J Autism Dev Disord (2013) 43:18321842
DOI 10.1007/s10803-012-1734-2
ORIGINAL PAPER
Factors Associated with Participation in Employment for High
School Leavers with Autism
Hsu-Min Chiang Ying Kuen Cheung
Huacheng Li Luke Y. Tsai
Published online: 9 December 2012
Springer Science+Business Media New York 2012
Abstract This study aimed to identify the factors associ-
ated with participation in employment for high school leavers
with autism. A secondary data analysis of the National
Longitudinal Transition Study 2 (NLTS2) data was per-
formed. Potential factors were assessed using a weighted
multivariate logistic regression. This study found that annual
household income, parental education, gender, social skills,
whether the child had intellectual disability, whether the child
graduated from high school, whether the child received career
counseling during high school, and whether the childs school
contacted postsecondary vocational training programs or
potential employers were the significant factors associated
with participation in employment. These findings may have
implications for professionals who provide transition services
and post-secondary programs for individuals with autism.
Keywords Autism
Employment
Postsecondary
outcome
High school leavers
Special education

Transition
H.-M. Chiang (&)
Intellectual Disability/Autism Program, Department of Health
and Behavior Studies, Teachers College, Columbia University,
Box 223, 525 West 120th St, New York, NY 10027, USA
e-mail: hchiang@tc.columbia.edu; hchiang@tc.edu
Y. K. Cheung
Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Columbia
University, New York, NY, USA
H. Li
Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistics Program, Department of
Human Development, Teachers College, Columbia University,
New York, NY, USA
L. Y. Tsai
University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
123
Introduction
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is
a law in the U.S. that ensures special education and related
services to children and youth with disabilities, including
those with autism. Students with autism constitute the 3rd
largest population among students receiving special edu-
cation and related services in the U.S. (U.S. Department of
Education 2010). IDEA mandates that appropriate post-
secondary goals (related to education and employment)
based on students interests and strength should be included
in their individualized education programs (IEPs) (P.L.
108-446 (2004)). If students with disabilities express
interest in participating in employment, appropriate tran-
sition planning and support services should be provided to
promote their achievement of this postsecondary goal (P.L.
108-446 (2004)). However, students with autism often do
not receive appropriate transition services to meet their
needs due to a lack of effective transition planning and
collaboration among education, employment, and com-
munity (Hendricks and Wehman 2009).
Several studies have reported employment outcomes of
individuals with autism. Howlin et al. (2004) studied adult
outcomes of individuals with autism (n = 68) (aged
2148 years) who lived in the United Kingdom and
reported that about 34 % of adults with autism had par-
ticipated in some form of employment (e.g., independent
work, self-employment, sheltered work, family based
work). Eaves and Ho (2008) studied adult outcomes of
individuals with autism (n = 48) (aged 1931 years) who
lived in Canada and found 56 % of adults with autism had
ever been employed (e.g., volunteer, sheltered or part time
work, independent work). Cimera and Cowan (2009)
investigated employment outcomes achieved by adults
with autism (n = 11,569) (mean age = 28 years) within
J Autism Dev Disord (2013) 43:18321842
the US vocational rehabilitation system between the years
2002 and 2006 and reported that about 3942 % of adults
with autism were employed. Taylor and Seltzer (2011)
studied post-high school employment and educational
activities in adults with autism (n = 66) (aged
1925 years) and reported that 6 % of adults with autism
were competitively employed and 12 % of adults with
autism participated in supported employment. Although the
percentage of participation in employment in individuals
with autism vary across studies, several studies have
reported a low percentage (\50 %) of participation in
employment in these individuals.
Factors/Predictors Related to Participation
in Employment
Previous studies have reported factors associated with
participation in employment for individuals with autism
and other disabilities. For example, Burt et al. (1991)
reported that the factors related to successful employment
of four adults with autism (aged 2129 years) included
family support (e.g., financial incentives, daily praise,
maintenance of program contingencies), characteristics of
the individual, job characteristics, and employer support
(e.g., modification of jobs and schedules, behavior sup-
port). Keel, Mesibov, and Woods (1997) reported the
effects of the TEACCH supported employment program.
They stated that utilizing individual strengths and interests,
identifying appropriate jobs, and providing long-term
support were the components in the TEACCH program that
have successfully placed people with autism in community
jobs. Mawhood and Howlin (1999) reported the outcome of
a supported employment program for high-functioning
adults with autism or Asperger syndrome. This supported
employment program identified suitable jobs and provided
work preparation for their participants. This program also
educated employers and work colleagues on how to deal
with or avoid problems. Compared to the participants in the
control group, the number of participants who had partic-
ipated in paid employment in this supported employment
program was significantly higher. Taylor and Seltzer
(2011) examined the relationships among employment
(e.g., competitive employment, supported employment)
and postsecondary educational activities and intellectual
disability, family income, autism symptoms, maladaptive
behaviors, functional independence, and comorbid psy-
chiatric disorders in adults with autism (aged 1925 years)
and found that adults with autism without intellectual dis-
ability were more likely to participate in competitive
employment than adults with autism with intellectual dis-
ability. Adults with autism who participated in competitive
employment had fewer autism symptoms than did adults
with autism who participated in supported employment.
1833
These two groups did not differ significantly in maladap-
tive behaviors or functional independence. Family income
and comorbid psychiatric disorders were not significant
factors in this study.
Few studies have investigated predictors of participation
in employment for individuals with autism. Benz et al.
(2000) investigated predictive factors of positive postsec-
ondary outcomes (e.g., engagement in employment or
continuing education) of students with disabilities (including
six individuals with autism) exiting high school during the
19971998 school year and found that having two or more
jobs and having completed four or more transition goals
while in high school were predictive of positive postsec-
ondary outcomes. Lawer et al. (2009) investigated predictive
factors for participation in competitive employment for
individuals with disabilities ages 1865 (including 1,707
individuals with autism) using the US Department of Edu-
cation, Office of Special Education, and Rehabilitative Ser-
vices data. They found that being older, being male, having
more education, and receiving greater service expenditures
predicted competitive employment. Schaller and Yang
(2005) investigated predictive factors of competitive
employment and supported employment for individuals with
autism (aged 1564 years) using the RSA-911 database for
2001. They found that for competitive employment, indi-
vidual characteristics (e.g., being older, 1015 years of
education, not having a secondary disability), and employ-
ment support services (e.g., job finding, job placement,
maintenance) were the significant predictors. For supported
employment, being White and job placement were the sig-
nificant predictors. Migliore et al. (2012) investigated pre-
dictors of participation in integrated employment and
postsecondary education of adults with autism (aged
1626 years) using the RSA2011 database fiscal year 2008.
For participation in integrated employment, receiving job
placement, participation in postsecondary education,
receiving miscellaneous training, no college services, being
male, receiving job search, and not being a Medicaid/
Medicare recipient were the predictors. Overall, the findings
from previous studies seem to indicate that family charac-
teristics, student characteristics, and transition planning
services variables are predictive of participation in
employment for individuals with autism.
Adults with autism want to obtain jobs, but they face
significant difficulties in obtaining jobs (Hurlbutt and
Chalmers 2004). It has been suggested that when students
with autism are well prepared for transition from high
school to adulthood, the odds for them to participate in
employment are likely to be increased (Hendricks 2010).
To prepare students with autism well for postsecondary
employment, there is a critical need to investigate the
factors that are associated with participation in employ-
ment for high school leavers with autism. Yet, current
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research specifically focusing on transition from high school
into employment for students with autism is very limited
(Hendricks 2010). Although the factors associated with
participation in employment for students with disabilities
have been reported previously, there is a lack of research that
specifically focuses on high school leavers with autism,
concerns family, student, and school factors, and uses a
nationally representative data set to determine the factors.
Thus, the purpose of the present study is to identify the
factors associated with participation in employment for high
school leavers with autism (i.e., if a high school leaver with
autism has ever had a paid job since leaving high school)
using a nationally representative data set [i.e., the National
Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2) data].
Method
Data Source and Sample
A secondary data analysis of NLTS2 data was performed in
this study. The NLTS2 is a longitudinal data set. There
were about 830 secondary school students (ages 13 through
16) whose primary disability was autism in the NLTS2 data
set [the unweighted sample size number reported here was
rounded to the nearest 10 to meet the restricted-use data
license requirements imposed by the Institute of Education
Sciences (IES)]. The study sample was derived from cur-
rently available NLTS2 raw data from IES. The NLTS2
raw data used in this study included: NLTS2 Waves 1 to
Wave 4 parent/youth phone interview and/or mail survey
data (Wave 1 was collected in the 20002001; Wave 2 was
collected in the 20022003; Wave 3 was collected in the
20042005; and Wave 4 was collected in the 20062007
school years) and Wave 1 to Wave 2 school program
survey data (Wave 1 was collected in the 20012002 and
Wave 2 was collected in the 20032004 school years). The
information about students with autism was collected
repeatedly beginning in the 20002001 school year and
ending in the 20062007 school year.
The data used in this study were selected because they
contained the variables suggested by previous studies (e.g.,
Benz et al. 2000; Lawer et al. 2009; Migliore et al. 2012;
Schaller and Yang 2005) to have the potential to be asso-
ciated with participation in employment.
Outcome and Independent Variables
The Outcome Variable
The outcome variable for this study was participation in
employment and this variable was selected from Waves 2
to Wave 4 parent/youth phone interview and/or mail survey
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J Autism Dev Disord (2013) 43:18321842
data. This variable consisted of responses to questions that
asked if a high school leaver had ever had a paid job (e.g.,
full-time job, part-time job) since leaving high school.
The Independent Variables
Previous research suggests that family characteristics,
student characteristics, and transition planning services
factors are associated with participation in employment for
students with disabilities (e.g., Benz et al. 2000; Lawer
et al. 2009; Migliore et al. 2012; Schaller and Yang 2005).
Thus, the variables related to family characteristics, student
characteristics, and transition planning services in the
NLTS2 data were selected as the independent variables for
this study. These variables were selected from Waves 14
parent/youth phone interview and/or mail survey data and
Wave 12 school program survey data.
A description of the dependent variable and independent
variables can be found in Table 1.
Data Analysis
SAS 9.2 was used for statistical analyses in this study. All
the data used in this study were those with no missing
values. The cases containing missing values were removed
by following these two steps. First, the cases with missing
values on the outcome variable were removed. Second, the
cases with missing values on any of the independent
variables were removed. In summary, less than one percent
(i.e., .002 %) of the cases on the outcome variable had
missing values and on average, only 4.1 % of the cases
across the independent variables had any missing values.
Variables were described using descriptive statistics.
For continuous variables, values were reported as
means standard deviations (SDs). For categorical vari-
ables, values were reported as percents. A three-step pro-
cess was used to determine the factors significantly
associated with participation in postsecondary employment
for postsecondary students with autism. First, the associa-
tion between each independent variable and the dependent
variable (i.e., participation in postsecondary employment)
was assessed in a univariate manner. V2 tests were used on
categorical variables to test the differences between the
subjects who participated in postsecondary employment
and those who did not. In view of the large number of
comparisons conducted in the present study, a conservative
significance level p \ .01 was set for all comparisons.
Second, before performing the regression analysis, possible
multicollinerarity [i.e., two or more independent variables
are highly correlated, Abu-Bader (2010)] among the
potential factors was checked using the tolerance and the
variance inflation factors (VIF); VIF values [10 and
tolerance values \.10 indicate the presence of
J Autism Dev Disord (2013) 43:18321842 1835

Table 1 Description of variables and measures

Variables Measures Data source

Dependent variable
Participation in employment 1 = yes, 0 = no Waves 2 to Wave
4 parent/youth
survey
Independent variables
Family characteristics
Annual household income 1 = low (\$25,000), 2 = medium ($25,001$50,000), Wave 14 parent/
3 = high ([50,001) youth survey
Parental education 1 = some high school or less; 2 = some college; Wave 14 parent/
3 = bachelors degree or higher youth survey
Parent met with teachers to set their childs post- 1 = yes, 0 = no Wave 14 parent/
graduation goals youth survey
Parent attended their childs IEP meeting 1 = yes, 0 = no Wave 14 parent/
youth survey
Parent expected their child would participate in 1 = yes, 0 = no Wave 14 parent/
postsecondary employment youth survey
Student Characteristics
Gender 1 = male, 0 = female Wave 14 parent/
youth survey
Ethnicity 1 = white, 0 = nonwhite Wave 14 parent/
youth survey
Social skills 1 = low, 2 = medium, 3 = high Wave 14 parent/
youth survey
Self-care skills 1 = low, 2 = medium, 3 = high Wave 14 parent/
youth survey
With verbal skills 1 = yes, 0 = no Wave 14 parent/
youth survey
With intellectual disability 1 = yes, 0 = no Wave 14 parent/
youth survey
Graduated from high school 1 = yes, 0 = no Wave 14 parent/
youth survey
High school academic performance 1 = below average (i.e., mostly Cs and Ds, Ds and Fs), Wave 14 parent/
2 = average (i.e., mostly Bs and Cs), 3 = above average youth survey
(i.e., mostly As and Bs)
Participated in vocational education 1 = yes, 0 = no Wave 14 parent/
youth survey
Had a paid job during high school 1 = yes, 0 = no Wave 14 parent/
youth survey
Had received career counseling during high school 1 = yes, 0 = no Wave 14 parent/
youth survey
Participated in postsecondary education (e.g., a 2-year/ 1 = yes, 0 = no Wave 14 parent/
community college, vocational/technical business youth survey
school, a 4-year college)
Transition Planning Services
School planned for what the student will do after high 1 = yes, 0 = no Wave 12 school
school program survey
School contacted postsecondary vocational training 1 = yes, 0 = no Wave 12 school
programs or potential employers program survey

multicollinearity (Cohen et al. 2003). Third, the variables regression analysis (p \ .01). A cutoff criterion of .01 was
significantly differentiated the subjects who participated in set for the potential significant variables. To construct the
postsecondary employment and those who did not were final model, a stepwise, non-automatic elimination method
then entered into a weighted multivariate logistic was used. If the Wald test p value for a variable was [.01,

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the variable was removed from the final model, one vari- all 16 independent variables were then entered into a
able at a time. This procedure was repeated until the final weighted multivariate logistic regression analysis.
model contained no non-significant variables.
Factors Associated with Participation in Employment
Results
The weighted multivariate logistic regression analysis found
8 significant variables (see Table 3). The significant factors
Among the high school leavers with autism in this study
associated with participation in employment included annual
(weighted n = 4,167), 56 % (weighted n = 2,333) of these
household income, parental education, gender, social skills,
individuals had participated in employment since leaving
whether the child had intellectual disability, whether the
high school and 44 % (weighted n = 1,834) of these
child graduated from high school, whether the child received
individuals had not. The mean age of high school leavers
career counseling during high school, and whether the
with autism who participated in employment was
childs school contacted postsecondary vocational training
21 1.0 years and the mean age of high school leavers
programs or potential employers.
with autism who did not participate in employment was
Compared to high school leavers with autism from low
also 21 1.3 years. High school leavers with autism who
income families, students with autism from high income
participated in employment worked across 29 different
families are more likely to participate in employment [odds
types of jobs. The top five types of jobs were material
ratio (OR): 17.37; 99 % CI 9.4032.10]. Compared to high
recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distribution
school leavers with autism whose parents have a high
(36.3 %), information and record clerks (12.9 %), building
school degree or lower, high school leavers with autism
cleaning and pest control workers (8.5 %), retail sales
whose parents have a bachelors degree or higher are more
workers (5.2 %), and workers in other production occu-
likely to participate in employment (OR: 2.73; 99 % CI
pations (5.1 %). The mean hourly wage for high school
1.923.88). Compared to female high school leavers with
leavers with autism who participated in employment was
autism, male high school leavers with autism are less likely
$ 7.90 (range = $ 2.00$30.00, SD = 22.00).
to participate in employment (OR: .34; 99 % CI .25.47).
Compared to high school leavers with autism who have
Determining Variables for the Regression Model
low social skills, high school leavers with autism who have
high social skills are more likely to participate in
The family characteristics, student characteristics, and
employment (OR: 5.40; 99 % CI 3.328.78). Compared to
transition planning services by high school leavers who
high school leavers with autism with intellectual disability,
participated in postsecondary employment and those who
high school leavers with autism without intellectual dis-
did not are presented in Table 2.
ability are more likely to participate in employment (OR:
Chi square tests found that high school leavers with aut-
5.60; 99 % CI 2.5012.54). Compared to high school lea-
ism who participated in employment differed significantly
vers who do not graduate from high school, high school
from those who did not on 16 variables, including annual
leavers who graduate from high school are more likely
household income, parental education, whether parent
to participate in employment (OR: 7.50; 99 % CI
attended their childs IEP meeting, whether parent expected
5.5110.22). Compared to high school leavers who do not
their child would participate in postsecondary employment,
receive career counseling during high school, high school
the childs gender, the childs social skills, the childs self-
leavers who receive career counseling during high school
care skills, whether the child had verbal skill, whether the
are more likely to participate in employment (OR: 5.70;
child had intellectual disability, whether the child graduated
99 % CI 3.658.89). Compared to high school leavers
from high school, the childs high school academic perfor-
whose schools do not contact postsecondary vocational
mance, whether the child had a paid job during high school,
training programs or potential employers, high school
whether the child received career counseling during high
leavers whose schools do are less likely to participate in
school, whether the child had participated in postsecondary
employment (OR: .40; 99 % CI .32.51).
education since leaving high school, whether the childs
school planned for what the child will do after high school,
and whether the childs school contacted vocational training
programs or potential employers. Discussion
Multicollinerarity among the 16 potential predictors was
checked. No multicollinerarity was evident since the VIF Social communication difficulties and restricted and
for these variables ranged between 1.14 and 2.68 (\10) and repetitive patterns of behavior in individuals with autism
tolerance values ranged between .38 and .88 ([.10). Thus, may affect their opportunities to obtain paid jobs. Several

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Table 2 Family characteristics, student characteristics, and transition planning services by students who participated in postsecondary
employment and those who did not
Variable Participation in employment Significance tests
No Yes
n % n %

Family characteristics
Annual household income*** V2(2) = 779.67,
p \ .0001
Low ($25,000 and under) 347 92.6 28 7.4
Medium ($25,001$50,000) 558 69.9 240 30.1
High (Over $50,000) 930 31.1 2,065 69.0
Parental education*** V2(2) = 406.52,
p \ .0001
High school or less 472 66.3 240 33.8
Some college 567 60.6 368 39.4
Bachelors degree or higher 795 31.6 1,724 68.4
Parent met with teachers to set their childs post-graduation goals X2(1) = 4.30,
p = .038
No 382 47.3 427 52.7
Yes 1,452 43.2 1,906 56.8
Parent attended their childs IEP meeting*** V2(1) = 54.24,
p \ .0001
No 42 100.0 0 0
Yes 1,792 43.4 2,333 56.6
Parent expected their child would participate in postsecondary employment*** V2(1) = 635.79,
p \ .0001
No 446 100.0 0 0
Yes 1,388 37.3 2,333 62.7
Student characteristics
Gender*** V2(1) = 26.82,
p \ .0001
Male 1,612 45.7 1,914 54.3
Female 222 34.7 419 65.3
Ethnicity V2(1) = 5.73,
p = .017
White 1,589 44.8 1,959 55.2
Nonwhite 245 39.6 374 60.4
Social skills*** V2(2) = 37.17,
p \ .0001
Low 906 45.7 1,078 54.3
Medium 865 44.7 1,070 55.3
High 63 25.5 185 74.5
Self-care skills*** V2(2) = 55.65,
p \ .0001
Low 35 100 0 0
Medium 448 48.1 484 51.9
High 1,350 42.2 1,849 57.8
With verbal skill*** V2(1) = 115.36,
p \ .0001
No 89 100 0 0
Yes 1,745 42.8 2,333 57.2

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Table 2 continued
Variable Participation in employment Significance tests
No Yes
n % n %

With intellectual disability*** V2(1) = 26.71,

p \ .0001
No 1,779 43.5 2,313 56.5
Yes 55 73.4 20 26.6
Graduated from high school*** V2(1) = 632.32,
p \ .0001
No 685 82.9 141 17.1
Yes 1,149 34.4 2,192 65.6
High school academic performance** V2(2) = 10.14,
p \ .01
Below average 87 56.4 67.5 43.6
Average 653 43.9 835 56.1
Above average 1,093 43.3 1,430 56.7
Participated in vocational education V2(1) = 3.32,
p = .069
No 202 40.2 230 59.8
Yes 1,632 44.5 2,033 55.5
Had a paid job during high school*** V2(1) = 46.63,
p \ .0001
No 1,410 47.3 1,569 52.7
Yes 424 35.7 764 64.3
Received career counseling during high school*** V2(1) = 309.45,
p \ .0001
No 368 83.3 74 16.7
Yes 1,466 39.4 2,259 60.6
Participated in postsecondary education (e.g., a 2-year/community college, vocational/ V2(1) = 20.70,
technical business school, a 4-year college)*** p \ .0001
No 932 47.7 1,021 52.3
Yes 902 40.7 1,312 59.3
Transition Planning Services
School planned for what the student will do after high school*** V2(1) = 44.99,
p \ .0001
No 24 16.9 121 83.2
Yes 1,810 45.0 2,212 55.0
School contacted postsecondary vocational training programs or potential employers*** V2(1) = 90.15,
p \ .0001
No 965 38.1 1,565 61.9
Yes 869 53.1 768 46.9
** p \ .01; *** p \ .001

studies (e.g., Cimera and Cowan 2009; Howlin et al. 2004;
Taylor and Seltzer 2011) have reported a low percentage
(\50 %) of participation in employment in individuals
with autism. Surprisingly, this study found a relatively high
percentage of participation in employment (56 %) in high
school leavers with autism; the number of high school
leavers with autism who had ever participated in employ-
ment since leaving high school was higher than that of
those who did not. The high percentage of participation in
employment found in this study is the same as that reported
by Eaves and Ho (2008). Why did this study and the study
by Eaves and Ho (2008) report a higher percentage of
participation in employment than other studies? Different
sample sizes, participants, employment definitions, and
study methods may account for the different employment
percentages reported by different studies.

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Table 3 Results of logistic regression analysis

Variable B SE B Walds statistic p Odds ratio (99 % CI)

Annual household income

$25,001$50,000 versus B$25,000*** 1.90 .24 64.92 \.0001 6.67 (3.6412.23)
[$50,000 versus B$25,000*** 2.85 .24 143.44 \.0001 17.37 (9.4032.10)
Parental education
Some college versus high school or less*** -.84 .14 34.41 \.0001 .43 (.30.63)
Bachelors degree or higher versus high school or less*** 1.00 .14 53.85 \.0001 2.73 (1.923.88)
Gender (male versus female)*** -1.07 .12 76.12 \.0001 .34 (.25.47)
Social skills
Medium versus low -.09 .09 1.00 .33 .92 (.731.15)
High versus low*** 1.69 .19 79.88 \.0001 5.40 (3.328.78)
With intellectual disability (no versus yes)*** 1.72 .31 30.37 \.0001 5.60 (2.5012.54)
Graduated from high school (yes versus no)*** 2.02 .12 281.19 \.0001 7.50 (5.5110.22)
Received career counseling during high school (yes versus no)*** 1.74 .17 101.63 \.0001 5.70 (3.658.89)
School contacted postsecondary vocational training programs or potential -.91 .09 101.55 \.0001 .40 (.32.51)
employers (yes versus no)***
*** p \ .001

The finding that more than half of the high school
leavers with autism participated in employment is an
encouraging one because this indicates that high school
leavers with autism are employable and the odds of par-
ticipation in employment for this population are larger than
the odds of not participating in employment for this pop-
ulation. However, even though high school leavers with
autism were employable, their mean hourly wage was only
$7.90, which was lower than the 2007 minimum national
mean hourly wage (i.e., $8.03) reported by the Department
of Labor (Bureau of Labor Statistics Department of Labor
2007). Because the hourly wage data was mainly from the
Wave 4 data and Wave 4 NLTS2 data was collected in
2007, the 2007 Bureau of Labor Statistics data were used.
Although the majority of high school leavers with autism
were paid less than the national minimum hourly wage,
some high school leavers (6 %) earned $30.00 per hour
which was in the top 20 % percent of the year 2007
national mean hourly wage. The studies by Migliore et al.
(2012) and Cimera and Cowan (2009) also reported some
individuals with autism earned higher mean hourly wage.
The finding of this study and previous studies may give
some hope to the individuals with autism who have been
struggling with finding appropriate paid jobs and their
parents and it may promote parents and professionals who
work with individuals with autism to seek better employ-
ment opportunities for individuals with autism. Migliore
et al. (2012) reported that participation in postsecondary
education was positively correlated with higher earnings
and receiving on-the-job supports, job readiness training,
and SSI/SSDI benefits were negatively correlated with
higher earnings. It seems that the mean hourly wage of
adults with autism can be predicted by their characteristics.
Given that to determine the predictors of mean hourly wage
of adults with autism is beyond the scope of this study,
future studies might want to investigate these predictors.
The result of this study showed that high school leavers
with autism worked in 29 different paid jobs (e.g., material
recording, record clerks, building cleaning and pest control
workers, retail sales, workers in other production occupa-
tions). Other studies also reported individuals with autism
worked in a wide range of jobs (e.g., Howlin et al. 2004;
Migliore et al. 2012). The findings from this study and others
indicate that parents and professionals who assist individuals
with autism in finding paid jobs need not be constrained by
the stereotyped thinking that suggests that individuals with
autism can do only certain types of jobs due to their deficits.
Instead, they may consider the interests and strengths of
individuals with autism and explore possible job opportu-
nities that match their interests and strengths.
Although this study found more than half of the high
school leavers with autism participated in employment,
there were 44 % of high school leavers who did not par-
ticipate in employment. To promote participation in
employment in high school leavers with autism, there is a
need to understand the factors significantly associated with
participation in employment. This study found family
characteristics, student characteristics, and transition
planning services were the significant factors.
Family Characteristics
Annual household income and parental education were the
factors significantly associated with participation in

123
1840
postsecondary employment for high school leavers with
autism. Among these two variables, the impact of house-
hold income on the odds of participation in employment for
high school leavers with autism was greater than the impact
of parental education. In fact, annual household income
had the greatest impact on the odds of participation in
employment. High school leavers with autism from low
income families are less likely to participate in employ-
ment compared to those from medium and high income
families. The odds of participation in employment are
17.37 times larger if a high school leaver with autism is
from a high income family compared with low income
family, holding other variables constant. This finding
suggests that the professionals who work with individuals
with autism should be aware of the needs of the individuals
with autism from low income families and provide extra
support to meet the needs of these students. Because these
students may not have the resources, job opportunities, and
other supports that the students from high income families
may have, the inadequate resources and supports available
to students with autism from low income families may
unfortunately lead to a low employment rate in this pop-
ulation. Thus, we want to call for more resources and
supports (e.g., transportation, vocational training, job
coach, job finding) to be provided to individuals with
autism from low income families.
Student Characteristics
Being without intellectual disability, having a high school
diploma, having high social skills, receiving career coun-
seling during high school, and being a female were the
factors significantly associated with participation in post-
secondary employment for high school leavers with autism.
The odds of participation in employment are 5.60 times
larger if a high school leaver with autism without intel-
lectual disability as opposed to with intellectual disability,
holding other variables constant. This study and the study
by Taylor and Seltzer (2011) showed the negative effect of
intellectual disability on employment for individuals with
autism. Although individuals with autism who have intel-
lectual disability are less likely to participate in employ-
ment than individuals with autism who do not have
intellectual disability, this study found that some high
school leavers with autism who had intellectual disability
did participate in employment. This finding shows that high
school leavers with autism with intellectual disability are
also employable although it may be more difficult for them
to find jobs. In order to promote a higher employment rate
in high school leavers with autism who have intellectual
disability, future studies should investigate why some high
school leavers with autism with intellectual disability are
able to participate in employment.
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J Autism Dev Disord (2013) 43:18321842
Graduating from high school has a positive influence on
employment opportunities for students with disabilities
(Gaumer Erickson et al. 2007). This study found that
graduating from high school has the greatest impact on the
odds of participation in employment among student char-
acteristics factors. The odds of participation in employment
are 7.50 times larger if a high school leaver with autism
graduating from high school compared with not graduating
from high school, holding other variables constant. This
finding suggests the importance for parents and educators
working with students with autism to assist them to grad-
uate from high school. Different states have different
graduation requirements and diploma options for students
with disabilities (Gaumer Erickson et al. 2007). Parents of
students with autism may not be aware of these different
requirements and options. Thus, in order to promote a
higher graduation rate in high school leavers with autism,
parents of students with autism should be informed about
graduation requirements and diploma options. Educators
should work closely with parents to design educational
plans that are likely to assist their students in earning a high
school diploma. However, for those high school leavers
with autism who do not graduate from high school, post-
secondary vocational training programs and other relevant
career resources should be made available to these indi-
viduals to promote their employment outcomes.
Social skills are associated with participation in
employment for individuals with and without disabilities
(Bullis et al. 1993; Ferris et al. 2001). The finding of this
study that high social skill is a significant factor associated
with participation in employment for high school leavers
with autism adds evidence to the previously reported
relationship between social skills and employment. This
study found that the odds of participation in employment
are 5.40 times larger if a high school leaver with autism has
high social skills compared with low social skills, holding
other variables constant. This finding suggests the impor-
tance of teaching social skills to students with autism in
promoting their employment outcomes.
Receiving career counseling is another critical factor
that has an impact on the odds of participation in
employment for high school leavers with autism. The odds
of participation in employment are 5.70 times larger if a
high school leaver has received career counseling during
high school compared with no career counseling. This
finding suggests that career counseling services should be
available to students with autism and these students should
be encouraged to receive career counseling.
Gender is a factor significantly associated with partici-
pation in employment for high school leavers with autism.
The odds of participation in employment are .34 times
smaller for male high school leavers with autism than
female high school leavers with autism, holding all other
J Autism Dev Disord (2013) 43:18321842
variables constant; female high school leavers with autism
are more likely to participate in employment than male
high school leavers with autism. This finding seems to
contradict the finding of the study by Migliore et al. (2012).
However, it should be noted that the age of participants and
the outcome variable were different in this study and in the
study by Migliore et al. Given that there are only a limited
number of studies on gender differences in employment
outcomes for individuals with autism, we want to call for
more studies to investigate this issue.
Transition Planning Services
Whether the childs school had contacted postsecondary
vocational training programs or potential employers was a
significant factor associated with participation in employ-
ment for high school leavers with autism. However, sur-
prisingly, this study found that the high school leavers with
autism whose schools did not contact postsecondary
vocational training programs or potential employers were
more likely to participate in employment than the high
school leavers whose schools did. This may be because
schools only offered this service to the students with autism
who experienced difficulties finding jobs. For students who
could find jobs through other resources (e.g., families,
friends) or who had found jobs might not need this service.
Given that some students with autism may need this service
to help them participate in employments, there is a need for
schools to continue to provide this service.
Limitations
This study involved a secondary analysis of NLTS2 data.
Thus, the variables in this study were limited to those
available in the NLTS2 data and were subject to the lim-
itations of the NLTS2 data (e.g., missing data existed).
Second, it would have been of interest to select the out-
come variable and the independent variables from different
data sets. However, due to the nature of currently available
NLTS2 data, it was not possible to do so. Thus, one should
be cautious in interpreting the relationships between the
outcome variable and the independent variables as causal.
Third, it would have been of interest to understand the
duration of participation in employment for high school
leavers with autism and present employment status. How-
ever, it was not possible to calculate the employment
duration for each high school leaver who had participated
in employment since leaving high school and to define
present employment status using the NLTS2 data. Fourth,
it would have been of interest to investigate the factors
associated with participation in full-time jobs (i.e., working
more than 35 h per week) and part-time jobs (i.e., working
\35 h per week) separately. However, the sample size for
1841
participation in full-time jobs was too small in the data
used in this study so we were not able to perform this
analysis. Fifth, it would be important to differentiate the
role of various factors that are associated with participation
in employment for high school leavers with Asperger
syndrome relative to those with autistic disorder. However,
there is no information about individuals with a diagnosis
of Asperger syndrome in the NLTS2 data. Finally, it would
have been of interest to include more transition planning
services variables in this study. However, there were too
much missing data on the transition planning services
variables that were not included in this study.
Conclusion and Recommendations
This study employed a nationally representative data set to
identify the factors significantly associated with participa-
tion in employment for high school leavers with autism and
found that family social status, student characteristics, and
high school transition planning services were the signifi-
cant factors.
In order to promote participation in employment for
high school leavers with autism, we want to offer some
suggestions. First, educators and other professionals who
work with students with autism should devote more effort
and provide more resources to students with autism from
low income families and whose parents have low educa-
tional level. Second, effective social skills interventions
should be made available to students with autism and the
target skills of these interventions should be those that
students with autism can apply at job interviews or in job
settings. Third, gender differences in students with autism
should be considered when developing transition plans for
these students. Fourth, having intellectual disability does
decrease the odds of participation in employment for high
school leavers with autism. However, some high school
leavers with autism and intellectual disability were able to
participate in employment. Thus, these students should not
be left out of vocational training programs and more job
finding and job placement support should be provided to
these students. Fifth, career counseling services should be
available to all high school students with autism and they
should be encouraged to use these services. Finally, in
addition to contacting postsecondary vocational training
programs or potential employers, schools should provide
other services (e.g., career-related work experience, job
finding, job placement) to assist high school students with
autism in participating in employment after leaving high
school.
Acknowledgments This study was sponsored by Organization for
Autism Research through funding from the Lisa Higgins-Hussman
Foundation.
123
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