Australasian Plant Pathol.
(2013) 42:363377
DOI 10.1007/s13313-013-0198-y
Impacts of conservation tillage on soil quality, including
soil-borne crop diseases, with a focus on semi-arid grain
cropping systems
Kathryn Page & Yash Dang & Ram Dalal
Received: 3 November 2012 / Accepted: 10 January 2013 / Published online: 31 January 2013
# Australasian Plant Pathology Society Inc. 2013
Abstract Conservation tillage is a system of management
that leaves at least 30 % of the soil surface covered by
residue between crop harvests and planting, and may be
combined with appropriate crop rotations to improve soil
fertility and disease/weed management. This review exam-
ines the effect of conservation tillage on soil biological,
chemical, and physical properties and how these interact to
affect crop production. Improvements in physical attributes
are widely observed under conservation tillage, and these
improvements often lead to increased rates of water infiltra-
tion and storage. Increases in bulk density in the absence of
cultivation, however, may lead to decreases in soil aeration.
Conservation tillage may also lead to many soil chemical
changes. Decreases in soil pH, changes to cation exchange
capacity, and alterations to nutrient availability have all been
observed. Changes to biological processes are generally char-
acterised by increases in soil organic carbon (SOC) at or near
the surface of the soil profile, along with subsequent increases
in soil microbial biomass and diversity. However, the presence
of plant diseases and weeds may also increase under conser-
vation tillage management. In semi-arid environments, the
increases in soil water storage afforded by conservation tillage
often lead to increased yield, especially in dry years. However,
where crop disease and weed growth, a lack of plant available
nutrients, and/or adverse soil structure limit plant develop-
ment, lower yields may also be observed. Holistic systems
K. Page (*) : R. Dalal
Department of Science, Information Technology,
Innovation and the Arts, 41 Boggo Rd,
Dutton Park, Queensland, Australia
e-mail: kathryn.page@science.dsitia.qld.gov.au
Y. Dang
Department of Science, Information Technology,
Innovation and the Arts, 203 Tor St,
Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia
that incorporate appropriate crop rotations, fertiliser and weed
management are required to help control the negative aspects
of conservation tillage, and ensure that improvements in soil
quality lead to increases in crop production.
Keywords Conservation tillage . Soil quality . Semi-arid .
Grain cropping . Crop diseases
Introduction
Conservation tillage is a system of cultivation that leaves at
least 30 % of the soil surface covered by residue between crop
harvests and planting (Mannering et al. 1987). As such, con-
servation tillage encompasses both no-till (NT), where the soil
is left undisturbed, and minimum or reduced till (MT/RT),
where the number and/or intensity of tillage operations are
reduced between harvest and planting so as to maintain residue
cover (Laryea et al. 1991). Traditional tillage systems may vary
from region to region, but all involve several workings of the
soil between harvest and planting for the purposes of weed
control and the preparation of a suitable seed bed. Conservation
tillage techniques may also be encompassed within conserva-
tion agriculture, a broader system of management that com-
bines conservation tillage with appropriate crop rotations to
improve soil fertility and disease/weed management (Verhulst
et al. 2010). Since its conception in the 1960s, conservation
tillage is increasingly being adopted throughout the world due
to its ability to help control erosion, its lower fuel requirements,
and its ability to help conserve soil moisture (Holland 2004;
Verhulst et al. 2010; Zarea 2010).
There has been much research conducted to examine the
effect of conservation tillage on soil properties and crop
production. This review intends to examine the effect of
conservation tillage from a soil quality perspective, and as
such will consider its effect on soil biological, chemical and
364
physical properties, and how these interact to affect crop
production. On-site impacts only will be considered, and for
discussion of the effect of conservation tillage on erosion
and runoff, the reader is referred to reviews by Holland
(2004), Thomas et al. (2007b), and Verhulst et al. (2010).
The review will also focus on semi-arid grain production,
where conservation tillage has been widely adopted due to
its ability to increase crop production and maintain or im-
prove soil quality (Laryea et al. 1991; Thomas et al. 2007b).
Soil processesphysical
Many soil physical properties, such as texture and mineralogy,
are inherent soil characteristics and relatively unaffected by
tillage management. Other aspects, such as soil structure,
however, can be dramatically altered. Soil structure is an
important aspect of soil quality, due to its influence on soil
aeration, water infiltration and root growth. Cultivation has a
dramatic effect on soil structure as it destroys the natural
aggregates and pore spacing within a soil to create a finer
and looser soil structure than occurs in the absence of tillage.
Movement from a traditional system of cultivation to conser-
vation tillage can thus lead to significant soil structural
changes, particularly in the areas of aggregate stability, soil
water characteristics and soil air/water relationships.
Aggregate stability
Good soil structure for crop growth depends on the presence of
soil aggregates that are capable of remaining stable when
wetted (Tisdall and Oades 1982). In the absence of water-
stable aggregates, soil slakes into smaller sub-units during
wetting, resulting in a soil structure that can limit water infil-
tration and the emergence of seedlings (Tisdall and Oades
1982). The stability of macro-aggregates (>250 m) is largely
believed to be controlled by temporary forms of organic carbon
such as roots and fungal hyphae, which enmesh soil particles
(Tisdall 1994; Chan et al. 2002). Organic matter associated
with clay minerals can also give the soil greater resistance to
slaking by increasing the hydrophobicity of soil aggregates and
enhancing internal cohesion (Chenu et al. 2000). Chemical
characteristics of the soil, such as exchangeable sodium (Na)
percentage (ESP),and electrical conductivity, have also been
widely demonstrated to affect the ability of a soil to maintain
stable aggregates (Shaw 1997).
Conservation tillage management often leads to increases
in aggregate stability (Chan and Mead 1988; Hajabbasi and
Hemmat 2000; Chan et al. 2002; Li et al. 2007). This is
commonly attributed to greater organic carbon in surface
layers of the profile (Chan and Mead 1988; Hajabbasi and
Hemmat 2000; Chan et al. 2002). In particular, increases in
fungal populations and the persistence of root networks in
K. Page et al.
the absence of cultivation are known to have a marked effect
on aggregate stability (Tisdall 1994; Beare et al. 1997; Wang
et al. 2010). Chemical soil changes, such as decreases in
exchangeable Na concentration due to increases in
leaching, have also been found to lead to decreased
ESP, and subsequent increases in aggregate stability
(Loch and Coughlan 1984; Dalal 1989). Examples of
the relative difference in aggregate stability between
conservation and conventional tillage systems in semi-
arid areas can be seen in Fig. 1.
It should be noted that the ability of conservation tillage
systems to produce greater aggregate stability relative to tradi-
tional systems is often dependent on the soil type, the condition
of the soil at the time conservation techniques are adopted,
climatic conditions, and the nature of the cropping carried out.
In semi-arid environments where the quantities of crop residue
produced are often low, it may be difficult to accumulate
sufficient organic carbon to significantly impact on aggregate
stability, especially on degraded soils of low production poten-
tial. Where conservation tillage is adopted on such soils, no
improvement in aggregate stability may be observed (Carter
and Mele 1992; Frey et al. 1999).
Soil water
Increases in the storage of soil water are commonly reported
under conservation tillage management in semi-arid regions
(Marley and Littler 1989; Norwood 1994; Felton et al. 1995;
Radford et al. 1995; OLeary and Connor 1997a; Li et al.
2007; Thomas et al. 2007b), and examples of the relative
increases commonly observed at sowing can be seen in
Table 1. The reason for the increased water storage observed
is generally attributed to a combination of increased rates of
infiltration and reduced soil water evaporation. Increased
Fig. 1 Differences in the percentage of water stable aggregates
>250 m observed in conservation versus conventional tillage systems
from 1: Chan and Mead 1988, 2: Hajabbasi and Hemmat 2000; 3: Chan
et al. 2002, 4: Li et al. 2007, 5. Carter and Mele 1992, 6: Baumhardt et
al. 2011. Numbers above columns indicate the depth (m) to which
measurements were taken
Impacts of conservation tillage on soil quality, including soil-borne 365

Table 1 Relative increase in

soil moisture observed at plant- Location Period of study (yrs) Depth (m) Average increase Reference
in soil moisture (%)
ing in conservation tillage com-
pared to conventional tillage
Victoria, Australia 4 2.0 31 OLeary and Connor 1997a
systems in semi-arid grain
growing soils Queensland, Australia 11 1.5 29 Marley and Littler 1989
Queensland, Australia 4 1.6 28 Radford et al. 1995
Kansas, USA 7 1.5 921 Norwood 1994
NSW, Australia 9 1.2 21 (average 5 sites) Felton et al. 1995
Texas, USA 10 1.8 1018 Jones et al. 1994
Queensland, Australia 6 1.2 14 Thomas et al. 1995
Shanxi, China 14 0.2 8 Li et al. 2007
Victoria, Australia 6 2 6 Cantero-Martinez et al. 1995

rates of infiltration may occur for a number of reasons, with
one of the most commonly cited being an increase in the
number and/or continuity of macropores capable of rapidly
transmitting water into the soil profile (Chan and Mead
1988; Moreno et al. 1997; OLeary and Connor 1997a;
McGarry et al. 2000). The reduced soil disturbance under
conservation tillage allows macro-pores created by plant roots,
soil fauna (especially earthworms) and soil cracking (especial-
ly in Vertisols), to persist within the soil matrix, and facilitate
water entry. Increases in aggregate stability, and the protection
of the soil surface by crop residue have also been cited as
significant factors due to their ability to prevent the formation
of surface seals or crusts, which dramatically reduce infiltration
rates (McGarry et al. 2000).
The residue cover associated with conservation tillage sys-
tems can also help reduce water loss via evaporation, as it
lowers the soil temperature, and reduces wind speeds at the soil
surface (Jones et al. 1994; OLeary and Connor 1997a;
Hatfield et al. 2001; Nielsen et al. 2005; Lampurlans and
Cantero-Martnez 2006). Reductions in cultivation can also
help prevent moist soil from deeper layers being brought closer
to the surface, where chances of evaporation increase (Hatfield
et al. 2001; Nielsen et al. 2005).
It should be noted that while many studies observe
increases in soil water storage under conservation tillage,
not all report benefits (Lawrence et al. 1994; Lampurlans
and Cantero-Martnez 2006). In semi-arid areas where in-
sufficient residue is produced by the crop to achieve critical
levels of surface cover, surface sealing may still occur
(Jones et al. 1994). In these situations some cultivation to
loosen the soil surface and destroy soil crusts can increase
porosity and surface roughness, and lead to increases in
infiltration, especially in comparison to no-till systems
(Hamblin 1984; Jones et al. 1994). Declines in residue over
a fallow period can also increase losses via evaporation. In
one study in a semi-arid cropping region in Spain, for
example, increases in soil water storage under no-till did
not occur, despite increased rates of infiltration, due to
increased soil evaporation as residue cover declined over
the fallow period (Lampurlans et al. 2002).
Air-water relationships
In comparison with traditional methods, the reduced level of
soil disturbance associated with conservation tillage can lead to
increases in bulk density in the plough layer (Mielke et al.
1986; Gregorich et al. 1993 ; Moreno et al. 1997; Li et al. 2007;
Thomas et al. 2007a). This is found especially if comparisons
are made directly after tillage operations (Moreno et al. 1997).
Where increases in bulk density are observed, this is generally
attributed to reduced soil disturbance and subsequent soil
settling (Gregorich et al. 1993). In addition, repeated traffick-
ing of the soil can lead to compaction, especially in non-
cracking soils, which under conservation tillage is not removed
via cultivation. Areas such as wheel tracks may be particularly
affected by compaction issues (Larney and Kladivko 1989),
and in some instances these may be sufficient to affect root
growth due to increases in soil strength (Braim et al. 1992).
Where increases in bulk density are observed under con-
servation tillage systems, total soil porosity also decreases
(Mielke et al. 1986). Where these decreases are combined
with increases in soil moisture, conservation tillage systems
may have decreased air permeability and a lower percentage
of air filled pores (Linn and Doran 1984; Mielke et al.
1986). This can mean that less oxygen is available in con-
servation tillage systems during wetting events, which can
lead to increases in rate of anaerobic processes, such as
denitrification (Linn and Doran 1984; Mielke et al. 1986).
Soil processeschemical
Soil pH
In the absence of liming, it is commonly reported that conser-
vation tillage management, especially no-till, decreases soil
pH relative to more traditional systems (Dalal 1989; Heenan
and Taylor 1995; Franzluebbers and Hons 1996; Limousin
and Tessier 2007). These changes are often concentrated in the
very surface of the profile (typically the top 5 cm) (Heenan
and Taylor 1995; Franzluebbers and Hons 1996; Tarkalson et
366
al. 2006; Limousin and Tessier 2007), although significant
differences to depths of 30 cm have been observed (Dick
1983; Dalal 1989). The decreases in pH observed in surface
layers have been reported to occur due to:
& The accumulation of plant residues at the surface of the
profile and a subsequent accumulation of organic acids
(Dalal 1989; Heenan and Taylor 1995; Franzluebbers
and Hons 1996);
& Greater rates of nitrogen mineralisation and subsequent
leaching of nitrate-nitrogen (Heenan and Taylor 1995),
accompanied by basic cations;
& Greater leaching of bases (Lal 1999);
& Greater rates of root exudation due to an accumulation
of plant roots in the surface of the soil profile (Limousin
and Tessier 2007);
& The addition of acidifying forms of nitrogen fertiliser,
which can exacerbate pH decreases (Matowo et al. 1999);
& A lack of stubble burning. In situations where stubble
burning is conducted, the alkalinity of ash may lead to
slightly higher pH values (Chan et al. 1992; Heenan and
Taylor 1995).
The magnitude of any change in pH will largely depend
on factors such as the buffering capacity of the soil, rates of
fertiliser and lime application, and changes in soil organic
matter concentrations. Where differences in plant growth
and organic matter accumulation between tillage treatments
are small, or the buffering capacity of the soil is high, no
significant change in pH may be observed (Aase and Pikul
1995; Fettell and Gill 1995; Thomas et al. 2007a; Gonzlez-
Chvez et al. 2010). Where they are observed, decreases in
the order of 0.10.3 pH units are commonly reported follow-
ing ~10+years of conservation tillage management in semi-
arid environments, in the absence of nitrogen or lime applica-
tion (Dalal 1989; White 1990; Chan et al. 1992; Franzluebbers
and Hons 1996; Bravo et al. 2007).
Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
CEC is an important property from a soil quality perspective
due to the impact it can have on soil fertility, soil structural
stability and soil pH buffer capacity (McBride 1994). While
cation exchange capacity is largely an inherent soil charac-
teristic dependent on mineralogy and clay content, it can
also be influenced by changes to soil organic matter and pH
(McBride 1994). As such, there is potential for tillage man-
agement to influence CEC.
Changes to CEC in response to conservation tillage man-
agement are variable, with increases (Chan et al. 1992;
Pankhurst et al. 2002; Duiker and Beegle 2006; Sa et al.
2009), decreases (Loch and Coughlan 1984; Lal 1999; Duiker
and Beegle 2006; Limousin and Tessier 2007; Thomas et al.
K. Page et al.
2007a) and no change observed (Bravo et al. 2007; Qin et al.
2010). Where greater CEC is observed, it is generally associat-
ed with a higher organic matter content, which increases the
amount of negative charge (Chan et al. 1992; Pankhurst et al.
2002; Duiker and Beegle 2006; Sa et al. 2009 ). Lower CEC
may be observed in soils where a decrease in pH has occurred,
and resulted in a decrease in pH-dependent cation exchange
sites (Limousin and Tessier 2007; Thomas et al. 2007a).
Nutrients
Nutrient availability may be altered under conservation tillage
systems due to the absence, or reduction, of soil mixing within
the tillage zone. This combined with the surface application of
fertiliser and plant residues can lead to nutrient stratification.
Residue deposited on the soil surface also tends to decompose
at a slower rate relative to material that has been incorporated,
which may change the rate of nutrient release in conservation
tillage systems. Patterns of nutrient leaching may also change
when greater water infiltration is observed under conservation
tillage. The effects of tillage management on individual
nutrients are discussed below.
Nitrogen
Differences in total nitrogen (N) between conservation and
traditional tillage management generally follow those of SOC.
Where conservation tillage leads to greater SOC due to an
increase in organic matter input and/or a decrease in decom-
position, greater total N is also generally observed (Dalal
1989; Chan et al. 1992; Pankhurst et al. 2002; Li et al. 2007;
Thomas et al. 2007a; Gonzlez-Chvez et al. 2010). However,
where conservation tillage practices fail to lead to increases in
SOC, total N is generally no different between conservation
and traditional practices (Fettell and Gill 1995). Similar to
increases in organic carbon, changes to total N are often
restricted to the surface of the soil profile (10 cm or less),
where input from residue retention is greatest, although
increases to depths of 30 cm have been reported (Dalal
1989; Thomas et al. 2007a; Dalal et al. 2011).
While increases in total-N are commonly observed in con-
servation tillage systems, this does not always lead to a greater
supply of N for crops. Indeed, the supply of mineral-N is
commonly reported to be lower under conservation tillage
management (Tessier et al. 1990; Thompson 1992; Felton et
al. 1995; Thomas et al. 1995; OLeary and Connor 1997b;
Bockus and Shroyer 1998), despite the fact that potentially
mineralisable N is often higher (Thompson 1992; Doran et al.
1998). This can occur due to one or a combination of:
& Slower rates of nitrogen mineralisation. Residues placed
on the soil surface are known to break down more
slowly than those incorporated into the soil (Beare et
Impacts of conservation tillage on soil quality, including soil-borne
al. 1993). Consequently, the lack of, or reduced,
stubble mixing under conservation tillage can slow
nitrogen mineralisation and lead to lower concentra-
tions of mineral-N (Gibson et al. 1992).
& Greater immobilisation. Crop residues are higher in
carbon than nitrogen. In situations where the supply of
nitrogen in the soil is not sufficient to meet the demand
of the soil microbial population decomposing residue,
this can lead to mineral-N immobilisation by the micro-
bial biomass (Tate 2000). This process has been used to
explain the lower concentrations of mineral-N in con-
servation tillage systems in a wide range of studies
(Tessier et al. 1990; Logan et al. 1991; Thompson
1992; Felton et al. 1995; OLeary and Connor 1997b),
although it should be noted that direct evidence of
immobilisation is rare. Where immobilisation is be-
lieved to be the reason for lower quantities of mineral-
N, a gradual improvement in N availability is often
observed over time, presumably as a new steady state
between carbon and nitrogen supply is attained (Lamb et
al. 1985; Tessier et al. 1990);
& Higher rates of denitrification. A number of studies
have observed increases in the number of denitrifying
organisms and/or denitrification rates under conserva-
tion tillage systems (Aulakh et al. 1984; Broder et al.
1984; Doran et al. 1998). Changes to denitrifier popula-
tions have been attributed to the greater moisture and
lower air-filled porosity present under conservation till-
age, which tends to favour denitrifying organisms
(Aulakh et al. 1984; Broder et al. 1984; Linn and
Doran 1984 ). Higher relative concentrations of organic
carbon may also stimulate denitrification (Doran 1980).
It should be noted that where differences in bulk density
between conservation and conventional tillage systems
are minimal, lower rates of denitrification have also been
observed under conservation tillage (Wang et al. 2011).
In this instance, it was believed that the increased con-
tinuity of macropores under conservation tillage en-
hanced water movement and hence soil aeration,
decreasing denitrification rates.
& Greater rates of leaching. The increased movement of
water commonly observed under conservation tillage
systems has been observed to lead to loss of mineral-N
via leaching (Stein et al. 1987; Radford et al. 1995;
Thomas et al. 1995; Franzluebbers and Hons 1996).
Phosphorus
Higher concentrations of total P (Rheinheimer and Anghinoni
2003; Redel et al. 2007) and plant available forms of P (Ismail
et al. 1994; Rhoton 2000; Bravo et al. 2007; Redel et al. 2007;
Qin et al. 2010) are commonly observed in conservation
tillage systems, although no differences in P concentrations
367
are also reported (Aase and Pikul 1995). Where differences do
occur these are commonly restricted to the top 510 cm of the
soil surface, with no significant changes, or even lower con-
centrations below this depth (White 1990; Lal 1999; Matowo
et al. 1999; Rhoton 2000; Thomas et al. 2007a). This stratifi-
cation is largely attributed to the relative immobility of P,
combined with the placement of fertilisers and plant residues
at the soil surface with reduced or no soil mixing. An excep-
tion to this is one study that reported that extractable P was
13 % greater to a depth of 0.9 m under no-till treatments
possibly due to an accumulation of P in senescent roots
(Franzluebbers and Hons 1996).
Where increases in plant available forms of P are ob-
served these may occur due to:
& Greater amounts of soil organic matter. Many studies
observed correlations between concentrations of extract-
able P and SOC (Ismail et al. 1994; Bravo et al. 2007;
Qin et al. 2010), which is often observed to be greater in
the surface layers of conservation tillage management.
Greater cycling of P is also often reported in conserva-
tion tillage systems due to a corresponding increase in
the concentration of phosphatase enzymes responsible
for the mineralisation of organic P (Deng and Tabatabai
1997; Madejn et al. 2007).
& Placement of fertiliser P. The placement of fertilisers at
the soil surface with limited mixing can lead to increases
in P concentration in the surface layers of conservation
tillage treatments, particularly where no-till is practiced
(Rhoton 2000; Duiker and Beegle 2006; Thomas et al.
2007a). It has been noted by some authors that this lack
of mixing could reduce fixation by soil colloids, thus
increasing available forms of P (Duiker and Beegle
2006; Bravo et al. 2007; Sa et al. 2009).
Increases in the populations of arbuscular mycorrihizal
(AM) fungi are also commonly observed in conservation
tillage systems (McGonigle and Miller 1996; Kabir et al.
1997; Zarea 2010). These fungi are able to form symbiotic
relationships with plant roots and improve the uptake of
nutrients, including P, which may help improve the P nutri-
tion of crops (Garg and Chandel 2011).
Other nutrients
A comprehensive discussion of the effect of conservation
tillage on all plant nutrients is beyond the scope of this
review. However, in general, the effect of tillage manage-
ment on plant nutrients will depend on:
& The response of soil organic matter. Soil organic matter
is a major source of plant nutrients, and is often ob-
served to be greater in the surface layers of conservation
368
tillage systems relative to traditional ones. Greater con-
centrations of nutrients such as Ca (Chan et al. 1992),
Mg (Chan et al. 1992), K (Duiker and Beegle 2006;
Bravo et al. 2007), Mn (Rhoton 2000) and Zn (Rhoton
2000; Pankhurst et al. 2002) have all been observed in
conservation tillage systems in response to increases in
soil organic matter.
& Nutrient leaching. Greater losses of nutrients due to
leaching are commonly observed under conservation
tillage management due to increased rates of water
movement (Dalal 1989; Tarkalson et al. 2006; Thomas
et al. 2007a). This may particularly be the case where
acidification has led to the displacement of basic cations
(Ca, Mg, K, Na) with H+ and Al3+ ions (Tarkalson et al.
2006; Thomas et al. 2007a), or where pH change has led
to a reduction in pH-dependent CEC (Thomas et al.
2007a).
& Plant uptake. Where conservation tillage systems lead to
an increase in yield, plant uptake of nutrients has been
implicated in the lower concentration of plant nutrients
such as Ca and K in conservation tillage systems
(Tarkalson et al. 2006).
Soil processesbiological
Soil organic matter
Many studies report greater concentrations of SOC in conser-
vation tillage systems relative to traditionally managed ones
(Haines and Uren 1990; Chan et al. 1992; Jones et al. 1994;
Pankhurst et al. 2002; Thomas et al. 2007a; Gonzlez-Chvez
et al. 2010). These differences are often restricted to the
surface of the soil profile (<10 cm), however (Hamblin
1984; Haines and Uren 1990; Jones et al. 1994; Pankhurst et
al. 2002; Dou et al. 2008), with differences below this depth
generally not significant (Jones et al. 1994; Thiagalingam et
al. 1996; Thomas et al. 2007a), or lower than in traditionally
managed systems (Dick 1983; Chan et al. 1992). The more
labile fractions of SOC, such as particulate organic carbon
(POC), soluble organic carbon, or mineralisable organic car-
bon are often the fractions of SOC that change the most under
conservation tillage management (Franzluebbers et al. 1994;
Chan et al. 2002; Hoyle and Murphy 2006; Dou et al. 2008).
The reason for the difference in SOC concentration
between the two systems is generally attributed to two
processes:
& A greater input of carbon via plant residues. The removal
of residues via burning, grazing or baling can lead to a
lower input of organic material into traditional tillage
systems, leading to lower SOC in the top few centimetres
of the profile (Chan et al. 1992; Dalal et al. 2011).
K. Page et al.
& Decreased decomposition of SOC. The incorporation and
fragmentation of residues during cultivation increases
their vulnerability to microbial attack, which can lead to
an accelerated loss of organic carbon (Hendrix et al. 1986;
Holland and Coleman 1987; Beare et al. 1993). Tillage
operations also break up soil aggregates, and increase the
exposure of organic material previously protected within
aggregates to microbial attack (Beare et al. 1994). A
greater dominance of fungal (compared to bacterial) de-
composition under conservation tillage has also been cited
as contributing to decreased decomposition rates due to
the fact that a higher proportion of the carbon metabolised
by fungi is retained as biomass, rather than respired as
CO2 (Holland and Coleman 1987). However, recent work
in this area has found that there is little empirical evidence
to support this theory, despite its widespread acceptance
(Six et al. 2006; Thiet et al. 2006).
It should be noted that in semi-arid environments,
while many studies observe greater SOC concentrations
under conservation tillage management, when changes
are monitored over time it has been observed that this
management does not actually increase SOC, but only
slows the rate of SOC decline relative to traditional
systems (Doran et al. 1998; Olson 2010; Chan et al.
2011; Page et al. 2012). In semi-arid environments, crop
biomass production is generally insufficient to lead to
any overall gain in total SOC, particularly where a
fallow period is incorporated into rotations to accumu-
late soil moisture (Fettell and Gill 1995; Franzluebbers
and Arshad 1997; Chan et al. 2003; Hoyle and Murphy
2006). This is particularly the case in warmer regions
where decomposition rates are higher due to warmer
soil temperatures (Chan et al. 2003).
Microbial biomass
In line with greater SOC, many studies also report greater soil
microbial biomass under conservation versus traditional tillage
systems (Franzluebbers et al. 1994; Doran et al. 1998; Hoyle
and Murphy 2006; Dou et al. 2008; Helgason et al. 2009;
Gonzlez-Chvez et al. 2010). Similar to changes in SOC,
changes to the microbial biomass are greatest at the soil surface
(<10 cm) (Haines and Uren 1990; Dalal et al. 1991;
Franzluebbers et al. 1994; Doran et al. 1998; Dou et al.
2008), and may be negligible or even lower at depth (Frey et
al. 1999; Hoflich et al. 1999; Dou et al. 2008). Many authors
report that changes in microbial biomass are a more sensitive
indicator of change in conservation tillage systems than total
SOC (Haines and Uren 1990; Franzluebbers et al. 1994; Hoyle
and Murphy 2006).
Changes in microbial biomass are generally attributed to
changes to residue management and/or the soil environment.
Impacts of conservation tillage on soil quality, including soil-borne
The increased retention of residues at the soil surface in
conservation tillage systems increases the energy source
for soil microbes, leading to greater soil microbial biomass
(Wardle 1995; Doran et al. 1998; Dou et al. 2008). In
addition, where residue retention leads to increases in soil
aggregation, moisture and/or a more favourable soil temper-
ature, this can also increase microbial activity due to a more
favourable soil environment (Lupwayi et al. 2001; Govaerts
et al. 2007a).
Microbial communities structure
Conservation tillage management can not only alter the total
amount of microbial biomass found in agro-ecosystems, but it
can lead to significant changes in the structure and make-up of
microbial communities. Many studies report greater diversity
in bacterial (Lupwayi et al. 1998; Lupwayi et al. 2001;
Gonzlez-Chvez et al. 2010) and fungal (Wang et al. 2010;
Yang et al. 2012) populations under conservation tillage sys-
tems, and examples of the relative increases observed can be
seen in Fig. 2. Where increases in diversity are observed these
are largely attributed to a more favourable soil environment
because of increased quantity and diversity of organic mate-
rial, increased moisture, improvements in soil structure, and in
some instances, a more favourable temperature (Wardle 1995;
Lupwayi et al. 2001). Where a diversity of crop species are
employed in rotations, further increases in microbial diversity
have also been observed, while these tend to decrease follow-
ing periods of continuous cropping or fallow (Lupwayi et al.
1998; Gonzlez-Chvez et al. 2010).
Many studies also report a greater abundance of fungi,
relative to bacteria, at the surface of conservation tillage
systems (Holland and Coleman 1987; Beare et al. 1992;
Wardle 1995; Beare et al. 1997; Frey et al. 1999), although
it should be noted that this is not a universally observed
Fig. 2 Differences in bacterial or fungal diversity observed between
conservation and conventional tillage systems in 1. Lupwayi et al.
1998, 2. Gonzlez-Chvez et al. 2010, 3. Wang et al. 2010, and 4.
Yang et al. 2012
369
trend (Govaerts et al. 2008; Helgason et al. 2009). Where a
difference does occur this is generally attributed to the:
& Positioning of residues on the soil surface rather than
distributed throughout the tilled layer. While reduced
cultivation tends to have a positive influence on both
bacteria and fungi throughout the soil profile, plant
residues on the soil surface tend to be dominated by
fungi (Wardle 1995). Plant residues often have large C:
N ratios, which can limit decomposition. However, fun-
gi are able to form hyphal bridges in order to translocate
nutrients from the soil, making them more competitive
in the decomposition of surface residues (Hendrix et al.
1986; Holland and Coleman 1987; Frey et al. 2000).
& Ability of fungi to withstand greater moisture stress.
Surface environments are often drier than deeper in the soil
profile, making their ability to withstand moisture stress
advantageous to fungi decomposing residue on the soil
surface (Holland and Coleman 1987). While this is a wide-
ly accepted concept, it should be noted that experimental
evidence to support this is limited, and one study that
explicitly tested the effect of moisture on soil fungal dom-
inance observed that the relative abundance of fungi versus
bacteria increased in conservation tillage systems across a
gradient of increasing soil moisture (Frey et al. 1999).
The changes in the diversity and structure of microbial
communities have many important implications for agro-
ecosystems. A more microbially diverse soil is more likely
to support soil micro-flora that promote plant growth and
supress disease (Peters et al. 2003; van Bruggen et al. 2006;
Govaerts et al. 2008). In addition, bacterial-based food webs
tend to decompose organic material and cycle nutrients
more quickly than fungal-based ones, with the result that
conservation tillage systems are likely to have lower con-
centrations of plant available nutrients, but higher concen-
trations of SOC, than traditional tillage systems (Hendrix et
al. 1986; Holland and Coleman 1987; Beare et al. 1992).
Diseases
In some instances significant changes in the prevalence of
plant pathogens are observed following the adoption of
conservation tillage. The increased retention of residues
can provide some pathogens with a refuge in which to
survive between harvest and planting while host plants are
absent (Roper and Gupta 1995; Bockus and Shroyer 1998).
In traditional tillage systems, the burial and subsequent
decomposition of this residue tends to lead to the death of
residue-borne pathogens (Bockus and Shroyer 1998).
Reduced soil disturbance, increased soil moisture, and low-
ering of soil temperatures can also create a more favourable
soil environment for many plant pathogens, and encourage
370
disease persistence (Cook and Haglund 1991; Wildermuth
et al. 1997a; Bockus and Shroyer 1998). Pathogens com-
monly observed to increase under conservation tillage man-
agement include Gaeumannomyces graminis var tritici (take
all) (Pankhurst et al. 1995a; Roget et al. 1996), Fusarium
pseudograminearum (head blight, scab or crown rot)
(Wildermuth et al. 1997a; Wildermuth et al. 1997b),
Pyrenophora tritici-repentis (tan or yellow spot) (Marley
and Littler 1989; Bockus and Shroyer 1998), Pythium spp.
(Pythium seed and root rot) (Pankhurst et al. 1995a),
Rhizoctonia solani (Rhizoctonia root rot, bare patch, purple
patch) (Cook and Haglund 1991; Pankhurst et al. 1995a),
and Pratylenchus spp. (root lesion nematode) (Pankhurst et
al. 1995b; Rahman et al. 2007; Thompson et al. 2008)
(Pankhurst et al. 1995c).
It should be noted that some studies also report disease
suppression under conservation tillage. Heterodera avenae
(cereal cyst nematode), for example, has been observed to
decrease under no-till management (Rovira 1990; Neate
1994; Roget et al. 1996) This is generally thought to be
because cultivation mixes cysts throughout the profile,
and/or decreases soil bulk density, allowing easier move-
ment of nematodes towards plant roots (Rovira 1990). In
some instances, incidence of root lesion nematode has also
been found to be lower under conventional tillage manage-
ment (Thompson et al. 2010), although is more commonly
reported to increase (Pankhurst et al. 1995b; Rahman et al.
2007; Thompson et al. 2008), or be no different (Smiley et
al. 2004).
It has been noted by some authors that the general increase
in biological health observed under conservation tillage man-
agement, especially when this is combined with appropriate
crop rotations, has the potential to lead to increases in the
abundance of soil micro-flora that supress disease (Peters et
al. 2003; van Bruggen et al. 2006; Govaerts et al. 2008). There
is some evidence for this in semi-arid grain systems. At one site,
for example, while the incidence of Rhizoctonia root rot was
initially higher under conservation tillage management, a de-
cline in the severity of the disease occurred over time, and the
authors attributed this to the development of some kind of
disease suppression (Roget 1995). In addition, the more favour-
able moisture conditions often observed under conservation
tillage management may lead to lower disease severity. For
example, one study observed that decreased moisture stress
under conservation tillage reduced the damage incurred by
plants affected by common root rot, despite a higher incidence
of the disease (Wildermuth et al. 1997a).
Disease control and disease suppressiveness
Where increases in disease are observed under conservation
tillage, a number of techniques may be used to control
disease and protect plant yield, including:
K. Page et al.
& The use of appropriate crop rotations. Rotating crops
with non-affected species can reduce disease severity
by allowing time for infected crop residue to decompose
(Reeves et al. 1984; Murray et al. 1991; Neate 1994) or
for populations of nematodes to decline (Wildermuth et
al. 1997b). Rotations that incorporate legumes, and im-
prove soil nitrogen fertility, can also help improve gen-
eral crop health and allow plants to withstand the effects
of any disease better (Rovira 1990). A fallow period can
also be useful to allow infected crop residue to decom-
pose in some instances (Rovira 1990). Examples of the
changes in disease incidence following the adaptation of
different rotations can be seen in Table 2.
& The use of disease resistant cultivars (Wildermuth et al.
1997b);
& Ensuring good crop management to reduce the impact of
any pathogen presence (Neate 1994; Cook 2001).
& The manipulation of microbial populations to increase
the abundance of pathogen predators. For example, the
use of cover crops has been found to have some poten-
tial to increase the number of Fusarium head blight
antagonists, and potentially help control this pathogen
(Perez et al. 2008); and
& The use of fungicides against fungal pathogens, al-
though these are expensive and often uneconomic
(Bockus and Shroyer 1998).
Weeds
Tillage helps to control weed populations by physically
destroying weed plants and burying seeds to prevent them
from germinating (Heenan et al. 1990; Zarea 2010; Chauhan
et al. 2012). Practices such as residue burning are also
known to destroy weed seeds and decrease weed infesta-
tions (Heenan et al. 1990). The reduced cultivation and
absence of residue burning under conservation tillage has
thus been observed to lead to increases in the population of
some weed species (Buhler et al. 1994; Lyon et al. 1998;
Chauhan et al. 2012).
In some instances, conservation tillage can also inhibit
weed populations. This may occur due to the suppression of
weed germination, where sufficient residue cover exists, or
due to changes in temperature and moisture that do not
favour the weed population (Chauhan et al. 2006). Earlier
emergence times of crops grown using conservation tillage
have also been observed to provide crops with a competitive
advantage over weed species in some instances (Bullied et
al. 2003).
While the effect of tillage management on weed popula-
tions is species specific, in general, conservation tillage
techniques are more likely to increase rather than suppress
weed infestations (Zarea 2010). Where increases are
Impacts of conservation tillage on soil quality, including soil-borne 371

Table 2 Changes in disease prevalence following the adaptation of different crop rotations

Disease Rotation Disease measure Reference

Fusarium pseudograminearum (crown rot) Wheat-canola 27 Incidence in wheat (%) Lamprecht et al. 2006
Wheat-pasture 12
Fusarium pseudograminearum(crown rot) Durum wheat 6285 Pg fungal DNA/g Evans et al. 2010
Field pea 238
Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici (take all) Wheat-soybean 1.2 Disease severity (04) Cunfer et al. 2006
Canola-soybean-wheat-millet 0.2
Gaeumannomyces graminis (take all) Continuous wheat 36 Infected plants (%) Reeves et al. 1984
Wheat-lupin <1
Triticum aestivum L. (leaf spot) Continuous wheat 50 Lesions/ plant Krupinsky et al. 2007
Wheat-break crop-wheat <10
Rhizoctonia solani (bare patch) Continuous wheat 15 Total bare patch area (%) Schillinger 2006
Wheat-barley 7
Pratylenchus spp. and Paratylenchus spp. Continuous wheat 462 Nematodes/kg soil Rahman et al. 2007
(plant parasitic nematodes) Wheat-lupin 5

observed, a number of strategies can be employed to reduce Crop yield

weed numbers, including:
& Using herbicides (Chauhan et al. 2012). The use of herbi-
cides is the most commonly employed weed control measure
in the absence of tillage. However, the retention of residue on
the soil surface can limit the effectiveness of herbicide
applications, due to its ability to intercept and prevent herbi-
cide from reaching the soil surface (Chauhan et al. 2012),
and granular forms of herbicide may be better than liquid
formations in some instances (Johnson et al. 1989).
Herbicide resistance may also become a problem where
over-use occurs, and where possible herbicides should be
combined with other weed management options to maintain
herbicide effectiveness and reduce costs (Farooq et al. 2011);
& Using appropriate crop rotationsThe continuous culti-
vation of a single crop, or a group of crops having similar
management practices, can lead to the dominance of par-
ticular weed species. The rotation of crops with, for ex-
ample, those of different growing periods, can disrupt
weed life cycles and make them easier to control
(Heenan et al. 1990; Liebman and Dyck 1993; Anderson
2007; Chauhan et al. 2012).
& Modifying crop management practices to help assist crops
to out-compete weed speciesfor example, decreasing
row spacing, increasing seeding rates, manipulating crop
planting times, and N-banding with seeds have all been
found to help assist crop populations out-compete weed
species (Liebman and Dyck 1993; Anderson 2007;
Chauhan et al. 2012);
& Growing cover crops between main crops to suppress
weed germination by decreasing light transmittance to
the soil surface (Zarea 2010; Chauhan et al. 2012).
Intercropping, where weed suppressive species are sown
in the inter-row between the main crop in order to
depress weed growth, may also be useful in certain
circumstances (Liebman and Dyck 1993).
The effect of conservation tillage practices on crop yield is
varied, and depends on site environmental conditions and the
presence/absence of limitations to crop growth. In semi-arid
environments, where water is one of the main limitations to
crop production, studies commonly note a positive response to
crop yield under conservation tillage, and this is overwhelm-
ingly attributed to improved storage and/or use of soil mois-
ture (Norwood 1994; Lpez-Bellido et al. 1996; Halvorson et
al. 2000; Hemmat and Eskandari 2004; Hemmat and
Eskandari 2006; Li et al. 2007; Radford and Thornton 2011).
In hotter regions, improved seedling emergence, due to
a lowering of soil temperatures, has also been implicat-
ed in yield advantages (Thiagalingam et al. 1996).
While positive effects on crop yields are commonly
reported, many studies also report a negative, or no impact,
on crop production despite better soil moisture storage,
organic carbon stocks and/or soil aggregation and stability
under conservation tillage management. This may particu-
larly be the case in wetter years, where the advantages
afforded by increased water storage are reduced (Cantero-
Martinez et al. 1995; Thomas et al. 1995; Lpez-Bellido et
al. 1996; Halvorson et al. 2000; Wang et al. 2007). The
failure of yields to match general improvements in soil
quality has been attributed to:
& Increases in disease problems associated with the retention
of stubble (Logan et al. 1991; Heenan et al. 1994; Felton et
al. 1995; Thomas et al. 1995; Thompson et al. 1995);
& Lower availability of mineral N (Thompson 1992;
Felton et al. 1995; Radford and Thornton 2011);
& Increases in weed infestation, and a build-up of herbi-
cide resistant weeds (Thiagalingam et al. 1996; Lyon et
al. 1998);
& Structural impediments to crop growth, such as subsoil
compaction, increased soil strength, or surface sealing,
372 K. Page et al.

Table 3 Yield changes in re-

sponse to conservation tillage in Location Period of study (yrs) Crop Average change Reference
in yield (%)
semi-arid grain cropping
systems.
Queensland, Australia 20 Sorghum +28 Radford and Thornton 2011
Sorghum + fertiliser +47
Nebraska, USA 24 Sorghum +35 Tarkalson et al. 2006
Wheat +12
Northern Territory, 11 Maize +33 Thiagalingam et al. 1996
Australia Soybean +31
Mexico 15 Wheat +24 Govaerts et al. 2007b
Maize +30
North Dakota, USA 12 Wheat + N +12 (MT) Halvorson et al. 2000
+24 (NT)
Shanxi, China 14 Wheat +19 Li et al. 2007
Queensland, Australia 6 Wheat +14 Thomas et al. 1995
Queensland, Australia 40 Wheat + N +10 Dalal et al. 2011
Kansas, USA 7 Wheat/Fallow nsd Norwood 1994
Wheat/Sorghum/ wheat: nsd
Fallow sorghum: +23
Victoria, Australia 10 Wheat nsd Cantero-Martinez et al. 1995
7 Wheat + N +13
Southern Spain 22 Sunflower/Pulse/ nsd Bravo et al. 2007
Wheat
Southern Spain 7 Wheat nsd Lpez-Bellido et al. 1996
Nebraska, USA 24 Wheat (site 1) 7 Lyon et al. 1998
Wheat + fertiliser nsd
Wheat (site 2) nsd
NSW, Australia 9 Wheat (5 sites) nsd to 18 Felton et al. 1995

which are ameliorated with tillage (Gibson et al. 1992;
Hammel 1995; Lpez and Arre 1997);
& A reduction in early season soil temperatures, which in
cooler regions can lead to delayed germination (Doran
1980; Hatfield et al. 2001; Wang et al. 2007).
It should be noted that when considering the effect of
conservation tillage on crop production, changes should
ideally be compared following an extended period of man-
agement, as improvements in soil physical, chemical and
biological properties may take several years to emerge
(Radford and Thornton 2011). In addition, the responses of
crops may vary depending on rainfall, as conservation till-
age systems are known to produce greater yield benefits in
drier relative to wetter years (Cantero-Martinez et al. 1995;
Thomas et al. 1995; Halvorson et al. 2000; Li et al. 2007;
Wang et al. 2007). A table summarising the changes in yield
observed in a number of longer term (>5 years) trial sites
established in semi-arid grain growing regions is provided
in Table 3.

Fig. 3 Summary of the positive

and negative impacts of
conservation tillage most
commonly seen to affect crop
production in semi-arid grain crop
growing regions (Verhulst et al. disease
water
2010; Holland 2004) storage weed
Infestation
water use
efficiency nutrient
availability
soil
structure soil
structure
organic
matter soil
temperature
storage of
nutrients
biological
diversity
Impacts of conservation tillage on soil quality, including soil-borne
Perspectives
Conservation tillage management clearly has the potential to
lead to significant improvements in many aspects of soil qual-
ity. Increases in aggregate stability and soil water storage,
increased storage of soil organic matter, and increases in the
abundance and diversity of soil biological populations are all
commonly observed under conservation tillage management.
However, while significant benefits exist, problems associated
with plant nutrient management, diseases, weeds, and soil
structure, may limit plant growth and prevent improvements
in soil quality translating into improvements in crop production
and yield. A summary of the positive and negative impacts of
conservation tillage on crop production can be seen in Fig. 3.
In many instances, incorporating conservation tillage sys-
tems within a broader system of conservation agriculture can
help to overcome many of these limitations. Crop rotations to
improve soil fertility and the availability of plant nutrients,
help control plant diseases, and help control weed populations
have been found to be effective solutions in many instances.
Effective fertiliser and herbicide management are also essen-
tial components of effective conservation tillage management.
In addition, while research work is generally conducted to
examine the effect of conservation tillage on the physical,
chemical and biological aspects of soil quality separately, in
reality these systems are intricately linked and it is not possible
to make alterations to one without affecting the other. Holistic
approaches are required to fully understand the effects of
conservation tillage management and create robust and pro-
ductive agricultural systems.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Phil Moody for his
helpful comments during the review stage, and DSITIA library staff for
their help in obtaining many of the references used throughout the paper.
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