What is Muscular Fitness???

Muscular fitness is when a group of muscles are able to contract continuously

without beginning to fatigue. On the other hand, cardiovascular fitness focuses on
the levels of oxygen that the muscles receive and use.

A. Muscles: Structure and Function

Muscle is an excitable tissue, meaning that it can be stimulated mechanically,

chemically or electrically to produce an action potential. An action potential is an
electrical change across a cell membrane due to changes in the conduction of ions
across the membrane. Nervous tissue is also an excitable tissue. Muscle cells
contain a contractile mechanism that is activated by the action potential. About
40% of the body is skeletal muscle, add another 5-10 % for cardiac and smooth
muscle.

Muscle structure and function is basic to the physiology and biochemistry of

exercise.

There are three types of muscle:

Skeletal Muscles

Smooth Muscles

Cardiac Muscles

SKELETAL MUSCLES

Skeletal muscle makes up most of the body's muscle and does not contract without
nervous stimulation. It is under voluntary control and lacks anatomic cellular
connections between fibers. The fibers (cells) are multinucleate and appear striated
due to the arrangement of actin and myosin protein filaments. Each fiber is a single
cell, long, cylindric and surrounded by a cell membrane. The muscle fibers contain
many myofibrils that are made of myofilaments. These myofilaments are made of
the contractile proteins. The key proteins in muscle contraction are myosin, actin,
tropomyosin and troponin.

Skeletal muscle fibers have differences in metabolic and contractile properties. Type
I fibers are mostly found in the muscle for posture as in the long muscles of the
back. These are also called red muscles because the fibers contain many
mitochondia that give the muscle more of a dark reddish hue. White muscles
contain mostly Type IIB fibers and are specialized for fast, fine movements as in
the muscles that move the eye or some hand muscles. The differences in fiber type
occur because of differences in amino acid composition of the skeletal proteins
without a change in biologic activity. Various forms of the proteins can be
expressed thus detemining the functional characteristics of each muscle. Changes
in muscle function can be caused by alterations in activity (training), hormonal
environment (steroids), or innervation. Skeletal muscle can undergo a limited
regeneration in case of injury via satellite cells that are located on the periphery of
the muscle fiber. These cells may be active in muscle hypertrophy as well.

SMOOTH MUSCLES

Smooth muscle is found in the walls of blood vessels, tubular organs such as the
stomach and uterus, the iris, or associated with the hair follicles. It exists in the
body as multiunit or visceral smooth muscle. It is not under voluntary control, each
cell has one nucleus and it is displays automaticity in the visceral form. In multiunit
smooth muscle each cell exists as a discreet independent unit that is innervated by
a single nerve ending. Visceral smooth muscle exists as a sheet or bundle of fibers
that are intimately connected by junctions that allow ions to flow freely and it
therefore performs as a syncytium. Therefore, when one portion of visceral smooth
muscle is stimulated the action potential spreads to all other fibers.

Most of the same contractile proteins are present and active in smooth muscle
contraction but they are not arranged as microscopically visible parallel
myofilaments as in skeletal muscle. The contractile mechanism is very similar to
skeletal muscle except that the myosin of smooth muscle only interacts with actin
when it has been phosphorylated. In smooth muscle calcium binds to a protein
called calmodulin and the complex then interacts with an enzyme that adds a
phosphate group to myosin thus activating it.

In smooth muscle, T-tubules are absent, the sarcoplasmic reticulum is poorly

developed and the calcium pump is present but it is slower acting. Because of these
differences in the contractile mechanism and machinery, smooth muscle takes
about 30 times as long to contract and relax as does skeletal muscle and it does
this while using much less energy. Elaborate neuromuscular junctions are not
present in smooth muscle. Often neurotransmitter is released only in close
proximity to the muscle such that the neurotransmitter, which may be acetylcholine
or norepinephrine, must diffuse to the muscle cells to interact with receptors on the
cell membrane. Either of these neurotransmitters may be excitatory or inhibitory
depending on the receptors present on that particular smooth muscle cell. Because
smooth muscle has spontaneous activity, neuronal input only serves to modify that
activity rather than initiating it as in skeletal muscle. Local tissue factors, hormones
and mechanical stretch can cause action potentials and thus contraction in smooth
muscle. Smooth muscle is capable of active regeneration after injury.

CARDIAC MUSCLES
The heart is made of specialized muscle tissue with some similarities to both
smooth and skeletal muscle. It is involuntary and mononucleate as is smooth
muscle. Cardiac muscle is striated like skeletal muscle which means that it has
microscopically visible myofilaments arranged in parallel with the sarcomere
structure described above. These filaments slide along each other during the
process of contraction in the same manner as occurs in skeletal muscle.

Cardiac muscle fibers branch and have a single nucleus per cell. Another difference
in cardiac muscle is the presence of intercalated discs that are specialized
connections between one cardiac muscle cell and another. These tight connections
allow for almost completely free movement of ions so that action potentials can
freely pass from one cell to another. This makes cardiac muscle tissue a functional
syncytium. When one cell is excited the resultant action potential is spread to all of
them. This is an important feature in that it allows the atrial or ventricular muscle
to contract as one to forcefully pump blood. Action potentials in cardiac muscle are
also specialized to maximize the pumping function of the heart. They last 10 to 30
times as long as those of skeletal muscle and cause a correspondingly increased
period of contraction. Cardiac muscle had long been said to have no regenerative
capacity beyond early childhood. Recently, however, evidence has been found to
debunk this statement. There is strong evidence that human heart muscle
regenerates to some degree by myocyte replication after cardiac injury.

In any discussion of exercise, the most important type of muscle is skeletal

muscle and, to some extent, heart muscle.

What makes up skeletal muscle?

Muscles main components are cells or fibres. These lie parallel to each other and
are divided by connective tissue.

Humans have two types of muscle fibres, each with their own importance in
particular types of activity. They are slow-twitch and fast-twitch fibres, mixed
together in all the body's muscles.

Each muscle cell has its own nerve and blood supply embedded in the surrounding
connective tissue. There are generally five capillaries (small blood vessels)
surrounding each, a number which is probably increased during training.

Within each muscle cell are many tiny rods, called myofibrils, lying parallel to each
other. These, in turn, are made up of sarcomeres, which lie end to end. Each of
these sarcomeres then contains many even smaller rods, the myofilaments, which
again lie parallel to each other. The myofilament consists of two parts, a thick
filament, composed of myosin molecules, and a thin filament, made up mainly of
actin molecules, but also of molecules of what are called troponin and tropomyosin.
It is the interaction of these thick and thin filaments which cause muscles to
contract.

Because of all these parallel filaments which go to make up the sarcomeres, they
look striped under the microscope. Hence skeletal muscle is also called striped, or
striated muscle.

Structures known as mitochondria are important in skeletal muscle, since they

produce the energy needed to power contracting muscles. Running ability and
general fitness are partly related to the total energy production of all the
mitochondria in a fit person's body. Mitochondria are located immediately next to
the muscle filaments, allowing rapid and easy transport of energy to the muscles.

Types of muscle fibre and their importance:

As you've seen above, there are two types of muscle fibre, slow-twitch (ST) and
fast-twitch (FT). These are differentiated by their colour, the number of
mitochondria they contain and the speed with which they can contract, which is
determined by their myosin ATPase content.

Slow-twitch fibres are red, due to high concentrations of myoglobin, and have a
high concentration of mitochondria. Myoglobin is a molecule which transfers oxygen
from the blood to the mitochondria, and acts as a store of oxygen in the muscles.
Fast-twitch fibres are white because they have lower concentrations of myoglobin,
and fewer mitochondria. Fast-twitch fibres, as their name suggests, can contract
rapidly because they have high concentrations of myosin ATPase, while slow-twitch
fibres contract more slowly and have lower concentrations of myosin ATPase.

Recent work, however, suggests that myosin ATPase activity is not simply either
fast or slow, and that there are varying degrees of "fastness" or "slowness" among
the FT and ST fibres. Some athletes may have ST fibres which contract almost as
fast as FT fibres.

The importance of these different types of fibres lies in their specific and predictable
patterns in different elite athletes according to their sport. Sprinters, jumpers and
weight lifters have a high percentage of FT fibres in their muscles. Middle-distance
(400m and up to the mile) runners, cyclists and swimmers generally have equal
proportions of FT and ST fibres. Long-distance (10 km to 42 km) runners and cross-
country skiers have the highest percentage of ST fibres.

Can you alter the ST and FT proportions in your muscles and so change the sport at
which you will excel? Probably not. It seems that the large differences between
sprinters and long distance runners are probably genetically determined. So, if this
is true, and these different fibre types are essential for success in various sports,
then your ability in, for example, endurance sports will depend on having been born
with a high percentage of ST fibres.

What you can do is train to develop different muscle fibre types. During exercise
the different muscle fibre types should be activated in a specific pattern. This
pattern is determined both from the type of exercise and it's intensity and duration.
So, the non-competitive jogger who exercises at low intensity for short times will
mainly train ST fibres, while the middle-distance runner who includes high intensity
training will train both ST and FT fibres. So, to improve performance, include all
types of training, getting a mix of low and high intensity, and include prolonged
exercise.

B. Physiological Measures Related to Muscular Fitness

Muscular strength and endurance

Muscle strength and muscle endurance are interrelated and are important in aerobic
fitness. Muscle strength refers to power, the ability to produce force at a high
intensity for a brief period of time. In contrast, muscle endurance refers to the
ability to sustain energy or force over a long period of time, generally at a low or
moderate intensity level.

By using weights in a different manner, you can develop both muscle strength and
endurance. Muscle strength is developed by using the heaviest loads you can safely
manage as you do two to six repetitions of each exercise. Muscle endurance is
increased by using lighter loads, so that you can do forty to fifty repetitions of each
exercise. But remember, you can't develop muscle strength or endurance until you
have some muscle bulk to work with. If you're out of shape, you'll want to spend
the first two months of your training concentrating on bulk. In the next two months
you'll develop endurance. In the final two months you'll work out for strength.

Muscle bulk is attained by using loads that enable you to do anywhere from twelve
to twenty repetitions of an exercise. Whether you're working out for bulk ,strength,
or endurance, the number of reps, the amount of weight, or the speed of your
effort must continually increase if you're to gain a complete fitness benefit, and
that's not as hard as it sounds. You'll be able to extend yourself with no more effort
than you used at the beginning of your program.

In the category of strength there are two kinds of exercises: isotonic and isometric.
An Isotonic exercise is where your muscles both expand and contract. For example,
in pushups, your arm muscles expand when you go up, and they contract when you
go down.

Isometric exercises are where your muscles only contract when they are pushed
against a stationary object (or part of your body) that will keep them from moving.
For example, in a handstand, your arms are pressing against the ground, and the
muscles in them arm contracting.

Flexibility

It's the ablility to move your joints through their full range of motion. It's what you
need to touch your tows, or do the splits!

A good stretch is where you stretch the certain body parts that you are about to
use, one at a time. For example, if you were about to pitch in a baseball game, you
would spend a lot of time stretching your arms, especially the one you throw with.
You should stretch slowly, so you are less likely to tear muscles, and stretch just
one muscle at a time. For your ankle you can slowly twist it around; for you arms,
bring them across your chest and press them against you; for your hamstrings, lay
dawn on your back, and have someone push your straight legs towar you.

In flexibility there are two kinds of stretches - balistic and static. A Balistic stretch is
where you strech quickly, and sorta of bounce up and down or side to side. This is
not a good way of stretching, becaus it could cause your muscles to tear. A static
stretch is where you stretch more slowly, and are able to stretch farther without
tearing anything.

C. Chronic Responses to Muscular Exercise

There are two chronic responses to muscular exercise.

1. Hypertrophy

Muscle hypertrophy (increase in muscle mass) is caused by forceful muscular

activity. The diameters of individual fibers increase, nutrient and metabolic
substances increase, mitochondria may increase, and the myofibrils also increase in
size and number. Muscular hypertrophy increases the power for muscle contraction
and nutritive mechanisms for motioning that increased power. Forceful muscle
activity, above 75% of maximal, is necessary to produce hypertrophy which is why
isometric exercise for even short periods of time can have profound effects on
muscle mass. However, prolonged light exercise increases endurance, causing
increases in oxidative enzymes, myoglobin, and even blood capillaries.

2. Atrophy

Muscle atrophy results when a muscle is not used for a length of time or is used for
only weak contractions. For instance, atrophy occurs when limbs are put in casts.
As little as one month of disuse can sometimes decrease the muscle size to one half
normal. Damage to the nerve to a muscle results atrophy a well. If the damage is
repaired in the first 3-4 months the muscle will regain full function. After four
months muscle fibers will have degenerated to fibrous and fatty tissue.

D. Factors Affecting Muscular Fitness

1. Type of Muscle Fiber

Most men and women have an equal combination of both slow twitch and fast
twitch fibers. However, some people inherit a high percentage of slow twitch fibers
that enhance their performance in endurance activities, such as long distance
runners. Most world class marathon runners have a very high amount of slow twitch
fibers. World class sprinters or football players, for example, have relatively more
fast twitch muscle fibers. Although both fiber types respond positively to strength
training exercises, the fast twitch types experience greater increases in muscle size
and strength, and thus may obtain greater and/or faster results from a strength
training program.

2. Age

Another factor over which we have little control is age. Studies show that people of
all ages can increase their muscle size and strength as a result of a safe and
effective strength training program. However, the rate of strength and muscle gain
appears to be greater from age 10-20, the years of rapid growth and development.
After reaching normal physical maturity, muscular improvements usually don't
come as quickly.

3. Gender

Gender does not affect the quality of our muscle, but does influence the quantity.
Although men's and women's muscle tissue are characteristically the same, men
generally have more muscle tissue than women do because muscle size is increased
by the presence of testosterone, the male sex hormone. The larger the muscles,
the stronger the person; this is why most men are stronger than most women.

4. Limb and Muscle Length

Another strength factor that is naturally determined is limb length. Persons with
short limbs tend to be able to lift more weight because of advantageous leverage
factors (arms and legs). Similarly, differences in strength development may come
about because of variation in muscle length. Some people have long muscles, and
some people have short muscles. Persons with relatively long muscles have greater
potential for developing size and strength than persons with relatively short
muscles.

5. Point of Tendon Insertion

Muscle strength is also influenced by the point of tendon insertion. For example,
let's say Jim and John both have the same arm and muscle length. However, Jim's
biceps tendon attaches to his forearm farther from his elbow joint than John's does.
This gives Jim a biomechanical advantage: he is able to lift more weight than John
in biceps exercises such as the Biceps Curl.

6. Other Important Factors

All of these factors affect our ability to gain strength and muscle development
through training. Keep in mind, however, that the most influential factor in
achieving good results is using a very slow, controlled lifting movement and lifting
to the point of muscle fatigue.

In addition to using good lifting technique, it is absolutely imperative that you not
only train with intensity on a well-balanced program, but also give your muscles
enough resting time between training sessions. Overtraining is a common mistake
people make; it happens not only when you don't allow your muscles enough rest,
but also when you train with too many sets and exercises for each muscle group.

E. Principles and Methods of Sports Training

1. The Principle Of Individual Differences

Because every athlete is different, each person's response to exercise will vary. A
proper training program should be modified to take individual differences into
account. Some considerations:

Large muscles heal slower than smaller muscles.

Fast or explosive movements require more recovery time than slow

movements.

Fast twitch muscle fibers recover quicker than slow twitch muscle fibers.

Women generally need more recovery time than men.

Older athletes generally need more recovery time than younger athletes.

The heavier the load lifted, the longer it will take the muscles to recover.

These are just some of the many differences in athletes. All of these differences will
factor into an athlete's training routine. Coaches should also be aware of these
differences, and not expect all the athletes on a team to perform the exact same
routines.

2. The Principle of Overload

The principle of overload states that a greater than normal stress or load on the
body is required for training adaptation to take place. The body will adapt to this
stimulus. Once the body has adapted then a different stimulus is required to
continue the change. In order for a muscle (including the heart) to increase
strength, it must be gradually stressed by working against a load greater than it is
used to. To increase endurance, muscles must work for a longer period of time than
they are used to. If this stress is removed or decreased there will be a decrease in
that particular component of fitness. A normal amount of exercise will maintain the
current fitness level.

3. The Principle of Progression

The principle of progression implies that there is an optimal level of overload that
should be achieved, and an optimal timeframe for this overload to occur. Overload
should not be increased too slowly or improvement is unlikely. Overload that is
increased too rapidly will result in injury or muscle damage. Beginners can exercise
progressively by starting near threshold levels and gradually increasing in
frequency, intensity, and time within the target zone. Exercising above the target
zone is counterproductive and can be dangerous. For example, the weekend athlete
who exercises vigorously only on weekends does not exercise often enough, and so
violates the principle of progression. Many people, who consider themselves to be
regular exercisers, violate the principle of progression by failing to exercise above
threshold levels and in the exercise target zone. Clearly, it is possible to do too little
and too much exercise to develop optimal fitness.

The Principle of Progression also makes us realize the need for proper rest and
recovery. Continual stress on the body and constant overload with result in
exhaustion and injury. You should not (and can not) train hard all the time. Doing
so will lead to overtraining and a great deal of physical and psychological damage
will result.

4. The Principle of Adaptation

The body adapts to stress in a highly specific way. Adaptation is the way the body
'programs' muscles to remember particular activities, movements or skills. By
repeating that skill or activity, the body adapts to the stress and the skill becomes
easier to perform. Adaptation explains why a beginning exercisers are often sore
after starting a new routine, but after doing the same exercise for weeks and
months the athlete has little, if any, muscle soreness. This also explains the need to
vary the routine and continue to apply the Overload Principle if continued
improvement is desired.

5. The Principle of Use/Disuse

Once you understand the Principle of Adaptation, you understand the need for rest.
However, how much rest is enough and how much is too much? The Principle of
Use/Disuse implies that you "use it or lose it." This simply means that your muscles
hypertrophy with use and atrophy with disuse. The main problem here is finding the
correct balance between stress and rest on the muscles. There must be periods of
low intensity between periods of high intensity to allow for recovery. The periods of
lower intensity training, or the rest phase, is a prime time for a bit of crosstraining.
Cross training allows you to let over stressed muscle groups rest and recover, while
still providing cardiovascular conditioning and providing muscle balance by working
the muscles that aren't as integral to your sport.

6. The Principle of Specificity

Related to the principle of adaptation is the principle of specificity. Because the

body will adapt in a highly specific way to the training it receives, a strong athletic
foundation is needed before specific training methods will work optimally. The
Specificity Principle simply states that for these reasons, training must go from
highly general training to highly specific training. For example, if you are a sprinter,
you may start out with easy running and general strength training before moving
on to explosive training in the way of plyometrics or sprinting out of the blocks. If
you try to do explosive, high intensity training too soon, you will run the risk of
such training being ineffective and possibly resulting in injury. The principle of
Specificity also implies that to become better at a particular exercise or skill, you
must perform that exercise or skill. To be a good cyclist, you must cycle. The point
to take away is that a runner should train by running and a swimmer should train
by swimming. There are, however, some great reasons to cross train, as discussed
previously.

The main difference between muscular and cardiovascular fitness is that a limitation
of oxygen being supplied to the muscles will occur in cardiovascular fitness. In
muscular fitness, the oxygen to the muscles is not being decreased, but the
muscles are simply not able to continue contracting. The more times a muscle is
able to contract without becoming fatigued, the better the muscular fitness is.
Muscular fitness is nearly as important as cardiovascular fitness to ensure that the
muscles are able to endure long periods of contractions.

Many people who participate in field sports may not practice regimens focused on
muscular fitness because of the need to focus on cardiovascular fitness. Muscular
fitness is still important for athletes who have a cardiovascular focus because it
allows the muscles to execute running, jumping, and kicking over longer periods of
time without fatigue. In particular, rowers and athletes who engage in repetitive
muscle movements can greatly benefit from fitness routines that focus on strength.