamond ri veting. Find also the width of flat required.
Also calculate for the arrangement suggested, the actual stresses in
shear and bearing. The permissible stresses arc 1200 kg./cm.^ in
rmsion, 1(00 kg in shear and 2000 kg jem - in bearing.
(27 cm ; 9 rivets on each side for a
convenient arrangement 796 kg.jcm.^ ; 1250 kg.lcmr'S
;
8. A verticalload of 2i is 2i
applied to abracket pine at an
eccenrricii> of Jo an. as >h<)\vn in
f'lg 647.
rind t!ic inaxinum resistance
olfered by any rivet
(j.m
9. A structural member is connected to a gusset plate by a lap

joint by five rivets of 20 mm. diameter as shown in Fig. 648. The
798 SRENOTROPUATBRUU
member has to transmit a oflOr and a clockwise momeat of

pttil
30 tan. Find the greatest shear stress produced in any rivet

(103
Fig. 648
10. A vertical load applied to a bracket plate at an

of 1 2 t is
eccentricity of 25 ctr. Two vertical rows of rivets are provided

12 cm.
apart. The spacing of rivets in each vertical row is 10 cm The

rivets arc 20 mm. diameter. Investigate the .safety of the design.
Permissible shear strcss=945 kg.lcm^. Permissible bearing strps
2125 kg.lcm~. Strength of be calculated on the basis of

rivets shall
finished diameter which shall be taken as I '5 mm.-in excess of the
nominal diameter. Thickness of bracket plate 10 mm.

(Lesser rivet valuc=54i<rjtg.
Max. load on any mtt-2402 kg.
The design is safe)
11. A heavy riveted bracket connection has to resist a girder
reaction of 70r. at an eccentricity of 50
cm. This load is transmitted
to the two bracket plates. Four rows of

20 mm. diameter rivets are
provided in each bracket plate of 12 mm
thickness. Each row
contdns 10 rivets. The rivets in each row are provided at a pitch of

8 cm. The distance between consecutive vertical rows is 6 cm.
Find
the iMximum load an any rivet. Also investigate the safety of the
The strength of rivets shall be based on a finished diameter ot

design.
2r5wm. TAcfi-9iSkg.lcm.\fb=2\25 kglcm^)
( Lesser rivet value = 3430 kg.
Max. load an any rivet =24{?2 kg.
.'. Design is safe)
16
Welded Connections
142. The welding process
Welding is a process of connecting metal parts by fusion. Arc

welding and oxy-acetylcne welding are the two usual methods
adopted. Molten or fused metal is deposited between the metal
parts which arc to be connected. The metal parts are also fused
to a specified depth. When the deposited fused metal is cooled, the
metal parts get joined by the new The ends of metal parts
metal.
to be connected and the tip of the weld rod arc fused by arc which
causes a high temperature of about 3300''C. In the oxy-acetylcne
method a jet of burning oxygen and ac^ylene is used as a source of
heat The weld rod has a coating which also melts during the
welding process and forms a shield preventing combination of the
heated metal with the freely available oxygen and nitrogen of the
atmosphere.
143. Advantages of welded connection

Since the process dues nor involve driving holes, the gross
(i)
sectional area of the welding member is eifective. In the case of

riveted tension member deductions have to be made for the area lost
due to punching holes.
() Welded structures are comparatively lighter than cones'

ponding riveted structures.
(/) A
welded joint has a great strength. Often a welded joint
has the strength of the parent metal ilvelf.
(tv)Repairs and further new connections can be done more
easily than in riveting.
(v) Welded joints p.-ovide rigidity. Hence welded members, for
the same loading, are subjected to smaller bending moments than
corresponding riveted members.
(vi) Often welded joints arc economical to riveted joints. For
a welded structure maintenance and painting costs are less than for
the riveted structure.
(rif) Members of such shapes that afford difficulty for riveting
can be more easily welded.
(via) A
welded structure has a better finish and appeuanoe than
the corresponding riveted structure.
799
800 STKENGTH OP MATERIMJ5
Ux', Connecting angles, gusset plates, splicing plates can be

miniinizcd arti in marty cases, can be avoided in welded structures
C\) Steel bars in reinforced concrete structures may be welded

easily, i apping if bars may be avoided if welding is resorted to.
(.\i) U is possible to weld at any point at any part of a struc-
ture. But riveting will always require enough clearance,
(xfi) The process of welding takes less time than riveting.
(xiii) The process of welding does not involve great noise com-
pared to the noise produced in the riveting process.
144. Disadvantages of welded connection

(i) Welding requires skilled labour and supervision.
Testing a weld joint is difficult. An X-ray examination
(il)
alone can enable us to study the quality of the connection.
(Hi) Due to uneven heating and cooling the welded members
arc likely to get warped at the welded surfaces.
(/v) Internal stresses in the welded zones are likely to be set up.
145. Types of Welds

Welds may be classified into two main types namely fillet- weld
and butt-weld.
Fillet weld. This type of weld is used when the members to
be connected overlap each other. Fig. 649 shows a fillet weld. The
section of the fillet
weld for design pur-

poses will be taken as
an isosceles right-
angled triangle. The
length of either of
the equal sides of the
triangle is called the
size of the weld. The
perpendicular distance Fig.. 64V
between the hypo-

tenuse of ibc triangle and the opposite apex is called the throat
thickness. If i be the throat thickness and s be the size of the
fillet weld,
f= 0*707 5 . say 0 75.
If / be the length of a weld and t

the throat thickness, the product It will
be regarded as the effective or resisting
area resisting shear.
Safe load on a weld
Length of weld x throat thickness
X permissible
Fig. 650 shear stress in weld.
The permissible shear stress is usually taken as 1025 kg.Icnfi.

Butt weld. This type of weld is used when the raembere to
be connected butt each other.
The following types of butt welds are in practice :
(i) Single V-butt weld.
ReiNFORCEMENT Rg- 651 shows this type of

_ J
Tiie effective throat
inicKuess is taken as the
thickness of the thinner part.
The ptrrfiissiblc stresses for
this type of weld are 1420
kg in axial tensiop or
compression,
r 1575 kg.lcm."^ in bending
{_\025 kg Icm^ in shear
(iV) Double V-butt Weld.

Fig. 652 shows this type of butt
weld.
(in) Single V-butt weld.

(Fig 65 i;
Fig. 653
(/v) bhuiJc U-^buti weld*

(Fig, 654)
Fig. 654
Abstract of IS Specifications l/S 816]

146. Minimum sizes of weld
The LS. code has recommended the following :
Thickness of fhinm r r^rt Minimum size
Up-to and including 9*5 mm. 3 mm,
Over 9*5 mm., up to and inciuJmg 19 mm, 5 mm,
Over 19 mm., up to and inc.idirig 32 mm. 6 mm,

i
Over 32 mm. a mm.

9*5 mm. minus minimum
size of fillet
il47. Eflcctiw leagA

Tbs
effective length of a fillet weld shall be taken as that
length (miy which is of &e specified size and required thickness. For
practical purposes, the effective length may ^
taken as the actual
length minus twice the weld size.
.1148. Mini Iragth
The effective length of a
fillet weld designed to transmit load-
ing shall not be less than four times the size of weld.
1149. Fillet wdd applied to the edge of a part
When a fillet weld is

applied to the square edge of
a part, the specified size of the
weld should generally be at
least rs mm. less than the edge
thickness.
Fig. 655.
{ISO. Angle between fosion faces

welds should not be used for connecting parts whose
Fillrt
form an angle more than 120' or less than 60* unless
fiision faces
such welds are demonstrated by practical tests to develop the
ttnngth required.
151. Ihroat thickness
For the purpose of stress calculation the effective
Fillet weld.
throat thickness of a fillet weld should be taken as Kx
fillet size,
where is a constant. The value of K
for different angles between
ftuion faces shall be as in the following table :
CoH^kte penetration butt weld. The effective throat thick-

(a)
nett of a conqdete penetration butt weld shall be taken as the
m
thid ess of the thinner part joined.
(b) Incarnate penetration or unsealed single but welds. The
cfictive throat thidcness of an incomplete penetration butt weld
shnB be taken as the minimum thickness of the weld metal common
to ttn puts joined ezdoduig leinforoement.
WELDED CONNECTIONS 803
Unsedlcd single butt of V and U and incomplete butt welds

welded from one si<^ only, should have a throat thickness of atleast
thickness of the thinner pcrts joined. If required, evidence
^ of the
should be produced by the fabricator to show that the effective
throat thickness has been obtained. For the purpose of stress
calculation, a reduced effective throat thickness not exceeding
| of
the thickness of the thinner part joined should be used.
Note. (/) Ap incomplete penetration butt weld means a butt weld in
which the weld metal is intentionally not deposited through the full thickness
of the joint.
(//) The nature of evidence to be produced by the fabricator to ensure
the necessary effective thickness should be decided by agreement between the
designer/purchaser and the fabricator, and may, for example, comprise ;
Tests carried o'U .before welding to show that the welding procedure
(fl)
is capable of providing the required penetration, and inspection during welding

to establish that the correct procedure has been followed.
made as continuations of the seams during welding and
(b) Test pieces ;
Examination, after welding, by radiographic or other suitable non-

(c)
destructive methods.
The unwelded portion in incomplete penetration butt welds,

welded from both sides, shall not be greater than J of the thickness
of the thinner part joined and should be central on the depth of the
weld. For the purpose of stress calculation a reduced effective
throat thickness not exceeding I of the thickness of the thinner part
joined should be used.
152. Intermittent Fillet welds
Intermittent fillet welds may be used to transfer calculated
stress across a joint when the strength required is less fhan that
developed by a continuous fillet weld of the smallest allowable size
for the thickness of the parts joined. Any section of intermittent
fillet welding shall have an effective length of not less than four
times the weld size with a minimum of 38 mm.

The clear spacing between the effective lengths of intermittent
welds carrying ceJcuIated stresses shall not exceed the following
fillet
number of times the thickness of the thinner part joined and shall
in no case be more than 30 cm.
16 times for compression members

24 times for tension members.
Longitudinal fillet welds at the ends of built up members shall
have an effective length o^ not less than the width of the component
part joined unless end transverse welds are used, in which case, the
sum of the end longitudinal and end transverse welds shall be not
less than twice the width of the component part.
Chain intermittent welding is to be preferred to staggered

intermittent welding. Where staggered intermittent welding is used,
the ends of the component parts shall be 'Med on both sides
In a line of intermittent fillet welds, t&e welding should extend
to the ends of parts connected ; for welds staggered about two
804 STRENGTH OF MATERIa^^
edges, this applies generally to both edges, but need not apply to
subsidiary fittings or components such as intermediate web stifieners
153* Lap joints
The
overlap of parts at stress carrying lap joints shall be not
less than five times the thickness of the thinner part unless lateral
deflection of parts is prevented, they shall be connected by at least
two transverse lines of fillet, plug or slot welds or by two or more
longitudinal fillet or slot joints.
If the longitudinal fillet welds are used alone in end connec-

tions, the length of cacli fillet weld shall be not less than the per-
pendicular distance between them. The transverse spacing of longi
tudinal fillet welds used in end connections shall not exceed J6 limei)
the thickness of the thinner part connected, unless end transverse
welds or intermediate plug or slot welds are used to prevent butting ^
or separation of the parts.
154. Fillet welds in slots or holes
Where fillet welds are used in slots or holes through one or

more of the parts being joined, the dimensions of the slot or hole
should comply with the following limits in terms of the thickness of
the part in which the slot or hole is formed.
() The width or diameter should be not less than 3 times the

thickness.
() Corners at the enclosed ends of slots should be rounded

with a radius not less than 1*5 limes the thickness.
and (c) The distance between the edge of the part and the edge of
the slot or hole, or between adjacent slots or holes should
be not less than twice the thickness. ^
When slot or a hole, in a plate or other part,
welding inside a
in order to join the to an underlying part, fillet welding may
same
be used along the wall or walls of the slot or the hole, but the latter
shall not be filled with weld metal or partially filled in such a manner
as to form a direct weld metal connection between opposite walls,
except that fillet welds along opposite walls may overlap each other
for a distance of ith of their size.
155. End returns
Fillet welds terminating at the ends or sides of members should,

whenever practicable, be returned continuously around the corners
for distances not less than twice the size of the weld. This provision
should in particular apply to side and top fillet welds in tension
which connect brackets, beam sealings and similar parts.
SlSi. Bending about a single fillet ^
A tingle fillet weld should not be subjected to a bending

monMNH fikMt the longitttdtnal axis of the fillet.
:
WBIDED CONNECTIONS g05

157. Permissible stresses in welds
Welded joints st ..ii be proportioned so that the stress therein

shall not exceed the values given in the following table.
Kind of Stress Permissible stress {kg. I cm,*)
u) Axial tensile stress on throat section of WA)

butt vêld
(//) Axial compressive stress on throat 1420

'
section of butt weld
{in) Maxiimim berdin^^ stress 1575
iiv) Maximum shear stress 1025
Stress in fillet welds shall be considerd as shear on throat for

any direction of the applied load. Welds in plugs and slots shall
not be considered as having any value in resistance to stress other
than shear.
158. Combined stresses in welds
Fillet wehls. When

the fillet ^n a connection are
su-bjected to tension or compression bear'inp, forces, cernbined with
a direct shear force, the maximum resuhaot stres> may be calculated
as the vector sura and should not exceed permissible shear stress
of 1025 kg.lcm^,
Butt welds. In butt welds subjected to tensile or compressive
^
^stress (axial and/or bending) in combination with direct .^hcar stress,^
the weld shall be so proportioned that the quantity
shall not exceed unity.

y j
where.
P=Actual shear stress in the weld

Permissible shear stress in the weld
Actual tensile or compressive stress in the weld
Permissible tensile or compressive stress in the weld.
Problem 443. A tic bar 100 mm. X 16 mm. thick is to be

welded another plate as shown in Fig. 657,
to Find the minimum
overlap required if 8 mm. fillet weids are used. Adopt the following
forking stresses
Tensile stress in plates^ 1500 kg.jcm.^
Shear stress in weld=^ 1025 kg Icm.^

806 STRBNOrrH OF MATERIALS
SkrintioB. Maxi [ , -
mum tension in the

tie bar K mm.
= 10X1'6X1500 1
kg. 1 1 ^ ilia*
=24,000 kg.
Total length of
weld
=2x 10+2x cm.
-(20+2*) cm.
Throat thickness Fig. 657
=r=07X8ize of weld
0*7x0'8 cm.
=0'56 cm.
Effective area of weld
=0-56 (20+2*) cm.2
Total resistance of the weld
Efiective area provided by weld x per-
missible shear stress
=0-56(20+ 2*) 1025 kg.
=574 (20+2*) kg.
Equating the resistaPiCe of the weld to the load on the tie bar,
we have,
574 (20+2*) -24000 kg.

20+2*=4r81
*=70*905 cm. say 11 cm.
Problem 444. Find the minimum Jap length required for the
faintshown in Fig. 658 if 6 mm. fillet welds are used. Permissible
shear stress in the weld may be taken as 1025 kg.fcm^.
wammm
f"
f
1
/v|
\
1 ^x cm*j
D *i2.5ooig.
7ôkg.
Fig. 6S8
WELDED CONNECTIONS 807
Solatioo. Let the loigtb of lap required be x em.
Total length of the weld
=2x+2x
4xcm.
Resistance of weld =0'7 x 0'6 x 4x X 1025 kg.
^1722 X kg.
Equating the resistance of the weld to the load on the joint,
we have.
I722x=25000 kg-
25U00
*'1722 cm.
1425 cm. say 15 cm.
Problem 445. A welded joint is to be provided to comeet two
bars 150 mm. x 10 mm. The workbtg stress in the tie bar If
tie
1500 kg-jcm*. Investigate the design if the size o/ the fillet welds be S
mm. Safe stress for the weld may be taken as 1025 kg lenfi.
Fja.S9
Solution. Safe load in the tie bar
:lSxlMl500fcg.
=22500 jfcg.
Total length of weld=2x5+4v' 5*-F8* cm.

=4774 cm.
Strength of weld -0 7 XO S X47 74x 1025 kg.
=^27400 kg.
Since the strength of the weld is greater than even theiiinzi>
mum tension in tte tie bars the design is safe.
Problem 446. A 150 mm. x 115 mm. X mm. omgfe ctar;^ a
tensile had of 20000 kg. is to be connected to a gusset plate by 6
fillet welds at the extremities of the longer kg as fhow in
Fig. ow.
Design the joint allowing a shear stress of 1025 kg.lcm. in the welds.
808 STRENGTH OF MATERULS
Solotlwi. Let
the length of weld at
the top extremity be
XI cm.
Let the length

of weld at the bottom
extremity be xs cm.
Distance of
longitudinal centroi-
dal axis of angle from pig. 660
the top edge 446 cm.
Safe load on weld per cm. length
=0 7 X 06 X 1025 fcg. per cm.
=430 5 kg. per cm.
Equating the total resistance of the weld to the tension in the
member, we have.
430-5(xi+jr2)=20,0{)0
xi-f X2-=4346 cm. ...(/)
Taking moments about the upper weld line,
430-5x2 X 1 5=20,000 X 4 46
X2>=i382 rm.
xi=46-46-13-S2
==32'64 cm. Lei us provide xi =35 cm. and X214 cm.
Problem 447 A
. circular plate I.'' cm diameter is welded to
gmmer I* -ts cm-
k
tvELDBD CX)NNECTIONS g09
another plate by means of 6 mm, fillet weld* Calculate the greatest

twisting moment that can be resisted by the weld if the permissible
shearing stress in the weld is 1025 kgfcm^.
Solation. Safe load that can be resisted per cm, length of
weld
=0*7 X 06 X 1025 kg, per cm,
430 5 kg, per cm. ungrh of wcU.
Greatest twisting moment
430 5 X X 1 5 X k if coi,
] 52^200 kg, cm.

Problem 448. Design a lap joint for connecting two plates oj
sizes 15 cm, x1 cm, and 20 cm x / cm. allowing a .safe shear stress
of 1025 kgjcm^, in the weld. Permissible tensile stress in the

plate--- 1500 kg.Icnr,
662
Solution. We will design the joint for maximum strength

of the smaller plate.
Maximum strength of the smaller plate

15x1/ 1500 /vg.
22500 Ag.
Let 8 . m, welds be used.
Strength of weld per cm. length
=r 0*7 X0 8 X I X 1025 kg. per cm,
= 574 kg. per cm, of weld lennth.

810 STRKNOTH OP MATERUU
Total length of weld required

22500
cm.
574
=3920 cm.
Providing the weld at the end of the tie and at the sides
symmetrically, length of weld at each side
(39-20 -15)
= 121 cm. say 12' 5 cm.
Problem 449. A tie bar 100 mm. x 10 mm. is connected to

another by fillet welds around the end of the bar and also inside a
machined slot as shown in Fig. 663. Allowing a tensile stress of
1500 kg./cm.^ in tie bar and a shearing stress of 1025 kg IcmK in the
fillet weld, find the size of the fillet weld.
SolatiOD. Pull in the tie bar

=10x1x1500=15000 fcg.

-1025x0-7 5 /tg.
=717-5 j kg.
where s is the size of the weld in cm.
Total length of weld
=3 X 10+2 X 5=40 cm.
Equating the strength of the weld to the tension in the tie bar
we have,
40x717-5 i= 15000 fcg.
t 0-52 cm.
Let us provide 6 mm. fillet weld.
Problem 450. For the single V unsealed butt welded Joint shown
in fig. 664, find the permissible load. Safe stress in weld may he taken
as 1420 kg.jcnfi.
WOJXD CONNECnOKS 811
SMatkm. Since the joint is an unsealed Fbutt joint the

effective thickness of the throat of weld
neBAfi mmmxem/n X thickness of plate
= -|- x0 8
=0*5 cm.
hig. 664
Safe load length of weld x Effective throat thickness x per-

missible tensile stress in the weld
= 12x0*5x1420 kg.
^8720 kg.
Problem 451. The member of a truss consists of two

tension
angles 80 mm,X80 mm. x 8 mm. ff the two angles are welded on either
side of a gusset plate at the joints design the joint. Axial tension in
the member is 22000 kg. Permissible shear in the welds 1025 kg.jcm^.
Use 6 mm. fillet welds.
Fig. 665
Solwtimi shows the arrangement for the connection.

Fig. 665
Let the length of weld at top and bottom edges be xi and *2

for each angle.
2 (xi+jr2) cm.
=07x06xl025 kg
=430-5 kg.
Equating the resistance of the weld to the tension in the
mem-
ber, we have,
4305 X 2(x3 -l-xa)= 22000 kg.
25*55 ('
812 STRKNOIH OF MATERIALS
Taking moments about the bottom welds,
430*5 X 2x1 X 8 - 22000 x 2*2 7
xi=7 25 cnu
X2=2555 7*25 cm,
= 18' 30 cm
Problem 452. A tie in a trussy consisting of a double angle
section 100x65 x 10 mm. thick carrying a tensile load of 25000 kg.
is to be welded to a gusset plate as sho^n in Fig, 666. Design the
joint with 8 mm, fillet welds allowing a shearing stress of 1025 kg /
CW.2 in the weld.
Fig. 666
Solution. Safe load per cm, length of weld
=.() 7 X 0*8 X 1 X 1025 kg. per cm.
574 kg. per cm. length of weld
=2[xi+X2+10] cm.
Equating the resistance of the weld to the load in the member,
we have,
574 X 2Ui+X2+ 10)-25000
,
.... .25000
^+-'2+1^-574x2.
21-78
/. xi+A'2 = 1 1*78 cm. ...(i)
Taking moments about the top weld line,
2 574 X 10 X 4-574 xz x 10 x 6-63 (see Fig. 666)

J=25000
xz9'4 cm.
WELDED CONNFCTtONS Trr
n 7s -
V 4 J JS cm
Let us provide the folltiwin^ lengths of weld
A'l r 5 cm
X2~ 6 *s cm.
Verticil length of weld
10 cm.
Problem 453. A welded plats' {girder ean^'i'^ts of flatiec phites

200 mm. x 10 mm. one at lop and (he oilier al ilu ho(fe:n and a v< rtiial
web plate 600 mm x 10 mm. If the aJIowahh si, ear v/r, u in the weld
is 1025 and the mean shear sires'^ in the weh 945 k^j'.ieni.'^^
determine the permissible shear force on the sccium of the beam if S mm
fillet welds are used for the connect ion.
Solution JVl('ment of inertia of the

beam section about the neutral axis
20 19x60^ ,
'
12 12
^-55210 c'/i '
f/^ Shear fonc based on fhe strength

eocnt.mcm.
of weld. Let .S be the shear force which
produces a sl'.ear stress of 1025 k^.fenr.
in the weld.
S X moment
of flange area
about netural axis
shear stress - q Jilt)
where r- throat thickness

.V(2()X1X30'5)
..q -w>7^
llj25
55210/ 2X0 7x0'8
ksi.lcrn.^
S-^ 10.\900 kg.
Hi) Shear force ba^cd on the average

shear .stress in the weh.
Maximum shear force

Average shear stress in the web
Fig. 667
X area of web
= 945x60x1 kg:.
56,700 kg.
of the girder
Hence, allowable shear force on the section
^-56,700 k;..
Problem 454. A dmply supported at aids having;

plate girder
a span of 15 metres of a weh plate 700 mm. /
consists
i- mm and
a flange plate 300 mm. x /*? mm. for each flange, fhe girder carries
an all inclusive load of 4500 kg. per metre run. Find the sne of
the
wetd required for connecting the flange plates to the web plates, near
the supports. Use 10 mm. fillet welds. Permissible shear stress in the
weld equals 1025 kg.lcrn^.
Solution. Maximum shear force for the girder
= 5= 4500X15 ,
2
= 33750
Fig. 668
Moment of inertia of the section of the grider
=/=T (30 X 73-6-28*8 x 703) cm*.

=173520 cm.*
Maximum shear stress in the web
33750 X 30 X 1-8 X 35 9 , , ,
= 173520x1-2
=314-2 kg./cm.^
Horizontal shear per metre length which the weld has to
resist
X thickness of web X 100 kg.
=3l4 2xV2xm kg.
f=37,700 kg.
WBLOCD CONNECTIONS 815
Using 10 mm. fillet weld and allowing a shear stress of 1025

kg-lcm.^ the total length of weld required in 1 metre length of girder
(for one flange) to resist the shear force of 37,700 kg. is given by
of
=525 cm.
Since the welding will be done on either side of the web length
of weld required per metre length, on each side
=26'25cm.
Suppose we provide 4 welds of 7 cm. length each in a length of

100 cm.
. , ,.
Spacing of weld =
100-4x7
- - cm.
= 18 cm.
159. Eccentric welded connection
In the discussions we had so far, the resistance .ffered by a

weld was entirely to prevent a linear or translatory displacement of
the plate or member connected. There are also circumstances in
which the welds provided for a connection may have to offer not
only a resistance to prevent tr.inslatory displacements but also
resistances to prevent rotary displacements. A bracket connection
is one example of this type of connection.
big. ou9
srnBmm m ma tmius
Fig. 659 shows an eccentric welded connection, for a bracket.

It consists of two bracket jda^cs welded to the flanges of a column.
If a load be applied to the brackei, a load P W .
is transmitted
*
to each bracket plate. The line of action of the load P does not
pass through the centroid of the ucld group Hence the connection
is called an eccentric welded connection
There are two types of bracket connections, i7z.,
(i) Welded ccmncction subjected to moment in a plane of the

weld.
(/O Welded connection subjected to moment in a plane normal

to the plane of the weld.
Case 1. Welded connection subjected to moment in the plane of
the weld.
Consider the bracket con-

nection shown in Fig. 670.
Let load on one bracket

plate be P.
Let G be the centroid of

the weld lengths.
Let eccentricity of the

load
---distance between the

centroid (7 of the
weld group and the
load line
The weld has to oiTcr the

follow'ing resistances :
Fig. 670
(/) a resistance against translation

(if) a resistance against rotation.
(0 Resistance against translation. This resistance is assumed
to be uniform in the weld.
Resistance per unit length

_Load on bracket plate
""Total length of weld
_ P
" L
Ui) Resi.Uance against rotation. The value of this resistance
per unit length at any point js assumed to be proportional to thC
ditinice cf the point from the cmtroid G ct
the ivcid gronp.
Consider an elemental length dl cS wdd
at amy pmnt Z distant r from G.
Resistance against rotation per iinit
nm at Kr where JT is a constant
Resistance offered by the elemental
kngdi dl of weld at Z.
^KrdU
This resistanoe acu normal to GZ.
.*. Moment of leaistance offered by
f%.cn the. demental length of wdd
^Krdl.r
=Kdl.r*
Tolri moanent of resistance effeted against rotation
Kdlt*
=^K2dl r*
Bat "SM r*/*Polar moment of inertia of the weld

lengths about an axis through G normal
to the plan of the weld
But
whese /as-i'Moment of inertia of the wdd lengdi
about any (say horizontal) axis XX, in
the plane of the weld, through G.
/= Moment of inertia of the weld lengdis

about an axis in the plane of the wdd,
normal to the axis XX and passing
dirough G.
Total t of resistance offered by the weld lengths

againd
C OB the connection
=P.e.
of resistance offered by the weld against
ratatioa tnlhe olemal moment, we have,
jriKw+A*l=/ e
P.e
K>
J..+/W
SnOHCni or MAIBklALS
Fromtbe above fdatioa the constant JT can be oompirted for
any given arrangement of dd
length.
The maximum lesistanoe T 6

against rotation is olKied by
1 AmntBiGTH
the weld at the most distant
1
^ OF mao
pomt of the weld from G.
1
For design purposes oon-
nder the point A (See Fig. 672), 1
The forces acting at A

per unit length of weld am
shown in Fig. 672.
1
Let 6 be the indmatum
of GA with y Taxis:
Total vertical force per
y
unit length of weld at A Fia. 672
y+ S sin
Total horizootal force per unit length of weld at A

-HSoos0
Resultant forces per uiut kogth of weld at A
For the design to be safe this resultant force should not eaceed
the safe load per unit length of the wdd.
The positions of the centroid G of the weld group for the two
iisnai arrangements of weld are ^ven below :
(/) When the rectangle ABCD is the wdd length (Fig. 673).
For this case.
e^x-f-a :
+a
H 5
WnDED OONMBCnONS 819

(ii) When the length ADCB alone is welded. (Fig. 674). For
this case^
3,
Hb+d)
Momatt of inertia of a weld length

Moment of ioertia of the
WHO OF weld of length d (Fig, 675) about
,LNGTH d
the XX axis.
T~X
E-
weld length about the parallel
axis EF.
%weLD OF
meNGTHd
-X| Moment of inertia of a weld
of length J about the longitudinal
axis-0*
Fig. 675
Moment of inertia of a weld of length d about an axis
parallel to the weld length, at a distance xi
from the weld=rf(xi).^
Problem 455. Fig, 676 shows an arrangement to support a
bracket plate. The load applied to the bracket plate is 10,000 kg.
Find the greatest resistance offered by the weld per cm. length. If 6
mm. fillet welds are used find the greatest stress intensity in the weld.
Solution. x=
= 5 cm.
Eccentrid ty =e= 5+
= 10 cm.
Moment of inertia of
weld lengths
/ = 2 f-^H-lOx 10]
=3333 COT.
/...2[;f+20x5>]
= 1167 cm.3
/..+/*=3333+1167
=4500 cm3
Resistance against
translation per cm. length
of wdd,
P_
L Big. 676
snusNoni OP maibrmls
^m7 kg./cm.
Resistance against rotation per cm. lengtli of weld at a point
distant r from the centroid G
-S- Kr
where
10.000X10
~ 4500
200
9
Resistance against rotation at A per cm. length of wdd,
ZUU , ,
- g-r. kg.}em.
Sa^^'iakg/cm
Total vertical component at A
per m. length of weld
sin 8
I W/TWU>
/ UNGTHT
-166-7+~r. sin 6
kg,lcm.
200
= 1667+ " ^ 5 kgicm
5
=277-8 kg./cm.
Total horizontal component at
A per cm. length of weld
=/fSa cos 6
PiB. 679
200
-^r, cos V kg.lem.
ft . ,
=-^ X 10 kg./cm.
= 222'2 kg./cm.
.'.
Resultant resistance per cm. length at A
= v'<222-2)H(2778)2
=3558 kg./cm.
Let the maximum shear stress intensity in the weld be 9
kg.latp.
07 X 0-6 X 1x9=355-8
q=847'l kg./cm^.

HT^ynliD OQMKBCnONS fff
PmUen 456. Find the maximum load per centimetre run on tke
êldfor the arrangement shown in Fig. 678. Suggest also a suitaNe
glu cf eld.
15x40
l5+40^'"'
=10-91 cm,
aoooh
"
1
Or yt Liflr
LOAD pa
1
'
r
BRACKCl f&TJ?
eoookg. \
'^xâ-eicnh-
focm. i
n-sM'
I
i5cm.~
Fig. 678 Fig. 679
Resistance offered by the weld per cm. length against transla*
P_ 8000 , ,
145'4 kg. I cm.

At any point of the weld distant r from the centroid G of the
weld group, the resistance of the weld per cm. length against rotation
^S=Kr
where *
/ax4"/vV
/=2x 15(12 5)*+

=5989-5 cm*.
/.=2 +15 (10-91-7 50)*]

[ JJ
+25x(4 09)*=I329-5 cm*.
822 STRENOra OP MATEKIaU
/-+/w=5989-S+1329-5
=7319 cm >
8000 X 20 91
f=W5<4^/C
7319
= 22*86 Sa*KK
^22*3o
Nowconsider 1 cm. length
of weld at A. . IBzflSilL
//
'^ca.LNcm
Resistance against rotation ,OF weco
at per cm. length
^Sa^Kfa
=22*86 r.
Total vertical component

per cm. length of weld at A .-iiC
^K=4-+5.8ine
^
T Fig. 680
=145 4*1-22.86 ro sin 6
= 145*4-1- 22*86 X 10*91 kg.lcm.
=396*4 fcg./cm.
Total horizontal component per cm. length of weld at A
^H=Sa cos 8
=22'86 fa cos 0
. =22*86 X 12*5 kg.lcm.
,
=286 kg.lcm.
.*. Resultant resistance per cm. length
= V(396*4)-i-286* *g./cm.
=489 kg.lcm.
Let the size of weld be s cm.
Eqwting the strength of the weld per cm. length to the maxi-
mum resistance of the weld per cm. length, we have
0*7X5X1025=489
^
^ 489
^'*
0*7x1025
=0*68 cm.
^6 8 mm.
Provide 7 mm. fillet weld.
Problem 457. Fig. 681 shows an eccentric welded connection^

with 8 mm fillet welds.
.
wbumbd 823
Determine dm gnatest load P per bracket plate which cat be

implied at dm eonaeetkm.
Shear stress im die weU is not to exceed
1025 kg-latP.
ttip. fcSI
824
[ir+ Jf2D&:5F am*

=417 cm*
A.+/=2667+4l7
=3084 cm.
Resistance against transfation per cm.
*40 *8-/^
Resistance per cm. length at any pc^ of r fiom
the centroid <7 of the weld group is given by
5-A>
where
/**+/
iXl7-5
3084
Consider 1 cm. length of
wetd at the point A (Fig. 683).
Resitence against rotation

per cm. lengdi at A
Sa=:^Kr.
Y
_ pxn $ I
' I
3084 Uomumm
I itFmao
Sirs -u
ra
I I
L30-84 J
Total vertical component
/
!-
per cm. length of weld at A I
' i
K +5 sin fl I
40 I
= -+ 17 5_ F r
y
40 ^3084
sin 6
i. w
-=0 0675 Pkg.lem.
Horizontal compmient per cm. lengdi of weU at A
-H=S. cos 0
17-5
.1
-(r0567i**/c
WBJXD OONNECnONS 82S
/. Resultant resistance per cm. length of weM at A,
= v/iOWS ?)+(0-0567 py^ kg Icm.

-=nms p kg.icm.
Equating the maximum resistance per cm. length of weld to the
to the weld per cm. length of weld, we have,
stiii^t]i
0-08815 P=0*7 X 0*8 X 1025 kgjcm.

P^6512 kg.
Cue 2. Welded connection subjected to moment in a plane

normal to the plane of connection.
Fig. 684
Fig. 684 shows an eccentric welded cannection. Let all the

welds be ofthe same size. In this case also the welds have to offer
resistances against translation and rotation.
Resistance per cm. length of weld against translation is assumed

to be uniform.
Resistance per cm, length against translation
kg,lcm.
wbeie Istotal length of wdd.

826 STRBMOTH CM> MATERIAU
Resistance per cm. length at any point of the weld distant
y
from the xx axis the wdd line (Fig. 684) is given by
/. Resultant lesistanoe per cm, length of weld at any point
= kg Jem.
ProMen 458. Fhtd the size of weld required for the bracket
cof^ction shown in Fig. 685. The stress in the weld is not to exceed
1025kglcnfl.
SoInCiw. Moment of inertia of the weld lengths about the
xx-Bxr
=/-2x j^ -t-2xl4xl0*cm-3
=3363 cm*
T mm
iocm
.LJ-
Fig. 68S
Resistance against translation per cm. length of weld

P~ 10000
kg-lem.
L 28+30
^ni kg.jcm.
Resistance against rotation per
u
=//= "
-j- y
10.000x15 ,
=446 kg.jcm.
.'. Resultant resistance per cm. length of weld
= \/(172)*+(44^=478 kg Jem.
i
OONHBCnONS 827
Lettlied<tf weld be x cm. F^mti^g Oe tfreogdi of weld
per cm. Imigtb to the maximom lesiaaiioe per jm. length, we have,
0*7 xjx 1025=478
5=0*67 cm. Hat? mmC wdd.
PtoMcm 459. Find the mimimm size of the fillet weld required
toconnect the bracket plate to the eobann os Aawa in Fig 686.
Stress in the weld is not to exceed 1025 kg-fen^.
SidHthm. Moment of inertia of the weld kngdis about the

xjc-axis
/=2X 3^ cnf
I
=4500 cnfl.
Resistaiioe against
tianslation per cm.
lengdi
6000 '
60
= 100 kg.lem.
Fig. 686
Maximum resistance against roiatiaD per cm. length
= 17 = M 7^
6000X18 30 ,^ ,
~ 4500 ^ 2 **^^*"**
==360 kg.lem.
Resultant resistance per cm. length of wdd
-V *002+360*
-=314 kgjcm.
Let the size of the weld be s cm. Equating the strength of weld
per cm. length to the maximum resistance per cm. length,
wc get, 07XsX 1025374
5 = 0 52
'
cm.
Provide a fillet weld 6 mm. size.
Problem 460. A had of Ir- h applied to a bracket

fiUct-'welded to a stanchhn. a'^ ' f the fpralcst
'
' " cni.
rc.<r.iancc offered hy tilt ''"hi
' "
hug.
628 nWBMOm oi MAtBUAU
SetatkM. Momendof iGertkofwdd kogth about the IT axis
-2xl5xlC^f-*
3000ai^.
Fig. 687
na.688
Resistance against transiatioa per an.
length of weld
P
L
lojom
kg-lan.
30
3 Jj'i kg-lan.
Resistance against rotatkn per an. length of
weM,
10,000 x 7 5 20 ,
*~2~
3000
2S0 kg-lan.
Resultant resistaiioe per on. length
-Vmm^kg.lan.
^416-6 kg.lan.
K-j the
Find #r*'**?
^ a bracket added toacoUum.
maximum resutanee offered hy the weld per cm. length
xx>axis
Sointian* Moment of incftia rf the
welded lengrb about the
mw
20*
7*2 X '
12
- 1333 ^*
W(U>CD 829'
torn
Resistance against translation*
3
1 per cm length of weld
~2dcm
- =250 kgjcm.
Resisiance against rotation per-

Fig. 690 cm. lenjih of weld
10000x6
X 10 kg.lcm.
Mt.
=450 kgjcm.
Resultant resistance per cm length of weld
=
=515 kgj cm.
joist euttmg is used as a
bracket as shown in
PrMem 4621 A 20 tonnes at a
Fig. 691.
125
The
mm from
bracket carries a load
the flange of the cajar^.
of
f
welds per cm. lenph ^thejlmge weUs have double the throat thickness
as compared to the welds in the web,
of each of the flange
SoIntioB. Let the thickness of the thr^t
welds be unity. Since the flange welds have
double the throat thick
vertical web wld lengths
ness as commred to the web welds the two
thicknes f
can be enlaced by an eQuivalent wdd of unit throat
purposes of analysis. (See Fig. 692).
I^l Fig. 692
Analysis offlaage wdds
Moment of the wrtM of the equivalent weld tenths about the
*-* axis.
+2 X irS X ( 16 25)2 ^3
=7903 on*.
Resistance agaam tnuslation per cm. length of weld
20,000
50
=400 kg^lcm.
Resistance against rotation per an. length of weld
u- "
-/f- j- y
,000xl2-5
= 7903
X 16-25 /fg
,
/cm.
=514 4g./cm.
Resultant rcsistanoe per an. length of weld
-v/4jO==5I4*
=631 kg Ian.
Analysis of web welds
Sote. The web is provided with two weld lengths.
Resistance against rotatkm per cm. length
=*(400)
=200 kg [cm.
Maximum icsislanoe against rotation per an. length.
2 V / '/
1 (2O.Q0Oxl2S)Xl2S . ,
2 7903
19S kg.lcm.
Resultant a per cm. length of weld
V2IW^+19g*
280 kglam.
Analysis of^NtrnrTStrStructures
160. Perfect f^ne

A framed structure consists of a number of members connected
) each other so as to form a frame to support an
exteinal load
jrstem. In the present discussion only piiijointed connections
bet-
wen members will be assumed.
A The aunplest frame is a triangle.

Fig. 693 of three mem-
(a), consisting
bers pin-jointed to each other. This
can be easily analysed by the condi-
tions of eqtuhbtiam. This frame is
called the basic perfect frame. It has
three memben and CA and
three joints if, and C
Suppose we add to
A
this basicperfect frame
;wo members AD and CD
and a joint D, we get a
frame [Fig. 693 (6)] which
can also be analysed by
the conditions of equili-
tmum. This frame is called
a perfect frame. Suppose
we add to this frame again
a set of two members and a joint as shown in Fig 693 (c). We again
get a perfect frame.
In this way, we can go

on adding any number of sets
(each set consists of two mem-
bers and a joint) and obtain a
perfect frame.
Fig. 693 (cX Perfect frame
83 !
3
832 SIKBNGTa OP MAIWau

ReUakm between Hu mutAar o//(Arts and the number of mem-
bers in a perfect frame.
Let there be n members aod / joints in a perfect frame. See
Fig. 694 (a).
Suppose we remove
three members AB, BC and
CA and the three joints A,
B und C We are now left
with (a 3) members and
(.f3) joints.
Studying this remain-
ing part of the frame [hig.
694 (6)] we find that the num- ****
ber of members is such that, for each joint, there are two members.
Hence for the ( / 3) joints we have 2( / 3) members,
n 3=*2(y 3)
n2j
Hence for a stable frame the minimum number of mmnbers
required twice the number of joints minus three.
If the number of members provided is less than the above
requirement the frame will not be
stable.
For instance the frame ABCD
shown in Fig. 69S (a) has four
members and four jmnts. Since
there are four joints, we needat
least 2x4 3=5 members to
provide a stability to the frame.
The lour member frame shown in
Fig- 695 (a) is therefore unstable.
Such a frame is called a
deficient frame.
Suppose we add one more

member say themember AC [See
Fig. 695 (6)]. The frame becomes
stable and perfect. Hence, a defi-
cient frame has less number of
members than what is required for a
perfect frame. Fig 9S(fr)
analysis of framed SfRUCTURES 835
Suppose, to the rectangu-

lar frame ABCD we provide
the diagonal AC as well as BD,
This frame weald remain stable
Redundant
even if one of tne members 4C
frame
or SO renioved. in otiêr
words, the frame has more
membeL'i than what is required
for a perfect frame. Such a
frame is called a redundant
696
frame.
fn general let aframe have / joints and n ir-embers

If *3, the irame is a perfect frame
if ?i<2/ -3, the frame is a dejkient frame
If rt>2i3, the frame is a rt>dundmit framt.
A perfect frame can alwa>s be analysed by the conditions o(

uiiilibnum. A ledundant frame cannot be fully analysed by the
ronditions of cqailibrium. In the present chapter we will discuss the
aoaivsis of perfect frames only.
Reactions fit Supports
961
Frames are usually provided with either
(ii'RoUei 01 free supports or (if) binged supper!.
lers
srs
BUastggy
Fig. Ml
At a rollersupport the line of action of reaction will be at
right angles the roller base.
to The reaction Rb at the roller
support B of the truss sho\An in l ig. o97 will act normal to the roller
base.
For the particular case, when the roller base is horizontal the
reaction at such a support will be vertical.
In the cantilever
frame shown in Fig.
699, the roller base
at B is vertical and
hence the reaction
at this support is
horizontal.
At a hinged sup-
port, the direction
and the line of act-
ion of reaction will
depend upon the
load system on the
structure. Fig. 699
To determine the reactions.

Reaction at the supports of a structure can be determined by
the conditions of equilibrium. The external load system applied
on the structure and the reactions at the supports must form a s>stem
in equilibrium.
Consider the cantilever truss shown in Fie. 700 The truss . is
provided with a hinged support at A and a roller support at E.

The roller base at
E being vertical the reac- ^ Va=i3t 6t
tion at E is horizontal.
Hence there will be no
vertical reaction at E.
Taking moments
about A,
H.x4-(6-J-4)3+(3x6)
//, =l2r--
Total a^ plied vertical
force
=6-h4 + 3-13r i
/. Vertical reaction
at /t=-K.-13/" Fig, 70:>
Re^Jolving the forces borizontajlv we get // i 12/

Thus the reaction at A consists of a vertical cornpoaent
Ea=13/^ and a horizontal component
Now consider the truss shown in Fig. 701 provided w 'th a
hinged support at .1 and a roller support at 6. The roller base
at G is horizontal and hence the reaction at G is entirely vertical.
There will be no horizontal reaction at G.
1 ' '
an ' " VC'S ( M ! R AMrn ^vructurfs

835
61
YAr ,
I'' < ^y f
>
*
.
'/ >
. ,r: *'

k' ? forces
*
j* hr -
ly not carry
^ '
Su., h. f ^ ihe following
.
. .
'
^Jif<vN! i'
fM ^
',{c*'
p.,.. _ y/ A sinf'lc forto cinnot form

.. >N'ernin cquilihrnirp I -fence if
rh/H* s onlv one ^'.^ce acting at a
lomt. iiicri for the tquilibrium of
p
rhf rjjj^ forct equals zero
In Fig 702 (w) P 0
ih) If two forces act at a joint,

ib)
Then fur the equiiibnuin ot the
I 'Ui* these t'A.t fv 10 ''^ should act
o -ir ^êsafO'- .
'
hi iirie Ih*
t'w i *rcvs will eijua! arvi
: posiN i( !) lAf't Unic*

j;.j<Tjg a! <J e'-ro tO aot along t'<
s.jnu* -'faii i In-e lien Ue ih-
eqi,(!:h: JUJU ol Iht ;oi(ii etch

r ... o
o; 7> P
iino fj o
in i 1!
r ) ir three h.;ces act at a
1
'
?> n'lnf a*Ki two ot lr.\!n arc iif
.e ' .'i}f if'- t hn
^
(... ; ' j. .n '
/iM
ill Fiu 7'^'' i K *'
It will be found vc/*y convenient to Rpply the above principles
in finding which of the members
will not carry forces.
For instance ia the truss

shown Fig 703 consider the
in
joint H, ^Forces at this joint are
Pao in the member HA

Phg in the member HG.
and Phb in the member HB
Since Pha. and Phi are in the same
straight line. Pm ^
0. Similarly
Pci ^0 and P;d 0.
Fit. 704
analysis of framed structures 837
Now consider the cantilever truss shown in Fig. 704 at the joint
There arc three forces namely
Pdfy Pdc and Pdh,
The two forces Fi and Pdc are alons, the same straight line
PduÔ
Now consider the joint B
Since Au=0, the forces at this join* arc
Pr>a, F&r and Pbt
Of these forces, Pha and Ptr are along the same straight line.
Pbr -0
W
Now consider the truss shown in

Fig- 705.
Obviously the reaction at H is vcrtici 1
and W
Reaction at A^- 0
By using the principles exp!amed
above we find that there will be no force in
the members other than EF, FG and GH.
Fig. 705
Fig. 706
838
Similarly for the roof truss shown in Fig. "t : i i ca*- h? reai :
:, .j
that there will he no forces in the men.' ers B\: \ \i i \ : L. L\\ ' /
N, NL
162. Analysis of a truss
The analysis of a truss r! i. f-

-
(/) Determination of the .

'
th : .
(ii) Determination of the forces 
/ h
condition that every joint ytDifd tê t '
acting at every joint should for* u ;
A structure can be anal>'*;vi ny l c :
(i) Method of Resolution or method o: ,

' is
(//) Method of sections
(///) Graphical analysis.
(i) Method of joints- method, afier aeicrmining the

In this
reactions at the supports* we
consider the equilibrium of every
will
joint. The f blowing examples explain this method. Note that a
compression member will push the joint to which it isconnected;and.
a tension member will pull the joint to which \i connected.
Members which do not carry forces

At the joint A there are three forces, tvvo of which arc alon g
the same straight line. Hence the third force namely
Similarly considering
the joint F,
we know /^/(;==0
Similarly considering
the joint D,
we know
See Fig. 708.
Now let as consider
the equilibrium of the
various joints.
Joint A Fig. 708

Resolving vertically,
{ (compressive)
See Fig. 709.
840 STRENGTH OF MAlERIAiS
Sec Fig. 710.
Joint H
Resolving vertically we have the following components
(0 9 /;
2:5 .
25 4
ft
()
s"* ^"^"2
2
Balancing vertical force
necde<l=l ri
Pkt- 1 t {compressive)
15.
Fig. 711
Resolving horizontally.
25
Pha-^-xr cos
2^ t iu-nsilc)
Joint C
, Resolving verticîty
Pea SiO 0 =1
t (tensile)
sin n
^4
analysis of framed structures
Resolving horizontally, we ha\c the following components
15
t ->
(0 2
3
- ->
(/i)
cos 4
t
4 5
Balancing horizontal force needed

3?
t
4
I (Ci^frpresî'e)
*
4
See Fig- 712.
Joint D
Resolving horizontally at D
(compressive)
4
See Fig. 713.
fk-. 7r.
Joint G cemOThenla :
Rôlvine vertieW -e have the ft.llovvme

(0 12t +
S42 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Balancing vertical force needed
-II It
P>70 sin 6= 1 1 t
/'.. = llx See Fic. 713

4 4
Fig. 7I4
Arithmetical check :
Resolving horizontally we have in following components :
'
(')
2
cose-
07) I -4
(0f cos6=f
These forces balance.
Fig. 715
AB 10 /
15
BC '
2
33
CD *4
^
I DE
]
! EF n 1
1 FG 0 0
1
15
CH 2 ^
HA (>
t
i
2*:
BH
! HC i
i
I
I
5
CG 1
- t
; 4
I
i DG '
0 i
0
! 1
1
1
1 1
844 STRENGTH OF MATERJAIS
Problem 464. Determine the forces in the various members of

the trussshown in Fig. 716.
Fig. 716
Solution. Each vertical reaction
=Half (he total load ==800 kg.
Now we will discuss the equilibrium of all the joints of the
structure.
The forces keeping the joint A in equilibrium

are the following :
(i) Downward load 200 kg.

(a) Upward reaction Fu=800 kg.
(Hi) Force in the member AB /.e., F .
(iv) Force in the me nb^r AF /.c.. Put.
Resolving the forces at A vertically vê find

the following vertical components, viz., the down- Fig. 718
W'ard load of 200 kg, and an upward force of 800 kg.

The resultant of the above two forces is 600 kg. i
acting up-
wards. Flence, to kcf-p the joints in equilibrium, we require a
:
ANALYSIS' OF FRAMED STRUCTURES 845
downward force of 600 kg. v at A. The member /4F being horizoiv

tal, the force in this member will not have a vertical component*
Hence only the vertical component of the force in the member AB
should provide a vertical force of 600 kg. i downwards at .1 To
satisfy this condition the force in AB should be a compressive force,
Ic., a force pushing the joint A If Fai> is the force the member AB, m
its vertical component should be equal t</ 600 kg. I downwards at 4.
ic. Pan sin 30^-600 kg.

/'a/>1200 kg. {cor7ipri s\!\t \
Nowresolve the forces at the joint A hori/ontally. 1he externa!

load of 200 A'g* and the reaction of 800 kr being vertical forces,
do not have honzontal components* But the f(nec has a
horizontal component of Pah cos 30", i.e., I20O cos 30 '\ / c., ooo y 3 kg.
This horizontal component of Pah, at 1, acts in a direction
towards the left-- Hence to keep the i(>int in equilibrium we *t
require a horizontal force of 600 \ 3 kg. towards the right

This necessary force is provided bs the force the mcmbc* m
AF. Hence if Pu/ be the force in the member this force should
pull the joint A towards the right. Hence iV*' is a lensile force
jPa/=600v 3 kg. (teri\':k}
Joint B
Now consider the joint B.
The forces keeping this joint in equi-
librium are the following
(/) Downward <xteniri{ h>ad -too kg 1
Hi) Foret the member BA T .
ini) Forci- in ihe BC - /V .
(mO \ ofc"' in the mcnO;(T BF F * '
Fig. 719
The unknown i( rtc'- are F . and
Hence a direction for Tcudinjoi' v,\ll now

clioscr. at TiyJ-:!
unkn-nvi or 'ânip!
angles to the line of action of i.ne <>f
tiv*' 1
-1 nnnnal to 'he for e y It no., tc.- f.'u- -.u a

consider a line 1
'
it.'/ to-rc in ' ( e, il.iioth;.
'
.oiv
arc resolved along the line
component along l-I. The oidj foices vMeh em I. occun ;
-nus
o
along 1 -1 are the externa! force ot 40 , nid .Kl h.ree J
Hence, resolving these forces nhing !. \m- eet
4('0 cos 30' cîs ?tt
P,./^ 400
acts down the line
The component of 400 A.?, at B along
- 1 !
component of / along -1 should act op the 1

1-1 Hence the
line i - 1 Hence the force l\t should be a force pushing the joint B.
P*r40{) kg. {compressive)
3
846 STRENGTH OF VATERM.r
Now let US resolve the forces at B along the principal rafter

We have the following components along the principal rafter.
(r) Force Fba of 1200 kg. acting up the line of rafter.
(//) Component of i.e.. Pot cos 60", />., 400 cos 6f:'
=^200 kg. acting dowm the line of rafter,
(m) Component of 400 the load ** 400 cos 60=- 200 kg.
acting down the line of the rafter.
Hence these forces along the line of rafter have a resuUant nf
800 kg. acting up the line of rafter at B. Hence we rcqjirc a
balancing force of 8(i0 kg. down the line of rafter at B. This is
plied by the force Pin in the member .BC. This force shou*
therefore push the joint B down the rafter.
P6r = 800Ag. {compressive)
By symmetry
Force in kg. {compressive)
Force in DE^ Pu -
1200 kg. {compressive)
Force in /D--fV i=400 kg. {compressive)
Force in /Ts* /Vfc=--600v/3 kg. {tensile)
force (kg.)
Members <
Compressive Tensih
j
AB 1200 i
1.
BC I
800
i O sOO
!
1200
'
/ r 0
/ I ('(Ov'3
4110
hf 400
4C0
analysis ^)^ 1 RAMfcD STRUCT I RfcS 847
Joint F
ResoKing the forces at this
joint vertically, wc have the
following components.
(i) Vertical component of
R/6=4()() sin ---
200 kg. >
(/i) Vertical cejmponcni of f* =tOO\/^
fa
R/=400 sn 30' - 200Ai,^ ,
The resultant of the above T ig. 7r0

two vertical coniponenls is
400 A'g. i
Hence we require a ba'ancing upward force of 400 kg. t at F.
This is supplied b> the tens ^n in the member FC

F/> 400 A e (tensile)
Problem 465 Deter n^.nc the forces in all the members of the
truss shown in Fig. 721.
Solution. Sec graphical solution at the end of the chapter.
Analytical '2iU'cn
ceJ on loierv. the reaction at this
Sina CV.2 F has s. n 5
1: roilc" b isc.
sunpr>rt rnn * he a 'oht m,
'.his
i iv
I::
- -n. ^ ^
. i'. at I
Taknu' -
ha\e
>
.
:or* X6
' -
Jl ^
n /. b- H i
Wnri,. T,t,:
b'rocs liH ib.c VC h )le truss.

r c.c ' Ma orb hnr- ' tai
.'rliciil
IVta!
_ 2'b 4uh '\ v
vriixai 'caction ai
-40 J A ir.
848 SrRENGTH Of MATERIAtS
Joiftf E
At this joint the following forc^s'are acting ;
(i) Horizontal reaciion

//- 600 kg .~ -
(ii) Horizontal force Poi ()
1//0 Vertical foce Pea

H-- 600kg
Out of these tliree forces, two
of them are along the same straight
line. Fig. 723
Hence, tljc third force, viz , P*.. mtisl be 7,ero.

Hence P '''600 hg. (comprLi^siYe)
Joint C
The forces keeping the ioint C in equilibrium are the followinp
(i) Downward load of 200 kg.
(if) P^
(in) P.<i
Resolving these forces vertically, we have

Pr- sin 4 ^'-200
/V?.--^200\ 2 kg. (tensile)
Now resolving the forces horizontaliy

P.ui^-P.i^ cos 45*
/. Pr;i---20i^\ 2 co*^ 45* ~ 200 kg. (compressive)
ho
Fir, 124 Fifi; 725
Joint B
This joint is \n equilibrium under the acti(jn of the fo]lo\M'ng
forces :
(/) Tensile force P -

200 v 2 Ig.
(ii) Horizontal force Pb.i.
(Hi) Vertical force Ptu,.
Resolving these forces vertically,

We have
P.>d-- 200\ 2 sin 45"
Pbd =200 kg. (comi rcssive)
Now, resolving the forces horizontally.

analysis of framed structurls

We have
Piia 200x^2 cos 45*
Ptia = 2l)0 kg. {lensile)
Joint D
The forces acting at this
joint are shown in Fig. 726.
Resolving these forces

vertically, we have
Pda sin 45* --=200+ 200
=400
Prf.=400V'2 kg. "otg.
{tensile) Fig. nt,
Arithmetical Check
Resolving horizontally, the horizontal components are
(i) Pd.
() Pda cos
=600 kg.
45* -400^2 cos
45* = 400 kg.*
:
{Hi) Pd. ^-200 kg. *

These components are balancing.
The forces in the various members have been tabulated below :
Force ( kg.)
Members
:
i
r ompres'ive |
Tensile
1 \
AB 200
BC i 200^2
1
CO 200 i
i
m: '
EA 0 0
,
DA 400 v'2
DB 2(Ki
'
Prublem 466. D)tcrmme the forces in the varioti<, members of

the structure shown in Fig. T27.
Solution. See graphical solution at the end of the chapter.
t6 TONHeS 16 rOt^NFS
Analytical Solution
Each vertical reaction ^ 8 tonnes

^
It can be easily concluded that the members /< and i&C are
compression mcmbcfs and that AO and OC arc tension members.
The above can be determined as follows :
For instance, consider the joint A

which is in equilibrium under the action
of three forces :
(/) 8 tonnes acting vertically up-

wards,
(ii) Force Put> in the member A.
I (Hi) Force Pao in the member AO.
I
if these foices he rc'iolved along a
Fg. 729 direction 1 ^ I at right angles to the force
Pub, we (ind that the component of the
upward force of 8 tonnes and the component of the force Pa^, along
11 should balance. To satisfy ihis condition should be a
tensile force.
Having now established that Puc is a tensile force, resolving
the forces at A horizontally we find that the horizontal components
of the forces Pab and Pao should balance. To satisfy this condition,
Ptt should be a compressive force.
Similarly Prb is a compressive force and Peu is a tensile force.
Now consider the joint O, The vertical components of the
forces Pea and Pot act downwards.
Hence should act upwards at O, Le., the force Po6 is a tensile
foioa.

analysis OF FRAMED STRUCTURES gjj

Thus we have determined the nature of forces in all the mem-
bers of the structure.
If is now proposed to solve this problem by the principle of
triangle offorces.
Ct)nsider the joint A. This joint is in equilibrium under the
action of the following forces :
(i) An upward force Va=i tonnes

in) Force Pan and
(Hi) Force P no
Hence these three forces can be represented by the three sides
of a triangle which shall be respectively parallel to these three forces.
Then the magnitudes of these three forces remain in the same
proportion as the lengths of the corresponding sides of the triangle.
Now instead of actually constructing a triangle whose sides are
parallel ro the three forces at let as study the gcomc/rv of the
triangle ABO,
The force Va =8 tonnes is parallel to the side OB of the
triangle.
The force Pan is parallel to the side AO of the triangle.

The force Pda is parallel to the side BA of the triangle.
Hence the three sides of the triaagle arc parallel to the
lines of action of the three forces acting at A. Hencc by the principle
of triangle of forces,
we have,
8 :Pao :PadÔB :AO :BA
Fly the geometry of the triangle ABQ,
we have,
OB <^3 metres
>1(9 \/3-+22=\/13 metres,
BA^\'3^^S^^y/3A metres.
8 : Pao : Pab=3 : V34 ^

=
-"I 3
^8: VTF: 3-^34

^
-|-'v/l 3 tonnes (tensile)

9
Pat,-== * x/ir tonmes (compressive)
forces at (9, vertical!,

Now consider the joint O. Resolving the
we have.
JP<,-2Poacos p=2x-|-v/l3 X-/^

^ Vl3>
32
Fob^
^ tonnes (tensile)
This result may also be checked by resolving the forces at the

joint B vertically.
The forces in the various members are tabulated below.
Force {Tonnes)
Member
Compressive Tensile
AB -Iv'TA 15-55
BC 15-55
AO -|-v''*39 62
CO 9*62
BO
Pl'oblem 467. Determine the forces in all the members of the

truss shown in Fig. 730. All the inclined members are at 45* with the
horizontal.
Solotion.
Fig. 730
analysis O** framed STiÛCTURES 853
Analytical Solution
Joint A. This is in equilibrium under the action of the three
forces, viz. (i) 10 tonnes^ (/i) Pah and (Hi) Fab.
AlO
Fig. 731
Resolving the forces at A in line with A/I, we have,

?aft=10cos 45"
= ^2 {tensile)
Now since the horizontal components of the forces Pah and

Pab should balance, we conclude
jPai> 5\/2 tonnes (compressive)
Joint H
Since the vertical components of the forces Pha and Pm should
balance, we conclude
Phi ==r S \/ 2 tonnes {compressi
Resolving the forces at H horizontally, we have

Phg^ Pha cos 45 COS 45*
2 X 5\/ 2 10 tonnes (tensile)

V 2
Joint B
Since the vertical components of the forces Pba and Pm should
balance, we conclude
Pbi==5\/2 tonnes (tensile)
Now resolving horizontally,
Pbc-Pbi cos 45*+P6a COS 45*
354 STRBNOTH OF MATERIALS
Joint J
ResoIviDg the forces in line with HJC^ we have,
Pu^Pih^Sy/l tonnes (compressive)
Now, GJB, we have,
resolving the forces in line with
P#g=P#^~5\/2 tonnes (tensile)
Joint G
Resolving the forces in line with we have,
Pgt^Pgh COS 45
10
Pv* -=5-\/2 tonnes (tensile)
V2
Now, FGJ, we have,
resolving the forces in line with
P/=P<+P cos 45*
P,/=5\/2+10 cos 45*
= 10\/2 tonnes (tensile)
Joint C
Resolving the forces in line with CE, we have,
Pa4 =P<sb cos 45
10 cos 45
Pct=5'\/2 tonnes (compressive)
Now resolving the forces in line with DCJ, we have,
Pt4^Pei+Peh cos 45
P#i=5\/2+10 cos 45
P<i4 10-\/2 tonnes (compressive)
Reactions
AtF,
Horizontal reaction =P/ cos 45*
101/2 cos 45* -10 tonnes<-
Vertical reaction P/ sin 45= 10 tonnes f
At E,
Since the horizontal components of the forces P^ and P>c
balance, there will be no horizontal reaction.
Vertical reaction sin 45*+Pf sin 45*
2X5a/ 2 sin 45*
= 10 tonnes j
AtD,
Horizontal reaction =Pie cos 45
lO-v/2 cos 45= 10 tonnes-*
Vertical reaction =Pd, sin 45= 10 tonnes f
The forces in the various members computed above are tabula-
ted below.
855
Problem 468 Calculate the forces induced in the members of

the pin joined truss shown in fig, 732. Show the values on a neat
diagram of the truss. Mention clearly the nature of the forces (tension
or compression) in each case, (A.MJE., November 1966)
Solution. We find that at
a roller support has been
provided. Hence the reaction
at E must be normal to the
roller base, i e the reaction at
E, in this case, should be
vertical.
1/jt this vertical reaction

tig. 732 at Ebc V*
856 STRENGTH OF MATERIau
Length of each, member = -j-
FS*. 733
Height of the trass
= sin 60
L \/3
" 3
2
Foi the equilibrium of the truss taking moments of the forces

on the truss about the end A, we have,
Ve.L- 3 X +6 X -j- +3+ ~ \/3
Total vertical external load 3+6=9/

Vertical reaction at A Va
=3'14/t
and Horizontal reaction at ,4 =3
Joint A
Resolving vertically, we get
F,t, sin 60*=3 14/
P*=362 / (compressive)
Resolving horizontally, we get

oj=3+Po cos 60*
=3+3-62 cos 60*
=4'81 / (tensUe)
858
strength or materials
Joint F
Resolving vertically, we get,
P/i sin 60*-.6-0 i6 sin 60*
=6-014=5-86
5-86
Pfi = ^
sin 60*
//=6'70+016 cos 60*-678 60'

cos
'^3*39
Jofnt D t (tensile)
Resolving vertically, wc get
Fig. 740
Pj, sin 60*- Pd/ sin 60*
P,if~Pa,
Prff 6'78 / (tensile)
^tTuaaH:
i" us of ,he
Solution. (See graphical

solution at the end of the chapter)
Let be inclination af the member
AE with the horizontal.
tan0= - ^_3_
half span 6 4
analysis op framed STRUCrURLS 859
Length ABhalf span x sec 0
~6 X - 7'5 m
4
Reactions
Since the end L is placed on rollers with the roller base
horizontal, the reaction at L should be vertical. Hence there will be
no horizontal reaction at L.
Let the vertical reaction at L be K.
Taking moments about A.
we have,
7 5
gx
Fir. 742
8x7*5
-2*50 /t
2\12
m STKENGTH OF MATERIALS
Vertical componeot of the total external load=>8 cos 6
=8x =6 40
y t
= Ka=6 4p-2-50
=3-90 /
Horizontal component of tbe total external load
= 8 sin #= 8 X 3 =480
Horizontal reaction at A
= /fa=480 t-*-
Analysis af Joints
Joint L. Resolving the forces at this
joint vertically,
we have,
Pim sin fl= Vi
3
=2 5 I'M*
Fig. 743
Pin, =4 '
1 67 r {compressive)
we have,
Pln~Pin cos 0
=4167x ~
~333 t {tensile)
Joint M
At
this joint there arc three forces namely Pmi^ Pmt and Pmn.
Of thesethe forces Pmi and Pmi arc along the same straight line.
Hence, the third force PmnQ.
/. Ptnf =Pmi~4'l 1 1 {compressive)
Fig. 745
a^âlysis of framed structures 86r
Joint N
Since there is no force in the number NM, the joint should N
be in equiibrium under the action of the forces Fnk. Fni and Pm.
Out of these forces, the forces Pmt and Pm are along the same
straight line. Hence, the third force Pm should be zero.
Pnk=Pnt 33 t (tensile)
Joint I
N. This joint is in equilibrium under the

action of the forces Pit. Pa and Out of
these three forces the two forces P*^ and Pn
/ are along the same straight line. Therefore
/ the third force, namely .
Pu^Ptf.
Fib. 746
Joint P
Since there is no force in the member PI, at the joint P, we
therefore have the following three forces Pi*. Pvf and Ppf. Of these
forces, the two forces Pp and Ptu are along the same straight line.
Hence the third force

Ppj-0
Fig. 747 Fig. 748
Joint J
Since the members JP and JN do not carry forces, we have at
the joint J the following three forces, namely.

Pirn, Pn and Pik.
two forces Pu and Pi a arc along the

Of these three forces the
same straight line.
Hence the third force PitÔ

P n=41 7 t {compressive)
By studying the equilibrium of the joint /

we get
t (compressive)
j
862 STRENGrH OF MATERIALS

Joint K
Since there is no force in the member KJ, we have only the
following three forces at this ioint, namely Ph,, Pkn and Pkv- Out of
these forces, two forces Pkj and Pkn arc along the same straight line.
Hence, the third force
Pkp -~ 0
Pkv =^Pkn- -
t (tensfli')
If now we
consider the equilibrium of the joint P we conclude
that the force in the member PEÔ.
Joint A
we have
Pab sin 0+ 1 cos 0-3 9
Pab = yn t {compressi vt )
we have,
Pah + l sin 6^4*8 cos 0
/>,.+ =4-8 5-17 X

J-
Pa/ 8*34 f {tensile
Joint B
We have
Pbf^Poa 517 t (compressive)

-
analysis of framed structures g63
Resolving normal to the principal rafter,
we have,
Pttc~2t (comprcssivr)
Joint H
Resolving the forces vertically, we get,
sin l^--==Ptih cos U
Phc 2 sin 6 cos 2 cos 0
^ 1 67 / (ensile)
sin H 3
Resolving horizontally, we have,

Phu^Phb sin 04 P/M cos 2 6 1 P/iy
8-34=2x fl'67^1 2 X 2^5

^ )
8-34=l-201-0'47+//i,;
Phi/ 6*67 r (tensile)
Joint D
Resolving the forces normal to the principal rafter, we have
Pdf ^2 t (compressive)
fig, 733 734

Joint F
Resolving the forces normal to the line GFE, we have,
Pf, sin 20 -2 cos 6
Pfe 2 sin 0 cos 6 =2 cos 0
p, = _i_= 5.
sin 3
/. P/=>1 67 t (tensile)
Joint C
Resolving the forces normal to the principal rafter, we have
Peo^2~\-Pch sin 0 1 Per sin t)
- 2+2 X 1*67 y I
5
, , Pctf4'00 t (compressive)
864 STRENGTH OF MATERm.j
Resolving along the principal rafter, we have
P.d=Pc6=517 t. {.compressive)
Now considering the equilibrium of the joint Z?, we have
Prf=Prf=5 17 t. {compressive)
ttOM
Resolving vertically, we get

P/ sin 2^Pae cos 6
Pg/ 2 sin 0 cos 6=4 cos 6
P/- .
~=333 t. {tensile)
SID
Joint F
Resolving the forces along the line GFE, we have,
PftPfg-\-Pfc COS 26+P/d sin 6
=3-33+r67
Pft y 00 t {tensile)
The forces in the various members are tabulated on page 865.

Members EP, PI, PJ, PK, JK, JN, NM
do not carry any force.
163. Method of sections
Fig 757
Fig. 757 shows a truss subjected to an external load
Suppose, it is the forces in the members BC, CAf,
required to find
will not be a convenient
ML and CL. The method of resolution
other joints.
method, since it would involve the analysis of various
Force (tonnes)
Member
|
Compressive Tensile
j j
MB !
! 5-17 i
! 1
1
BC 5*17 i
CD 1
!
i
'
DF. ! i" 5-17 ;
1
,
El i
<-17
i
. 5
In a case like this, where it is required to find the forces in some

selected intermediate members of a sfructure. the method of sections
is adopted.
Let Ft, and V, be the reactions at the left and right supports.
Taking moments about the left support, we have,
Vh X 8=(4 J-2)3+(2 !-3)6+(2+3)9-f (3-f 2)12-f (3+6) x 1
1
4 2x18
Fa=18 tonnes.
16 tonnes.
t$ *t et tt at if tt
Fig.
Suppose the structure be split into

two parts by a stxtion !
- L Fig 759 shows
the left pan of section 1 ~ 1
If really the structure be cut or split

by a pldoe like 1-1, the continuity being
broken, each part (the left part of section
1
1 and the right part of section 1- Ij
will collapse.
This section 1 I is cutting the

members BC\ MC and ML Let BC and
A/C be compression members and let ML ^
be a tension member. us consider Now let
as to how the part of the structure on the Fig. 759
left hand side of was in equilibrium before the structure was
1 \
split by the section 1.

'

The member BC was pushing the joint B wuh a force Poe.
The member MC was pushing the foint M with a force
The member ML vvas pulling the joint M wth a fence P
Now if the structure be split by the section i -K since the
above forces P< r, Pm- and P^ are not present, rhe left part vvili not
i
be in equilibrium and will hence collapse. But aft^T splitting the

streuture by section l^-I, if we apply pushing forces of magnitude
1
/^MAtVSlS OF FRAMFD SiRUCTURES 867
p.,, and a pulling force P,m on the lef* part ui section l~l along
the Iine<i RC, and ML the paî will remain in equilibrium.
/' . deter 1. ncu the forces necessary to
I'h'rice
[êeP the left part in equilibrium Mcnce the eternal forces already
on the left part and tlie fo^ce^ d and Pmi form a system ^
It is on this principle ihdi the method of section is

m L-quiiibrium
haêd
The nature and magnitude of the forces P i'<nr and P may . i
be determined as foll('^vs
Consider the equilibrium of the left part of scctu'n Re- 1 1
saK'in" the forces on this part vertically, ue have the following

\ertical components :
(/) Va^\() tonnes * (upwards)
(//) At A 2 tonnes i (downwards)

l/u) At B 4 tonnes i (downwards)
ui;/ At Ml tonnes i (downw'ards)
*
The resultant of these forces-^ 8 tonnes (upwards)
Hence we require a balancing force of 8 tietncs 4 (downwards)

Tlie balancing forces is to be provided by the vertical compo-
nents of the force Ar, A., and Tv/. Out of these forces two forces
namely Phe and Pmi are horizontal forces and, therefore, they do not
have vortical components.
Hence the vertical component of Tr .should be 8 tonne 4 'i
{(lownyearcfs) This is possible only \i' P nr pushes the joint M Hence

P is a compressive force.
.
Vertical component of
=^Pruc sin 08 tonnes.
a 4
But tan 6
^

^
ft
stnO---
^
'--Jo
H
~ 10 tonnes
Prnc=Ûnonncs i compressive)
Force T/>
find we use the condition that the algebraic

the force Pbc.
'um of the moments (rf the forces on the lelt hand side of section
i - Tbout any point should be equal to zero. A convenient point
i
selected for taking tnotmnt. The point selected must be such

that, out of the unknown forces F .. /S and F o.
only tlie force Fsr
about the point and the forces P,. and F.,,
should have d moment
Should n moments about this pomt. To satisly this condi-
t have
868 STRENGTH OP MATBRIau
tion the point of intersection of the forces Pme and Pmi will be select,
ed, i.e., we cho./Se the point M.
M
Now taking moments about of the forces on the left hand
aide of section 1-^1 wfe have the following moments about M.
(0 16 X3=48 tonnes metresKJidockv/ise)
(it) 2x3=6 tonnes metres \jjl(anticlockwise)
Resultant moment
42 tonnes metresKJiclockmse)
Hence we require a balancing moment of 42 tonnes metres^,
(anticlockwise) about Af. This balancing moment should be provid-
ed by the forces Pbe, Pmt and Pmi.
But, Pme and Pmt will not provide any moment about M.
Hence, Ptc must provide the necessary anticlockwise moment of
42 tonnes metres, about Af.
This is possible only if P* pushes the joint B, i.e. Pbt is a com-
pressive force.
Pe X 4=42 tonne metres
42
Pt>t~ -^ = 10'5 tonnes (compressive)
Force Pmi
Now, to find the force Pmi we will take moments about C, the
point of intersection of the forces Ps. and Pmr.
Taking moments about C of the forces on the left hand side of
section 1 1, we have the following moments about C.
(/) 16x6=96 tonne wefrciOifclockwise)

in) 2 X 6= 12 tonne fnc/re5 )f^(anticlockwise)
(Hi) 4X3=12 torme metres\^' anticlockwise)
(v) 2x3=6 tonne mefre.T\:5((anticlockwise)
The resultant momcDt=96 30 66 tonne metres\J
(clockwise)
Hence we require a balancing moment of 66 tonne metres

^(anticlockwise) about C This is to be provided by the fences
pHf Anf and Fmi, But the forces Pte and Pme do not have moments
about C.
Hence the moment of Pmi about C should be 66 tonne metres
(anticlockwise). To satisfy this condition Pî should be a pulling
force. Hence Pmi is a tensile force.
Pmi X4=66 tonne metres
'* Pmi=I65 tonnes (tensile)
Force in the member CL
Pass a section 22 as shown
cutting the member CL. The
section is passed cutting the mini-
mum number of members including
the member in which we arc interes-
ted.
Now consider the equilibrium

of the forces on the left band side
of section 22 (see Fig. 761). Re-
solving the forces vertically, we have
the following vertical components.
Fig. r I
(0 16 tonnes t upwards at N
(ii)2 tonnes I downwards at A
(Hi) 2 tonnes I downwards at M
(/v) 4 tonnes i downwards at B
(v) 2 tonnes i downwards at C
The resultant of these forces=6 tonnes t upwards
Hence we require a downward force of 6 tonnes. This is to be
provided by the forces Ped, Pa, and Pnu But the forces Pen Pmt
are horizontal forces and hence they dc not have vertical compo-
nents. Hence the force Pn should provide a downward force of
6 tonnes, on the left part oj section 22. This is possible only if Pa k
a pulling force. Hence Pa is a tensile force.
. \ Pci 6 tonnes (tensile)
The above principles may be used to determine the force in any
other selected member.
Problem 470. Determine the forces in the members HC^ BC^ HG^
and EF of thetruss shown in Fig. 762 by the method of sections,
SolotioB. Let 6 be the inclination of the principal rafter with
the horizontal.
3
870 STRENOm OF MATtRi^l^
Fig. 7t)3
Length of AE- v 6-t
Taking moment' ;;bout A, we have
\
'
- 2'50 /
Vertical component of the applied load s\stcm

=8 cos 6-- 8 X 6 4 r
^
Fa--6-4-~? 5 = t
Horizontal component of the applied le ad system

=8 sin 0 = 8 X ~ 4g f. .
/. Horizontal reaction at /I ^4 8
To find member HC
the force in the
Pass section as shown in Fig. 764 and consider the ictt

1 1
part of section I. Taking moments of the forces on this part

1
about A (the point of intersection of and P/iu),

jiSAtVStS OF FRAMED STRUCTURES 871
7-5
we get. Pi;- X AQlx
IS
Pl.c^ (tensile)
4 AQ
Pt . -r667 / (tenMh"
To Jmd ihi fof( t ;/? /K.
C nnsidei ilu' k-fi p:ut Motion I ^ 1 .iv!r;.' nu^nicnt'' about

i/ (the point of iim'^^cc(ion of/'-, and A> r,avc the lollowing
moinenis ;
'
(<) 1 ^ 4, // 1 ^ '
1
'^*
7 '^
uinutl )
(/! 3 9:..^;/- '9v. vr t:
. iniMiicni ibvu: h - 7 2')5 tm \J u7 . . )
Ilence x\e rcq-ite a hal<t;K'in'' anlici.'-K'v, !ê r.'>:'ie!-: on 2 ('?
ar be pro> idc<l 'nlv b; /' i order the

rent-- nu f re at out it i his (
' I
-iioua. e a ci>m
niiniciit of P aboil! // may be ai<!u.iiCs''voc. /
pressixe force.
P M! i _
\ AP see ! . stii 7 20 '
Fx -',- tan 7 265
7 S
P:-. X 7 265
7-265 X 16
'
7 5 x 3
Pt. = ;-167 I (compressh'e)
872 SnBNOTH or MATBRUU
To find the force in HG
Consider the left part of section li. Take moment about
C, the point of intersection of P*t and Ae.
We have the following moments about C.
7-s
lx STS tm. ^{antictockwise)
2
7 5
2x tm. ir\(anticbckwise)
4
4'8x-^ sin fl 48x x-|- =10*80 tm ChicJockwise)
7'5 7'S
39x^cos 0-=39 X IVl tm. r\ (clockwise)
Total moment about C--15 rm. (clockwise).
Hence we require a balancing anticlockwise moment of 1 5 tm.

about C. This can be provided only by Pk.j. In order the moment
of Pha about C may be anticlockwise Pha should be a tensile
force.
7 5
jPx sin 15 tm.
2
PhaX
rs 15
2 *
5
15x!0
A,- i-yxi
*
*. Paf 6*667 t (tensile)
Force in EF
Pass section 22 as shown in Fig. 765. Consider the left part
of section 22.
Take moments about A (the point of intersection of the forces
and ft*), we have the following moments about
7*5
(i) 2x 3'7S tm. ^(clockwise)
VKALYSD or niAMBD STRUCTURFS 87?
7-5
00 2x 750 tm.r\(clockwise)
Oil) 2x X7'5ir25 lm.f\{cIockwise)
Total moment about ^4*= 22 50 tm. f\ (clockwise)

Hence, we require a balancing anticlockwise moment of 22 50
tm. about A. This can be provided only by P/r. In order the moment
of P/ about A may be anticlockwise.
Pit should be a tensile force.
P/XÔ=-22'50
But AO=l'5 sin 0
3
= 7-5x 5
22-50 22 5ii
Ptt " 5t (tensile)
ylO 4 5
Problem 471. Fig. 766 s/uws a cantilever bridge truss. Find the
stres.<'es in members 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the truss. (A..M.I.E.)
4-
K*tl k:
r-g. 76{>
Solution. The whole structure

consists of two cantilevering trus-
ses and an intermediate truss
w supported at the ends of the two
cantilever trusses. The loading on
the intermediate truss is transferred
to the ends of the cantilevering
trusses. Since the total load 2fV
on the intermediate truss is
symmetrically applied on it, a
767
Pig, load of will be transferred to W
the end of each cantilevering truss- Now consider the cantilevering
truss on the left (sec Fig. 767).
Let the vertical reaction at the support // be Vn.
Let the length of each panel be a-
Taking moments about X, we have.
y JV (upwards)
2
= W (downwards)
S74 SIRENGIH OF MATLRUus
Resolving the forces at H vertically.

We have (compressive)
5 IV
i,e. Force in member 4 is - (compressive)
^
Pass sectionXX as shown.
Consider the part of the truss on the left side of section \X>
Resolving the forces on this part vertically, we have
Pt.i sin 45^-^ W

= (tensile)
V''^2
/ e, the force in member 2 is -
(tensile)
^
To find the fince in the member CD, taking moments of ihe
forces on the LHS of XX about /, we have,
^
W Ca)^ Praa
IV (tinsilc)
i i\ The force m member ^

^
(tensile)
To find the force on the member ///, taking moments of the
A>rccs on the / f/S (f section .V\' about />. we have
P^h 2 \V {cotv.presshe)
ie> The fofce in member I is 2 IV (co/npressire)

and 4 are tabulated beKov.
ll'ic forces lii tne nienihcrs i, 2, 3
l\ rce Type of FofiC
2W Compressive
1
2 2y2 w Tensile
I
i ensile
3
' W' Compressive

4
the forces m all the

Problem 472. Find gnirhic ally or otherwise
shown in fig. 768. Indicate the 'emits >n a
memoers of the truss
Ft.) (A.M
tabular form.
1
analvsks of framed STRUCTCJRI 875
Solution. See era^^hical

solution at the end the
cl -ap ter.
b? z/v/aii/ Mcihoil (.S'tt-
J.ci rand // be 1 1:0
vertical and hod/outal

C'MiiporivS'iis i>r the rea<.tion
Ui i-
2 1
tany -
--
^ 2
1
!>in a- ,
,
5
2
and COS r/. "~V
T:ikhig iitornenl'. about j
Ui, wc liave '

!
//X 4 -'10^8
H 70 r
He'icc !
! rf.:''!*'- .<'
^ V ' '
'eiuMiVs ; he
Let the
^
J
RcsoiviPe il e Uvee- tO
'
'a \a
Fi j cos 2
, - '
.
? . ,
'
;
^ 7f s / b'
RcsoU /// e //or/r (/ntaliy
.i_i 5;
-
ti
'
'a
COS a
876 mENGTH OF M^miALS

10 v'S X ^^^20 t (tensile)
Joint L2
Resolving vertically
Pl.2I32~tJL2t]3 83n a
-10v^5 ,.--I0 00l(rcn.fe)

V J
Resolving horizontally
-Pl2~li=Pl2TJ3 cos
lOv^Sx *20 t (compressive)
Joint Li
Resolving vertically
l'tTi_r 2 sin a=F~0
*. Pli-U2~0
The forces in the various members are entered in the following
table :
Forces in tonnes
Member j
'
Compressive Tensile
UiUt 2236
VtU, ! 2000
UsLt 22-36
i-tl-t
1
20*00
:
0 0
Vti-t )0
T v 71 j
jrumu as snowo rig, //u, is m n
lungea at A and oaded at a horizontal chain is attached to C and
pulled so that AD
is horizontal Determine the pull in the chain and
also the force in each member stating whether it is in tension or
com-
pression.
Solution. See graphical solu- TO CHAIN t
tion at the end of the chapter.
Analytical Solution
Let the tension in the chain
be r (see Fig. 771).
The external load of 2 r can

be resolved into its horizontal
and vertical components.
Since the given load is at
45* with the vertical, this load
can be ic|daced by a horizontal
Fig. 770
:
analysis < FKAMBO STROCTORES
load of t and a vertical load of ^/2 r at D.
Taking moments of the forces on the structure about the

hinge A, we have
7x0'9-v'2xl'2
1-885 f
Resolving fhe forces on the whole structure horizontally we

have the following horizontal components
4y/2
(z) Tensile load of -j- ^ chains-
(zi) Horieontal f(>rcc\/2
y/2
Hence the horizontal reaction Bt A
^ t-^
Resolving the forces on the whole structure vertically, we get

Vertical reaction at *v 2^ t
Joint A
Resolvm ^crticali)
Fab sin ^0'^ V2 Fab=^2 v/2f (compressire)
Resolving horizontally at Ay we have the following horizontal

components.
Horizontal reaction at A ^
f-
.4
(i7) Horizontal coinponcnt of P iti -2\/2 cos 30 45 t
/a 1 orcc in 2*450 47
= 1*98 r {tensile)
m STRENGTH OF MATERIAIS
Joint C.
Let the inclination of CB vvitii *hc vertical be
Length BD \'2 în TO O //
Length BE^^S6 sin 30 0 3 rn iinJ length ED 0 6 cos 3')
-
0 S20 m
r. Length C*-0 9 ) 0 52 o 3'< m
a= BE
(J-3
tan
~CE 0 LS
a = 3' 15'
Prt> sin ol~T^\M'
1 *X8

'ii- tc> '-=^3(^4^ (runtfressive)
'
sjn 38 1.*==
Resolving verticallv,
CO% TT
-
3 < 4 cos ^8 15'
tin n Jh )
Joint D
Pdh cos 60 -Ps.,-' \ 2
*41 -0 57
Ed i ~ rM f { r('n:pressl\i')
The forces in tise \arious niernbciN of the .structure are tabulated

below :
i f'^rt e in mem>er
Members
i 0uprfsu>-r Et nsi/e I
AB 1\ 2 k:,
j
BC 1
cn 1
DA '
I
) 98
DB ! !i4
Problem 474. The loading and support conditions of a plane

shown in Fig "72. Find graphk ally or otherwise the forces
2 re
members AB, AF, BC, BF, BE, and FE^ (A.Af /.E.)
SfiloticMi. See graphical solution at the end of the chapter.
FRAMED STRUCTORFS 379
ANAtVSIS OF
Ani.lx li. uJ Saluti.m
Lfi the rl;^ctipn^ of tbt-
ûf>pori^ I j ! and 1'.! Uig
Takin !r,.'>nients ahou' A.

\\c have,
Fig. 772
Mg. 771
i- k - 1 2 7
J'.=-36-l2 ?At
Joint .-1
Resolving vertically, we luwe

y.n 45-24 t
-24v2 iô'nprrssix-r)
7'a.v t
Resolving horizontally, we
have.
CO..

4'
24
2 C'A
24 / Uen.nVi
Joint F
Resolving vertically, we have,
(leimh )
/'/f.=
7 36
have.
Resolving horizontally, we
Fte - 24 t tensile) \
CB to n.eet FA produced at 0
Produce
Let BOA -II
KF CE
tanb-^^ Z7/.
2 3
OF OF-rl
OF=A m
;
S80 SnSNOTH OP materials
0^=2 m
To find the force io the member BE pass section 1 1 as shown.
Consider the equilibrium of the forces acting on the left hand side of
section l-l. Take moments of these forces about O. .We have the
following moments
(.) 24 X 2=48 rmvjl
{) 35x4-144 rmsTN
Hence we require a balancing anticlockwise moment of
(144 48) 9tf tm about O.
This moment is supplied by the moment of about O.
Let the perpendicular distance between O and the member BE
be p.
Hence PbtXp^96
p 96
. . rbt^'
P
But p=6 sin 45*
= m-3V2/n
\/2
96
*. (compressive)
To iBind the force in the member BC, con^jider the equilibrium

of the forces acting on the left hand side of section 1 1.
Take moments about E. We have the following moments :
(/) 24x4=96 tm, Ck

(ii) 36x2=12 tm\j(
Hence we require a balancing anticlockwise moment of
9672 ==^24 tm about .
Let the perpendicular distance between E and the member BC
htq.
Hence the balancing moment about E provided by F& is equal
to Pbt q.
Fbc=
9
But ^ sm 0
But tan
*
sm a=

\ 5
6
24V5
Pbc-
analysis op FRAMBD SrRUCrURES
881
(compressive)
The forces in the members which have been computed arc
tabulated below :
Force {tonnes*
Member
I
Comptoîve Tensile
1
AR 24^1
BC 4^5
AF 24
FG 24
j
HF !
36
j
1
j
'
BE
16^2
1
Problem 475. Determine the forces in the various members of a

pimjointed framework shown in Fig* All loads are in kg.
SolutioD See graphical solution at the end of the chapter.
Analytical Solution
Let the joints/ be named as sLx.,vn in Fig. 774.
Let He and Ve be the horizontal and vertical reactions at .
77^ fig, 775

we have
// X 3 100 X 24- 100 X 4=600
He '^200 kg.
Resolving the forces at E horizontally.
-
sn STRENGTH OF SIATERIais
we have,
P.6 cos 0==2OO
200
P.ii
cos b
But tan 6=-7-

4
sin B
and cosB
P.d ^^^--=250 kg. {compressive)
Resolving the forces at E vertically,

we have,
250 sine
=250x-|- = 150*g. t
. Vertical reaction at ^ = 200 - 1 50 = 50 t
and Horizontal reaction at ^=200 kg.

Joint C
Resolving the forces vertically,
we have,
Pcd sin 6=100
o 100 100 X5
. Jrrd . /
SIQ i
P,d=-^~~kg. {compressive)
we have,
JPf6=Pcd cos 0
500 4 400
3 5
3
Peb-^kg. {tensile)
Joint B
we have,
P*d*100 kg. {compressive)
Resolving horizontally.
S63
we have,
400
Joint A
Resolviag vertically,
we have,
Pad sin 6 = 50
SOxS 250
Pad* ""
3 3
Pad^ kg, (tensile)
The forces in the various members are tabulated below.
Force {kg)
^ Members |
Compressive Tensile
400*
AB 3
1
400
BC '
3
j
500
CD i
3 1
I1
DE 250
1
1
250
AD j
3
DB 100
j
Problem 476. Find graphically or analytically the magnitude and

nature of the stresses in all the members of the truss own in Fig,
776,
Solution. See graphical

solution at the end of the
chapter.
Analytical Solution.
Let Va and Va be the
reactions at the supports.
Taking moments about the
end A,
we have,
KdX 10===2x2'54'4x7*5
:
884 STRENGTH OF MATERtALS
2t 4/
Fig. 777
Joint A
Resolving the forces at A vertically
we have,
Pab sin 60*

2
5 2 5 .
Pab^~
y'j
i (compressive)
we have,
Pai = Pab COS cos 60*
t (tensile)
Joint B
Resolving the forces at B vertically we have the following
vertical components
(/) Vertical component of sin 60*=-^ t t
(ii) Downward load of 2 r |

Hence we require downward force of J / for equilibnum.
a
/. Vertical component of Pb should be equal to } t,
Pdi sin 60
ANALTSb OF FRAMED STRUCTURES 885
Poo t (tensik)
2 ^2
Resolving the forces horizootally,
wc have,
Pbe^^Pbj COS cos 60*
==_. -L ,
^ V3
__L.
V3 2 2
,
=V3 t (compressive)
Joint E
Since the vertical components of Peb and P ,
' should balance,
we have,
t (compressive)
Resolving the forces horizontally,

Ped^Pea+Peb COS 6if + P,r COS 60*^
= ~2^ +
V3 " J3
- -5 I-,.
~2v/3^2V3^2V3~2v'3
Pd /(fenrf/e)
2^2
Joint C
Resolving the forces vertically we have the following vertical
components :
(i) Downward load of 4 t I

(ii) Vertical component of Pee
sin 60*i t t
v3
Hence we requite an upward force of-;^- t t
This will be provided by the vertical component of Ped

7
60* -=
/>ed sin
Y
Pei- '
2 ^3
7
Pei= ^j- t (compressive)
The forces in the various members are tabulated below :

j
Force (tonnes)
Members
Compressive Tensile
1
5
AB
BC
7
CD
1
7
DE '
BE
EC
^ 1
Problem 477. Fig, 778 shows a shear leg crane lifting a 40fi00
kg. load. The legs are 12 m long and 6 m apart at the base. The
back stay is 14 m long. All
members are pinjointed and
E and C are at the same
level on the ground. Find
the force in the various
members.
Solution See graphical
solution at the end of the
chapter.
Analytical Solution
Consider a vertical
plane containing the member Fin- 778
AW* :ii
EBC along BD.
j.
AB. This plane will intersect the plane of the triangle
Fig. 779
analysis of frame
Now let us imagine that the members BE and BC are removed and a
member BD is provided. The frame now takes the shape shown in
Fig. 779.
If now the force in the member be BD
determined, then the forces in the members
BE and BC
can be easily determined since
the force in BDrepresents the resultant of
the forces in the members BE and BC
Now to find the length BD, consider

the true shape of the triangle BEC{\%. 780) ^BITI
5==5C-12 m.
ED^DC^-i m.
j8r-=v/12 3^
=v iT5 m. E sm D 9m c
-= 1 1 '62 m. Fig. 780
Let the imaginary member be inclined at a with the hori-

zontal and let ABht inclined at p with the horizontal.
a = 64'3r
and 5F=5 tan 64 31'
5 tan 64* 31'

.
sin 3=
3=48 31'
.4/=14 cos 48' 3r = 9274 m

4D =9-274 -5 -4-274 m
Let the vertical component of the reaction at D be Vi. Taking
moments about A, we have
VdXAD=-40,tmxAF
F,i = 40.000
Fri- 40,000 X
y'vl- AD
^KKOOO X 9'214
'4'27"4
86820 k^. t
Vertical component of the reaction at A

c= K. -86820- 40,000 = 46820 Aîr J
Resolving forces at D vertically,

we have,
sin ft
86820
86820
MAtHUAlS
86820
sin 64* 31'
/*<* =96160 kg. {compressive)
Resolving the forces at A vertically, we have
Pub sin p- 46820
^820
Pali
sin ^
46820
48*31
"sin
Pab=fi24i0 kg. (tensile)
Now to find the force in each of the members and BC, BE
consider the plane containing the triangle BEC. By symmetry, forces
inBE and BC
are equal.
I.e., PbtPis.
Since the resultant of Pbt and Pbc is Pbt, we have
2PeCos e=96160
But Sin 2_
12 4
e=14* 25'
^fôff^Pêssive)
2 cos 14'
Force in the back stay BA
= 624>'0kg. (tensile)
and Force in each leg, i.e., in the members BE and BC
=49650 kg. (compressive)
Problem 478. Determine the reactions and the forces in the
members of the vertical frame shown in Fig. 781.
Solution. See graphical solution at the end of the chapter.
Analytical Solution.
Let the vertical components of the reactions at the left and
ight supports be Fi and V2 respectively.
Taking moments about the left support, we have
F2 x 10=1 Xl5

V 3 *
3 1
Fi=2-Y^yrt
Since the right support is a roller support there will
. be no
horizontal reaction at the right support.
Hence the external horizon-
tal lorce of 1 r will be balanced
by the horizontal reaction at the left
Hence horizontal reaction at the left support =.ff==l t

2 TONS
Joint 3
Only two forces are prCvSeal at this joini, Px.2 and P3
Since these are the only two forces at the nni 3 and since these aie j
not along the same straight line, we have, fur the cc|uilibriuin of the
joint 3,
2 P3 -0
Joint 1. Resolving the forces vertically, we have
A_4^2 t iafnipres^sivc)
Resolving the forces horizontally, we have
/î_ 2 "^l t (compressive)
Joint 2. Resolving the forces along the line 2-6, we have,

45'"
I cos
P2 -r> = 7
-
;^
t < compressi ve)
Since the vertical components of /g-e and ^2-4 must balance,

we have
?2_4
Joint 4. Resolving horizontally, we have.

mkbngth of materials
P4-5^cos 45
P4-5==4 t (compressive)
Resolving vertically, we have,
P4-7=2 V2^ sin 45
t (compressive)
Joint 6. Resolving vertically,

= sin 45"=| t (compressive)
V 2
P6-5"^4;r cos *5=

'
t (tensile)
\l L L
Joint 5. Resolving the forces along the line 59
+ ^cos45
2
P5-9~:^ i (compressive)
Since the vertical components of P5_7 and P5-9 should balance,

we have,
I
Joint 7 Resolving vertically, we have,
n 3 I .^c
P -3 _ >
= 1 t (compressUe)
Resolving horizontally, we have,
P7-.8 cos 45*= ^ (compressive)

2
Joint 9. Resolving vertically,

1
P9- 11- . sin 45

^
2 V 2
P9_ii=^l t (compressive)
Resolving horizontally, wc have,
/<( .8
= -L cos ><5' = i / (tensile)
V2
Joint cV. Resolving the forces along the line 8 11, we nave,
2 2 )
analysis I
^*2 t (compressive)
Since the vertical components of and Ps-io should

balance, we have,
i*8-io= (t^sile)
^2 *
Joint 10. Resolving horizontally, we have,
Pio-ii = l 45= t (tensile)

;J 2
forces in the various
The members arc shown in Fig. 782 and
tabulated on page 892.
also be analysed
164. Graphic Statics. Girders and frames can
graphically. When analytical solutions are dillicult a graphical
solution may be found convenient. While the analytical methods
provide
provide absolutely correct results, the graphical methods
reasonably accurate results.
which
Bow's Notation. force is designated by two letters
A
are w ritten on either side of the line of action of the force.
Fig. 783shows a force with the

(i)
tters A and on B
either side of the line ol
will be c^led
;tion of the force. This force
of action. Witn
AB. Aforce has a point
the forM
spect to the point of action of
to designate the force are
letters used
r*nriinr*#d . order.
Forc PO shown in Fig. 783

Similarly the force
(/i) will be called as PQ-
783
Similarly the force shown
in Fig.
{Hi) will be called as MN.

3rcc NM
Fig. 783
system of forces
165. To determine the resultant of a
784 shows three parallel

Fig. e^,7ccs ^To
CD = 12r. Let it be required
of a aS cd = 12t Choose any
a convenient scale, draw ab lOf, oc
-
pole o. Join ao, bo, ro, do. ^

Take any point 1 on the line
thc*^ force
of
1, draw 12 parallel to bo to meet the line o
Force
Member |
Compressive itonaes) Tensile {tonnes)

'%
12 \
23
3-6
1

1
analyses of framed STRUCl UR PS 893
BC at 2. Through 2 draw 2-3 parallel to ro to meet the line of

action of CD at 3. Draw 14 and 3 -4 parallel to <70 and do
I
*^"5. Polar diagram
Fig. 784. Funicular palygen.
respectively and obtain the point 4. Through

the
This line is the line ot action ot
to the given forces.
of all ihf forces By measurement this line is
of action of ibe force AB Now let us consider1
system of forces
2
are not par^

1
^
f
^
forces. Fig 786 shr.ws a
each other. The various forces are named
as
nr
100 kg. and /)/. , -80
-go
The forces are aB-^M) kg., BC-^\50 kg., Cl>
given forces
First draw ah, be, cd and de to represent the
ot the resultant. Th
find the magnitude and the direction
o and draw o/>. nc and orf.

Take"' any convenient point
(o is called a pole). . e* r Aty
Now from any point on the line of action of the^^

draw a line parallel to ho to meet forw^T

a .
parallel to co to meet the force CD at "1

farallel to do to meet the force
Dh at 4. 3^^ /
^êlv
.vely ^nd obmin the
Ld 4, draw lines parallel to no and er respec
point of intersection 5. T
'[^"^L^îctionôV
( the resultant of the
ae. This line represents the line .
polygon, the
converge at the same point.

m STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Fig. 736
$166. To determioe the reactions at the supports of a simply suppor-
ted beam.
Fig. 787 shows a simply supported beam 6 metres long witii
the supports at the ends. The beam carries point loads 10 t and 16 t
at distances 2 m and 4 m from the left support. Let us determioe
the reactions Vi and Fg at the left and right supports.
The forces on the beam and the reactions are narhed following
Bows notations. Now the polar diagram and the funicular polygon
'
are drawn as follows :
Draw ab to represent the force AB equal to 10 /. Draw be to
represent the force BC equal to 16 /. ^^Seiect any convenient ^pole o.
Join on, ob, oc. Now through any convenient point J on the line
analysis of framed STRl3CtURES 895
lOt 161
A B 1 C
f
r 2m 2m
0
2m
v,l
Polar diagram
of action of Vi draw a line 12 parallel to ao to meet the line of

action of the force AB at 2. Now through 2, draw a line 2--3 parallel
to bo to meet the line of action of the force BC at 3. Now through
3, draw a line 3 4 parallel to co to meet the line of action of the
reaction at 4. Join 1 4. The figure 1 -2-34 is the funicular
polygon. The line 14 is the closing line of the funicular polygon.
Now through the pole o draw od parallel to this closing line 4, I
to intersect the load line at d Now da represents Vi and cd repre-

sents K2 .By measurement Vi^daM t and K2 cd^l4 i.
Problem 479. Determine the forces in all the members of the
truss shown in Fig. 788, The inclined members are at 45^ to the hori-
zontal.
Solution.
I I . 7.-8
896 mBNGTH OF materials
Since at a roller support has been
provided the reaction at E should be nor-
mal to the roller base, i.e., at E the re-
action is horizontal. The resultant of the
two loads of 200 kg. each applied at the
joints Dand C will act through the
middle point of DCNow the forces
keeping the truss in equilibrium are the
following :
Fig. 789
(/) Resultant external load 200+200
=400 kg.
07) Horizontal reaction at E

{Hi) Reaction at
These forces are concurrent.
Hence the reaction at A should act in line with the line joining
A and the middle point of DC.
Having determined the directions of reactions, we proceed as
follows :
Name the various forces adopting Bow^s notation as shown.

Draw pq, qr to represent the applied loads of 200 kg each applied at
the joints C
and D
Draw a horizontal line rs through r (which is parallel to the
reaction at Ek Draw ps parallel to the reaction at /I and thus
obtain the point s vSiuce at E there are only three forces, two of
which are along a straight line, the third force, i.e.y the force in AE,
i.e., the force st, is zero. Hence ^ and t coincide in the stress diagram,
tr repiesents the force TR, i.e., the force in ED-

Now consider the joint A. The forces at this joint are :
(i) Reaction at A, i.c., SP

(a) Force in AB, i e., PU
(Hi) Force in AD, i.e.y UT.
Nowthrough the point u draw a line tu parallel to the force
VT. Draw pu parallel to the force PV. Thus, obtain the point u.
Obtain other points in the stress diagram* similarly. Drawing uv
parallel to f/Fand pv parallel to FF
obtain the point v. Obviously
vq should be horizontal since it represents the horizontal force VQ.
To Jind the force from the stress diagram

For instance to find the force in the member AB. consider
eilhei the joint A or B Let us consider the joint A. At any joint
the forces which are named following Bows no ation should be
pronounced in the clockwise order, / c., the force in AB, at the joint
A should he pronounced as PU
and not UP. Hence at A. the force
mABnPU. Now fipd the direction of pu in the stress diagram.
Now the direction of the force in AB
at A will be the same as the
direction pu. Mark an arrow along AB at A in the direction pu. The
analyhs of framed structures
897
force AB at A pulls the joint A and hence AB is a tension member.
The member AB will of course pull the joint B also, Mark an arrow
along BA at B.
Following the same principle mark the arrows
along the extre-
mities of the vanous members indicating whether they
arc tensile or
compressive.
Now the forces in the members of the structure can be scaled
from the stress diagram. These arc tabulated below :
I
MEMBER FORCE
(kg.)
Designation by Designation
end joints as per Bow's Compressive Ttnak
Notation
AB PU 20&0
BC PV 2828
CD VQ 200
DE TR 600
1
EA S7^ 0 0
DA UT 565-6
DB UV 200
... . _ . ,
Problen 480. Determine the forces in the various members of

shown
the structure in Fig. 790.
.
ST tENGTH OF MATERIALS
Name the various forces following Bows notation.
Draw pq to represent 16 tonnes.
Reaction at C= 8 tonnes.
Reaction at tonnes.
Fig. 791 Fig. 792

Measure qr vertically and equal to 8 tonnes and obtain the
point r.
Now obtain the variou.s points in the stress diagram in succes-
sion in the following order :
Draw rs and ps parallel to RS and PS and obtain the point s.
/\ircF
Member 1
(tonnes)
j
Dedgnatton by Designation
end Join* as per Bow*s f Compresiivr Tensile
Notatiqn
AB PS 15-5
BC QT 15*5
AO SR 9-6
CO i TR i
1
96
\
BO ST 10 6
analysis op FitAMEO STRUCTURES
Draw St and qt parallel to ST and grand obtain the point t.
Now tr should remain parallel to TR.
The forces in the various members of the structure maybe

scaled from the stress diagram. These arc tabulated on page g98.
Problem. 481- Determine the forces in all the

members of the
tru^ shown in Fig. 793, All the inclined members are 45"^ at with the
horizontal.
Solution.
Fig. 793
Fig. 794
Name the various forces following

^ Bows notation.
represent the force PQ
\ / \N. = 10 tonnes. Draw qr and pr parallel to
\ QR and PR and obtain the înt r.
//\\
Draw and pu RV and
//
ru parallel to
PU and obtain the point u.
/ \/ Draw rs and qs parallel to RS and

^ QS and
Draw
obtain the point
St and
s.
ut parallel to ST and
795 UT and obtain the point t.
Draw tw and pw parallel to TIV and PFF and obtain the

point w.
Draw tv and qv parallel to TV and QV and obtain the point v.
The forces in the various members may now be scaled from th<
stress diagram. These are tabulated on page 900.
900 STRENGTH OF MATBRIALS
Member |
Force (tonnes)
[
Designation by Designation by
Compessive Tensile
end Joints Bow's Notation
AB QR 7-07
BC '
QS 1000
CD QV 14*4
FG WP 1414
GH PU 10
ffA PR 7*07
EG WT TGI
EC VT 7*07
CJ TU TGI
JB SR 707
JH UR TOl
JC TS 7'07
i
nroUem. 482. Determine graphically the forces in the members

the forces in
of the roof truss loaded as shown in Fig, 776 and tabulate
the members of the structure. iA.M. I. E.)
797
Tne various forces are named following Bows notation.
The resultant of the external loading will act normal to the
roof through the joint
C The reaction at the right end will be
vertical. The reaction at the left support should therefore pass
through the point of intersection of resultant external loading
and the vertical through the support at the right end.
Thus the
directions of the two reactions are known.

Draw ^ 2^ 2--3, 45
and 56
to represent the forces
applied at the joint C, D, and E. Draw 61
vertically. Draw
1
/ parallel to the reaction at the left support and thus obtain the
point 7.
Draw 78 horizontally and 2 8 parallel to 2-* 8 and obtain
^ne point 8.
Draw 8
9 parallel to 8 9 and 39 parallel to 39 and
obtain the point 9.
. .
Draw 910 parallel to 910 and 710 parallel to 710 and
Obtain the point 10. ^
p
902 SI RENOrH OF materials

Imagine that the members CFand FD are removed and instead
of these a member GD is provided.
Hence discard the forces 11 12 and 1213, and introduce the
force
Draw I0-* paralleUo CD and 4-*
parallel to roof and
obtain the point a.
Draw p parallel to GD
and 5~p parallel to roof and obtain
the point p.
Draw p 14 parallel to GE and 714 horizontally and obtain
the point 14.
Now the point 13 can be obtained as the point of intersection
of 14-13 and 5-13.
Point 12 the point of intersection of 1312 and 4-12.
is
Point 1 1 the point of intersection of 12 1 1 and 10 II.
is
Point 15 is the point-of intersection of 14- 15 and 615.
It will be seen that the points 14, IS, 16, 17, Ig, 19 and 20 win
all coincide.
The above method is called the method of substitution.
The forces in the various members may now be scaled from the
stress diagram. They are tabulated on page 902.
Problem 483. Find graphically or otherwise the forces In the

members of the structure shown in F^. 798.
l-ig. 799 Fig. 800

Grr^hical Solution
The various forces keeping all the jointe of the structure in
equilibrium are named following Bows notation.
Draw ab to represent the force AB of 10 t Draw bf and tf
parallel to BF and .4Fand obtain the point /. Draw /</ and M
parallel to FD
and BD
and obtain the point d. It will be seen that
the points d, e and c will coincide.
Now the forces in the various memters may be scaled from
die stress diagram. These forces are entered in the following table t
Memter Force in the member
(tonnes)
Desifnathn \
Designation
by end Joints '
by Bow's Compressive Tensile

Notation
1
UiU, AE 22*36
UtU, AF 22*00
VtU BF 22*36
LxU DB 2000
UtU ED 0 0
U,Lt DF 10
ProUem 484. J'i&id' graphically or otherwise the tension in the

chcta and the forces In the meters of the structure shown in Fig. 801,
SoiatioB.
Fig. 801 Re- 802
The forces on the structure arc named following Bows

notation. ^ ,
The structure is in equilibrium under the action of
(/) The applied load of 2t
(//) Tenaon in the chain
(Hi) Reaction at A
These three forces should therefore be concurrent. Using this
cionditioti the direction of the reaction at 41 can be determined.
Tnalysis op framed structures
Draw pg to represent the force PQ-^2 t. Draw pr horizontally,
parallel to the chain and qr parallel to the reaction at A and
obtain the point r.
Draw rs and qs parallel to RS and QS and obtain the point s.

Draw St parallel to ST and pt parallel to PT and obtain the point t
Nowthe tension in the chain is given by the force RP. By
measurement 1*89 t. Now the forces in the various members
arc tabulated below :
Member Force (tonnes)
Designation by Designation
end joints By Bow*s Compression Tension
Natation
AB RS 2-83
BC RT 3*04
CD TP 239
DA SQ 1 98
DB ST 114
Problem 485. Find the factors in the members of the structure

shown in Fig, 803. {A.LME.)
Soiotion. The direc-
tions of the reactions
may be determined as
follows.
The right support
(Joint 11) is a roller sup-
port. Hence the reaction
is vertical. The external
loads applied arc the 2
tonnes load and the 1
tonne load on the joint
1 applied vertically and
horizontally respectively.
The resultant of these
two forces, the vertical
reaction at the roller sup-
port and the reaction at
the hinged left support
are in equilibrium, and
should therefore be con-
current. Using this prin-
ciple the direction at the
reaction at the hinged
support can be deter-
Fis 803. mined.
906 SrRENGTH OF MATERIALS
The various forces may now be designated following Bows
notation (Fig 805).
Fig. 804 Fig- 805
Selecting a suitable scale, draw ab horizontally to represent

totctABoilt. Draw be vertically to represent the force BCoi
2 t. Draw cm and am parallel to the vertical reaction of the roller

support and the reaction of the hinged support and obtain the point
m. It will be seen that the points c and f will coincide. Draw ca
respectively parallel to the
and ad horizontally and vertically
forces CD and AD and obtain the point d. Draw de and/e parallel
to DE and FE and obtain the point e. Draw ei and a/ parallel to
El and Al and obtain the point i. Draw eg and eg parallel to tu

and CG and obtain the point g- Draw ih and gh parallel to IH
ana
HJ and AJ
GH and obtain the point h. Draw hj and al parallel to
and obtain the point / Draw hi and cl parallel to HL md CZ, and
obtain the point /. Draw k and fk parallel to LK and JK and
obtain
the point K. ^ , j e
members may now be scaled trom
The forces in the various
the stress diagram. These are tabulated below ;
90
;RliNUIH Ur MATERIALS
FroUem 486. f'ind the forces in the members of the truss shown
in Fig. 806.
StAutUm,
Name the various forces foliowing Bows Notation. Adopting

a convenient scale, draw ab and be vertically representing the two
loads of 100 kg. each. Draw cf and bf parallel to CF and BF and
obtain the point / Draw fe and ae parallel to FE and AE and
obtain the point e. Draw ed and cd parallel to ED and CD and
obtain the point d. The forces in the members may now be scaled
\from the stress diagram. These are tabulated below :
ANALVaiS OF FRAMED SIHUCTURES 909
Member Force (kg.)
Designation by Compressive Tensile

Bow's Notation
AE 1333
BF 133-3
CF 166.7
FE 100
ED 83*3
DC 250
Problem 487. Find the forces in the members of the truss shorn
in Fig.808.
Sointimi
2t 4t
Fi'i- 808
Name the various forces following Bows Notation.

Draw pq and qr to represent the vertical loads of 2 1 and
4 /. Select a pole O. Join po, qo and ro. From any point on the
left reaction (say from the left support itself), draw a line po paralld
to po to meet the load line of 2 1. From the point of intersection
obtained draw a ray parallel to_ ro to meet the load line of 4t. From
the point of intersection obtain^ draw a ray parallel to ro to meet
the load line of the reaction at D
and thus obtain the ftinicalar
polygon. Through the pole o draw os parallel to the closing line of
the funicular polygon to meet the line pqr at s. Now rs represents
the reaction at the right support and sp represents the reaction at the
left support. Now all the po'mts in the stress diagram are obtained
in succession.
'
910 fmtBNOTH OF materials
Fig. 810
Draw pt and st parallel to the forces FT and ST and obtain the

point t. Draw tu and gu parallel to TU and QU
and obtain the
Mint u Draw uo and rv parallel to /K and /JK and obtain the
Mint V. The forces in the members may now be scaled from the
stress diagram. TTiese are tabulated belo^ t
Member Force {tonnes)
Designation Designation by
By End Joints Bow's Notation Compressive Tensile
AB PT 29
BC QU 1*7
CD VR 4*0
DE SV 2*0
EA ST 15
BE TU 0*6
EC UV 0*6
Problem 488. Find the forces in the members of the structure

shown in Fig, 811 . {AM.I.E)
Solution.
Fig. 811
Name the various forces following Bow s notation.
Draw pq of 36 I. Select a
vertically to represent the load
polygon as exp aincd
0 and complete the funicular
to the
problem. Through the pole O draw Pfaelhnc
pq at v. Now
load vp
of the funicular polygon to meet the
represents the reaction at the right
support
reaction at the left support. No'v the various înts in ê stress
diagram may be obtained in succession. These forces are tabulated
on page 912.
Pig. 812
Member Force (tonnes)
Designation Designation by Compressive Tensile

by End Joints Bow's Notation
AB VR 33*9
BC VT 89
CD VU 144
DE FU 8
EF PS 24
FA QR 24
BF RT 36
CE TV 16
1
BE ST 22-6
^JJ
Problem 499 Fig. 813 shows a shear leg
.
crane liftin,, n An nnn
kg. load. The legs are 12 rn long and 6 m apart
at {hc%ase TO?
back stay is 14 m long. All members are pinjointed
and A F
tlL?,
iîution.
T 1 / ,
8*3
be &nA BC introduce the members BD
<!o that
so BD. BA and the load of 40.000 kg. are
on the same vertical
Fie. 814 Fig. 815 Fig. 816

plane. Solving this structure graphically the force in the member BA
which is represented by RP by Bows notation, is given by rp in the
stress diagram. By scaling from the stress diagram.
rp -=62,500 kg. (tensile)
Now qr represpnts the force in BD,
Now draw the real shape of the triangle EEC.
This is shown in Fig. 816. Plot D on this diagram. Along BD

measure a distance equal to qr. Now resolve this force into the
components along BE and BC as shown, by completing the parallelo-
gram.
The component along BE

= Component along BC
-Force in BE or BC
=49,600 kg, (compresiire;) (by scaling)
18
Simple Mechanical Properties
of Metdis
From an engineering point of view, properties; connected with

metals are elasticity, plasticity, brittleness, mallejbiliry a^ d ducti-
lity. Many of these properties arc contrasting in their nature so
that a given metal cannot exhibit simultaneously all tliese properties.
For instance mild steel exhibits the property of ela .ricity Copier
possesses the property of ductility. Wrought imn malleable, lead
is plastic and cast iron is brittle.
When a ductile metal is subjected to a tensile test it is found

that the tensile stress is proportional to the strain upto a certain
limit. Slightly before reaching the proportionality limit the elasti-
city of the material will be just broken down. On further increasing
the load, the material will uVW or >7oh' so that the material is in a
semi plastic stage. Further increase of load will result in exten.sions
which increase with time The 4icrease of load makes the strains
to increase at a higher rate with the stresses until finally local
stretch of the material occurs. This is marked by the formation
of a waist. In this condition due to the considerable decrease in
cross-section even a smaller load than the load at which the waste
was formed, can produce further elongation. As elongation continues
the sectional area cont.nues to become smaller so that the load
necessary to produce further extensions will be gradually reduced
until fracture occurs
$167. Tensile stress-strain diagram for mild steel
Fig. 817 shows the stress strain diagram obtained for mild
steel
If the specimen is loaded

axially the stress-strain dia-
gram is linear upto the point
A The ratio of stress to strain
i.e,
Youngs Modtilus for the
linear portion OA is usually
21 X 10 kg lavr If the speci-
men is strained beyond the
point A, the stresses must be
reduced almost suddenly to
maintain tqidiibrium The
reduction of tress AB occurs
quickly and hence the exact
nature of the curve between. A
915
916 STRENGTH Of MATOIIals
and B is uncutam.Further straining continues at an almost constant
stress along BC. >4 to C the material is taken
From to yield. The
point A is called the upper yield point and B is called the lower yield
point. Beyond the point C, the material becomes a little hardened,
and hence the stress again increases with strain. At the stress D
reached is the greatest, based on the original sectional area of the
specimen. The stress at is called the ultimate stress. D
The stress
falls from to D E
and the specimen fails at the condition E. When
the ultimate stress is reached the waist just begins.
Properties of some important engineering materials are tabu-
lated below :
\
'
s
I propor-
for
stress
i
fracture 1
1
5*0
Material of tionality (kgjcn^)
te Jem})
!
a
Elonga.ton
Ultime
{kg
Limit tensile
s.
1 1
1
i
Medium strength 2820 3760 i

30% 21 xl0 1
1-2 10 '
mild steel
i
j
1
1
i 1
High strength steel 7840 15680 10% . 21 10*

;
1*3x10-
1
I
1
Wrought iron 3140 l69x(^) '

1*2 V.
10
1880 j [
Cut iron i
1
!
Tension i
1570 j
1
!
1-4x10 ;
!*ixio
i
;
Compression 7060 I
I
i
Concrete i
1 1
Tension !
450 014 X 10 1*2 ^ JO
j
Compression |
[
4500 i 1
1
i
i
1
Working stress
This is to which a material s actually subjected to
the stress
in For the safety of members, certain stresses
a stressed condition.
are specified as the permissible stresses. A member must be so
designed that the stress on it is less than the permissible stress.
Factor of safety
It is necessary that the working stress should be well below
the elastic limit and to achieve this condition the ultimate stres i is
divided by a factor called the factor of safety to obtain the working
strau.
FroUem 490. A mild steel bar specimen of diameter 20 mm-

is svbjecteddo a tensik test. The bar was found to yield under a load
gllPLE MBCHANICAL
PBOPER1IES OF METAU 917
8 25 tonnes, and the specimen attained a maximum load of 15' 50

7'
tomes and ultimately broke at a load of 25 tonnes.
Find (0 the tensile stress at the yield point
(it) the ultimate stress
{Hi) the average stress at the breaking point if the diameter
of the neck is 10 75 mm.
'
Original sectional area of the specimen =

( 2)
= 3 142 cm.
Tensile stress at yielding*'* kg.jcm -
=2626 Ag./mi
Ultimate stress means the nominal stress corresponding to the

maximum load
155x100, ,
.
= 314 ^'
,
Ultimate strcs 8 kg-icm.^
-=4933 kg.lcm.^
necked portion = 075) cm.*

Area of the specimen in the (I
0'9076 cm.
Average stress at the breaking point

7-25 X 1000
^
-
fcg./cm.
0 9076
= 7987 ftg./cm.
168. Measurement of Ductility

it is
When a mild steel test bar is subjected to a tensile test,
observed that the elongation is practically
After tne
the bar. tillthe maximum load is reached.
decreases due to local yielding at t.
maximum load the cross-section
yield point.
a^crial.
Two methods arc in use to estimate the ductility
The first method is based on the total elongation produwdmth^
ct
spedmen while the second method is based on the total re
^tional area.
First method
Let L=length of the test bar at fracture

/= length of the test bar before application of stress.
Percentage elongation xlOO^
Since local yielding occurs before the

fracture of the 9^
he percentage elongation depends ot the
Supp^ the test bm is marked off centimetre m
fracture zone will be
pe^tage elongation of 1 cm length in the
A
918 STRENGIH Of MATERuu
very large. The effect of local yielding becomes less important if the
length of the test bar is more. Hence it is really necessary to always
specify the lengtii of the lest bar for which the percentage eiongaiion
has been computed.
The following table shows the percentage elongations for

different valuer of the original length of test specimens.
1
Original
length (( m.i |
1*25 *
3*75 6.5 8.75 11-2j 13*75 I(*25 2u
1
s
1
Fiitai I
20*71 2s
length {cm,}
j
2 25 5*50 !
8 70 A 62 14*69 17*70 11
**<*
:
1
!
Percentage t
1
elongation 80
47*7 ! 39 25 32 84 30*61 1
28 70 1
27 42 :6 25 ;
1
1
In the above results^ the percentage elongation has been

determined without taking into consideration ti-e sectional area of
the specimen, f or specimens of differeat sectional area the percentagt
eiongeition may slightly vary.
According to Prof. Unwin, for geometrically similar bars tho
results for percentage elongation are found to be comparable.
Let /-original length of the specimen

y=: local extension
total extension
Then it is found
where z is a coefficient.
The local extension y is found to depend on tlic area A of the
specimen such that,
v==5 \/ where S is a coefficient.
/. x^Sy/ A +zl
If the coefficients S and z arc known it is possible to reasonably
determine the elongation of another bar of the same meterial having
different dimensions. The following problem illustrates this method.
Problem 491. The following results refer to a tensile test bar
(i) Diameter of test bar^22 mm.

(ii) gauge length ^20 cm.
(tii) yield load ^8*62 f.
(Iv) Maximum toad ^ 12^90 t.
(v) Load at the instant offaihute^ 10" 95 t.
(vi) Total elongation JV5 cm.

sdiplE mechanical properties of metals 919
(v/i) Elongation up to the point

= 450 cm.
of maximum load ^
(viii) Area of the reduced section
at fracture
From the above results find the results fi>r a tensile test bar of
the same material ds iwn. diameter and 15 cm. length, giving
the elongation percentage and ha I a' the instant of fracture.
Iôlution. Consider t. c 22 mm. diameter test bar
Total extension-.V 5 +zl
2/=elongaijn up to the point of in.i\. load = 450 cm. and
x 5'75 cm.
S\/a xzl 515 V25 cm.
Sectional area of the bar^/1^ 122)- 3'801 cm.-
S= -0-641
t/j-801
But r/ = 4-50
4 50
=0 225
20
8 -62
yield stress = -2 268 tiem.-
3-801
elongation is uniform
Till the max' mum load is reached the
the sectional area at maximum load can be determined from the
and
relation,
length X sectional area at max. load -original length x original area

(20+4-5) X sectional area at max. load=20x V801
20x3-801
/. Sectional area at
.
max. load
, -3*102 cm-
24*5
Max. load
Max. stress = ggctional area at max. load
TToF
=4159 t/cm.^
Percentage reduction in area
3-801-1-99
X, 00-47-64%
" 3-801
Stress at failure = ^^^5-501 r/cw.-
Summary of results
5=0-641
z -0-225
5
920 STRENGTH OP-MATERIALS
yield stress >2 *268 tjcm?

Max. strcss=4'159 tlcn:.^
Percentage reduction in area 47*64%
stress at failure= 5*501 t/cm.*
Now consider the 25 mm. diameter bar. Since this bar is also
of the same material, the corresponding properties for this bar will
be the same as given in the summary of results above.
Area of the second specimen =^4=-^ (2*5)2-4*908 cm.^
Total extension jcSVT^+z/
- 0*641 V4*908+0*225 X 1
= 1*420+3*375=4*795 cm.
.*. Percentage elongation =-^^^x 100
XlOO
= 31*97%'
yield load = x sectional area
yield stress
=22*68 X 4-908=1 1*12 r
length of rod at max. load x sectional area at max. load
= original length x original sectional area.
/. Sectional area at max. load= -7 =4*005 cm.^
1 j-*rU ZZj X 1
1 d;
.*. Max. load=Max. stress x sectional area at max. load
=4*159x4*005=16*65 t
Percentage reduction in area =47*64%.
.*. Decrease in area of the section =0*4764 x 4*908 cm.*
=2*338 cm.2
.*. Sectional area at fracture**4*9082*338 = 2570 cm.*
.*. Load at fracture=stress at fracture x area of fracture
=5*501 X2*570-I4*14t
Second method of determining the ductility
In this method the ductility is expressed in terms of the

percentage reduction in area.
Let .^=are8 of the section before the application of the load

A'=axta. after elongation.
A'
Percentage reduction in area=(
f

A xlOO
^
|%
\
Hardness
The hardness of a meterial is the resistance which it can offer
to indentation by other bodies.
simple MECHANICAI. PROPERTIES OF METALS 921
Tests on hardness may be classified into (/) Scratch tests

(//) Indentation tests.
(/) Scratch test

This consists of pressing a loaded diamond into the surface to
be and then pulling the diamond so as to make a scratch.
tested,
Depending on the load required to make a scratch of a given width
or depending on the width of the wscratch made with a given load the
hardness number is determined.
{iO Indentation test
This of pressing a body of a standard shape into
test consists
the material whose hardness
is to be rested. The hardness number
is based on the hardness number of the load and the indent
produced.
BrinneIVs Method
In this method a hardened steel ball of a given diameter is
squeezed into the materia) to be tested, under a fixed load. Usually
a load of 3000 k^. is applied and the steel ball has aTdiameter of
10 mm.
Brinnell hardness number
Load in kg.

Spherical area of indent in sq. mm.

ri
where Substandard load ikg.)
Z)- Diameter of the steel ball (mm.)
rfb Diameter of indent (mm.)
169. Impact Testing
For deciding thesuitability of a material which is expected to
resistrepeated shocks, the ordinary static tensile test is not found
satisfactory. Testing machines have been devised so that a specimen
can be subjected to a single shock or a number of repeated shocks.
The energy required to break the specimen is taken as a measure of
the resistance of the material against shock loading.
The hod testing machine
This testing machine consists of a heavy pendulum which is
pivoted at the top two supporting A frames. The pendulum
carries a pointer which moves over graduated scale graduated in
kg. metre and fixed on the top of the machine. The spwimen
will be made of square section 10 mm. side and is notched in one
face. The notch is 2 mm. deep and has a radius of 0^25 mm. at the
bottom. The specimen is firmly held in a vice and fastened to the
base of the machine.
The notch of the specimen should be at the top of jaw of tlic
vice and facing the pendulum. Now the pendulum is raised so that
'
yjii SnUOKSTH OF MATBftULS
the energy stored is

16'^ kgm. By ustog a
trigger the pendulum is
released so that the pen-
dulum while swinging
will knock the specimen
and break it. The
residual energy in the
pendulum is noted on
the graduated scale. The
diflerence between
the
initiut and
the final
energy represents the
energy required to break
the specimen.
^170. Fatigue of Metals

Sometimes we
come across members
which are subjected to
loads which vary con-
tinuously fiom one
magnitude to another.
Sometimes a member
may be subjected to even 8*
a reversible loading, i.e.,
the member may be subjected to repeated tensile and compressive
stresses. It is found that members subjected to such repeated stresses
fail at stresses lower than the ultimate stresses delcrmincd by static
tests. This property of metals is called fatigur of metals.
According to Wohler's expeiiments the following conclusions

have been arrived :
(i) Reversed stresses of magnitude less than the static breaking
stress may cause failure if repeated a sufficient number of times.
(h) When subjected to fluctuating stress the resistance to frac-
ture depends upon the range of stress within certain limits.
It is also found that within a certain range of stress the number
of cycles of fluctuations of stress required to cause failure becomes
inflnite. This range is called the Umiting range of stress or the
endurance limit.
19
Elements of Reinforced Concrete
General principles of design, f i-. 819 w
sho s two bars made of concrete and steel hav-
ing the sane length I and cioss-sectional area
A. Let the two members be subjected io a total
load W. Let IVn and Wc be the loads transferred
to the steel and concrete members l.et and B
c be the Youngs moduli for steel and concieu
respectively.
Since the change in length of c :h member

will be the same, we have.
Strain in concrete -strain in steel
IV. W.
ALc AE
AE< rAE,
A{E\E.)
Stress in steel
_ _ W. Wc
A ~Er A
Stress in concrete
Wc
tmc where /w=

hi,
This ratio C" is called the modular ratio between steel and
Ec
concrete.
Suppose the modular ratio equals 18 .
We have,
Stress in steel = 18 x stress in concrete
923
STRENGTH OF MATBRUU
E,
Load on steel W.
E,+E,'
W
m
m+ 1
w
If m= 18 .
If*
W
Hence, we find that the steel member is subjected tu a greater
load than concrete. Hence, steel when provided in combination with
concrete will be very useful in sharing a considerable part of the load
on the member of composite section.
171. Assninptioiis
The analysis and design of a reinforced concrete member sub-
jected to bending are based on the following assumptions :
(a) Plane sections transverse to the centre line of a member
before bending remain plane sections after bending.
(ft) Elastic modulus for concrete has the same value within the
limits of deformation of the member.
ic) Elastic modulus for steel has the same value within the
limits of deformation of the member.
. (d) The reinforcement does not slip from the concrete surround-
ing it.
(e) Tension is borne entirely by steel.
(/) The steel is free from initial stresses when embedded in

concrete.
(g) There is no resultant thrust on any transverse section of

the member.
Of the above assumpuuu, tne assumption that plane sections
transverse to the centre line of a member, before bending remain
plane after bending may require further claribcation.
Fig. 820 (o) shows a beam subjected to an external loading.
Consider sections AB, CD, EF, GH, JJ, etc., which are at right angles
to the centre line of the member. After the beam bends, the various
fibres are subjected to deformations of such amounts that these
planes respectively occupy the positions AiBi, CiDi, E\Fi, Gi.H\,hh,
etc. This is illustrated in Fig. 820 (b).
Fig. 821 (a) shows a simply supplied singly reinforced beam.

Consider two sections AB and CD unit distance apart. Let the beam
elements of reinforced concrete 925
be subjected to an external loading. Let AiCi be the length of the

topmost fibre.
Let B2C2 be the length of a fibre of concrete at the level'bf the
reinforcement.
Wc have strain in concrete in the lop fibre
= AC AiCi ~ dv
A C E 6 I
Fig. 821
Similarly, strain in concrete

jini surrounding the steel
BiD\ BD-" t
Since, thereis no slip bet-
Ws'on steel and the concrete sur-
Tounding it, the strain in steel
is :}lso equal to Cc
Stress in steel
Fg 822
Stress in concrete surrounding steel
s=zCi~~ /-Vi
Fig. 822 shows the stress distribution in concrete across thr

172. Neutral axte. The neutral axis for a beam section is the
line of intersection of the neutral layer with the beam section.
This is a straight line dividing cross-section into tension and
compression zones One of the basic assumptions made in the analysis
of reinforced concjc^c. beams is that the lension is borne completely
by steel. Hence, it is important to note that in determining the
neutral axis, the concrete in the tension zone should not be taken into
account The tension should be considered as resisted by the steel.
If the area of the reinforcement is At and the tensile stress in the re-
inforcement is r, the total tension resisted
ÂtmCt
(ntAt)Ct
Hence, a reinforcement of area At can be regarded as equivalent
to an area imAt) of concerte. Let h and dbc the breadth and effective
depth of the beam section. (Effective depth is the depth from the
compression edge to the centre of tensile reinforcement). Let n be
the depth of neutral axis.
One of the assumptions in the analysis is that there is no
resultant thrust on the section
i e,t Total compression - Total tension
Compression area x average compressive stress
area of tensile reinforcement X stress in steel
? LEMENTS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 927
fcn =A*t
Further, by the frcon eiry of the sfess diacram (Fig. 822) vie
Equating the moments itf areas of co^lp<es^ô^ and tension

zones about the neutral axis, sst have,
{d-n\ .. (/lO
Besides the above results, the following result will be ô\iad

interesting,
we have,
Putting
t
= -
1
m
c f
md mn ~nr
--
ii(iw + r)mrf
Putting n
We have.
*
m+r
With m= 1 8, we have
18
"*
18+r
Fig. 823 shows the values of ni for various values of r
Alternative expression for n
mc+t
173. Lever arm
This the di-stance between the point of application of the
is
resultant compression and the iMint of af^Hcation of the resultant
tersi' n. The point of application of the resultant compression i at
the evel of the centroid the compresdve stress diagram, f.e , at a
depth of from the compression edge. But, the resultant tension

928 STKtNOTO Of materials
isat the level of the reinforcement since the tensile resistance of

concrete is ignored.
Lever arm=a=</ ...(vf/)
Sometimes the lever arm is expressed as the product of a co-

efficient at and the effective depth.
a=atd
But ad
atdd j-
m=l ...(viia)
174. Moment of resistance

This is the resisting moment offered by a beam section to
resist the bending moment at the section.
= total compression or total tension x lever arm
M.R.- 6-2 f t/- J-) ...(wn)
M.R.-4tr( t/- -) ...(ix)
Sometimes the moment of resistance is put in another .form,
M.R.-Af = /.n|-(
j
Put n^n\d
rf- 3"
( )
Af 1
Af- Q hd''
where Q^-ini
^
I y jc
175. Balanced or economic or critical sections
A section may be
reinforced with such an amount of steel, that
when the most distant concrete fibre in the compression zone reaches
the allowable stress in compression, the tensile stress in the reinforce,
ment reaches the allowable stress in steel. For instance, if the allow-
able stresses in concrete and steel are SO kg^cm.^ and 1400 kgjcnfl ,.
BLEMBMS O. itEiNFORCED CONCRETE
respectively, then the section is SO much

reinforced that when the
extreme compressive stress in concrete reaches 50 k^jem 2
the ten He
stress .a steel reaches im kg.lcm.^ A section reinforced to Tt ly
îs condmon IS called a balanced or economic or critical section
The neutral axis corresponding to this condition is
called the critical
neutral axis.
Let fic he the depth of critical neutral axis.
Moment of resistant: of
the section
or,
-MR - A, d~
)
c and t shall be taken at

the allowable values
Taking c = 50 kg.jk'm}, 1400 kg icm} and m -18.
t 1400
r- -28
c 50
_I8 9
nv
18+28 "46

13
Lever arm factor
'
ni
* -tr 1
ai
3
=
1
-
3 _ 20
'
0 8
*
';
'23 23
Lever arra**a-*0'87 d
Q 50
=bx d X-' xO-87d
23 2
M.R. = 8-50W*
If e~8'50
Also,
Total compression^ total tension
d
brtc At t
2
50
hX239 ^
,
dx-Y =y<,xl400
At
= 0 00699
bd
930 STRENGTll OF MATBRIALS
Steel
in
Stresses
1
ELFMENtS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
A -0*699% of W
The values of and Q for various working stresses arc
ai
given in the table with modular ratio w 18. (See page 9M)).
176. Unbalanced section

If the steel reinforcement provided is more or less than what
is required for a balanced section, the section is termed an unbalance
ed section. Unbalanced sections may be further classified into under-
reinforced and ovcr-rcinfarced sections.
177. Under- reinforced section
This a section such that the amount of steel provided is less
is
than what requiied for a balanced section.

is Hence if the stress in
steel just reaches the
allowable stress, the cor-
responding extreme com- /
pressive stress concrele in ' ^ c<50kglr9'

will be less than its allow- [ j 1
able limit. Suppose the

allowable stresses in con-
crete and steel are 50 kg. I
/
cm.'ând 1400 kg./emr and
/w-18. For the under-
when
L,.. ^ % /!* ii Mw imm
reinforced section,
the stress in steed just Fig 87.^^
reaches 1400 kglcmr the
corresponding stress in concrete will be less than 50 (Fig.
825). The depth n of the actual neutral axis is less than the depth ne
of the critical neutral axis The moment of resistance of the under-
reinforced section will be less than that of the balanced section.
The moment of resistance is given by
the stress t being taken at the allowable stress for steel.
178, Over-reinforced serfinn

This is a section such that the amount of steel provided is more
than what is required fi>! a balanced section Hence, when the stress
inconcrete reaches its allow-
able limit, the corresponding
stress in steel will be less
than its allowable limit Sup-
pose the allowable stresses in
concrete and steel are 50
kg.lrni.*^ and 1400 kg Icm!^
and m~-\S. F'or the over-
reinforced section, when the
stiess in concrete reaches
50 kg the correspond-
ing stress in steel will be less
than 1400 kgjcmj^ (Fig. 826). The depth n of the actual neutral
axis in this case will be greater than the depth /jr of the critical
neutral axis. The moment of resistance of the over-reinforced section
will be greater than that of the balanced section. The moment of
resistance is given by
the stress c oeing taken at the allowable stress for concrete.

179. Types of Problems
In singly reinforced sections we come across the following types
of problems :
Type 4, Data : Dimensions of the :cction, permissible stress

in concrete and steel and modular ratio.
Required Moment of resistance of the section.

:
This type of problem may be solved as follows :
(/) determine the position of actual neutral axis by

First
equating the moment of concrete area in compression about the
neutral axis to the moment of equivalent tension area about the
neutral axis
/.c., use the relation,
bffi
- ^mAf(dn) and find r.
(ii) Find the position of critical neutral axis, corresponding to
the given safe stresses in concrete and steel

(tit) Ascertain whether the section is under-reinforced or over-
reinforced. If the actual neutral axis lies above the critical neutral
axis, the section is under-reinforced. But, if the actual neutral axis
is below the critical neutral axis, the section is over-reinforced.
(jv) If the section is over-reinforced concrete attains the maxi-

mum stress earlier than steel, and the moment of resistance is given
Taking permissible stress in concrete

and n depth of actual neutral axis.
If the undcr-rcinforccd, steel attains the maximum

section is
stress earlier than concrete, and the moment of resistance is given by
M d~~j^
]
Taking / permisfible stress in steel
and ==depth of actual neutral axis

Type B. Data : Dimensions of the section. Area of reinforce-
ment, Bending moment and modularM
ratio.
::
tLEMENTS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

933
Required Stresses in concrete and steel.
This type of problem may be solved as follows :
(i) Determine the position of the actual neutral axis.
(ii) Find the stress in concrete by equating the moment oi

resistance to the given bending moment
i.e., use the relation,
bn d ^ ^=Af and 6nd c.
(///) Find ^he stress in steel from the relation,

/W n
t
^ d-n
Type C. Data Permissible stresses is concrete and steel
Bending moment M and modular ratio.
Required : To design the section.
This type of problem may be solved as >foIlows *
(/) Determine the depth of critical neutral axis in terms of the

eflFcctive depth d
I.e., use the relation
c
_ tic
and find tic in terms of d.
ttm^ drtr
(ii) Choose a convenient width h. By equating the moment of
resistance to the given bending moment find the effective depth
I.e., use the relation, bne
^ ^
d and find d.
(in) Find the area of steel by equating the total compression

on the beam section to the total tension on the beam section.
i e., use ihe relation.
c
btir Âtt and find At,
2
The following problems illustrate the above types of problems.
Problem 492. 4 reinforced conc'ete beam section of width b and
effective depth d is reinforced on the tension side^ only. If the allow-
able stresses in concrete and steel are 50 f and 1400 kg. lcm.^
and ni~I8. determine for a balanced section (/) the depth of neutral
axis, (ii) the moment of resistance and (Hi) the percentage of steel
reinforcement.
SplafioB. Steel ratio
t 1400
-28
c 50
= m d
Ur
m-f-r
934 STRENGTH OF MATERiALS
_
18+28
M.R.-6nc
2 (
d
M.R.=8*50 M2
Total tension Total compression
Att^bric
50
/1/X 1400=6 X dx
2
0*00699
hd
Percentage of steel reinforcement
-0*699%.
Problem 493. The cross-section of a singly reinforced concn h
beam is 3Q cm, wide and 40 cm, deep to the centre of the reinfvrn
'
ment which consists of four bars of 14 mm, dia. if the stresses m

concrete and steel are not to exceed 50 kg jem} and 1400 kg icm
determine the moment of resistance of the seciiom Take m IS.
Solution. See Fig. 827.

At *=4x r54=6* 16 CW.2
Position of actual neutral axis Equating
moments of compression and equivalent tension
zones about the actual neutral axis> we have
- =18x6-16 (40-n)
/|2+616n-246 4=0
It- I389 cms.
For a balanced section. Fig. 827
P. 1
Steel
*
ratio=r= f
c
1400
50
=28
Depth of critical neutral axis
= =
m+r
18
X40 cm.
i 8 + 28r
CliMENTS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 935
= 15*65 cm.
But 13*89 cm.
Hence n<nc
/. The section is under*rcinforced and steel will attain the
maximum stress earlier to concrete
d-
/
( y]
=6 16 X 1400 40- ~ kg. cm.
( ^
305030 kg, cm.
Problem ^94 (S.I ). The cros^-section of a singly reinforcea
concrete beam is30 cm, wide and 40 cm. deep to centre of the the
reinforcement which consists of 4 bars of 14 mm, diameter. If the
stresses in concrete and steel ore not to exceed 5 and
/ 40 Nlmm^ determine thp moment of resistance of the section. Take
mÎ8.
Solution.
^,=4X "-(r4>2-=^6-16 cm
Position of attual neutral axis. Equating moments of com-

pressioQ and equivalent tension zones about the neutral axis, we
have,
ts= 1 8 X 6*16 (*4() - rt)
;iH7*'t92n 295 7-0

13*89 cm.
For a balanced section,

^ 1

Steel ratio ^r==-

t 140
- ==-28
c 5
Depth of critical neutral axis.
-I\ 18+28 x40'-- 15*65 cm.
Hence n<nr
-*The section is under reinforced and steel attains its maximum
stress earlier to concrete.
M.R. = .4if [cf

y]
=616x 14000 ^40- ty- jjV cm.
=3050310 N cm.
936 Strength of materials
Problem 495. A singly reinforced concrete beam 25 cm, wide and

40 cm, deep to the centre oj tensile reinforcement has a span of 5
metres and carries a total uniformly distributed load of 1250 kg. per
metre including its weight. The stresses in concrete and steel are not
to exceed 50 kg,lcm-^ and 1400 kgjcm,^ respectively. Find the steel
reinforcement necessary. Take m ** 18,
SolutioD Total load per metre
*=1000 kg,lm,
Span = 5 metres
/. Maximum bending moment
1250X52
M= 8
X 100 kg, cm.
=390625 kg, cm,

25X402=390625 kg, cm.
39p652_^
^ 25x1600
M=9-77 bd^
If the section h-'d been a balanced section,
m 18
=039
ric-
m+r 1400
18+
50
Balanced M.R.
0 39 d
=6x0 39 dx 50/
2
= 8-50 W2
Since the moment of resistance of the beam has to be greater
than that of the balanced section, the beam is to be over-reinforced.
Concrete attains its maximum stress earlier to steel.
c*=50 kg./cm,'^
M.R. of the beam
-(
^-f)
=25 nx
X 40 )=390625 cm.
"
(40-+)
^90625
=625
625
40 n- =625
n2_i20 +1875=0
elements of reinforced concrefe 937
Solving,
we get n= 18 46 cm.
Stress in steel is given by
me _ n
i
~ dn
18x50 18-46
^ -40- 1846
1
18 x 50 x 21 54
, , , ,
18-^6
-^1050 kg Irm ^
Total compression Total tension
bn-^ -At . t
25 X I8-46X =/(^xl050
2^x18 46x50
cm:
2 X 1050
f() 9S cm?
Problem 496 (SI). A singly reinforced concrete beam 25 cm,
wide and 40 cm def^p to the cf^ntre of the tensile reinforcement has a
span of 5 metres and carries a total uniformly distributed load of
12500 Newtons I metre including its weight. The stresses in concrete
and steel are not to exceed 5 and 140 Nln>m'^ respectively. Find
the steel reinforcement necessary. Take m -
Solution. Total load per metre 12500 Newtons I metre

Span = 5 metres
w .

12500X5^
m Nm.
g
-39062 5 Nm,
3906250 Ncm.
0x25 - 40*- = 3906250 N cm.
Q-9T1
If the section had been a balanced section,
m 18 ? j
"'""m-fr 18+140"" 23
9 j
5')() /
3 . \
Balanced M.R.-+X
.
^
23 2 {
But the M.R. of the given beam section = 97'7 bd^

Since the moment of resistance of the beam has to be greater

than that of the balanced section, the beam is to be over reinforced.
Hence concrete attains its maximum stress earlier to steel.
Hence c == 5 Nicnfi ** 500 Nlmm-^
M R. of the beam section
-i( "-i)
25rt X '
^
2 (
'0 j-
)
= 3906250 N cm.
/|2- 120/1+1875=0
Solving, we get n = l 846 cm.
Stress in steel is given by,
me n
t ~'dn
18X SOO 18 -46
t ~40- 18-46
/=-10500 iV/c/w2
Total compression = Total tension
25 X 18-46X X 10500
25x18-46x500
'
2 X10500
= 10 9H cm.'^
Problem 497. A reinforced concrete beam 30 cm. wide by bO cm.

total depth has a span of 6 metres Find the neee.ssury tension rcim
forcement at the mid span to enable the beam to cam a load of SOO
kgfm. in addition to its own weight.
Concrete cover below the steel centre
==.^'5 cm.
Weight ofR.CC.
^^2400 kg ! cm}
Allowable stress in steel
~ 1400 kg fem 2
Allowable stress in concrete
--50 kg. I cm}

Modular ratio 18
Solution. Dead load per metre length
- 0 3 X 0*6 X 1 X 2400=- 4?2 kg.lm
n
ILEMtNTS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 939
Superimposed load on the beam --=800 kg.jtn.

Total load per metre =. 1232 kg.jm.
~M= g
X 00
1 kg. cm.
= 554,400 kg. cm.

Let the M.R. of the beam be Qhd'^
Qb(fi = C X 30 X 56 52 = 554400
SWOO
^ 30x56 52
e=5 79
Af - 579 bd-
with c SQ kg.jcm.^
= 1400 kg icm.^
/
and m = l8
M.R. of the balanced section - 8 5 bd~
But the M.R. of the given beam =579 hd~

Since the R. of the beam i> !c^^ than the M R of rhe b.ilanc-
M
ed section, the beam should be designed as an urdcr-rcinforced
beam. Steel attains its maximum stress ca-'ln-r to conctete
t -
av Ufn.'
Corresponding stress in concrete s j..iven by
n
t d~ n
t
- n
c -^
m J - n
^ IK ii - n
Effective depth ~ 56 5 c
I4(M) n
18 5(.5rt
M.R.=7)ii f I d- 1
56s"-
n 565
I 554.400 y 36
56'5 30x1400
940 STKENOTH OF MATERIALS
=475-2
5o 5n
Solving the above equation by trial and error,
we get II = 18-88 cm
1400 .
18-88
" 18 ^ 56 5-18-88i-kg.lcm*
=39 kg Icm.^
39
30x18-88x 2 =.4. X 1400
,
30x18 88 39 ,
1400 2
= 79cm.a
Problem 498 (SI). A reinforced concrete beam 30 cm. wide and
60 cm. deep has a span of 6 metres Find the necessary tension
reinforcement at mid span to enable the beam to carry a had of
8000 Newtons per metre in addition to its own weight.
Concrete cover below the steel centre =3' 5 cm.
Weight of R. C C. = 25G00 Nlmetre^
Allowable stress in steel ^=140 Njmm.^
Allowable stress in concrete =5 Nlmm.^
Modular ratio =m 18
SolntioB.
Dead load of beam =0 3 x0 6 x | x 25000= 4500 N/m

Superimposed load =8000 Nfm
Total =12500 TV/m
Maximym bending moment

l_2Wx62
-M 8' X 100 N cm.
= 5625000 cm.
Let the M.R. of the beam section be Q b.i^
2x30x56-5' = 5625000
2 = 58-7
yi.K.=5% l bd^N cm.
.
CLEMENTS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 941
with c5 N!mn>.= 500 A'/cm.*

r=l40 A',m/.2=c)4000 A/cm,^
and w-^18
M.R. of the balanced section
=85 N cm.
Since the M.R. of the given beam section is IcbS than the R. M
of the balanced section, the beam should be resigned as an unJer
reinforced beam. Steel attains its maximuni stress earlier to concrete.
XAOdO Nicm:-
me n
i d n
t n _ 1 40(W n
^
m d n 18 '
56'5- n
14000
18' 56-5--n
M.R. ---/)
2 ( 3 )
14000 n
2XIS 56 5 '
n
-^^>25000
36 5-
)
482 14
56 5 n
Solving by trial and errorii, we get
n = 1890 cm.
14000 18^9
r= 18' (56-5-18-99)
393 8 Ayrm
Total compression Total tension
c
bn '
--At t
\2
393 8'
30X1899>:' .4.x 14000
2
30x18 99 393 8
'
" ^
,
14000
^H'OI cm^.
Problem 499. The moment of resistance of a rectangular singly

reinforced beam of mdth b cm. and effective depth d cm. is 10 bd^
kg. cm. If the stressses in the outside fibre of the concrete and in steel
l
do not exceed 50 and 1400 kgdcm!^ respectively and the

modular ratio equals 18, determine the ratio of the depth of neutral
axis from the extreme compression fibres to the effective depth of the
beam and the ratio of the area of the tensile steel to the effective area
of the beam.
Solution.
For a balanced section* with c=50 kg.lcm.^^ 11400
and rM = 18, the M.R. of the section = M 8*50 bifl.
But the M R, of the given beam

=- 10 bd^. Since the M.R. of
the given beam greater than the M.R. of the balanced section, the
is
beam should be over-reinforced Hence concrete attains its maximum

stress earlier to steel.
Let n actual depth of neutral axis
n
M.R.=A )=I0
bnidy. </- = 10
-^^
n\^ 3ni+r2~0
Solving, we get /ii= 0*476
me ^ ^ md _ yii
t
" dn~" d-nid ni
t=-mc ^ 18X50 X
^
ni 0 476
= 769 kg.lcm,^
bnw
bxomax ^y=-Atx769
2
Ai 0-476 x 25
_
~ =0*0/55.
bd 769
Problem 500 The moment of resistance of a rectangular
(SI).
beam section of width b cm. and effective
singly reinforced concrete
depth d cm. is lOO bd^ Newton centimetre. If the stresses in the out-
side fibres of concrete and steel do not exceed 5 Njmm.^ and 140
'
respectively and the modular ratio equals IS, determine the

ratio of the depth of neutral axis trom the extreme compression fibres
to the effective depth of the beam and the ratio of the area of the tensile
Steel to the effective area of the beam.
Solution. For a balanced section with r-S =

140 ^ 1 4n()n Sjem - and - 18, the M R. of the
beam section^ M=85 beP V cm.
But, the M.R. of the given beam section i^ lOO hd- N cm.
Since the M.R of the given beam section is greater than the M.R.
of the balanced section, the beam should be over-reinfor'ed Hence,
concrete attains its maximum stress earlier to steel.
Let depth of actual neutral axis
Let ni
^
b ni</x d-
^ )-l()0 heP
i(l-y)=-0-4
3/11 + 1*2 = 0
Solving we get n\^0 476,
me ri
_ md n\
"
t dn d-n\d l -ni
1 All
/=mc
ni
=9907 Nlcm.^
Total compression == Total tension
C
bn t
2
bxO-476dX^-Âi'>99{)l
A, (^76 250
ftd
9907
^0012
Problem SOL The moment of resistance of a singly reinforced
rectangular reinforced concrete beam of breadth b cm. and effective
)
944 STRENGTH OF MATERIAL
depth d cm. 6 bd^ kj^. cm. If the stresses in the extreme fibre of con-
Crete and in steel do not exceed 50 kg Icnu^ and 1400 kg.jcm.^
respectively and the modular ratio equals 18, determine the ratio of
the depth of neutral axis from the outside compression fibres to the
effective depth of the beam and the ratio of the area of the tensile steel
to the effective area of the beam.
Solution For a balanced section, with kg.lcm.^, 1400

kgfem.^ and 18, the moment of resistance of the balanced section
- 8'5 bd^
But the M.R. of the given beam is only 6 bd^.
Since the M.R
of the given beam is Jess than the R. of the M
balanced section, the beam section should be under-reinforced. Hence
steel attains the maximum stress earlier to concrete.
Hence = 400 kg jcm.^

t 1
Corresponding maximum stress in concrete is given by,

18c n

1400 d n
1400 n
c ^
18 '
d-n
Let /! = Hid
1400 nid
18 *
dnid
1400
c=-
18 [ l-ni)
MR. f>2
( >-3
b nid
i4m
(
2 X f8 V I-l;I\
'
)(.- Y )-6 3 /
bd^
6x2x18
1400
-=( - ^ f
^=0154
lm
Solving the above equation by trial and error, we get
/ii=0-34
=0-34d
<400 0-34 . .
2
c- -
|_o-34
Ij,
=40 kg. Icm.

^
plements or reinforced concrete 945
Total compression =Total tension
40
fcx0'34dx^ =/<(Xl400
At 0^34x20
=0 00486
bd 1400"
Pioblem 502. A reinforced concrete slab has an overall depth of

the centre of the reinforcement being 2 cm.
10 cm., the effective cover to
stresses in concrete and steel are not to exceed 50 kg jcm} and
If the
J 400 kg Icm.^, find
the safe uniformly distributed load which can be
placed on the slab. The slab is supported on beams spaced at 3 metres
centres. Find also the spacing of 10 mm. diameter bars to resist the
maximum bending moment. The maximum bending moment for a one
wl^
metre wide strip of the slab be taken as -jj kg. m. where w is the
load on the slab in kg. per metre^ and I is the spacing of the beams in
metres. Take m= 18.

Solution. Corresponding to
c=50 kg. Icm.
t= 1400 kg /cm.^
and /n=18
For the balanced section,
M.R.=S 5 bd^
and the leverarm a=087 d.

Hence the moment of resistance offered by the balanced section
per metre width
=8'5xl00x(I02)2 kg. cm.
=54,400 kg. cm.
Let the safe distributed load on the slab be w kgjmetre^.
Maximum bending moment for a 1 metre wide strip
wP wxS ^
X 100 kg. cm.
IT*

12
Equating the maximum bending moment to the moment of

resistance, we get,
H-x X 100 = 54400

12
54400 X 1 2 .
imelre^
9X100
7253 kg.lmetre*.
The above load is the total load on th^ slab including the weight
of the slab also,
946 STREKOTH OFUATERiai
Dead load of thfc slab per square metre
X 1 X 2400=240 kg.jmetr^
Net external load which the slab can support
=12S-i-2AQ=485'3 kg.lmetre^
Area of steel Af= -

. M
ta
54400
-.ro cm*
1400 x 0*87 x8
=5*58 cm?
Spacing of 10 mm. diameter bars
area of 1 bar X 100
Total area of steel per metre width
0-79x100
cm.
5-58
^14-2 cm.
Hence, let us provide 10 mm. diameter bars at 14 cm. centres.
1180. Effect of varying the steel ratio on the depth of neutral axis and
the moment of resistance
For this discussion let us consider M 1 50 grade of concrete.
Permissible compressive stress in concrete
= 50 kg.jcm.^
Permissible tensile stress in steel
=1400 kg./cm.^
Modular ratio =18
For a balanced section depth of the neutral axis is given by
me , n
/ dn
18X50 n
1400
ji=0-39 d
, . 0-39 d
Lever arm a=d~ ,
=a
=0-87 d

Moment of resistance =M.R.>=6 n
^ ^ d
=6x0*39dx-^ x0-87r/
=8'5 bd?
elements op reinforced concrete 947
i
=Qb(P where ^=8 50

Total tension Total compression
AtXt=bn-~
2
Ai'x 1400- bx0 i9dx

At 0 39 X 25
Steel ratic =p.
hd 1400
=0-00696
Percentage of stecl=100 /?=0696%
Now for all values of n less than 0*39 d the corresponding
values of the lever arm a, 100 p and the M.R. arc tabulated in the
following table (page 948). For this range in the value of n the
section will be an under-reinforced section. The moment of resistance
should therefore be estimated corresponding to the maximum tensile
stress in steel.
Nowlet us considei a further range of values of n from 039 d

to 0 1 d. These sections arc over-reinforced sections and hence for
these section the moment of resistance should be computed corres-
ponding to the condition of maximum stress in concrete. The values
of a, 100 p and the moment of resistance for various values of n are
tabulated.
It is worthy to note :
(i) As the percentage of steel increases the depth of neutral

axis n also increases.
U4RtA7m Of MOMENT Of RfStSTAMCE WCTH
7 0
fOf-
O! 02 (hS 04 OS Og 07 OS 09 fO H f$ h4 H H f> 4
renciNTAce or smi toop
iMOOlsfaifAASO m*tS
Fig. 828
Properties of Uoder-reiiiforced Sections

m18 Stress in Steels 1400 kgjcm,^
Percentage Safe Moment

I^verarm of steel of Resistance
a 100 p M^pbdta
j
0-967 d 0 03
0*933 d 0 14
0*35 d 0-883 d 6-43 bd^
0-39 d 0*870 d 8*50
Properties of Over-reinforced Sections

m= 18. Stress in Concrete = 50 kg.lcm.^
4

elements of REINPOkCED concrete 949

(a) As the percentage of steel increases the lever arm de
creases.
(in) The safe moment of resistance increases rapidly and
somewhat uniformly as 100 p (percentage of steel) varies from 0 to
0 69. For further increase in 100 p the safe moment of resistance
increases at an apprecicAly slower rate. The critical point at which
the change in rate of increase of moment of resistance occurs repre-
sents the condition for a balanced section. Hence it is important to
note that by providing more steel than the requirement of the
balanced section though it is possible to increase the moment of
resistance, it is uneconomical due to appreciably slower rate of
increase of the moment of resistance. (See Fig. 828).
181. Doubly Reinforced Beams

Beams reinforced with steel in compression and tension rones
\wll be
are called doubly reinforced beams. This type of beam
necessary when due to head room, appearance ronsidera-
found
its limited
tions the size of a beam is limited. The beam with
dimensions, if reinforced on the tension side, may not have enough
moment of resistance to resist the bending moment. By increasing
the steel only on the tension zone the moment of resistance
cannm
Usually the moment of resistance can be
indefinitely be increased.
increased by not more than 25% over the balanced moment ol
section over-reinforced on the teMion
resistance, by making the
Hence in order to further increase the moment of
resistance
side
of a section of limited dimensions, a doubly reinforced bm
provided. Besides this a doubly reinforced beam is also used
tne m
following circumstances :
may alternate, i.e., may occur on

(i) external live loads
The
cither face of the member.
Ex : A pile which is lifted in such a manner that the tension
and compression zones may alternate.
() The loading may be eccentric and the ^^city

of the
one side of the axis to another de.
load may change from impact or
(///) The member may be subjected to a shock or
accidental lateral thrust. h
Analysis of a doubly reinforced section JT I
Neutral axis.Fig 829 shows a ^
I
doubly reinforced beam b cm wide **
and d cm deep to the centre of tensile ^

I
reinforcement. L .'
Let A. and At be the areas of

reinforcenaent in the compression and
tension zones.
Let n be the depth of neutral < t ^ -
Equating moments of areas on Wg. 829

axu, wa haire.
cither ade of the neutral axis, about the neutral
1
brfi
j- xmAc(n de)Ae(nde)mAt(dn)
brfl
(ml)A.{n-~dc)=mAi{d~n)
Y ...U)
If the stresses c and t, i.e., the stresses in concrete and tension

reinforcement are known, we have
me
...n'
t dn
It is very important to note in the crê of a singly reinforced
beam of chosen dimensions, in order that the actual neutral axis ma\
coincide with the critical neutral axis, there is a certain definite
amount of steel required.
But, in a doubly reinforced beam of chosen dimensions, the rein-

forcements At and A may he adjusted in an infinite number of ways so
I
that the actual neutral axis and the critical neutral axis may coincide.
Since total compression ^Total tension, we hare,

C^T
bn +(ffi -i)Atc'-~4t t .( 3
Stress in compression stal- If t' is slrci^ in ii ocretc at

the level of the compression steel the stress io compression sfeeJ- //;i
I(ut t
- - r
Stress incompresnon sf?;;! ,. -
This is computed by taking moments of the compressive forces

about the centre of gravity of the tension reinforcement.
M.R.^hn J- i-(m-l) .T c (d -A) ...(4i

2 ( j
182. Types of Problems
The following are the types of problems wc come across in the

analysis of <ioubly reinforced sections.
Type! Data ; Overo-l section, .1 ami the working stresses

c an'
Required : Mousent of resistance.
Solution. The position of the actual neutral axis first deter-

mined (.vfc Fq. I). The position of the critical neutral axis is found
from q (2j with the given values of the wrir king stresses c and t. If
the depth of actual neutral axis is greater than the depth of ciritica!
neutral axis, concrete will attain its maximum stress earlier. Hence
the M.R. is worked out from Eq. (4) taking c at the given working
stress, c should be taken as
If the depth of neutral axis is less than the depth of critical

axis, the steel in the tension zone reaches its maximum stress earlier.
The stress in concrete corresponding to the working stress of t in
the tension reinforcement is found from Eq. (2). With this value of
c the M
R. is found from Eq. (4).
The following example illustrates the above type.
Problem 503. A beam of reinforced concrete is 25 cm wide and

48 cm deep to the centre of tensile steel It is reinforced with four
bars of 20 mm diameter compressive steel at an effective cover of 5
cm. and with four bars of 26 mm, diameter as tensile steel. If the
stresses in concrete and steel are not to exceed 50 kgdem.*^ and 1400
kgfem.'^ respectively^ determine the moment of resistance of the section.
The modular ratio 18,
Solution Ac^\ 2*57 cm,^
^
Depth of actual neutral axis
Taking moments about the neutral axis,

we have,
25
'i-
4 (1 8-1)12-57 (-5)
-18x2r24 (48-/I)
Solving, we get = 2217 cm.

The depth of critical neutral axis is ^
given by
1_8>^5()_ ru
1400" ~48-m Fig. 830
Pig.
n< 18'78 cm.
Since the depth of actual neutral axis is greater than the depth
of critical neutral axis, concrete attains the maximum stress earlier to
steel.
. . Stress in concrete will be allowed to reach 50 kg./cm.*
c = 5n fcg./cwi.*
-d'

X 5038-73 fcg./cm.
M /?.=25x22-17x-y[ 48-^]+(18-l)12-57x
38-73 [48-51 kg. cm.
= 562,600+355,800=918.400 kg. cm.
Type 2 Data : Overall section, At and At, Max. B.M,

952 SnENGTH OF MATERIALS
Required : Stresses c and t in concrete and tensile steel
and also in compression steel.
Solution. The
position of the actual neutral axis is first deter-
mined from Eq. Express the moment of resistance in terms of
(1).
the stress c in concrete and equate to the given bending moment.
From this eqation the stress c in concrete is determined.
The stress in compression steel=wc' = -V.
The stress in tension steel is given by the relation
me ^ n
t
The following example illustrates the above type*
Problem 504. A doubly reinforced concrete beam is 25 cm. wide

and 50 cm. deep to the centre of tension reinforcement. The areas of
the compression and tension steel are 12 9 cm.^ each. The centre of
compression steel is 5 cm. from the compression edge. If m 18 and
the bending moment at the section is 700,000 kg. cm., calculate the
stresses in concrete and steel.
Solution. See Fig. 831
rOicm.
Taking moments about the ^neutral I
axis, we have,
?|^-V(18-l)12-9(n-5)
= 18 X 12*9(50- n)
Solving, we get ii= 16*40 cm.
Let the maximum stress in concrete
be c kg./cm.^
.*. Stress in concrete at the level
of the compression steel
_ n^dr
c ,
^
16*40-5
~ 16*4 ^*
=0*6952 c
M.R.^mbn d + I)/4cc' (4 d^
=25Kl6*4|-[ 50-^] H-(18-l)12 0x0-6952c
(50- 5)=700,003 kg. cm.

9128 c+6860 c=700,000 kg. cm.
15988 c=700,000 kg. cm.
c=43*77 kg. cm.*
EUMEMtS OP KElNPOftCED CONCRETE
953
Stress in compression steel = 18x3013 = 5774 kg.lcm.'^
Stress in tension sleel=^~-^mc

_(0-16-4)
X IS X 43 77 /c'w.*-
^1614 kg lcm,^
Type 3, Data : Overall section^ the maximum bending moment,
safe stresses c and r in concrete and steel
Required : Ac and At.
Solution. With the working- stresses* c ana t aetermine the depth

of neutral axis
critical Find the M
R. in terms of the stress in
concrete and equate to the given bending moment. This equation
will involve only Ac as the unknown which can be determined.
By equating total compression to total tension, find At. The

following example illustrates this type.
Problem 505. A rectangular beam reinforced on both sidc.s is
BO cm wide and 75 cm. deep. The centres of steel are 5 cm. from
the respective edges. If the limiting stresses in conc rete and steel arc
50 kg.lcm.^ and 1400 kgjcm.^
vely ^determine the steel area for a
respecti-
|*
-|
bending moment of 1^400,000 kgl cm.

Take
SolntioD. The section will be

designed as a balanced section.
The depth of critical neutral
axis is given by,
1 8x5 0 wc
1400
ne ^27 39 cm.
Stress in concrete 50 kg. I cm-.
Stress in concrete at the level of
comnression steel
=c = 27 39
''X50kg.lcmj
= kg.lcmP Fig. 832
M./?.-30x2/39x 50
[
+(18-1) >4. x40 87(70-5)=1,400,000 kg. cm.
1,250,000+45160 1,400,000
At=332 cm?
30 X 27 39 X - 2^4-(18- I ) x 3 32 X40 g7 x 1 ;00
20540+ 2307-= 1400 A

76 32 .
2
18}. The steel beam theory

This is a method cf de? ignini.! Ooubly remforee J beams. The
theory assumes the following :
(/) compression is resisted cf.!v by comprcssi^ ii steel ;
(i7) tens59n is resisted only bs tension -si;el ;
(m) stress in compression ste ' -

-tress ifj (ensii'n steel ;
(/v) concrete serves only as a v b of an I beam whose hanges .
are represented b\ the ccn.orossion and lo'îon reinforce-

ment.
In this method areas of compi -iîon and tension steel are equal,
i.e.y Ac = At
The M.R. of die beam is. ther
re, given by*
Ar V id ) or i t{d j )
A.Â
M ...(4;
r;j~d.
A stress of / UOO A:r n. >'
be assumed in ictermining the
reinforcement.
Problem 506 A rcctunvular '
reinforced oo both slds is

30 cm. wide and 7: cm. de< ^ Td' ores of 'el ar~ cm. fro n the
respective edges, find the re inf '
oent r .uirca ilie sttcl team
theoryy for a bendin : mome*v of ' ^00 k;c cm.
Solution. Distance between c pressiori and leuston reinforce-
ment
-75 : ~65 c/'*
Allowing, i400 Avf. vm.-

1.4(0+ '
ir c*m.2 1 .^ 4 tv/
1400
184. Shear stresses in honiogeneouN sections
Fig. 833 shovss a simpfv suppv iod beam subjecicJ to concen-
trated load IV at the centre
Fig.
.
We find that the sheaf force at the section

.4 BCD -
Hence, the cross*scction has to offer an ecju.il and oppo-

site resistance. If really the intensity of the shear resistance ii uni-

form, the shear stresses at the section would have been
area AliCJ)
But, actually, the intensity of shear resistance is nor uniform.
Now consider the beam shown in Fig. 'i tt subjeeieJ to a load
system. Consider two sections 1-1 and 2-2. i/v apart. Let the rieiid-
SQEflBSSBEB
>
HW
r
0 )C
Fig. 8.S1
ing moments and 2-2 be

at sections 1-! and \f -\-J\t respect iveK.M i '
Now consider an elemental part of the beam, of widi! b anil linek-

ness dy and length dx, situated at a heiglo ..f v from the ne.urul '
layer This part is separately shown in ig i
Let / be the moment of inertia of the cr. s-.sectioii of the iteam

about the neutral axis.
Bending stress on
the elemental part at
Section (1-1)
Bending stresses on
rhe elemental part at
section (2-2)
M+dM
T
,
-/+r//=-~r- .V
Net force at the

elemental part
=r(/Xarea of crcs.s-
of the elemental i 8J5
scction
pStJT
=tf/. bdy
d.U
/ >. b(Jy
Total force on the part of the beam of length end of

area as shown shaded (Fig. 835)
=
b. ydy == -j - bdy.
I j
X moment of shaded area about the neutral axis
where /i -area shaded

y =distance of C.G. of shaded area from the N A.
Cut this net force should be balanced by horizontal shear.

Let q be the inlersity of hcrizontal shear stress.
Horizontal shear resistance = force on the part of the beam
of length dx and of area shown shaded
b dx .
Ay
_ dM
Ay_
dx Ih
dhd r? C
=S.F. at the section
direction
This the intensity of shear stress in a horizontal
is
stress in a vertical
But, this also represents the intensity of shear
direction (by the principle of complementary
shear).
section
185 Shear distribution in a beam of rectangular
Consider a beam b cm, by d
cm. Let the shear force at the sec- \
lion be 5. The shear stress ^ at a y >> \
point y cm, above the neutral axs is y \
given by * /A |
moment of area I /
above the point considered about i * - ^ l ^

the N.A. Fig. 836
Hence, the distribution of shear intensity follows a parabolic

law. This is shown in Fig. 836.
We find that the shear stress
=0 at >.= |-
and the shear stress is maximum at

yÔ
qmttx = ^4
Sd"^
8/
Since
_ Sd - 12 3 5
l' bd
But J
bd
average shear stress.
3
(Jinax =
186. Shear stresses in an R.C. beam
In the case of reinforced concrete beam in which it is assumed

that tensile stresses are not lesistcd by concrete, the distribution of
shear stresses will not exactly follow the law of equations (/) and (//).
However, for the compression zone of the
section, the shear distribution follows
the law of equations (/) and (n). The shear
stress in concrete in the tension zone is
constant, as shown in Fig 837.
The shear strsss in concrete in the
tension zone therefore is the maximum
shear stress. This can be determined as
follows : Fig. 837
Consider the concrete beam subjected to a bending. Consider
two sections 1-1 and 2-2 dx apart. Let the cross-section of the
beam be b cm, and d cm, effective depth.
Let the bending moments at sections 1-1 and 2-2 be M and
{M+d\f) respectively. Let the lever arm
Tension in the reinforcement at section 1-1
Tension in the reinforcement at section 2-2

=T+dT
M+dM
Q
Fig. 838
Net force on the reinforcements tending them to move
If the reinforcement be firmly bonded with concete so that

the reinforcement will not slip out of concrete, then the net force in
the reinforcement will induce shear stress equal to
dr
Horizontal shear area of beam between section 1-1 and 2-2
^
dT
bdx
_ dM _J
a bdx
1_.
ab
^
dx
This is the horizontal shear stresses in concrete which will also

be equal to vertical shear stress intensity.
187. Effect of shear stresses
Consider a rectangular block ABCD acted upon by shear

stresses q as shown in Fig. 839. The effect of the shear stresses is to
deform the block to the shape shown in Fig. 839 (c). We find that
compressive are developed on the diagonal plane
stresses AC
and tensile are developed on the diagonal plane BD.
stresses
It can be easily shown that the intensity of diagonal compression or
diagonal tension is also equal to the shear stress q applied on the
ELEMENTS OF RFINFORCED CONCRETE 959
block. If the riiatcrial of the block is weak in tension, the failure

will occur along the diagonal B]) and the block will be split up into
two along this plane. If the material is weak in compression, then
failure can occur by crushing along the plane AC.
Concrete is a material weak in tension, and strong in compres-
sion. It is at least ten times as strong m

compression as in tension.
Hence a concrete block
if is subjected to shear stress failure may
result by diagonal tension.
The I.S specification has specified

that the safe diagonal
tensile stress for concrete is jem!^ for
5 M
150 grade concrete.
Hence if the shear stress which is also equal to the diagonal tensile
stress is less than 5 k^Jcm.^y the concrete block is safe. If the shear
stress exceeds 5 kf'.lcm.'^ then the block requires to be strengthened
by diagonal or vertical reinforcement. See Figs. 840 (a) and (fc).
Further the design will not be considered safe even with such
reinforcements if the shear stress exceeds four times the allowable
shear stress, re., if the shear stress exceeds 4x520 k^.lcm.^, the
size of the block should be suitably increased so that the shear stress
does not exceed 20 kg,jcm^.
ia) (b>
Fig. 840
Hence summarising the above# we have,
when q<5 kf'.fkm.^ no shear reinforcement
: is required.
q> 5 Ag .
shear reinforcement is provided to
and q<20 kg./cm.^J * resist the diagonal tension.

q> 20 kg.lcm,^^ size of the block is to be changed so

vw STRENUIH UF MATBRIAIS
that the shear stress will not exceed 20

kg.fcm^.
Figs. 841 (a) and (6)
show how such diago-
nal tensile stresses are
developed in a beam.
Suppose a failureby
diagonal tension occurs
,
so that the part ABCD
I ! ! I is split up into the
parts ABC and DCB.
In order to safeguard
the structure against
such failure by diagonal
tension, reinforcement
connecting the two
parts and ACB DCB
are required. These
Fig. 841 reinforcements are
called shear reinforcements. As already suggested, [in Fig. 842 (a)
and (h)] the reinforcement may be provided vertically or diagonally.
When the shear reinforcements arc provided vertically they arc
called stirrups.These consist of bars of 6 mm. to 10 mm. diameter
bent round the tensile steel, as shown in Fig. 842 (o).
Fig. 842
It IS to
also necessary
provide small diameter bars
of 10 mm. to 12 mm. in the
compression zone of the beam
in oraer to properly anchor
the stirrups. In Fig. 842 (a)
each stirrup consists of two
legs as shown in the cross-
section. In such a case we 4 Lmeo srnmps 6 ligged
say the stirrups are two-legged, lb)
b some cases in order to Fig. 849

^
elements of reinforced concrete
resistgreater shear stresses it becomes necessary

to preside several
legged stirn ,>s (four legged, six- legged. efc.}. These
are shown in
Figs. 843 (a) and (d).
n ^7
^NDS OF
RESIST NtCiAUVE
BENOs.^C MOMFNl
fN S/ An
F'U. Two-Legged Stirrur'*^ in L Beam.

Design of vertical sfirniprs
iv asîujTK' ihat ri:e concrete has faiico by ^diagonal tension

NO that t ic stirrups ch arc all jâ
It, ' crack to a
load equ,^! to nasimum -:hear force
1
-r
/ /
S, which
Nee Fig. K F"
the
L/*!
as ihceu leaction.
also re same that
.
the '^rackt'! p!'(nc is Miciinei at 45'" to

the centre hoc of che bfani i))d -'hat it
1
i
1
c. a
extends a 'r'ri7wpjal d: stance equal i;
to the lever arm tt\e beam. Fig. 843
Let âr:^ of one stirrup
rvr=-Mdh*A.iOle srre-^ in tension in one stirrup
p - pitch of .stirrups
a
Number iff stirrups in the horizontal distance
P
/. Total load on the stirrups = Av t tvs -=- S

4 vitwQi
s
...fir)
A. should be determined faking into account the number of

legs provided in each stirrup
Since the shear force decreases from the ends towards the
centre, the spacing enhese stirrups will be close at the ends and
can be increased towards the centre. As per our code of practice, the
spacing of these stirrups shall not exceed the lever arm distance of
the beam
g
Strictly at sections where the shear
shear
stress q ^ is less than
the allowable limit of 5 kg-lcm.*, reinforcement is not

theoretically required. But it is a practice to always provide stirrups

even if the induced shear stress is lessthan 5 kg.jcrrfi.
Q^/mîre Fig. 846 shows a simply
supported beam
carrying a
L7 (ol
t^L
distributed load of w kg.jmetre.
Let the span of the beam be
t
/ metres.
We have
wl
This occurs at the end.
J .ct the section where

the hear stress is 5 kg.jcm!^
r
be at a distance of x metres
Fig. 846 fromjlthe centre.
. .y _ 5
//2 fji/rtia;
From the above relation, x can be determined.

Hence for a distance of x on each side of the middle
point,
shear reinforcement is not theoretically required, but practically pro-
vided to a nominal extent at a spacing not exceeding the lever arm
distance of the beam.
For the distance of from each end stirrups are pro-

) ( y
vided in accordance with the requirement of Eq. (iV), The dis-
tance
^ I
Jc
]
from each end may be divided into a number of
sections and the shear forces at these sections can be determined.

The pitch of stirrups corresoonding to these sections can now be
calculated. This will assist in deciding about changing the pitch at
suitable sections.
Problem 507. A' beam 25 cm. wide, 50 cm. effective depth and
6 metres span supports a total load of 19050 kg. including its weight.
Find the maximum shear stress and determine the spacing of 10 mm.
stirrups.
SoIntioB. Assume C=50 kg.lcm.^ and /=1400 kg.lcm. i== 18

a=0-87 d
^ S 9525
=875 kg.lem.^
^ oh fO-S7x 50x25)
This is greater than 5 kg.lcm>^
blements of keinforceo concrete
963
Further the shear stress is
.
be*dia^^^^
h icm . Hence, the dimensions of the beam
need
not
Suppose two-legged 10 mm. bars are suggested
for stimips
*rups,
their spacing wiU be
AvIwO
P-
2 xQ 79x I400x 0 87 x 50 '
9525
Let us. therefore, suggest 10 mm. diameter two-legged
* sdrnim
at 10 cm. centres.
Let the point where the 8 75
shear stress equals the allowable
safe shear stress of 5 kg. fern " be
X metres from the centre.
* 5

3" i-f5
r71 metres *E-
Hence shear reinforcement is needed for 3-r7l=129 metres

say I 30 metresfrom the support.
For the middle 3 4 metres nominal stirrups at 25 cm. centres
may be provided.
188. Inclined or diagonal reinforcement. When inclined rein-

forcements are provided, they consist of main tensiem reioforoemeat
bent up at a certain angle as shown in !-ig.
848 Bars are usually bent at 45* with the
horizontal Bars can be bent up only if the
remaining bars are sufficient to resist the
prevailing bending moments.
Suppose Av
the area of reinforeement
is
bent up. If tv is the stress in these

bars the
vertical component of the tension in these
Fig. 848 bars - sin 45=0'707 Avtv.
Usually tv is taken at 1400 kg.jcm^.

quantity exceeds the maximum shear force S, then the
If this
shear is safely resisted by the bent up bars. Oficn with the bars
which can be spared to be bent up the shear value of 0 707 Avtm may
be less than the maximum shear force. In such cases for the baJance
shear force of (S 0 707 /firt*) vertical stirrups should be provided.
However, vertical stirrups are always provided with a spadng not
exceeding the lever arm distance of the beam.
189. Lattice girder effect, (a) Single syatcai. It is not oraagh if
bars are bent up just near the ends to resist the shear. In order that
the beam is safe against shear failure, shear reinforcement is jxrovided
throughout the length whether with diagonal sted or with veftkal
steel.
m
964 STRENGTH OF MATtKIALS
When a number of bars arc available tw be beni. up to re

shear, it is usual to assume that the beam is equivalent to a
consisting of concrete compression members and steel tension mer
bers as shown in Fig. 849.
SO
U / 4 '4 a - - -
a
^
'tf4a
H
The usual arrangement h to assume the firu imaginary

pression member AB at 67^* with the horizontal. The ificlined
tension members are at 45* with the hori'onta!
With such a system, the shear resistance at any sect, mi

=Atrtv3 sin 45'-- 0*707 Autu^
The tendon members of this imaginary truss are prov'ded y t
the bent up bars Beading up bars are possible onlv vvhen a

number of bars are present at the bottom and a number iT them art'
no longer required to resist the bending moment The arrangemv
shown in Fig 850 is called a single system of bent up hdw The heh;hl
of the imaginary truss is equal to the lever arm disiance a
From the geometry of the triangle ABC of the truss, we h ivc
AC CB -av -2- 1414 a

Le > the bars bent up at Care bent from a point at a distance
of 1*414 from the support.
If the inclination of the bars be at any angle 0 witi: the horizon-
tal, the arrangement would be as shown in Fig 850.
B _ f ^
Ft-. 850
It worth noting that if the bent up bar say CB is at 0 with

is
the horizontal, the compression member CD

should be bisecting the
angle jBCjEso that

-90-2. If this arrage
ment is not done, i e if the compression members are not taken at

tLEMENfi OF REiNFORCtD 966
90 with the horizontal, wcfind the design shear reiaforccnieat
becomes uneconomical.
Sometimes the imaginary compression members are also taken
at 45 with the horiiLontal while the bars are also bent up at 45* as
shown in Fig. 851.
rig. 85^
In suoh cases *^hilc culating the s?icar at any

resistance
section by the expre li* n 0 7 cat : bet.^ken to assunrie
a value of s.jch xV " txet^ c r^ isile arc not developed in
the horizontal part : hr k o oar.'i.
Avalue of !u r 707 --
owakc stress in steel .should be
used while calcalatir the i rcsisiancc. Suppose the allowable
tensile stress IS 140o 4 ie./rw ^ he value of k in this case should be
taken at 0*707 1400 -990 ki
Double system. If in addition to the bars bent up as shown
in hig.849. additiona bars are also bent up as shown in Fig. 852, the
arrangement is called a double system arrangement
Fij. 852
In this case the shear resistance at any section==-2x*70? AuU.

190. LiniUiiig the shear stress It was stated in an earlier
paragraph that the shear stress should not be allowed to ekcced four
tunes the safe shear stress of concrete Hence tf the safe shear stress
of concrete is 5 kg. It -m the ihcar stress in no case shall be allowed
to exceed 4 x 5=20 k,; !cnP. It there should be
may be felt as to why
an upper limit to the shear Miess. It may also appear
that after all, if
the shear stress has e^.eeded ihc safe stress of 5 kg./c'n, shear rein-
forcement of proper amount may be provided. But it should not be
forgotten that there suould not also be any failure by diagonal com-
966 stR&Hjrti OP materials
imtssoii. Suppose the shear stress is so large that the diagonal comp-
ression stress can just reach its working stress. Corresponding to this,
the diagonal tension would require such large amount of steel that
concreting will become difficult which will result in air pockets. The
concrete in such a case would consist of a number of disjointed
concrete pieces separated by steel bars:
191. Bond
One of the main assumptions in developing the theory of rein-
forced concrete is that the reinforcements do not slip from the concrete
surrounding it. When concrete sets and thus hardens, it will firmly
grip round the reinforcejments. It is because of this grip between
concrete and steel, the two materials share the applied loads. Once
this grip is absent the reinforcement provided would serve no
purpose.
Supjwsc the reinforcement of the beam shown in Fig. 853 has
lost the grip with concrete.
(a)
it is just as good as loosely providing a reinforcement

Then it;
>lespresent earlier When the beam is loaded the steel rods slip
nd the beam fails since the reinforcement has not really shared the
oading. Hence this grip between the concrete and steel i.s very
iDportant and the gripping stress, bereaftti called the bond stress,
should therefore be within a limit.
It may be realised 4bat the function of this bond in reinforced
concrete members is exactly the same as the function of rivets in
ûih up plate girders which consist of web plates and flange angles
nd cover plates. If for instance the flange angles arc not properly
weted to the web plate the flange angles will not function. If
ne number of rivets connecting the flange angles and the web is
asufficient, these rivets will fail and immediately the flange becomes
separated from the web: In almost the same manner when the
induced bond stresses are very large the bars get separated from the
ooncrete or let os say the bond between the concrete and the steel is
fctWENt$ 6F concrete 961
broken and this will result in the load of the beam to be resisted
only by the concrete. The beam will thus fail by tension even
though sufhcieat amount of steel from bending moment considerations
has been provided. Bond stresses often are not receiving that much
good attention which they deserve. While designing particu.arly.
beams subjected to heavy loads and footings, bond stresses shall
always be determined and shall be compared with the allowable bond
stress.
l92. Direct bond
In big. 854 (o) is shown a bar embedded inconcerete only for a

short length ; while in Fig. 854 {b) isshown a bar embedded for a
Fig 854
greater length. !t is obvious that assuming the bars not to fail, it

requires a greater load to pull out the bar in the arrangement of
big. 854 îS'iUnn what is required to pull out the bar the arrangc- m
nicf t c-f Fig ^54
TIk' m^crojty ef bond stress
Load in the bars

Contact area of the bar with concrete
I el i tor Icngih oT crr*bcdmcnt
BoHii st."es' jr
n al
w hei e d- diameter of bar
,s r;i|!t d liie average bond

i . stress. Let the bar be subjected
to its luaxiinum 'dress t.
96S STRENOTB op llATEltULS
Length of embedment*-/^ tjt-

4o
The I.S. specification allows a value of Sb =6 kg.Jcm.^ for
M ISO grade concrete.
If / 1400 fcg./cm.
and Sb =6 kg.fcm.^
. , dXtAOO
we have /=
I-SSd ...(I)
The practice Is thus to provide a hood length of 58 diameters.

The following are the factors that give the property of a good
oond between concrete and reinforcement.
(a) Sufficient cover for reinforcement.
(h) Richness of concrete.
(e) Using twisted bars, welding the stirrup bars with the
main bars.
id) Roughness of steel.
193. Local bond

Consider an R.C. beam subjected to a certain loading. Consider
0 two sections l-I and 2-2 distant dx
apart. See Fig. 855 Let the bend-
.
ing moments at sections 1- 1 and 2-2

dIUtinnnnnf l ihhnnnnr aDmamcm be M and {M+dM) respectively,
p j Let the lever arm distance be a.
Tension m steel reinforce-
i
mentt
M
at section 1-1 = ^ and
>
and Tension
steel reinforcement at section

Fig. 835 Af-f-dM
.. Net force in the tension reinforcement in a length dx - ~

a
For, length of reinforcement, the bond force between the steel
this
and the concrete=(S0) dx Sb where (20 ) is the total perimeter of
reinforcement. Equating the force of bond to the net force on the
tensile reinforcement, we have, (SO) dx. Sb=
S.F.=S.
...( 2 )
ELEllEHTS OF RBINFORCEO CONCRETE 9^9
This bond stress ioduc.'d due to the rate of change of bending

moment is called the heal bond stress.
specification has recommended a safe iOcal
I.S. bond stress of
10 kg.lcm.^ for M
150 mix concrete.
In designs the Eq.(2) is in the form ...(3)

aSti
From this, the perimeter of bars required to limit the bond

stress to 10 kg.lcmr can be computed.
Hence reinforcement required from bond considerations must
be provided though from bending moment considerations no
reinforcement may be required
Eq. (3) shows that the required perimeter of reinforcement
isproportional to the shear force. For a simply supported beam, for
instance, the bending moment at the support is zero and the shear
force ismaximum.
Hence some bars are to be maintained in the bottom such that
the perimeter of bars provided is at least The remaining bars

may be curta led at such piaccs where they are no longer required
for bending moment. These bars may also be bent up at suitable
places to serse as shear reinforcement.
194. Eod anchorage
Bars embedded
eraibedocd in cri
c crcte arc sometimes hooked so as
to have pr? pler anehorage
with conciete If bars are
provided h the
necessary ;:np .r bond
length can redu ed. . A
hook shalL'.U'ays .onfirm
to the specr catior^ -^hown
in Fig. 856. The anchorage . . 856. A standard hook.
value of the li ook alone is
considered ir*. ]^d yKcve J jiiietcr of the bar.
V pecificalion has stated the
In tlf r<'r'ncctJon
following ;
ot H,

a reinforcing bar may be
Aachci
nCUru quivakni that of the length
assumed u.* .
of the bar '

nr Ti> iOameier of the round bar for
each 45 tn. ^
ar '1 -
. .it,
(a) ir a -'ad?!'' .'fthe 0j he, not less than twice the diameter
of the roun.
(h> Ti jf the ^-traigbr
of fhe cur\C' l*c at !<^;jst four timess the diameter of the round bar ;
A\fhatever the angle .itough which the bar is bent, the

assumed anchorage value sfaouid not be taken as more than equi-
970 5rRENGTfe[ MAfER.'Xt^
valent to a length of bar equal to sixteen times the diameters of the

round bar.
Bars in tension. In the tensile reinforcement the length mea-
sured from any section to the end of the bar plus the equivalent
anchorage value of hook shall be such that the average bon^1 stress
induced to develop the actual stress at the section shall not exceed
the permissible average bond stress. In the case of the tensile rein-
forcement of circular section, the length measured from such section
up to the beginning of the hook shall at least be equal to n times
the diameters of the bar minus the anchorage value to the hook,
Actual tensile stress in the bar
where n
Four times the permissible average bond stress
In no case shall such value of n be less than 12.
Bars in compression In this case, the length measured from
any section to the end of the bar shall be such that the average bond
stress induced to develop the actual stress at the section shall not
exceed 1 25 times the permissible average bond stress. In the case
of bars of circular section the length measured from such section
shall be at least equal to n times the diameter of the bur where
_ ~
Actual compressive stress in the bar
Five times the permissible average bond stress
In no case the value of n !>e less than 12. Hooks are unneces-
sary, But when a hook is provided it.shall not be accounted for
anchorage purposes.
195. Riiinforccmcnt
Reinforcement used shall coiiiortn to the requirements of

432 specificaiion f(r MiU stu I owl high ti nslle steel bars aod
hard drawn steel wire ff>r concrete, teinfor cement (Revised). The rein-
forcement shall be free from loose mill scale, loose rust, oil and
grease or any such harmful niarter, immediately before placing the
concrete. The reinforcement sh d! he placed and positioned strictly
following the requirements shown in the structural drawings.
196. Bending Bars Bending
bars shall be dvnie with great
caution. Often this j(^b does no' receive that much attention which it
deserves. Bending bars are expected to fulfil certain definite functions
and hence bars must be bent so liiat there is good advantage of the
worked out design. There are instances of failures of structures for
want of correct bending, even tliougbi the designs worked out are
not faulty.
197. The necessity of bending r inforcetnent. Bars are bent
under different circumstances, dfiey nuy be bent to form hooks so as
to develop proper anchorage. Sometimes bars have to be tent as
to form loops as in the case of stirrups as shear reinforcement. Bar^
may also be bent to resist diagonal tension They m3y also be bent
up to form necessary ricnforcement for hogging bending moments.
The following are the types of bend we normally come across :
h
elements op reinforced concrete

i)71
(a) Hooks at the end

of bars in beams.
yr
(b) Bars bent up at
ends and hooked in
beams for resisting
diagonal tension.
(c) Bars which serve
for positive bending
moment which are (c)
bent up to resist
negative bending
moment. .
(d) Bars bent to form

loops to serve as
shear reinforce-
ment. c
These are shown in
Fig. 857. Fifi 857
The code has further recommended the following

I.S.^ :
Splices ID tensile reinforcemeot. Splices at point of niaximurn

tensile stress shall be avoided wherever possible splices where used ;
shall be welded, lapped or otherwise fully developed. In any case

the splice shall transfer the entire computed stress from bar to bar.
Lapped splices in tension shall not be used for bars of si/cs largoi
than 36 mm, diameter, such splices shall preferably be welded.
For contact spaced laterally closer than 12- bar

splices,
meter or located than 15 cm or 6 bar diameter^ from
close] dn
edge, the lap shall be increase:! by 20 percent
or ch^sely spaced spirals shall enclose tlR* phee for its full .
Where ni- one half of tlvC bars are spliced witlnn a

rc than
Icncfli of 40-baJ diameters or where solves ao- made ai p.nnts of
r.axMnum stre^. special precaution shah tak- n Mich a. auac.ojug
the length of the lap, and'or using spire'v or cio ely spaM ii
arour.d. and f<K ihe length of the sphcc
Splices in compression rtinforcemeat Wh.: Ltpp. '

i'l;
used, the lap lengths shall conform r<' p- n.eut

eailicr Welded splices may be ii'C mste.; of jan;vl
1
Whe'e bar size exceeds ^6 mm

diamcR .'eld- df
ably be used. In bars required for e'.rn}'ri:>SM.5. onK ii.e von^nre^-
stve .stress may he transmitted by bearing 4'^q^.,:rc c.u Kr-if .u ^ ^
concrete contae: by a suitably welded aesc or mechanic il u ?"Mce
In column^ where longitudinal bars arc otr^r it a sphee, the

slope of the inclined portion of the bar with the axis oMhc c(du/na
shall not exceed 1 in 6 and the portions of the bar above and below
the offset shall be parallel to the axis of the column. Adequate hori-
zontal support at the offset bends shall be treated as a matter of
design, ancl shall be provided by metal ties, spirals or part.s of the
floor construction Metal ties or spirals so designed shall be placed
near (not more than eight' bar diameters from) the point of bend.
1
STEN<3Tr<5FÂftrtiAts
PeriilIgsiMe Stresses im Steel Reioforcement
PermissilÎe stresses in kgjcm
Type of stress in the steel

ii*=
I 8^ 5g*:
s^
|5S c, is*-.
(/) Tension : Other than io

(a) helical reinforcement in
a column and {b) shear retn-
foi cement.
Upto and including 40 mm i4oo;

)
Half the gua- 1900
r raoteed yield
Over 40 mm. 130oJ1 stress subject
to a maxi-
mum of 1900
() Tension in helical reinforce- lOOo 1300 1600

ment in a compression mem-
ber.
(/) Tension in iicar reinforce- 1400 1400 1400

ment.
Compression in column bars 1300 1300 13C0
(v) bars in a beam

Compression in The calculated compressive stress
or slab when
the compressive w.
resistance of the conereie is the modular ratio.

taken into account
Compression in bars in a beam

or slab where the compressive
resistance of the concrete is
not taken into account,
Uplo and including 40 mm. Half the gua-

ranteed yield
Over 40 mm. stress subject
to a maxi-
mum of 1900
Note /. When mlid steel c informing to grade II of I.S, 432- (960 is:
used, the perniissible stress shall be reduced by 10 per cent,

or tf the design details have already been worked out on the
basis of mild steel conforming to Grade 1 LS. : 432-1960, the
area of reinforcement shall be increased by 10 per cent of that
required of Grade 1 steel.
Note 2. Yield stress of steels for which there is no clearly defined yield
point should be taken to be 0*2 per cent of proof stress
eliments of reinforced concrete 973
The horizontal thrust to be resisted shall be assumed as li times the

horizontal component of the nominal stress in the inclined portion
of the bar. Offset bars shall be bent before they are placed in
foims.
Joining or Lapping. The length of lap in reinforcement shall
not be less than :
(a) For bars in tension :
, .. actual tensile stress

ar tame cr
times the permissible average bond stress
or 30-bar diameters whichever is greater,
( h) For bars in compression :
aâl coinpressivc stress

ar
the permissible average bond stress
or 24-bar diameter whichever is greater
Minimom spacing of reinforewnent The tnirsimuni horizontal

distance between parallel reinforocments shall n<."t be les' than the
following :
(i) Diameter of bir when bars arc of the same diameter.

n>a-
meter of the thickest bar when bars of more than one size are used.
{(() Maximum size of coarse aggregate plus 6 mm. // //i
2^ mm. A
aggregate size be taken as 19 wm., this spacing equals
greflttT distunce should be providid wlwti lomenunt.
riie vertical distance between two horizontal main bars

shall
be not less than mm. But this does not apply at a splice or lap
and when such lemforcements are transverse to each other.
Coser. All reinforcements shall have a cover of concrete and
the thickness ot such a cover exclusive r>f plaster or other deco-
rative finish, as per IS. code shall be as follows ;
At each end of a reinforcing bar not less than 25 mm.

-
(a)
nor les.s than twice the diameter of such bar.
(b) For longitudinal reinforcement in

a column not less than
40 mm. nor less than the diameter of bar. In the case of columns
bars do not
of minimum dimensions of 20 cm. or less, whose
exceed mm. dia -25 mm. cover may be used.
beams -not less than 25
(c) For longitudinal reinforcement in
mm. nor less than diameter of such bar.
(d) For compressive shear or other reinforcement in a
tensile,
slab- not than 13 mm, nor dia. of reinforcement.
less
less than 13 mm. nor
(e) For any other reinforcement not
less than the diameter of reinforcement.
198. T-beams
Strictly rectangular beams are uncommon in reinforced con-
crate since the beam carries in almost all cases a slab with which it
is monolithic.Hence the structure becomes a slab which is stifTen-d
by concrete ribs. The slab and the rib due to their monolithic nature
form a T-beam. The flange of the T-beam provides the necessary
resistance to compression while the vertical rib provides the depth
and hence the necessary lever arm. The width of rib must be such
as to accommodate the tensde reinforcement.
Fig. 858
199. Width of flange of a T-beam
A certain portion of the slab on either side of the beam can

be considered as forming the compression flange. The width B
{see Fig. 858) of the flange which can be considered as acting effecti-
vely with the rib depends upon the span of the T-beam, the
breadth of the rib, the overall thickness of the rib and the spacing
of T-beams.
If the spporting beam happens to be an end beam, the flange
of the beam is present only on one side of the beam and the beam
in such a case is called on L-beam.
The width of flange of T and L beams may be determined from
the following requirements recommended by I.S. 4S6 specification.
() For T beams,
B= ~ -{-br+ZiU
() For L beams, j
where / = effective span .
hr = width of the rib.

It is important to note that the part of the slab considered as
the flange of the T-beam can function with the beam only when
the flange has adequate reinforcement transverse to the beam and it
shall be built integrally with the beam or effectively bonded together
with the beam.
In this connection the I.S. code has stated the following :
The flanges' of the T-beam or L-beam may be part of a slab

which is spanning either transverse to the beam or in the same
direction as the beam. In any case the flange shall have adequate
reinforcement transverse to the beam and it shall be built inteÎly
with the beam. However, where the main reinforcement of a slab,
which is considered as the flange of the T-beam or L-beam is pai^lel
to the beam, transverse reinforcement extending to the length indi-
Fig. 859
caied in Fig. 859 shall be provided near the top surface of the slab.
If thequantity of such reinforcement is not specifically determined by
calculation, it shall be not less than 60 percent of the main reinforce-
ment'in the centre of the span of the slab constituting the flange.
Depth of Rib. This is deteruiined by the effective depth of the
beam. The effective depth ol a 1 or L beam is the distance between
the top compression edge and fhe centre of the tensile reinforcement.
In preliminary computations the depth can be taken as yj of the
span for heavy loads, xj tf span for medium and to A A
for light loads. Some designers follow the following specifications,
viz.
The ratio of efft -live sran to overall depth cf a beam shall

not exceed the following :
Simply supported beams 20

Continuous beams 25
Cantilever beams : 10
200 Width of rib
This shall be such as to accommodate the necessary tensile rein-

forcement. The width shall also be such as to prevent lateral in-
stability. This width is generally b^ween J and f of the depth of
the rib. More often architectural requirements fix the width which
shall be the same as the width of the supporting column.
201 Neutral axis of a T-beam
The depth of the neutral axis can be determined by equating

moments of areas on either side of the neutral axis. Three cases
arise, viz.
(i) The neutral axis may be situired within the flange.

(fO The neutral axis may be just at the bottom edge of the slab.
(Hi) The neutral axis may be below the slab.
Case (i). Neutral axis within the iiange (Fig. 860).
Such a beam will be-
have a asrectangular
beam of width B.
Taking moments
about the N.A.
Case (ff). In this case

thickness of the
slab.
Hence Eq. (1) still hold.-* good.
Case (Hi). Neutral 'sxis below the slab (Fi 861).
This is the usual

case. In this case, taking - 1 1
moments about N.A.

We have. Ti '
1
ji T-
f \ . Wn </)*
Bd,
(."-TT 2
d
=mAtidn) ...(2)
In these computa-
#
' tions it is usual to ignore
I the compressive
force in Fits. 861
etherib of the beam.

in Eq. (2) and
Hence, it is usual to discard the term br
hence practically, we have

-<3
Bd.[n~
to be noted that the above amendment
on iûation (2) u
It is
the calculations. The compression area of the
made only to simplify
r-beam has thus been taken as Bdt
elbmbkts of reinforced concrete
977
202. Lever arm of the T-beam
This is the distance

j
between the line of action of
the resultant compression
to
the line of action of the
resultant tension.
Let the maximum com-

pressive stress in concrete be
c kg^lcm.^ Let the compres-
sive stress in concrete at the
bottom edge of the flange be c kg,lcm -
The centre of gravity of the resultant

compression is situated
at a depth from the compression edge j) is the
; actual depth of
centroid of the pressure trapezium corresponding to the
flange
^
(rig. oo2).
c +2c* a\
c+c 3 (4)
Lever arm a^d-y
Substituting in Eq, (4), we have,
n d
n'dB 3
c4-
3n-2ds
^ 2nd 3
...(5)
Eq. (5) may be found to be more convenient than Eq (4).

Moment of Resistance of the beam
M.R.^Total compression or total tension x lever arm
id-y) ...( 6 )
Substituting for c'
n-d$
c+
id-J)
M.R. X c Bd,(d-y) .(7)
M R. is also equal to At . t(d}) (8)

Problem 508. An R.C. T-beam with a flange width of 102 cm.

has a tension steel of area 22 8 cm*. Taking the modular ratio as
18 and the permissible stresses in concrete and steel as 50 kg. /cm."
and 1440 kg /cm.^ determine the moment of resistance of the beam.
The thickness of the flange is 13 cm. and the effective depth of the
beam is 51 cm.
Solution.
At^22'B cm.^
Taking moments
and assuming it to be
situated below the slab.
We have,
102xl3(n-6-5)
Fig. 963 -18x22 8(^!-n)
n 17 cm.
Since this value of is greater than the thickness of tlie slab
our assumption that the neutral axis is below the slab is correct.
Depth of critical neutral axis is given by
18X50 _
51 -n.
n.=199 cm.
Since << steel attains the maximum stress earlier.
Distance of C.G. of the total compression from the top edge
-
3/1
2n-^
2d
'
~d$
3x17-2x13 J3 5 1 6 cm.
2x17-13 3
or alternatively.
c+2c' d.
^ c+c 3
But
ndi 17-13 _
c c
n 17 17
-0-235C
C+2X0-235C 13
y C+0-235C 3 cm.
^ 1-47
1235
=5 16 cm.
S J
kllments or reinforced concrete 979
Lever arm
51 5*16 cm.
-45*84 cm.
t(d-y)
= 22 8 X 1400 X 45*84 k^. cm.
^ L463,000 kg. cm.
Problem 509. 4 T~hcam ha^ a flange width of 120 cm , the

farjec tliii'knc\:, The reinforcement cami^Û f ^ if
mo: iiko'oci-'T :/ li an cf\^ctlvc depth of 40 em if iKi sirt
fe itn,! s\(i shaVi not exceed 50 kg.cm^ and I 4
'0
.? coth A-q U'm.'^ i
respi Ci^ e!" find the oioment of reds tance of the beam satooi. Modu-
lar raU-^> J5r.
Solution
\ i 22 62 cm.^
Assuming ih tf the neutral axis is below the sluK taking nuv
p'.enis iibout the N -t , have,
]2n I i{// IS 22*62 (50 /i)
li- !5S7 cm.
SuKc /r f/ oar J^âmpl!on about the p>sition of neutral axis
is coriect
Depth r*rrrt:al neutral axis is given by
t-iOO 4 Hr
n -- I5'6^ cm.
Since n<t} steel will attain the maximum stress earlier
, 2n-~2d^ d
^ 2n - d .. 3
^ 3 13 87-2x10
v'
cm.
2x 13 87-10
=4 06 cm.
Lever arm d 40 4*06 --35*94 cm.

.*. M.R. Ait(d-y)
- 22 62X1 400 X 35*94 kg, cm.
/ 139000 kg. cm.
Prohiem 510. The breadth and thickness of the Jlange of a

T-bcam are I hQ cm. and 15 cm respectively* Steel reinf orcement of
area 4 5 24 cm d pro'.ideJ at an effective depth of 70 cm.
* If the
modular ratio equal find the stresses in concrete and steel if the
y
moment of resistance of the beam section is 32fl00 kgm.

Solution. Assuming the N.A. to be below the flange, takin?

moments about the N.A.we have,
170 X 15 (n-r5)=18x45'24 (70-n)
n=22'3cm.
m 3 >t~ 2</ dt

T
_ 2 x 22-63 -2X15 15
2 x 22-63-15 '
3
=6-26 cm.
Lever arm =W-^)=70- 6-26 =63 74 cm.
M.R. =/l r(rf-^)=32000xl00
=45-24xtx63 74
=32000X100
32000X100
"45'24 kg.lcm.^
x 6374
^1,110 kg.jcm^.
Stress in concrete is given by
I8xc_ 22 63
illb 70-22 63
C^29'45 kg. /cm
:^203. Axially Loaded ColumiH
A column forms a very important component of a structure

Columns support beams which in tu'-n support walls and slabs. It
should not be forgotten that the failure of a column results in the
collapse of the structure. The design of a column should therefore
receive importance
4xially loaded colanns.

204. An axially loaded column s
one in which the line of thrust of the load supported by the column
coincides with the longitudinal axis of the column.
205Plain concrete columos. Columns whose unsupported

lengths do not exceed four times the least lateral dimension may
be made of plain concrete Further the load should be axialh
applied. Columns of greater lengths should be adequately rein-
forced.
206. R.C. colnmns. Columns may be cast to any of the

following shapes square, circular, hexagonal, octagonal, cic
Longitudinal reinforcement (or main steel) is provided to resist com-
pressive loads along with with concrete. As per I. S. 456 a rein-
forced concrete column shall have longitudinal steel reinforcement
and the cross-sectional area of such reinforcement shall be not less
than 0'8% nor more than 6% of the cross-sectional area of the

column required to transmit all the loading. The object of sti-
pulating a minimum percentage of steel is to make provision to
prevent buckling of the column due to an accidental eccentriciiy of
the load on it. The object of stipulating a maximum percentage of
sled is to provide reinforcement A'Miu- 10-32/Mm
within such a limit to avoid
congestion of reinforcements
ulr'ch would make it very diffi-
cult to place the concrete and
consolidate it. This may be
best jeali/cd from the following
tv\o examples. Consider two
columns 45 cm. X45 cm.
A-O
Reinforcement required at 0*8% of gross x 45-
-16*2 an.-
This may be provided by four bars of 24 mi ., diameter with an

area of 18' 10 cm.^ [Fig. 864 fn)).
Reinforcement required at 6% of the gross x 45-
-12 15 ctrfi.
the bigger diameter bars be selected, say 32 mm. dia-

Hven if
nu ler bats, we will require 16 har.s of 32 mm, diameter providing
a total area of 804x 16-* 128 64 cm,^ |Fig. 864 (/;)]. The difficulty
of placing concrete between the 16 bars of 32 mm, diameter with the
overall size of 45 cm x 45 cm. may be quite apparent. Practically
the maximum percentage of steel may be limited to 4 per cent of the
gross area so as to ensure a good and sound concrete.
ll the ratio of the length to least radius of gyration is less than
1
2, the requirement regaiding minimum amount of steel will not
ajiply.
The longitqdmal reinforement should be laterally tied by

transver e links to provide a restraint against outward buckling of
each of the longittidinal bars. I S. 456 code stipulates that the
dictiiieier of longitudinal bars shall not be less than 12 mm. and that
the diameter of the transverse reinforcement shall be not less than one
fourth of the diameter of the main rods and in no case less than 5 mm.
in diameter.
In the case of pedestals and columns in which the longitudinal

reinforcement is ignored for purposes of calculating the permissible
loid on the column the longitudinal reinforcement shall not be less
tluui 0*15% of the gross area of the column section.
207. Spacing of transverse links. This shall not exceed the

least of the following :
(a) The least lateral dimension of the columns.

982 STRI NOTH OF MARIals
(/>) Sixteen times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal

rod in the column.
re inforcing
(c) Forty-eight times the diameter of the transverse reinforce-

ment.
^208. Cover. The minimum cover to a column reinforcement

equals 40 mm. or diameter of bar whichever is greater.
209. Effective length of a colnmn. The clTective length of a

column is not necessarily its actual length. It depends on the degree
of fixity of the ends of the columns. The following (able (page 983)
(corresponding
effective lengths to the actual length i
gives the
which refers to the length of the column from floor to floor or
between properly restrained supports). This table is in accordance
with I.S. 456 code.
210. Safe loads on R.C. columns.
eftl M""
Short A
column will be considered as a short column
least lateral dimension does
when the ratio of effective length to its
not exceed 12*.
211. Permissible load on a column

may be designed by the following
Reinforced concrete columns
methods
(i) method based on the elastic theory.
(ii) 1-S. code method.
Method based on the elastic theory

(i)
Let A be the overall area of the column section.

be Ac and
Let the area of compressive reinforcement
let the
modular ratio be m.
be
Let the compressive stress in concrete
c.
the reinforcement and the

Since there is no slipping between
Hence to satisfy
concrete, strains in conciete and
steel are equal.
this condition
Stress in steel = modular ratio x stress in concrete

/= me
Let IF be the load on the column.
Load on concrete -I- load on steel = W.
c{A Ac)=Ac mc=IV
regarded
For mote exact computations a column can be
least radius of gyration doe
column when^the ratio of the effective length to its
oot exceed 50,
t LfcMENTvS OF RErNFORCED COKCRETfi 983
Theoretical Recommend-
Degree of end restraint of compression member value of ed value of
effective effective
length length
EfTectively >ê)d in position a<^d restrained against 0*5 / 065 I

rotation at both (/ e. both ends are fixed) 1
ElTectively held position at both ends, restrained

agriinst rotation at one end (i.e. fixed at one end 0*7 / 0*80/
and hinged at the other end)
EiT.ctively held in position at both end#, but not

restra ned against rotation (i e., both ends are 100/ 100 /
hinged.
ElTectively held in position and restrained against

rotation at one end, and at the other partially 1*50 /
restrained against rotation but not held In position
EtTectively held in posit on at one end but not rcS'

trained against rotation, and at the other end res- 2001 Tool
trained against rotation but not held in position
F^^cctively held in position and restrained against

2*00 2'00
rotation at one end but not held in position nor / /
lestra ned against rotation at the other end, i.e.,

fixed jt one end and free at the other end
Safe Compressive Stress ia Concre te in ColamM (IS 456)
SJ. UNITS M.K,S, UNITS
Grade Safe stress in Grade Safe stress in

Compression of Concrete Compression
of concrete
NImm*, kg.Jcm}
M 10 2*5 M 100 25
M 15 4*0 M 150 40
M 20 5-0
1
M200 50
M 25 60 ! M250 60
M 30 8*0 M300 80
M 3'" 90 '
M350 90
M 40 10 0 M4r^ 100
On this theory taking c at 40 kg.lcm.^ (or the stipulated stress)

the safe load on the column section can be determined. Until recent-
ly columns were designed on the elastic theory.
(ii) I.S. code method

The safe load on a short column is given by,
area of "1
y [safe stress I ,
f area of"!
[
safe stres 1
^ Lconcrete J j L J I J
Safe compressive stress in concrete shall be taken as follows :
Safe compressive stress in mild steel bars is equal to 130 'H/mm-

(1300 kg./cm^).
Problem 511- An R.C. column 30 cm. ><30 cm. in section Is

reinforced with H bars.of 20 mm. diameter. Jf the permissible stress
in concrete is 40 kg.lcm.* find the safe compressive load by simple elas-
tic theory. Take 18.
Solution.
Area of column=i4=30x30'=900 cm.*
Area of steel =/4(=8 x

^ (2)*=25i2 cm.*
Equivalent concrete area=y4 = /l-l-(m 1) Ai
=900-|-(18-l) 25 12-=1327 04 cm *
Equivalent 1
Safeload-r^^^"^''1xr
Un concrete J L concrete areaj
=40x1327 04 kg.
=53082 kg.
Problem 512. (S.I.) A short column 30 cm.xJO cm. in section

isreinforced with 8 bars of 22 cm. diameter. Find the safe load on
the column by simple elastic theory. Take = 18 Safe -stress in m
concrete is 4Njmm^.
Solution. Area of the column

=A=30x30=900cm.2
*
Area of steel =.4(=8x-^ (2'2)*=30 4 cm
Equivalent concrete area

=At=A-\-(.m l)i4(
= 900-f(18-l)30-4cm.*
-1416-8 cm.^
Safe stress in concrete
4 7V/mm.*=400 N!cm *
Safe load=r^'" Equivalent

Lm CimcreieJ Leo:. Crete areaj
1 "|
= 400 X 1416*8 New'ton.s

- - S66 7 Jo
A V u /ons
72 Kih>riewtoiiS.
Problem 513. A short cohnin of Minute seaii^n is to he doîi^ncd
to carry an axial load of l,02JOO ky. Design tin column by LS. code
method.
Solution. 1 ct us assume liuit A/ Is ) gratle concrete is used.
Hence c =-4t) ko.lcm -
and Cl = 1300 kg./i

*-
Let the sectional aiea of the colu iii he A t/n
Let us assume 2;. of area colunm as steel reinforcement,
/. Area of steel - 002 i cn, ~
/. Area o( concrete-'^ >4 (^02.4

' 0*98.4 cm *"
/. Saf J load concrete ai\ a x safe si^'ss in concrete

^êel area xsafe stress in steel
'
098.4 40-P^ '2v4x 1300

<='
1
dfd.OOO h e
6^ 2.4 13*2.300
.f - cmJ
Size cohirr-n ~ V'' r> 3'i
62 cm,
Hence pre nie >10 m <4ii co)
Area of the coiufn! section- (rnr
40(1600 - .4 ) t
-I3)2,3{'0
I26(M.-3830{
ir--3(r4
Provide 8 bars of 2 2 mm d:ainetcr (3041 cmc^).
Lateral ties. Diameter to be not
less than
(/) 5 inn I
\il) One-fourth of diameter of
main steel x 22 = 5*5 mm.
IjcX us, therefore, provide 6 mm.
diameter tics.
Fig. 865
This shall not exceed the following

:
Spacing.
=-40 cm.
(0 Least lateral dimension
of main bar--* 12x22 26 4 cm.
() 12 tiroes the diameter
iiii) 48 times the diameter
of transverse steel
ss48x6 288 m/M. 28 8 c/m.
:

Let US, therefore, provide 6 mm. diameter lies at 26 cm. centres
[See Fig. 865].
212. Long columns. When the ratio of effective length of a
column to its least lateral dimension exceeds 12 the column will be
regarded as a long column. Such columns are liable to be buckled
and to include this factor in the design the working stresses in concrete
and steel are taken at a lower valu^*, by giultiplying the usual working
stresses by a co*efficient Cr called a reduction co-efficient.
Hence for a long column
Safe stress in concrete Cr corresponding safe stress tor short
column
and safe stress in steel Cr corresponding safe stress for short
column
The co-eflBcient Cr is to be determined from the following
relation
Ut
Cr-i 25-
486
lef
For more exact computations Cr f25
[ 160 A'm ]
where Cf=*reduction co efficient
//=effective length of the column
6 least lateral dimension
iTmleast radius of gyration.
Values of Cr for various values of are given in the following

b
table
/
let lef //
b
Cr
b - ;
Cr
T Cr
12 rooo 24 0 750 36 0*500 48 0-250
13 0979 25 0 729 37 0479 49 0*229

1
14 0 958 26 0*708 38 0-458 50 0 2('8

I
15 0 937 27 0 688 39 (
*438 51 1
0188
16 0-917 28 0*667 40 0417 52 0lb7
17 0895 1
29 0'646 41 0*396
;
53
j
0-146
18 0875 30 0-625 !
42 0 375 I 54 1
0-125
19 0-854 31 0 604 43 0*354 55 0-104

j 1
20 :
0833 32 0-583 44 0 333 56
'
0083
j
21 0 8! 3 33 0-563 i
45 0313 57 0*063
22 i
i
0*792 34 0-542 1 46 I
0*292 58 0-042
!
23 ;
0 771 35 0-521 ;
47 :
0*271 59 0021 :
1
! 1
Problem 514- A column 38 cm. x 38 cm. X 8 metrc.<t tong has to

support a load of 80,000 kg. Find the necessary reinforcement for the
column. Take c^40 kg.fcm.^ and ci = 1300 kg'lcm.^
Solution b least lateral diineasion>='38 cm.
//=length of column =btX) cm.
lef 800
-2105.
b 38
This is greater than 12. Therefore, the column is a long column.
Reduction co-cfl5cient
If
0 = 125- 48f>
800
= 1-25 48X38 0-811
x

Safe load on the long column -Reduction co-ellickiit safe
load on short column.
Let the area of reinforcement be 4- cm.-

.'. Area of concrete=38x38 (1444 /!,) cm.-
:. Safeload=0-811 [40(1444-.40-! 1300x,4,]
-80.000 kg.
/lc=--332 cm-
8% and 6,-; of tlic area >r the column
This is between 0
section.
provide 3', 19 cm.-
8 bars of 24 mm. diameter will
provide. 1 as in the previous cxai iple.

Lateral ties shall also be
structures, a
*213 Continuous columns. Ofic i in inultistoried
continues up through a lloor uom o te storey to another. Iti
column inu>t be first continued up
the mmn bars of the column
outsid. the ,einfce,nen of the floor been,
frames into this column. When the
mam
bars continue up
of the beam, it is necessary that the width
tfil^he reinScement
be at least 8 cm more than the width ol the
the Column should may be smaller above
u
beam. SoiLtimes the column si/e iti pltin column

HpIow it In such cases the main bars of the
inwards at the floor.lcvcl, or alternatively these
Will Imve to be bent ami separate lap
*,.0Ded iust below the iloor level
'provided^ for connecting the part of the column above
b!fi? may Es
and below the floor.
Figs. 866 (fl) and (6)
show two alternative arrangements.
Spirally reinforced column

These are circular columns,
S2I4
with closely and uniformly spaced spiral
are reinforced
addition to longitudinal steel. Columns of circular
reSfSrccment in
spirally reinforced. Sometimes separate loops
are usuallv
in place of the spiral. The continuous spiral
mS alw be provWed
is adopted in preference to separate loops. A column with helical

reinforcen cm shall have aticast six bars as longitudinal re-
inforcement.
(</) C'olumn reinforcement (h) Column reinforcement

taken within the main taken outside the mam
bars of the beam. Fig. 866 bars of the beam.
The safe load on a spirally reinforced

column is given by the following expression
P (/lk + Cly4( + 2^^.49
where P Safe load on the column
J; - The cross-sectional area of concrete
in the column core excluding the
area of longitudinal reinforcement
(For core diameter sec Fig. 867).
/f ~ The equivalent (vclumc of helical re-
inforcement area of helical rein-
forcement per unit length of the
column).
A The cross-sectional area of longitu-
dinal steel in compression.
/. = The permissible stress in helical re-
inforcement and Ci^ the permissible compres-
sive stress for column bars. The sum of the terms cAk and ItoAh
shall not exceed 0*5 FcA where Fc is the ultimate cube strength of
the concrete reqj d from the work tests. The permissible tensile
.
stress in the helical reinfoicement may be taken at 1000 kg-jem^.
Problem 515. A column of circular section is 326 mm in diameter

and isrein forced with 6 bars of 22 mm. diameter as longitudinal
steel and helicallv reinforced with 6 mm. diameter bars at a pitch of 6
cm. Find the safe load on the column. Adopt c=40 kg.jcm.^^ ci^lSOO
kg./cm^ and UÎOOO kg./cm.^
Solution. Diameter of colomn326 mm. = 32*6 cm Allowing
40 mm. cover to longitudinal steel, the diameter of the corc^
32*6-2 X 4=24*6 cm.
Safe load on the column
P=cAk-\-ciAi'+2tbAi>
Ab Volume of the spiral per cm run of the column length

of the spiral per c/w. run of the column x area t'flielical
reinforcement.
" Length of the spiral per pl:ch lencth ,

' ,
xare.i of hciic.jl
,
Pitch"
reinforcement
Length of the spiral per pitch length
= diameter of centre line of iielical reinforcement

=icX(246+0'6) 79'i8 cm.
79- 18 X0 28
Ab= 3 '70 cm."
6
Adopting c~40 kg.lcm.^, ri -I30() kg.jcm." mA 1000

kg.lcmK
Safe load 22-81 j4- l.-ôu
X 22-81 -I lOOOX V7(! A.;
=55780 kg
=55*78 tonnes.
.
218. Combined Bending and Direct Stresses
Often we come across members .subjc.^ted to direct stresses

accompanied by bending stresses. A very cu.mmon example is that
of a column subjected to an eccentric load or a column of a storeyed
building. Other instances arc in arehes, tank walls, chimneys,
silos, bins, etc. In some cases the direct stress may be predomi-
nant and the bending stresses may be small. While in some cases
the beading stresses may be predominant as compared woh the
direct stresses. There will also be instances in which both types of
stresses may be predominant. Let us discuss the case that we
usually come across.
the section is subjected to an axial load and a moment,

When
the of moment to the load is called the eccentricity and
ratio
such a section can be analysed as though the load has been applied
it the above eccentricity.
Case 1. Rectangular section subjected to compression and
fending. Eccentricity is less than . See Fig. 868.

y In this case the resultant stresses in
\
concrete will remain compressive and the
resultant stresses are given by
_ P ,
M

Z
1
"r* ;
where Eccentric load
p, i
due to eccentric
X-- L 1 _ -X Ioad=P.e.
1
i
J
Z=Section modulus about
the axis with repect to which the load

is ccccptric.
*
j
Equivalent concrete are.t

for the section shown in the iigure

V
Fig. 868 symmetrical reinforcement we ha c
the equivalent area of section
4 . hD^-(m-\)At
w'i,ere At U d area of reinforcement. ^
Equivalent moment of inertia about

'
the axis
r- ^
XX
hD^ .
i?
" })
"2
The resultant stresses arc

J P.e / D \
\ 2 ) 4. - le
The following examples illustrate the above case.
Problem 516. A rectangular reinforced concrete section 70 cm,
deep and 45 cm. wide is rcinfonrd with? bars of 28 mm. diameter
place I at an effective coxcr of ^ ffom the top edge and seven simi-
lar bars at the same vjjn the eeAt r from the bottom edge. Determine
the maximum thrust on the aeiuen^ which can he applied at a ai.^
tanceof JO cm from Hu antii line if thejcompressive stress in con-
crete is not to exceed 5(f kg ,cm Take m-^18.
Solution.
e=10 cm.
==^--11*67 rm
6 6
D
6
Total area of steel pro-
vided 2 X 43* 1 *= 86*2 cm,^
Equivalent area of concrete
for the given section
.4 bD^rim ])A<
1*
=-45x701(18-
= 4615*4 m2 I
Equivalent mrurent of
Inertia about the eontio? '
d
axis XX
Fig. 869
elements of reinforced CONCRErt 991
+(m 1) A
' ' ^
13
45 \ 703
^2^ + 17x86-2
17 XS( (35 5)- t7M.
- 2 605,110 c/itj
,
Maximum compressive stress in concrete
_ P ,
Af
A,
P.KlO
4615'-4 2605110
2
P-Î4.\m kg.
Problem 517. The horizontal thrust for a two- hinged arch is

found to he II kg. The crown section of the arch is a square of
30 cm. side. It is reinforced with h03 r/?*.**^ of steel above the centra-
idal axis and equal amount of steel below the axis. The centres
steel are respectively 5 cm. from the upper and lower edges of
of
the crown section. The section i.s also .subjected to a bending moment
of lOOflOO kg. cm. Assuming that the concrete does not fail
in ten-
.sion, calculate the maximum tvn.dle and

compressive stresses in con-
crete at the crown section. Find also the tensile and compressive
stresses in steel. Take m = 18.
Solotion. Equivalent concri*te area of the arch section
^ A* '^0x30-1 (18- 1)X2X6*03 cm.^

r
.
^
T5i:m r
^
1
*1
1105
Equivalent moment of Inertia
I
ij ^
I
,
30x303
j (18- 1)2x603
- 88000 cm.*
Extreme stresses in concrete
IIOOO 100,000
Fig. 870 ^ xl5 kg./cm\
1105 88000
=9-95+17 05 kg.lcm.-
strc.s.v in concrete
Maximum compressive
= 9 95 + 17
-
05 kg.lcm.^
=27 kg.jcm.^
Maximum tensile stress in concrete

= 17 05 9 95 -
- -
= 7-70 kg.fcm.^
Compressive stress in steel
=-18[ 9.95+
\l
xWOsJax/
= 383-76 kg. lent >
r
Tensile stress in steel -18 1 !^- x 1705 -9'95 kg.lcmr

[ 15 j
~-25'6 kgJcm.^
Problem. 518. An R.C. column 30 cm x 30 cm. is reinforced

four bars of 26 mm. diameter placed at an effective cover of 5
V'ith
cm. Find how far from the centres the line of thrun may pass along
the YY axis without causing tension in concrete. Take mI8.
Sointion. Area of 4 V
bars of 26 mm. diameter
=2124 cm h- -- Ô.crr.
maximum
Let the
eccentricity be e cm.
I"
/
. n -
cm
3 cm
1
(See Fig. 871) 10
focm e
Equivalent concrete -
i---
area =30x30+118-1) !
1
tocm
21-24 cm.2 1
i
t-
=1261 cm. sent
Equivalent moment I
of Inertia
Y
30X30 Fig. 871
12
+(18-1) 21-24 X 10* cm.-*
= 103600 cm.*
If tension in concrete should be avoided the direct and bending
stresses should be equal for the section.
Let P be the applied load

P P.e 30
1261~ 103f>06^ 2
e5'4S cm.
Problem 519. A two-hinged arched rib has a section 30 cm.

with
wide and 90 cm. deep, at the crown. The section is reinforced
six bars of 22 mm. diameter at the top and an equal
reinforcement
at the bottom. The reinforcements are placed at an effective cover
thrust on the
of 5 cm from the respective edges. If the resultant
section is 100,000 kg. inclined at 3 with the tangent to the arch centre
line and acting on the vertical axis and 10 cm. from the centre line of
and
the section, determine the stresses in concrete and steel at
the top
bottom of the section ; modular ratio may be taken as 15.
Sointion. See Fig. 872.

eLBMENTS OF RBINFORCBD CONCRETE
993
Since c=10 cms- which is less than
V the stresses will remain compressive.
Thrust norma! to the cro$s*section
= 100,000 cos 3*
=99860 kg.
Equivalent area of the section
=30X90+(15-I)x 12x3-80
=3338-4 cm *
Equivalent Moment of Inertia
^30x^903
4-14 x12x3 8(45-5^
em.* Fig. 872
= 18,22,500+14,21.440 cm.*
=28.43,94ft,cm.*
Extreme stresses in concrete
99860 99860X10 90 g
"33^8 4* 28,43,340 ^ 2
= 29-92+15-81 kg Icm.*
/. Maximum compressive stress *== ^5 7j? kg^lcm.^
Minimum compressive stress 14*11 kgjcm.'^
Stress in steel =
29*92^^ (1 5 '8 /cm.^

1 1
5^ ) j
^65Q'55 kg.jcm.^ compressive in steel at
top and 238*9'^ ky. êmr compressive in
steel at bottom.
When tbe eccentricity is so large that excesivc tensile stress^

arc developed, hi this case the ctiTicrete on the tension zone is
Ignored and tthe position of the neutral axis found from ficst
principles.
Fig. 873
994 mBNQTH W MATBMAiS
Fig. 873 shows the section of an R.C. membor sotyected to
an eccentric load. The stress at a point is proportional to its dittanoe
from the neutral axis.
Let the stress at any point be given by c^ry
where ^=distance of the point from the neutral axis
and r=>a co-efficient of proportionality
Total compression Total tension' Thrust on the section
] b dy ry-|-(m 1) Atr(nd0)mAt ridn)'P
P=r [yV(-l) Adii-dc)-m At(d-n)

]
Similarly, Moment of resistance bending moment
or Total moment of the induced 1
compressive and tensile stresses V bending moment,
about the neutral axis J
bn .
y 1) Aerindey^-^mAtr(.d-n)^=^Pe^
+(m )*
J
htfi
Pe
y+(w !)./<(
** P~~hn^ '
-l-(m i)Ae(nd0)mAt(dni)
y
But e=e-f
D
2
~ +(ml)Ae(ndti)*+mAt(da)^
mAt(dn)
^ +(m l)Ae(ndc)
Hence, for a given pmition of the eccentric load the depth [of
neutral axis can be determined from the above relation.
Problem 52fl. The haunch section of a bowstring girder bridge

it subjected to a bending moment of l,93i,500 kg. cm. and a norma!
thrust of H 1,260 kg. The section is 40 cm. wide and 80 cm. deep-
Bght ims of 18 mm. dia. are provided at the top and an equal rein-
fbrcement at the bottom. The reinforcements are placed dt at
êctive cover of 6 cm. from the respeoive edges. Determine tin
mnxbnum stress in concrete and steel. The modular ratio may be
gBmas 15.
=
BLEMBNTS op RBINF(MICED CX>NCRETB

995
Solntkm. AoÂt=m20'36 cm.
b- 40 cm
See Fig.874.
Eccentricity from the centre
of the section
M ~ 1,93,15.000 cm.
P 81260
=23*77 cm
The eccentricity is considerably large

to produce tensile stresses.
is given by
Fig. 874
un
btfi .
g
D ~3'^^'"~Û^n-dt)^+mAt(d-n)^
^
2
+(w l)Ae{nde)--mAi(dn)
40/1^
+l4x20*36(-6)a+15 x 20*36(74-)*
23
80 ~T
. .
=4oT
+14x20*36(w-6)-15x20*36(74-n)
2
Simplifying, we get
ii*-48*69+2209 05- 193212*471 -0
or 48 69n+2209 0:>] 19321 2' 471
Solving by trial and error, we have
When n=63 LWS- 195966*54
-62 188 124*74
b-627 193593*77
11-62*6 1^5-192796*73
=62*66 L/fS- 193269 13
b-62652 2ri7S= 193206 24
b=62*653 L/fS- 193213*71
Taking moments about the tensile steel.
.i( 74-A] 1
+(15-l)x20*i6'-~)cx68
-81260 X (34+23*77)
.*. 20 X 62*653
||
-81260 x 57*77
66557*5c+17526*5c=46,94,390 2
e=S5'83 kg.lcm.*
;
Conesponding stress in tensile steel is given by
15x55-83 62653
74-62-653
t
.
P
15x55 83x11-347
-a-653
, , 9
r=/J/.7 kg.lcm*
Ennês 00 C!bapter 19
1. The cross-ection of a singly reinforced concrete beam is

30 cms. wide and 50 cm deep to the centre of the tension reinforce-
ment wblcS consists of four bars of 1 6 mm diameter. If the stresses
in coircrete and steel are not to exceed 50 kg I cm.* and 14('0 kg Icm.^
respectively, determine the moment of resistance of the beam. Take
in- 18. (497,-00 kg. cm.)
2. A reinforced concrete beam 30 cm. wide by 60 cm. total

depth has a span of 8 metre.<!. Find the necessary tension reinfo^c^
meat at the centre of the span to enable the beam to carry a load of
^00 kg.fm. in addition to its own weight.
Concrete cover below the steel centre = 4 cm.

Weight of the beam *2400 kg./metre*
Permissible stress in concrete =50 kg.jcm.*

Permissible stress in steel 1400 kg.fcm.*
Modular ratio =18 (12-94 cm.'^)
3. A singly reinforced beam is 20 cm. wide and 40 cm. deep

to the centre of tension reinforcement which consists of four bars of
16 mm. diameter. If the stresses in concrete and steel are not to
exceed 50 kg Icm.* and 1400 kg.jcrrî find the moment of resistance
of the beam. Take m=18. (325.600 kg. cm.)
4. The moment of resistance of a rectangular concrete beam

of breadth b cm. and effective depth d cm. is 9T5 bd*. If the stresses
in the outside fibre of concrete and steel shall not exceed 50 kg /cm ^
and 1400 kg Jem.* and the modular ratio equals 18 find
respectively
the ratio of the depth of neutral axis from the outside compression
fibres to the effective depth of a beam and the ratio of the area of
the tensile steel to the effective area of the beam The heam is
reinforced for tension only (0 427 O OOoA-O
5. Find the percentage of tension reinforcement necessary for
|
u singly reinforced balai ced rectangular section if the permissible

stresses in concrete and steel are c and t kg.jcm.* respectively and tbe
modular ratio is m
ELfiMBNTS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 997
6. The section of a singly reinforced concrete beam is subjected
to a sagging bending moment of 20,000 kg m. If the stresses

in concrete and steel are not to exceed 50 kg.jcm.^ and 1400 kg.lcm,^
respectively, find the dimensions of the beam. The width of the
beam may be made | the effective depth. Take m = 18.
(51 cm. x68 cm. effective)
7. A
simply supported slab is subjected to a bending moment
of 850 kg. m. per metre width. If the stresses in concrete and steel
are not to exceed 50 kgjcrn.^ and 1400 kg Icm.^, find the effective,
depth required and the area of steel Take, m 18.
(10 cm . ; 6 98 cm.^ per metre width)
8. A
simply supported rectangular concrete beam is reinforced
for tension only. The beam is subjected to a beading moment of
918,000 kg. cm. If the beam is 30 cm. wide and the stresses in con-
^
crete and steel are not to exceed 5 kg.jcm.^ and 1400 kg. lent
) res-
pectively, find the effective depth and the area of steel.
(60 cm. ;
125S cm.^)
9. A doubly reinforced rectangular concrete beam is 30 cm.

wide and 50 cm. deep to the centre of tension steel. It is reinforced
with four bars of 20 mm. diameter as comoressive steel at an effective
cover of 4 cm and with four bars of 24 mm diameter as tensile steel.
If the stresses in concrete and steel shall not exceeed 50 kg lcm.^ and
1400 kg.jcm.^ respectively, fina the moment of resistance of the
section. Take m= 1 8 (lj)53,200 kg. cm,)
10. A doubly reinforced concrete beam is 24 cm. wide and 55

cm. deep to the centre of tensile reinforcement. The areas of com-
pression and tension steel are 15 rm.* each. The centre of the com-
12.
pression steel is 5 cm from the compression edge. If = 18 and m
the section is subjected to a maximum bending moment of 750,000
kg. cm., find the stress in concrete and steel
{c^34 kg.lcm.- t^l020 kg.jcm.- ; u==^463'5 kg./cm,^)

;
11. A rectangular reinforced on both sides is 30 cm. wide

beam
and 70 cm. deep. steel are 4 cm. from the respective
The centres of
edges. !f the limiting stresses in concrete and steel arc 50 kg./ern.'^
and 1400 kg.: cm - respectively, find the steel areas for a bending
moment of 1,300,000 kg. cm. Take 18.
(Ac^4'22 cm.^ ; At^l599 cm.^)
An R.C. beam 30 cm. x30 cm. in section is reinforced with

four bars of 24 mm. diameter as compression steel and an equal
amount as tension steel, the effective cover to the rcinforocraent being
5 cm. The section is subjected to a bending moment of 3500 kg. m.
If the modular ratio is IS, find the stresses induced in concrete and
steel (c^37 89 kg.lcm.^ ; 748' 2 kg.lcm.^ ; tc^396'2 kg.jcm^^
998 SntBKGTH OP MATEXIAU
13. A doably reinforced beam 30 cm. wide and 64 cm. deep

is reinforced with four bars of 24 m. diameter as comi^sion steel
and an equal amount as tensile steel. The respective reinforcements
are provided at an effective cover of 4 cm. If the stresses in concrete
and steel shall not exceed SO kg.fcm.* and 1400 kg.lem.* respectively
and the modular ratio is 18, find the moment of resistance of t^
section.
What would be the moment of resistance based on steel beam

theory? (1,373,400 kg. cm. ; 1,419,040 kg. cm.)
14. A pile 30 cm. X 30 cm. in section is reinforced with four

mm. diameter, the effective cover to the centre of reinforc^
bars of 24
ment Mng 5 cm The pile section is subjected to a bending moment
of 1600 ikg. m. while hoisting it. If the modular ratio is 18, find the
stresses induced in concrete and steel.
(c47*Jd ikg./cm*. ; t1126 kg.jcm .^ : u=>439ycg.lcm.'^

APPENDIX I
TABLE 1
Mttnent CoefllcieiitB for ContiBnoiis Bcmbs
{Eqnl Span) (Dead Loads)
.Af^ Coefficient X total load on span x span
Uniformjy distributed toads

O 1ZS
X-
0^96
^ 0 096
^
0 ft? 0 m
X
0 Wf
^ 0 0 75 ^ O tOI
^
0 ffS 0107 (hlt$
sr
0099
^ 0 on ^ 0 081
* 0 099
01J6 0 107 hl07 OtfS

JT 0 too
^
0 0 79 ^ 0 086
^ 0 079 ^ 0 too
"Tk
Point toad at centre points
0 16S
sr 0 203
^
0 203
*
0175 0175
* *
ST'
0213 om ^ 0 213
0 174 Oist 0.174

JT ^ * * "Ik
0 210 0 183 0 183 0 210
0174 0-160 0 160 0 174

JT- * 181
* 0 191
* 0 J8t ^ 0 2ft
"Tk 1
0-211 q
Point hod ot one third points
om
* ^ 0
0139 139
0 156 0.166
0 tfi
^ O ttf
^ 0 /43
Of55 Ct42 0 142 O-tSS
0 f43 ^ om ^ 0 114 ^ 0 fOB 0f43

lOQO STEENGTH OF MATHUyO^
TABLE 2
Moment CoefBckots for Contimons Beams
(Equal S^pana) (Lire Loads)
M Coefficient X total load on span x span
il002 STRENGTH OF MA1BRUU
TABLE 3 (Contd.)
Fixed end momeRts Mab and Mba
and end slope angles 6ab and 6ba
KtUKtntraM
a. a vd tn^*1
APPBNDJXl looi
TABLE 4
Fixed cad aiomeBts Mab Mb^
aad cad sk^ aagks 6ab uo Bba
TABLE 5
Fixed end moments Mab and Mba
and end slope angles 0ab and Oba
appendix!
lABLb 5 IC'ontd.)
Fixed end moments Mab and Mb a
and end slope angles Oab and ^ba
Moments
P^ftbohc Lends
1006 IISENOIB OP MATBUAU
TABLE 5 (Contd.)
Fixed cad BMMMalB Mi aadMeA
udcad Aupt aagks 6 ab aad 6 b4
Triangular Loadi
Apfihed Moments
Parabolic Loads
APPENDtX : lOOT
TABLE 6
Fixed ead momeata M*ab
for hinged nwaiben
TABLET
Fixed cad nencBts M*ab
for hiqed Bcnbers
_ VoifornHy Oistribaied LotSi
B
appendix I
1009
TABLE 8
Fixed end moments M*ab
for hinged members
n0n^tar
dppOed Moments Parabot/c Loads
,
A#
CTUBNGTH OP MATBKlALj
TABLE 8 (Contd )
Fixed end moments M* 4b
for hioged members
Loads
Mometfts
figr^Mk Loads
APPENDIX II
IVIAXHEIVIATICAE XABEES
LOGARITHMS AND ANTILOGARITHMS
TABLE 9
tOGAltnHMS
:r
CO
loo
00
00
llAlSEMAnCAL TABLES 1013
TABLE 9 (Comd.)
LOGARnKMS
I
TABLE 10
ANTILOGARTTHMS
looa 1005 too? X009 1012 2014 10x6 1019 1021

j j
1026 zoaS 1030 1033 1035 1038 10401 !04S

s^5o 1052 1054 1057 1059 1062 iciJ4i 1067 lotK, ;
01 \c/2 1 IOV4 1076 1079 1081 1084 1086 loSg KX41 IOQ 4
j I
10^ 1102 1104 1107 :ioo iitaj 1114 ni 7 !i **9

112$ 1127 llÔ 1132 H35 1138 1x40 1 1 146
43 lx
1151 IIS3 1156 1159 1161 1164 1167 iit)91172

117& irSo 1183 1186 1189 UQI XI94 1197 1*99
I2C5 1208 1211 iiK3 7216 1219 1222 1235 1227
1233 i2j6 1239 1242 1345 1247 1250 1253 1256
1262 1265 1268 1271 1274 1276 1279 **82 1285
1201 1294 1297 1300 >303 *30^1 1300 1312 1315
1321 1324 1327 *330 '334 1331^ 1340 1343 *346
<35* 355 33 1361 1365 1368 * 37 * *374 *377
i}84 1587 ijvu 1393 *396 uoo X403 1406 1409
1416 1419 I4J 1426 1429 1432 *435 *439 *44* oil iiz 333
1449 45 * *455 1459 1462 1466 1469 1472 1476 011 X 2 2 233
1483 i486 1489 1493 U96 1500 5503 *507 *5*0 Oil X 3 2 233
IS17 15*1 5*4
S*8 J531 >$ 3 S 1538 *542 1545 011 1 2 2 2 j 3
<
55 * S$6 1580 1563 1567 IS7P *574 1578 *58* 011 122333
1589 159* <596 1600 1603 1607 l6ti 1614 ibiS 011 122 333
I
1622
1626 1629 1633 1637 1641 1644 i64K'i 652 ib$6 011 222333
ji66o 1663 1667 1071 1675 '679 1683 I687|i0'io 1694 011 223 333
ttit
U698 1702 1706 1710 1714 1718 1722 1726 1730 X734 0X1 222 334
11738 1742 1746 1750 1754 *758 *762 1766 1770 1774 011 222 334
1782 1786 1791 1795 *799 ^803 1807 1811 i8t6 0X1 223 334
1824 1828 1832 1837 1841 1845 1849 *854 1858 011 223 334
f 7 186211866 1871 187$ 1879 18^ 1888 1892 1897 1901
il oil 223334
1910 1914 1919 1923 1928 1932 1936 1941 1945 oil 223 344
i;i 95o|i 954 1959 1963 1968 1972 1977 1982 1986 1991 oil 223 344
2000 2004 >009 2014 2018 2033 2028 2033 2037 oil 223 344
81 tl 2042 1 2046 2051 2056 2061 2065 2070 2075 2080 2084 oil 223 344
2094 2099 2104 2109 21x3 2118 2x23 2128 3133 011 223 344
2143 2148 2153 2158 2163 3168 2173 2178 2183 01 I 223 344
2193 21^ 2203 2208 2213 23|8 2223 2228 3234 11 2 233 44 5
2244 2249 2254 2359 2265 2370 2275 3280 2286 ** *33 44 $
2296 2301 2307 2312 2317 2323 *3*8 2333 2339 I* *33 445
* 35 ^^ 235^ ^ 3^ *366 *371 *377 2382 2388 2393 * * *33 445
2404 2410 2415 2421 2427 2432 2438 2443 *449 12233445
2460 2466 2472 2477 *483 *489 2495 *500 3506 1 * *3 3 45 5
2518 2523 2529 *535 *54* 2547 *553 *559 *564 1 * *34 455
2576 2';82 2588 2594 2600 2606 2612 2618 2624 * a *34 455
2636 2642 2649 265s 2661 2667 2673 2679 268c I 2 2341456
2698 27'M 2710 2716 2723 2729 *735 * 74* *748
2761 2*^0; 2773 2780 2786 2793 2799 2805 28x2 *** 334 4 J 6 I
2825 2831 2838 2844 3851 2858 3864 2871 2877 X12 3341156
2891 2897 2904 2911 2917 2924! * 93 *938 *9 U *** 334 556
wWl
29$8 2965 2972 *979
3
3034 3048
3 W! 311 * |II 9
*985 *99* *999 3006 3013,
305s 3062 3069 3076 30J
U
3**6 3 3 3 UI 3 > 48 3 I 5 S; |
MATHBIfAnCAL TABLES
TABLE 10 (Contd.)
ANTaOCARITHMS
aauaannncniSmnm
tii
1016 STKCNOTH OF 1IAT6RIAL
TABLE II
NATURAL SINES
TABLE 12
^âtufal cosines
fftumberi M Hffetence columns to i).* subSrcteUd. (
i-ooo i-ooo 1-O00ji 000i-O00 *9999

99 g8 9997 9997 9997 9996
9993 9993 9992 9991 9.090 9990
9985 99S4 9983 99vS2 9981 9980
9974 9473r 9972 997* 9969 9968
9960 9959 9957 9956 9954 9952
9943 9942 9940 9938 9936 9934
9923 9921 9019 99*7 99U 99*2
9900 9S98 9895 9893 9890 9888
9874 9871 98^ 9866 9803 9860
9845 984^
9655 9650
9608 9603
9558 9553
9505 9500
9449 9444
9391 9385
9330 0323
9265 9259
919S 9191
9128 91?!
0056 9048
8080 8971
8902 8894
8821 8813
246 8 10
9 46 S so
MATHBMATICAL TABLES 1019
TABLE 12 (Contd.)
natural cosines
42' 4S' M'

o*'-; o*8 0^9
r
6984 >959
6858 <^$1
9999
6730 ,6717] 07 '4 *
6600 [6587 <>5741
6468 ^
55 6441 1
(>m 6-?2oi 6307

6198 6IS4 6170
oofeo 6oj,6 6032
gSSSS
59?o 5006 589a
5779 57 C*4 5750
565s 5606
SS&S3
3333
*8 ;i
*
374^
3289 3272
3U3 3107
2957 *940
*790 *773
8632 3605
e ,1 2419
221^12198
1547 M530
8i I- *ot>o8
S
*0:49 0344 a 0427 0209
007010052 [0035 00 1
1020 mSlNOTH OF MATBRIALI
TAl^LF 13
KATURAL TANGENTS
.ô 0070 f 0087 CSO$ 0 X 22 0 x40 0157 1

369 *3 15
0244 0262 0279 0297 0314 0332 389 12 15
0459 0417 0454 0472 0489 0507 389 12 IS'
0594 061a 0629 0647 0664 068a 389 X2 X5
0769 0787 0805 0822 0840 0857 389 13 15
Q^S 0963 0981 0998 XOI6 1033 389 xa IS

riaa 1139 1157 1x73 1192 1210 3 8 9 12 15
1299 13*7 1334 1352 1370 1388 369 12 15
1477 *495 *5* 1530 1548 1566 389 12 IS
*6ss 1673 1691 *709 *727 *745
j
369
1835 1853 1871 1890 X908 1926 369 12 IS
aoi6 2035 2053 2071 2089 2107 389 X2 15
2199 2217 2235 2254 2272 2290 369 12 15
sssBg
2382 2401 2419 2438 2456 2475 369 12 15
2568 2586 2605 2623 2642 2661 369 12 x6
2754 2773 2792 28x1 2830 2849 389 13 x6

2943 2962 2(^81 3000 30x9 3038 389 13 *6
sssss 3*34 3*53 3*7a 3191 3211 3230 3 610 13 *6
33*7 3346 336 s 3385 3404 3424 3 6 10 13 *6
3SM 3S4I 3561 3581 3600 3620 3 710 13 x6
3719 3739 3759 3779 3799 38*9 3 7*0 *3 *7
3919 3$39 3959 3979 4000 4020 3 710 *3 *7
ssseg
4123 414a 4163 4183 4204 4224 3 7*0 14 17
43*7 4348 436? 4390 44 **443 * 3 710 *4 *7
4536 4557 4S7fr 4599 4621 4642 4 711 14 18
4748 4770 479> 4813 4834 4856 471* 14 18
4964 4986 S<8 5029 5051 5073 4 7 ** rs 18
5184 5206 5328 5250 5272 5295 15 x8
esssg ^ Z"
5407 5430 545* 5475 5498 5520 4 81X *5 *9
3635 3858 5681 5704 5727 5750 4 8 X2 *5 *9
5867 5890 5914 5938 5961 5^>85 4 8x2 16 20

0104 6128 6152 6176 6200 1622/1 4 8 12 r6 20
i:8bbS
6348 8371 6395 6420 6144516469 )
4 8 12 16 20
8594 6619 6644 6c.h>9 6720 1
4 813 X7 21
6847 6873 6899 0924 6950 6976 4 913 17 ax
7107 7*33 759 7186 7212 7*39 4 "*3 18 22
7373 7400 7437 7454 7481 7508 J x8 n
isspsS
7646
79*6
7673 7701 77*9 7757 7785
7983 8012 804018069
J Ml *8 *-3
19 V4
7954 i
8214 8243 8273 83021833218361 |S*o*$| io 24
845iil4>l185li 8541 8571 8601 8632 S662

I I
5x0x5 20 25
8816 8347 8878 8910 894* ;S972 t 6 71 26
5 ro
9131 9163 9195 922819^60:9293 5 *i 21 27 !
9457 9490 95*3 9556 9590 1 9623 6x1 17 32 38 j
9793 98*7 9861 9^|993o|996s

MATHBMATICAL TABIBSI
Table 13 )
Ratural tangents
1022 SntBNOTH OF MATBUALS
TABLE 14
LOGARITHMS OF SINES
seed
mathematical tables
1021
table 14 (Contd.)
logarithms of sines
STRENOTH OF MATBRL
TABLE 15
logarithms of COSiNS
Ma
DiflerrooM
163248 6480
9573 13*639 5*65
. 0334 II 2*33 44
SJ
0930 0981 10 19 29 3848
1489 1542 81725 344*
1991 2038 8152313038
2439 2482 2767 7 U*o |27 34
3845 2883 3*43 imnEmi
32*4 3250 3488 1^11 17 23 28 1
3554 3586 3618 3650

3867 W7
3897 3927 1057 398<> 40S 44 4073^ 4*02 I 5 10 151 20 2.J
,415s 4186 42*4 4242
4*4* 4269 4296 4350' 4377
4430
14684
4456 4482 4508 4533
4709 4757 4781
4559
4805
4323
4584 4^ 46341 4 9 * 31*7 21
4 812 1610
4923 4946 4992 5015 5037
5U 8 5 * 70 ,
5**3 5*35 5*56
5 Mi 5382
-
5361 54*3 5443 5463 3 7 10 14 *7
!'5543 5563 5583 5621 5641 5660 3 ^6to| 13 16
,5736 5754 5773 i8io 5828 5847 9
;
1-5919 5937 5954 9
16093 6110 6137 8
1 6*59
-
6376 6292
1 6418 6434 6449
;
1-6570 6585 6^
T-671.6 6730 6744
1-6856 6869 6S83
i-6990 7003 7016
1-7118 73 744
1-7*4* 7*54 7*66
^736* 7373 7384
7476 7487 7498
7597 7607
7703 773
7*05 7815
7903 79>3
J'7893;
19 1 1*7989 7998 8007
40 Kr 8o8 i 8090
41 nT8t69 8178
42 HT 8355 ,
8*64
49 B 1-8338 8346
44 1 1 8418 ^26
MAIBBIAIIOAL TAHUa
1025
TABLE 15 (Cootd.)
;' ;
1026 nXSNOIB or MATBKlALS
TABLn 16
LOGARITHMS OF TANGENTS
5 24!tJ3;542i,
1 ; 2 2419 i
3-.

I
* * S 4 JI 564.1 1 5645 6401 I
7865 I
2-8449 8050 89O0

'
II
1
8554 !
9506 959 * 9074 98361

v)2b() 0300 0430 0499 0507 0633
0954 * 0*5 1076 1135 **94 *^5?
8 ! X-I470 *
53 ^ * 5^7 1640 *693 1745 *797
I
T WK 2i.40 2 J<)4 2142 2i8<) 2236I22S2
10 i I 240; 2507 2S5 * 2594 2tSo 2722
11 , *2tv:, 202 ^ -.'He 3"\S 3*^3
I A-3275 35 *- 3349 3422 3458 3493
U 1-30U 3O68 3702 3736 3770 3804 3S37
14 I
I3^8 4000 403a 4004 4095 4127 4*5'^
W 1
r4^Si 431* 434 * 437 J 4400 4430 4459
W I T-4.r5 .4003
'
463'2 40 'mS 47*6 4744

V !; 4 <j' >7 r.w 4' 1 49^-7 !

18 H i5u^ f5*93 ^.20 52451527)

19 i' I'5j7v; *^443 Kr^y 54<> t t;'i *
20 T*;6n 5
' Ll '
50hi 57r ! 37S
;-^C 4 - '
5
'"7 ;
5 >h> ,<.32 5<^S4
i
5 CO
(vjHu . OioS 0129 0151 M72 019.^.
83 I
r62:.> 03'X> ;
634* 0;.02 O3S 6404
84 I'648o 0 0^> i
1
^527 6547 0367 6387 0607
*
2S T6687 67ot) !
6726 6746 6765 6785 6804 6824 0843 6863
1
6q 2 o :
1
*>'^39 ej<KS 0077 7015 7034 7053
7202 722:' ;:iS
7384 7402 74-^0
yw 7526 I
7544 7502 7579 7597
7736 7753 7771
7907 7')-!4 794 !
8075 8002 hfoo
8241 8257 8274
8404 *
8420 8430
8S65 8581 8597 3 5 8 *3
8724 8740 8755 3 5 8 3
mi 8S97 8912
9037 9053
'
9115 9*30 9 * 92 9*07
931 S
9468
9631
i
I
9483
9636 1
9346
9499
9631 I
9361
9514
9666
1
I
9681
957 a
99*4 1 9939 1 9955 1 997 A 5 8 1013
1
mathematical tables
1027
TABLE 16 (Contd.)
logarithms of tangents
45 -0000 0015- OCJO 0045

46 0167 0182 0197
47 0319 0334 0349
0471 0486 0501
0624 0639 0654
0777 0793 0808
0932 0947 -963
1088 1103 IIJ9
1245 1260 1276
141^3 1419 *435
564 1580 *596
1726 *743 *759
1891 1908 1925
2059 2076 2093
2279 2247 2204
60 *386 2403 2421 *438
61 25(12 2580 2508 2616
2762 27<8
2947 2966 2985
3*37 3*57 3176
3333 3353 3373
3535 ^555 357 f>
3743 ^
37 13
*- 375
3958 39 "o4002
4181 4204 4227
70
43^50 44*3 4437 4461
IkSESj 4655 4680 4705
78 -4881 4908 4934 4960
W -5147 5*74 5201 5229
WKM 5454 54 '^3 55
75 .5719 5750 5780 S8ii
76 II
*6032 60651 tx)97 6130
63 6401 6436 6471
6763 6800 6838
7*54 719> 7236
7581 76261 7672
8052 SIO2 8152
8577 5^33 S690
9172 9336 0301 n 22 34 45
f3 26
9857 9932 POOO8
0669 0759 0850 1631
1664 *777 *893
2954 3106 3264
4792 5027 5*75
16 8038 8550 9*30 457112756*
1 .
1028 , STRBNOIB OP
TABLE 17
POWERS. ROOTS AND RECIPROCALS
I
1^ > : n i/i Jion i'loon
n
"1
1 f 1 I 3 162 11 54 4 642 t
t 4 6 1414 1260 4477 2 7 -

U 5 848 5'joo
t 6 *7 l* 73 t 442 5477 3 107
-
6694 3533
i6 64 -0
4 1 1-587 6 JJS 3 4 7 30S 2:,oo
5 H 135 atj6 1*710 7071 3-684 7-937 -2000
0 at6 *449 1817 7 746 3 9*5

-
8-434 1667
7 49 343 2 6^ 1913 8 367 4 121 8879 *1429
8 64 Sn 1828 2000 8944 4'309 9JS3 1250
81 779 3^000 aoSo 587 44* 9655 -itti
10 too 1000 3* 16a 2 154 10 0 4-644 IO-OC30 *1000
11 121 33 * 337 2224 io 4 Si *
4 79 ^ 10 323 09091
12 *1^ 172S 3-464 2289 *954 4 984 to 627 0S333
IS 109 J197 3006 2351 11-402 $066 10914 07691
U 196 3744 2 410 11 832 5 *98 11-187 7143
18 5 3375 3873 2466 12 247 5 3*3 11 447
1 256 4096 4000 2-520 IJ 6^9 5 4*9 116^ 436050
17 289 491 4 123 2571 IJ038 5540 1 * 935 4>$882
IS 34 $83* 4243 2 621 *3416 5646 12 164 05556
IS 361 6S59 4 359 4-668 >3784 12 386 -05*63
20 400 8000 4 472 2714 14 142 $848 *7 599 0560
21 44 t 0261 45S3 7-759 *4 491 5*944 17 86 04?6a
22 484 10648 4090 2 b02 1483* 6 -OJ 7 13006 04545
23 549 12167 4 *96 2 844 ^5 166 6 127 13 70

0434*
24 576 13824 499 2684 15 492 6 314 *3 3S9 04167
85 6^5 15625 $000 7 924 15811 6 300 *3 577 0400
26 6>6 1
17576 S099 1 962 16 125 6383 33 75 ^ C3846
87 7^9 196S3 $190 3000 1643a 1 6.463 *3925 03794
28 7^*4 21052 5 *9 * 3037 *6733 654* >4 095
0357
28 S4I 243S9 5 3*3 3072 17029 6-619 14 760 03448
80 900 27000 5 477 3*07 *7 3*1 6694 14422 03333
31 961 19791 ss 3 *41 17 607 6 768 *4 5 ** 32S6
32 IC24 32768 >657 3*75 17 889 6 840 14 736 4> 3 *S
i
33 1089 35937 745 3708 iS 166 6910 14SS8 O|OJ0

34
33
U5O
1225
39 W
4 iii 75
S
5831
S 96
!
'
3 *40
3271
^
18439
18 708
69S0
7047
15-037
15 183
02941
-di57
36 1296 46656 600a 3302 18974 7 1*4 15 316 -02778

8? 1309 5<53 60S3 3 33 * 9*35 7 179 1
S 467 *01703
38 U 44 54672 6 164 3362 9 494 7 *43 15*605
1
1
*OK)}2
as 5939 6 245 3 39 * 19748 7 306 *5 74 * i
-02564
40 \'C 64000 6-3 iS i
3420 20 00 7368 *5 ^74 ^250
41 IMI 68971 6403 1
3-448 20 24S 7 479 16*005 *02439
42 I'Mi4 74 Qfc 8 6 481 *
3 47 ^ 20494 7 4^9 16 134 *02.181
iS '*49 7930; 6 55 > 3-503 20736 7-548 16 261 -02326
44 I
9 J* 85184 6-033 3530 20976 7-606 l6'j86 *02273
4S 2045 91125 673 3 557 21 213 7 663 16 02212
46 2116 97136 676a 1583 2f 448 7 7*9 *6-631 02174
otilS
1
47 6 856
i
2209 103823 I
3'6oq 21-679 7 775 16751
IS, I|Q4 110592 Cî6 3634 2I-QO9 7830 16 869 020S3
a 8401 117649 1
7-000 1
3^39 12-136 7 W4 16-985 oao4 I9M

I4060S 804 17*325 01923
I48S77 022 *7 435 *0'S87
IS 7!'^4 24-
23238 I7544 0S52
i 6t) 37 S 23-452 *0 1 '* 8
*
24-
IT j5i6 23-664
25- ir-rvs *0:786
23 875 17 .V>:) -o 754
14083 i7-')>7 *v.
24
05379 24290 01695
210000 j 495 18171 v'K L.7
a4-698 18 272 *0!39

'l-Q V -,\>
900 18 :7i CllJ

100 *8*4(:9 vniS7
20 2-44 2S-298 i8*c;06
274625 25-495 10*0()3, 01538
287496 *5-690 18758 *01515
300703 25-884 18*852 *014 )S
314432 26*077 18*945 *01471
328509 26*268 19038 01449
343000 26458 19129 014:^9
3579U 26 646 01408

373248 36833 01369
389017 27019 01370
405:24 27*203 01351
421875 27*386 01333
438076 27-568 01316
456533 37'749 01299 I
474552 27*928 *01282

28*107 01 206
493039
512000 28*284 01250
531441 28*460 01235

S5136S 28*636 01220
28*810 01205
571767
502.704 28-983 9-435 20*328 01190
014125 29155 9-473 20*408 01176
636056 *9^3*6 9-510 20*488 01163

658503 *9-496 9- 546 20-567 01149
681472 29-665 9-5*3 to*646 01136
704969 29*83 9-619 20724 01124
729000 30-000 9-655 20*8oi -01111
S 2 SI 753571 30-166 9-691 20*878 01099

8464 778688 30-332 9-7*6 20-954 01087
^'649 804357 30-496 9-761 21-029 01075
830584 30-659 9-796 21-105 *010^
30-82* 9-830 21*179 OIOS3
9025 857375
30-9*4 9-865 21*253 0104-
9316 884736
31-145 9-899 21-3*7 otqji
9409 912673
31-305 9-933 21*400 '1020
*9604 94119*
32*464 9-967 2I*47 ^fOlO
9801 970299
jl-601 10400 I*S44 -#100
toooo 1000000 1
1030 SmNOTH OF MAmtiAlS
mathbmaticai tables i03I
TABLE 18 (Ccntd.)
RECIPROCALS OF NUMBERS. From i to io
INumlmt in difftrtnu toltmm ta bt not nddî }
02
TABLE 19
SQUARE ROOTS. From io
3-
4- 7 9 9
689! It tz 14
3 J 64 I 34 678 tioii 13 j
3-75.1 !37iSi3-72S 134:578(1011 u

3 J4 134 5781 911 iz
-
9M13-97SI3987 U4 ;s,
68 51011
i
c7l4-099!4-iii 124(5671 910 II

4-Z07
18 4 i4j
5-
SB {5-000 S-'-To
*8 15-099 5167
S-337
- -
5 4 SOJS-459 5 40 f
>
SS4! 5 S5o! 5 .-S 9

5-630
8* 5-*57 5-71815-7*7 5 730 ! ji .R
5-805 123 {345 6 7 S

5
-
9*|S-899 5 5 i
- '
J 23
1345 678
97 sIs-983 !s -99 I 2 2 345
f 678
6 00 1 2 2 .345 6 7 7
'*
6-i 48 6'
i 5<7 1 2 7 t 345 677
6-zzo .0-2 W 1 2 2 ;345 667
t 2 2
345 667
* 22?345 667
122 345 567
m 567
1 2 2
345
1 2 2
122
12 3441 5 6 J
7 099 7 >io6
-
l
7 -l 69 j-;i 76 .34
7 35 7 *46
!
-
na |33
7-308 7 34
! iia|33
g339S ItSSSuESI 33 r 5 5
' 7
||AlUli4TlCAE. TABLB
1033
table 19 (Contd.)
SQUARE ROOTS ?*om io ro too
7-416 7-4^3: ;-43o 7 436, 7-443 '7 JSO !
7-483 7-49r:7-<l97'7
7-55 7-35i7-5'3i7 S7
m 7
7-6 i 6 7-622; 7 029:; 035

7-681 7-68817-094 t ,01
7-74 7-752 *7-7 59! 7-765

7-810 7-877 7-S23 7-;';2o i
1
7-874 7-880 7-887 '7-,S9i
88 1 7-937 7-944 7-9Sj'7-95<".
M 18*000 8*oo6 8*012; S'Oi'i -''*025 S031
8*062 8*068 8*075 8*08 r ^^ 087 18*093
1
8*124 8*130 S*;36!8*I42 H i4Qj.S ?5;

8*185 8*191 8 i9vSj8*204
8*246 8*252 8*258 8 264 1
8*307 8*313 8*3'igjS*325 8*33ijS*337
8-367 8*373 .8*370} 8*385 8*300 8*396 1
8*426 8*432 18*438 18*444 8 i sols 456

8*485 8*491 8*4<)7 (8*503 8 5rK)^S*5l5
1
8*544 8*550 8550|8*';64 8-5r>7iS'573

8*6o2 8*6^ 8*61418*020 8*626 8*631
8-666 8*672 8*678 8*683 8*689
8-724 (8 729(8*7^5 8*741 ^746
8*781 8*786 8*792 1
8*837rSS43|8S4Q
8*894 18899 8*90v 1
80 II
8*944 1 8-950 8*955 8 ()t 1
[
*
81 II
9*000 1 9w6 v''0^ I

1
9 - 0(>I 0 006 9*072

9* 1 10, 9' 1 21 9- *27

1
9-i7ii9i76j9iS2
9-225 (;-23oU-2J6
9-279 0-2.S4 9-2i>l
''''33''> 9- 543
9-J33
9-3.<6..)-39I j9-39"
9-439 0 445 9 4 '" - -
9-492 9-497
i9-53
9-545 9-5Sol9 555
9-597 94)021
9607
9-649! 9-654 9-(59
9-701 9 706 9 7
9752 9-757 9-762

9-803 9-SoS 9--3
9-8;4j9-859 9-864
9-905 9-910 9-915
9-955 9-960 9-965
. 3
1034 STMMOIH Or HATBMAIS
TABM 20
/ffiCIPROCAlS OP NUMBERS. From i to lo
(NwHim im diffwme* co/umw to b ntbtraeUtI, not addtd.)
m

I f I ilSai 4 56
10 VC 9804 9709
11 9a>, 8^29 88^0
12 1
82O4 S '97 S' 30
13 76tj 2 7 hi 4 7576 75'9
14 7 UJ /V, ,
704*16993
15 0667 ^H 32 ] 657916536
1 C 02^0 021 ?;3 613c;
1 ci
1 T .)VS2 5814 5761

18 V, tA 9 s 54O4
1 9 20 J
-30! 5200 5181
20 sOOO ws; 49*6
21 47' 2 47 V/l? 4OQ5
22 1
4 ^4 > 4484
23 43 4292
24 , 4 Uj 7 4 i 32 4115
2!3 '
' ^(XV>
2C ,
7 .'Au
2;*!
2 1 1 . , ;.Si 4
2 9 j
; j
1
34
30 ^
K. ,
,
iua
s % 11 , 1
3 1
,
j , :95
i
321 ,3*25 -Ms' 3099

33 i '',<>3.) ipui 3003
84 :
'i
2 C 41 '
2924 '29*5 \
36 2857 i
2 -S 40
j
*841 28^:^ 1
3 C, 77 ^ 2:70! 2762 275s

87 ?V 03 1
2605! 2<>Ji8 2681

38 20^2 '
2025 2618 2611 1
4G 2 5 X)
4 1 '439
4 5
*
.MM
f i
2^20
f -9 |?04^
6^ *50X1
61 icXH
iS -iSS?
INDEX
A Compressive strain, 31
Compound section, 27
Analysis of frames, 831 Conjugate beam method, 505
Analysis of darns* 371 Continuous beam, 158, 528, 560
Assumptions in theory of bending, 228 Continuous columns, 987
Asis, neutral, 229, 230 Contraflexure*poiDt of, 186
Core of a section, 342
B Couples, 203
Couplings, 616
Balanced section, 928 Cover, 973
Bar of composite section, 27 Crippling ad, 728
1
Bar of uniform strcn^ th, 47 Crnjcal load, 728

Bar of varying section, 11 Critical sectr'n, 928
Beams, 158 Crushing load, 727
Beams* deflection, 389 Cnsbing stress, 727
Beams of uniform strength, 295
Beams of varyina section, 469 D
Bearing value of rivets, 773
Bending, 228 Dams, 371
Bending moment, 58, 160 Deficient frames H32
BcltrarTs theory, 678 Deflection of beams, 381
Bending stress, 228 Deformation, 1
Bet<e*s law, 484 Diagonal compres' ion, 84
Bond stress, 966, 967 Diagonal tension, 84
Boom, 727 Diamond rivet inn, 787
Bows notation, 891 lirrct stress, 338
Brinnels methc^. 921 )ircct and bending
stresses, 33
Buckling load, 728 )ireci bond, 967
Built-in-beams, 158, 528 )oubly curved walls, 701
Bulk m< duius, 86 )oubly rCMiforced beams,
949
Butt-ioint, 769
Butt weld, 801
E
C
Eccentricity, 339
Cantilevers, 158 Ecceniric riveted connection, /yj
Cantilever-propped, 400 Eccentric welded connections,
Car/iaiie springs, 3o0 Economic section, 928 *
CasttgUano's theorem, 485 Effective IcoRih of column,

733
CcTiitre of gravity, 1 19 Effective length of weld, 802
Centroid, I <9 Effective span, 158
Cliam riveting, 787 Efficiency of joints, 774
Circumferential stress, 72. 684 Elastic instability, 728
Clapcyroui theorem, 561 Bias ic liroii, 6
Clear span, 158 Elastic material, 1 , 102
Qose coiled springs, 620 Elastic modulus, 102
Columns, 727 Ellipse of strain, 679
Combined stresses. 338 Ellipse of stress, 642
Complementary shear stress, 81 Eocastred beams, 528
Composite sections, 27 End Anchorage, 969
Composite shafts, 610 End returns, 804
Compound cylinders, 713 Endurance 922
limit,
Compoun stresses and straina, 633 Eoeriy, strain, 47, lOl, 102
Compresirivs stress, 31 Eqoivilafit ifaif 38
1036
IMDBX
1037
Euler*s theory, 728
up joint, 7fi9. KM
F Uienil itrtin.
74
Utmlly loaded atraii. 743
Leaf tprloga. *00
Factor of safety, 916
Lever arm, 927
Failure of a riveted joint, 770
Limit-elastic, 6
hatigue of metals, 922
Load, I
Fillet weld, 800
Fixed beam, 158, 521
Fixed et d momeot, 528 tsJiiKsrfe''
Long columns, 986
Flexural rigidity, 586
Longitudinal stress, 684
Flitched beams, 278
framed structures, 831
Freely supported beams, 158 M
French formula, 774
Macaulays method, 423
Masonry damt. 371
G Maxwfiri law, 4g3
Mechanical properties of metals,
GermaD formula, 7T4
Membrane
915
stresses 701
Gravlually applied loads, 103
Meridional stress, 702
Graphic.*! methoiti, 838
Method of joints, 838
Graphic statics, 891 Method of resolution, 838
Guest theory, 677 Method of section, 838 864
Gusset plate, 785 Meth^ of substitution, 903
Gyration-radius of, l37 Middle third rule. 341
Modular rati i, 27, 279. 923
H Mijdulus bulk, 86
Moduius of elasticity, 6
Haighs theory, 678 Modulus of rigidity, 6
Hardness, 920 Modulus ol section. 2H
Helical springs 620 Mohrs Circle. 645
Hogging moment, 161 Mohrs theorems, 459, 460
Homogeneity, 237 Moment area method, 459
Hov'ks law, 6 Mo'Dt'ot of Inertia, 136,
928
Hoop Stress, 72, 684 Momeiii of retistaocr, 231
I
N
Impact loading, 101 Nemra] axis. 229, 230, 926
Impact testing. 101, 105, 498, 921 Neutral layer, 229
I
eolation 921
test, Neutral suifs^'e, 229
Inert la-moment of, 136 Normal stresses, 80
If lens ty of stress, 2
Isotropy, 233
Izod test, 921, 922
O
Oblique loading on beams,
210
J Obliquity, 6 5
Over reinforced aectien. 951
Johnsons parabolic formula, 749
Joints-rivfted, 769
Joiots-welded. 799
P
Parabolic formula, 749
K fâllel .M, tbt Mm, 138
P4rfec frame, 831
Kernel of a section^ 142 Perp^tculv axm dHotem.
Keys, 616 137
P'rry*i f.-rmula, 758
Piii.f,, iiM
^ PiMtic member, 1, 102
L^hmaa, 974 Po;m ofoOBtM0ewirB.it8
f-M*seqiiiio, 701
PobtortefctiMM.
PviacmViiHiei, 74
A
, 1
IP3S SIMNOIH OP 1IATBRIA15
Polar modulus, hi Stirrups, 960

Po<t, 727 Straight line formula, 749
633, 634
Pr!iici|>al pli:kes, Strain, 1, 2. 3
Principal strains. 6^3. 675 Strain energy, 47, 101, 102
PriDCtpal stresses, 633, 634 Strength, i
Proppi d cantilevers, 400 Stress, 1, 2, 3

Pure bendintt, 228 Stress intensity, 2
Stresses in beams, 228
R Si ruts, in
St.Venaot's theory, 677
Radius of curvature, 390 Sobs itution method, 903
Radius of gyration, 137 Suddenly applied loads, 104
Rankine's formula, 740
Rankine's theory, ei77 T
Reinforced concrete, 923
Reciprocal deflection theorem, 482 T-bea^ 973
Heinfoicemcfit, 970 Tapering shafts, 628
Redundant frame, 833 Tearing strength, 771
Relation between elastic constants. Temperature stresses, 55
Resistance, I, iOl Tensile strain, 3
Resistance-moment of, 231 Tensile stress, 3
Rigid materia], 102 Theorem of three moments, 56f
Rigidity modulus, 6 The ry of bending, 228
Riveted boilers, 693 Thick cyliodcis, 706
Riveted joints, 769 Thick spheres, 72
Roller support, 833 Thin cylinders, 683
Thin spheres, 698
Thr at of weld, 800, 802
Thrust diagram, 11. 212
Safety-factor of, 9l6 Tt rsion of shafts, .^82
.lagging moment, 160 Torsion of non circular section, 619-
Scratch test, 921 Torsional resilience, 618
Second moment of area, 136 Torsional rigidity, 586
Section-composite, 27 Twi.st of a shaft, 583
Sectton-inetbod of, 833, 864
Section modulus, 234 U
Shafts, 582
Shear centre, 330 U-Butt weld, 801
Sliear delormation, 5, 6 Ultimate stress, 9 6
Shear force, 158 Unbalanced setion, 93]
Shear mo ulus, 6 Under reinforced section 931
Sheaf reinforcement, 944 Unit stress, 2
Shear resistance, 618 Uowm*s formula, 774
Shear strain, 4
Shear stress, 4, 297, 954, 957 V
Shear stress distribution.
Shear value d
rivets, 773 V-Butt weld, 801
Shells* 683 Volumetric strain, 7<
Simple bending. 228
Simple stresses and strains, 1 W
Simply supported beams, 158
Singly reinforced beams* 924 Walls, 364
S)eucer< ess ratio, 736 Weld^ joints, 799
Slope, 390 Wind pressure, 364
Span, 158 Wire bound pipes, 695
Spherical shrils, 698 Wohler's caDerimema, 922.
Spnngtôiled, 620 Work. 101..481
Spr ngs-iamiqaiMl, SOO Working stieases, 916
Sinbility of dama, 373
Stanuard lioc4, 969 Y
Stm of simple itear, 81 Yidd point, 915
S|ifbaaa502 621 Yoimg*t aMdidiii, 6

Strength of Materials by Ramamrutham

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Strength of Materials by Ramamrutham

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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

[For Engineering Degree^ Diploma and A. M. I, E, Students]

DHANPAT RAI & SONS

Design of Steel Stmctures

Hydraulics. Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines Steel Tables

First Edition: 1962

2. Strain Energy Impact Leading

11. Priacipal stresses and strains

Tjrpes of joints Lap and butt joints Failure of a riveted

exercise. 769 798

17. a single fillet -Permissible stresses in welds Combined

Perfect frame -Deficient frame Redundant frame Reactions

18. Simple Mechanical Properties of Metals

P" kli thifoS in equilibrium, the part

iMiml tli9 defonnatioD be assumed to be uniform across the^ scctioii>

SDfPU STRESSES AND STRAINS 3

material is capable of offering the following ftrpes

a tensile stress. For example, the stress offered

The corresponding strain is called a tensile st^in.

(ii) Compressive stress. If the bar >45 of Fig. 1 be subjec^

any section such as XX

Let due to the external loading the len^h of the member

Let the bottom face of the block be fixed to a surface EF.

For the equilibrium of the block, the surface EF will offer a

Similarly, considering the equilibrium of the part H, we find

brium of tbe system the shear resistance R shtndd be equal to the

Shear deformation. Fig. 6 (a) shows a rectangular block sub-

When the block does not fail in shear, a shear deformation

Let us now imagine that the block consists of a number of

shear strain. We could have

Since ^ is very small, ^=tan^= j- = shear strain.

Hence, the angular deformation ^ in radian measure represents

A material is said to be elastic when it undergoes a deformation

Hooke's law. It is observed that when a material is loaded such

In the case of axial loading, the ratio of the intensity of tensile

In this book SI andMKS units

Problem 2. (SI) A steel rod 25 mm

Solution. Diameter of rod =25 mm

SoIntioB. Area of tie=j4*=75x 15=1125 cm^

.'. Stress hg/cm~

Change in length _ 0 0638 =00004253

Area required =A=*y cm^

Problem 7. A hollow steel column has to carry an axial load of

External diameter =D =25 cm

(0 Diameter of the steel bar -30 mm

Area of the rod =^4 =-^(30)* mw= 70686 mm*

_ Increase in length -o/

(d) Percentage decrease in area

Strain of the part

Strain of the part BC

and Strain of the part CD=

Problem 9. Fig. h shows a bar consisting of three lengths.

Intensity of stress on the part BC-fz==

Intensity of stress on the part CD-fz>

Total extension dl=dh+dh-\-dlz

ProUem 10. A bras.i bar having a cross-sectimud area of 10 sq.

\*-60cm -|* mcw-

SolirtioB.Part AB. The section of the bar in this part is sub-

.'. Extension of AB= ^rh

Part CD. The section of the bar in this part is subjected to a

= - cm. =001 14 cm. (contraction)

nnbiem 11 (SI). A member ABCD

Sototion. Resolving the for^s on the rod nlong

8IMPLB snssnss AND STRAINS 15

\-60cm -| mcw-

SoIntioB Area of steel tubc=/l.= -(17* 15) cm.