Chapter2 VectorsAndMatrices

An Engineers Guide to MATLAB Chapter 2
AN ENGINEERS GUIDE TO MATLAB

3rd Edition
CHAPTER 2
VECTORS and MATRICES
Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 1

Chapter 2 Objective
Introduce MATLAB syntax in the context of
vectors and matrices and their manipulation.

Topics
Definitions of Matrices and Vectors

Creation of Vectors
Creation of Matrices
Dot Operations
Mathematical Operations with Matrices
Addition and Subtraction
Multiplication
Determinants
Matrix Inverse
Solution of a System of Equations

Definitions of Matrices and Vectors

An array A of m rows and n columns is called a
matrix of order (mn) and is written as
a11 a12 ... a1n

a a22
A = 21 (m n)
... ...

am1 amn
The elements of the matrix are denoted aij, where i

indicates the row number and j the column number.
Square Matrix: n = m

Diagonal Matrix: When n = m and aij = 0, i j; thus
a11 0 ... 0
0 a22
A= (n n)
... ...

0 ann
Identity Matrix: Diagonal matrix with aii = 1; thus
1 0 ... 0
0 1
I=
... ...

0 1

Column Matrix - Vector:
When aij = ai1 (there is only one column), then

a11 a1
a a
a = 21 = 2 (m 1)
... ...

am 1 am
Row Matrix - Vector:
When aij = a1j, (there is only one row), then
a a11 a12 a1n a1 a2 an (1 n)
Default definition of a vector in MATLAB

Transpose of a Matrix and a Vector

The transpose of a matrix is denoted by an apostrophe ().
If A is defined as before and W = A, then
w11 = a11 w12 = a21 ... w1m = am1

w = a w22 = a22
W = A = 21 12 (n m )
... ...

wn1 = a1n wnm = amn
Recall that
a11 a12 ... a1n
a a22
A = 21 (m n)
... ...

am1 amn

For a column vector -

a1
a
If a 2 (m 1) then a a1 a2 ... am (1 m )
...

am
For a row vector -

a1
a
If a a1 a2 ... am (1 m ) then a 2 ( m 1)

am

Creation of Vectors
If a, x, b, are either variable names, numbers,
expressions, or strings, then vectors are expressed as
either
f = [a x b ] (Blanks required)
or
f = [a, x, b, ] (Blanks optional)
Caution about blanks: If a = h + ds, then f is written as

either
f = [h+d^s x b ...]
No blanks permitted
or within expression
f = [h+d^s, x, b, ...]

Ways to Assign Numerical Values to the Elements

of a Vector -
Specify the range of the values and the increment
between adjacent values called colon notation.
Used when the increment is either important or
has been specified.
Specify the range of the values and the number of
values desired.
Used when the number of values is important.

If s, d, and f are any combination of numerical values,

variable names, and expressions, then the colon notation
that creates a vector x is either
x = s:d:f or x = (s:d:f) or x = [s:d:f]
where
s = start or initial value
d = increment or decrement
f = end or final value
Thus, the following row vector x is created
x = [s, s+d, s+2d, , s+nd] (Note: s+nd f )

Also, when d is omitted MATLAB assumes that d = 1. Then

x = s:f
creates the vector
x = [s, s+1, s+2, , s+n]
where s+n f
The number of terms, called the length of the vector, that

this expression has created is determined from
length(x)

Example
Create a row vector that goes from 0.2 to 1.0 in
increments of 0.1.
x = 0.2:0.1:1
n = length(x)
When executed, we obtain
x=
0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
n= x=
0.2000
9 0.3000
0.4000
To create a column vector, we use 0.5000
0.6000
x = (0.2:0.1:1) 0.7000
n = length(x) 0.8000
0.9000
1.0000
n=
9

Generation of n Equally Spaced Values

x = linspace(s, f, n)
where the increment (decrement) is computed by
MATLAB from
f s
d=
n 1
The values of s and f can be either positive or negative
and either s > f or s < f. When n is not specified, it is
assigned a value of 100. Thus, linspace creates the
vector
x = [s, s+d, s+2d, , f = s+(n1)d]

If equal spacing on a logarithmic scale is desired, then

x = logspace(s, f, n)
where the initial value is xstart = 10s, the final value is
xfinal = 10f and d is defined above.
This expression creates the row vector
f s
x= [10s 10s+d 10s+2d 10f] d=
n 1

Examples -
x = linspace(0, 2, 5)
gives
x=
0 0.5000 1.0000 1.5000 2.0000
and
x = logspace(0, 2, 5) % [100, 100.5, 101, 101.5, 102]
gives
x=
1.0000 3.1623 10.0000 31.6228 100.0000

Transpose of a Vector with Complex Values

If a vector has elements that are complex numbers,
then taking its transpose also converts the complex
quantities to their complex conjugate values.
Consider the following script
z = [1, 7+4j, -15.6, 3.5-0.12j];
w = z
which, upon execution, gives
w=
1.0000
7.0000 - 4.0000i
-15.6000
3.5000 + 0.1200i

If the transpose is desired, but not the conjugate, then

the script is written as
z = [1, 7+4j, -15.6, 3.5-0.12j];
w = conj(z')
w=
1.0000
7.0000 + 4.0000i
-15.6000
3.5000 - 0.1200i

Accessing Elements of Vectors Subscript Notation

Consider the row vector
b = [b1 b2 b3 bn]
Access to one or more elements of this vector is
accomplished using subscript notation in which the
subscript refers to the location in the vector as follows:
b(1) b1

b(k) bk
...
b(n) bn % or b(end)

Example
x = [-2, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10];
b = x(4)
c = x(6)
xlast = x(end)
b=
5
c=
9
xlast =
10

Accessing Elements of Vectors Using Subscript Colon

Notation
The subscript colon notation is a shorthand method of
accessing a group of elements.
For a vector b with n elements, one can access a group
of them using the notation
b(k:d:m)
where 1 k < m n, k and m are positive integers and,
in this case, d is a positive integer.
Thus, if one has 10 elements in a vector b, the third
through seventh elements are selected by using
b(3:7)

Example
z = [-2, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10];
z(2) = z(2)/2;
z(3:4) = z(3:4)*3-1;
z
z=
-2.00 0.50 8.00 14.00 7.00 9.00 10.00

Example
Consider the script
y = [-1, 6, 15, -7, 31, 2, -4, -5];
x = y(3:5)
whose execution creates the three-element vector
x=
15 -7 31

Example
We shall show that there are several ways to create a
vector x that is composed of the first two and the last two
elements of a vector y. Thus,
y = [-1, 6, 15, -7, 31, 2, -4, -5];
x = [y(1), y(2), y(7), y(8)]
or
y = [-1, 6, 15, -7, 31, 2, -4, -5];
index = [1, 2, 7, 8]; % or [1:2, length(y)-1, length(y)]
x = y(index)
or more compactly
y = [-1, 6, 15, -7, 31, 2, -4, -5];
x = y([1, 2, 7, 8]) % or y([1:2, length(y)-1, length(y)])

Two useful functions: sort and find

sort: Sorts a vector y in ascending order (most negative to
most positive) or descending order (most positive to most
negative)
[ynew, indx] = sort(y, mode) % mode = 'ascend or 'descend'
where ynew is the vector with the rearranged (sorted) elements
of y and indx is a vector containing the original locations of the
elements in y.
find: Determines the locations (not the values) of all the

elements in a vector (or matrix) that satisfy a user-specified
relational and/or logical condition or expression Expr
indxx = find(Expr)

Example
y = [-1, 6, 15, -7, 31, 2, -4, -5];
z = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80];
[ynew, indx] = sort(y, 'ascend')
znew = z(indx)
when executed, gives
ynew =
-7 -5 -4 -1 2 6 15 31
indx =
4 8 7 1 6 2 3 5
znew =
40 80 70 10 60 20 30 50

Example
y = [-1, 6, 15, -7, 31, 2, -4, -5];
indxx = find(y<=0)
s = y(indxx)
Upon execution, we obtain
indxx =
1 4 7 8
s=
-1 -7 -4 -5

One of the great advantages of MATLABs implicit vector

and matrix notation is that it provides the user with a
compact way of performing a series of operations on an
array of values.
Example
The script
x = linspace(-pi, pi, 10);
y = sin(x)
yields the following vector
y=
-0.0000 -0.6428 -0.9848 -0.8660 -0.3420 0.3420
0.8660 0.9848 0.6428 0.0000

Minimum and Maximum Values of a Vector: min and max

To find the magnitude of the smallest element xmin and its
location locmin in a vector, we use
[xmin, locmin] = min(x)
To find the magnitude of the largest element xmax and its
location locmax in a vector, we use
[xmax, locmax] = max(x)

Example
x = linspace(-pi, pi, 10);
y = sin(x);
[ymax, kmax] = max(y)
[ymin, kmin] = min(y)
Upon execution, we find that
ymax =
0.9848
kmax =
8 y=
-0.0000 -0.6428 -0.9848 -0.8660 -0.3420
ymin =
0.3420 0.8660 0.9848 0.6428 0.0000
-0.9848
kmin =
3

Example - Analysis of the elements of a vector

Consider 50 equally-spaced points of the following
function
f (t ) sin(t ) 0 t 2
We shall
(a) determine the time at which the minimum
positive value of f(t) occurs
(b) the average value of its negative values
The script is

t = linspace(0, 2*pi, 50);

f = sin(t);
fAvgNeg = mean(f(find(f<0)))
MinValuef = min(f(find(f>0)));
tMinValuef = t(find(f==MinValuef))
Upon execution, we find that
fAvgNeg = 1
-0.6237
0.5
tMinValuef =
3.0775
0
-0.5
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Creation of Matrices
The basic syntax to create a matrix is
A = [a11 a12 a13; a21 a22 a23; a31 a32 a33; a41 a42 a43]
where the semicolons are used to indicate the end of a
row and the aij can be numbers, variable names,
expressions, or strings.
Alternate ways are:
A = [a11 a12 a13; ...
a21 a22 a23; ...
a31 a32 a33; ...
a41 a42 a43]
where the ellipses (...) are required to indicate that the
expression continues on the next line.
For the second alternate way,
One can omit the ellipsis () and instead to use the

Enter key to indicate the end of a row. In this case,
the expression will look like
A = [a11 a12 a13 %<Enter>
a21 a22 a23 %<Enter>
a31 a32 a33 %<Enter>
a41 a42 a43]

For a third alternate way,

Create four separate row vectors, each with the
same number of columns, and then combine these
vectors to form the matrix as follows
v1 = [ a11 a12 a13];
v2 = [ a21 a22 a23];
v3 = [ a31 a32 a33];
v4 = [ a41 a42 a43];
A = [ v1; v2; v3; v4]
where the semicolons in the first four lines are used
to suppress display to the command window.
The order of the matrix is determined by

[r, c] = size(A)

Transpose of a matrix with complex elements

If a matrix has elements that are complex numbers,
then taking its transpose also converts the complex
quantities to their complex conjugate values.
Z = [1+2j, 3+4j; 5+6j, 7+9j]
W = Z'
the execution of which gives
Z=
1.0000 + 2.0000i 3.0000 + 4.0000i
5.0000 + 6.0000i 7.0000 + 9.0000i
W=
1.0000 - 2.0000i 5.0000 - 6.0000i
3.0000 - 4.0000i 7.0000 - 9.0000i
Special Matrices
A matrix of all 1s
ones(r, c) on(1:r,1:c) = 1 on = ones(2, 5)
on =
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
A null matrix
zeros(r, c) zer(1:r,1:c) = 0
zer = zeros(3, 2)
zer =
0 0
0 0
0 0

Diagonal matrix
a = [4, 9, 1];
Create an (nn) diagonal matrix A = diag(a)
whose diagonal elements are a A=
vector a of length n 4 0 0
0 9 0
diag(a)
0 0 1
Extract the diagonal elements of
a square matrix A Ad = diag([11, 12, 13, 14;
diag(A) 21, 22, 23, 24;
31, 32, 33, 34;
41, 42, 43, 44])
Ad =
11
22
33
44
Identity matrix whose size is (nn)

eye(n) A = eye(3)
A=
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

Accessing Matrix Elements Matrix created with

A = [3:2:11;
A(1,1) A(1:3,3:5) linspace(20, 21, 5);
ones(1, 5)];
3 5 7 9 11 A(2,:)
A 20.0 20.25 20.5 20.75 21.0

1 1 1 1 1 : means all
elements of
A(:,2) A(3,4)
row 2
: means all
B = A(1:3,3:5)
elements of
B=
column 2
7.0000 9.0000 11.0000
20.5000 20.7500 21.0000
1.0000 1.0000 1.0000

In several of the following examples, we shall use

magic(n)
which creates an (nn) matrix in which the sum of the
elements in each column and the sum of the elements
of each row and the sum of the elements in each
diagonal are equal.
For example,
magic(4)
creates
16 2 3 13
5 11 10 8
9 7 6 12
4 14 15 1
Example
We shall set all the diagonal elements of magic(4) to
zero; thus
diag(Z) = diag(diag(Z)) =
Z = magic(4); 16 16 0 0 0
Z = Z-diag(diag(Z)) 11 0 11 0 0
which results in 6 0 0 6 0
1 0 0 0 1
Z=
0 2 3 13
5 0 10 8 magic(4) =
9 7 0 12 16 2 3 13
4 14 15 0 5 11 10 8
9 7 6 12
4 14 15 1

Example
We shall replace all the diagonal elements of magic(4)
with the value 5; thus,
Z = magic(4);
Z = Z-diag(diag(Z))+5*eye(4)
which results in magic(4) =
Z= 16 2 3 13
5 2 3 13 5 11 10 8
5 5 10 8 9 7 6 12
9 7 5 12 4 14 15 1
4 14 15 5

Use of find with Matrices

For a matrix,
[row, col] = find(Expr)
where row and col are column vectors of the locations
in the matrix that satisfied the condition represented
by Expr.
Let us find all the elements of magic(3) that are greater
than 5. The script is
m = magic(3)
[r, c] = find(m > 5);
subscr = [r c] % Column augmentation


m=
8 1 6
3 5 7
4 9 2
subscr =
1 1
3 2
1 3
2 3

Example Minimum and Maximum

M = magic(4) Values in a Matrix
minM = min(M) min and max operate on a
maxM = max(M) column by column basis.
M=
16 2 3 13 To find the maximum of all
5 11 10 8 elements we use max twice:
9 7 6 12 M = magic(4);
4 14 15 1 maxM = max(max(M))
minM =
4 2 3 1 which, upon execution, gives
maxM = maxM =
16 14 15 13 16

Example - Creation of a special matrix

We shall create the following (99) array
0 1 1 0 2 2 0 3 3
1 0 1 2 0 2 3 0 3

1 1 0 2 2 0 3 3 0

0 4 4 0 5 5 0 6 6
A 4 0 4 5 0 5 6 0 6

4 4 0 5 5 0 6 6 0
0 7 7 0 8 8 0 9 9

7 0 7 8 0 8 9 0 9

7 7 0 8 8 0 9 9 0
(Dashed lines have been added to enhance visual clarity.)

The script is
a = ones(3, 3)-eye(3);
A = [a, 2*a, 3*a; 4*a, 5*a, 6*a; 7*a, 8*a, 9*a;]
A=
0 1 1 0 2 2 0 3 3
1 0 1 2 0 2 3 0 3
1 1 0 2 2 0 3 3 0
0 4 4 0 5 5 0 6 6
4 0 4 5 0 5 6 0 6
4 4 0 5 5 0 6 6 0
0 7 7 0 8 8 0 9 9
7 0 7 8 0 8 9 0 9
7 7 0 8 8 0 9 9 0

Example - Rearrangement of Sub Matrices of a Matrix

Consider the following (99) array
1 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
A 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63

64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72

73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81
4 3
(Dashed lines have been added to enhance visual clarity.)

For the four (33) sub matrices identified by the circled

numbers 1 to 4, we shall perform a series of swaps of
these sub matrices to produce the following array
3 4
61 62 63 4 5 6 55 56 57
70 71 72 13 14 15 64 65 66

79 80 81 22 23 24 73 74 75

28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
A 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 1 2

1 9
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
18
7 8 9 58 59 60 1 2 3 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
19 27

20 21 22 23 24 25 26

16 17 18 67 68 69 10 11 12 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
A 37 45

38 39 40 41 42 43 44

25 26 27 76 77 78 19 20 21 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63

2 1 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72

73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81
4 3

The script is
Matr = [1:9; 10:18; 19:27; 28:36; 37:45; ...
46:54; 55:63; 64:72; 73:81];
Temp1 = Matr(1:3, 1:3);
Matr(1:3, 1:3) = Matr(7:9, 7:9);
Matr(7:9, 7:9) = Temp1;
Temp1 = Matr(1:3, 7:9);
Matr(1:3, 7:9) = Matr(7:9, 1:3);
Matr(7:9, 1:3) = Temp1;
Matr


Matr =
61 62 63 4 5 6 55 56 57
70 71 72 13 14 15 64 65 66
79 80 81 22 23 24 73 74 75
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
7 8 9 58 59 60 1 2 3
16 17 18 67 68 69 10 11 12
1 2
25 26 27 76 77 78 19 20 21 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
A 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63

64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72

73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81
4 3
Manipulation of Arrays
Two functions that create matrices by replicating a
specified number of times either a scalar, a column or row
vector, or a matrix are
repmat
and
meshgrid
which uses repmat. The general form of repmat is
repmat(x, r, c)
where x is either a scalar, vector, or matrix, r is the total
number of rows of x that will be replicated, and c is the
total number of columns of x will be replicated.

Example
We shall produce the following matrix three ways
W=
45.7200 45.7200 45.7200
45.7200 45.7200 45.7200
45.7200 45.7200 45.7200
Thus,
W = repmat(45.72, 3, 3) % Function
or
W = [45.72, 45.72, 45.72; % Hard code
45.72, 45.72, 45.72;
45.72, 45.72, 45.72]
or
W(1:3,1:3) = 45.72 % Subscript colon notation

Example
Consider the vector
s = [a1 a2 a3 a4]
The expression
V = repmat(s, 3, 1)
creates the numerical equivalent of the matrix
a1 a2 a3 a4
V = a1 a2 a3 a4
Replicated
a1 a2 a3 a4 row

whereas
repmat(s, 3, 2)
creates the numerical equivalent of the matrix
a1 a2 a3 a4 a1 a2 a3 a4
V = a1 a2 a3 a4 a1 a2 a3 a4
a1 a2 a3 a4 a1 a2 a3 a4
Replicated
1st row
Replicated
column

On the other hand

V = repmat(s', 1, 3)
gives the numerical equivalent of the matrix
a1 a1 a1
a a2 a2
V = 2
a3 a3 a3

a4 a4 a4
Replicated
1st column

and
V = repmat(s', 2, 3)
gives the numerical equivalent of the matrix
a1 a1 a1
a a2 a2
2
a3 a3 a3

a4 a4 a4
V =
a1 a1 a1

a2 a2 a2
a a3 a3
3
a4 a4 a4

meshgrid
If we have two row vectors s and t, then
[U, V] = meshgrid(s, t)
gives the same result as that produced by the two
commands
U = repmat(s, length(t), 1)
V = repmat(t', 1, length(s)) % Notice transpose
In either case, U and V are each matrices of order
(length(t)length(s))

Example
If
s = [s1 s2 s3 s4] % (14)
t = [t1 t2 t3] % (13)
then
[U, V] = meshgrid(s, t) % Sizes of U and V are (34)
produces the numerical equivalent of two (34) matrices
s1 s2 s3 s4 t1 t1 t1 t1
U = s1 s2 s3 s4 V = t 2 t2 t2 t 2
s1 s2 s3 s4 t 3 t3 t3 t 3

Example However,
u = [1, 2, 3, 4];
u = [1, 2, 3, 4]; v = [5, 6, 7];
v = [5, 6, 7]; [V, U] = meshgrid(v, u)
[U, V] = meshgrid(u, v) gives
Upon execution, we obtain V=
U= 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
V= U=
5 5 5 5 1 1 1
6 6 6 6 2 2 2
7 7 7 7 3 3 3
4 4 4
There are two matrix manipulation functions that are

useful in certain applications
fliplr(A)
which flips the columns and
flipud(A)
which flips the rows.
Consider the (25) matrix
a11 a12 a13 a14 a15

A= (2 5)
a21 a22 a23 a24 a25
which is created with the statement
A = [a11 a12 a13 a14 a15; a21 a22 a23 a24 a25]

Then
a a14 a13 a12 a11
fliplr( A) = 15 (2 5)
a25 a24 a23 a22 a21
a a22 a23 a24 a25
flipud( A) = 21 (2 5)
a11 a12 a13 a14 a15
a a a a a
A = 11 12 13 14 15 (25)
and a21 a22 a23 a24 a25
a a24 a23 a22 a21

flipud(fliplr( A)) 25 (2 5)
a15 a14 a13 a12 a11
These results are obtained with the colon notation. For

example,
C = fliplr(A)
produces the same results as
C = A(:,length(A):-1:1)

Clarification of Notation
Consider the following two (25) matrices A and B
a a12 a13 a14 a15 b b12 b13 b14 b15
A 11 B 11
a21 a22 a23 a24 a25 b21 b22 b23 b24 b25
Addition or subtraction: C = A B
a11 b11 a12 b12 a13 b13 a14 b14 a15 b15
C (2 5)
a21 b21 a22 b22 a23 b23 a24 b24 a25 b25

Column augmentation: C = [A, B]
a a12 a13 a14 a15 b11 b12 b13 b14 b15

C 11 (210)
a21 a22 a23 a24 a25 b21 b22 b23 b24 b25
Row augmentation: C = [A; B]
a11 a12 a13 a14 a15

a a22 a23 a24 a25
C 21 (4 5)
b11 b12 b13 b14 b15

b21 b22 b23 b24 b25

Furthermore, if
x = [x1 x2 x3]
y = [y1 y2 y3]
then either x1 y1
Z = [x', y'] or Z = [x; y]' gives Z x2 y2 (2 3)

x3 y3
x1
x
whereas 2
x3
Z = [x'; y'] yields Z (61)
y1
y2

y3

We illustrate these results with the

following two vectors: a = [1, 2, 3]
and b = [4, 5, 6]. The script is
Z1 =
x = [1, 2, 3]; 1 4
y = [4, 5, 6]; 2 5
Z1= [x', y'] 3 6
Z2= [x; y]'
Z3= [x'; y'] Z2 =
Z3 = 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6
3
4
5
6

Dot Operations
A means of performing, on matrices of the same order,
arithmetic operations on an element-by-element basis.
Consider the following (34) matrices
x11 x12 x13 x14
X x21 x22 x23 x24
x31 x32 x33 x34
m11 m12 m13 m14

M m21 m22 m23 m24
m31 m32 m33 m34

Then, the dot multiplication of X and M is
x11 * m11 x12 * m12 x13 * m13 x14 * m14

Z m X.* M x21 * m21 x22 * m22 x23 * m23 x24 * m24
x31 * m31 x32 * m32 x33 * m33 x34 * m34
The dot division of X by M is
x11 /m11 x12 /m12 x13 /m13 x14 /m14

Z d X./M x21 /m 21 x22 /m22 x23 /m23 x24 /m24
x31 /m 31 x32 /m32 x33 /m33 x34 /m34

The dot exponentiation of X and M is
x11 ^ m11 x12 ^ m12 x13 ^ m13 x14 ^ m14

Z e X.^ M x21 ^ m21 x22 ^ m22 x23 ^ m23 x24 ^ m24
x31 ^ m31 x32 ^ m32 x33 ^ m33 x34 ^ m34

Use of Dot Operations

Let a, b, c, d, and g each be a (32) matrix, and
consider the expression
2
b
d

Z = tana - g
c
Then the MATLAB expression is
Z = (tan(a)-g.*(b./c).^d).^2;
which is equivalent to
(tan(a11 ) - g11 * (b11 /c11 )^ d11 )^ 2 (tan(a12 ) - g12 * (b12 /c12 )^ d12 )^ 2
Z (tan(a21 ) - g21 * (b21 /c21 )^ d 21 )^ 2 (tan(a22 ) - g22 * (b22 /c22 )^ d 22 )^ 2
(tan(a31 ) - g31 * (b31 /c31 )^ d 31 )^ 2 (tan(a32 ) - g32 * (b32 /c32 )^ d 32 )^ 2

Example
Evaluate
sin(b1t c1 )
v e a1t
t c1
for 6 equally-spaced values of t in the interval 0 t 1
when a1 = 0.2, b1 = 0.9, and c1 = /6. The script is
a1 = 0.2; b1 = 0.9; c1 = pi/6;
t = linspace(0, 1, 6);
v = exp(-a1*t).*sin(b1*t+c1)./(t+c1)
v=
0.9549 0.8590 0.7726 0.6900 0.6097 0.5316

Example
Create the elements of an (NN) matrix H when each
element is given by
1
hmn m, n 1, 2,...N
m n 1
The script to generate this array for N = 4 is
N = 4;
mm = 1:N; nn = mm;
[n, m] = meshgrid(nn, mm)
h = 1./(m+n-1)
Upon execution, we get h=
1.0000 0.5000 0.3333 0.2500
0.5000 0.3333 0.2500 0.2000
0.3333 0.2500 0.2000 0.1667
0.2500 0.2000 0.1667 0.1429
We return to meshgrid and again consider the two vectors

s = [s1 s2 s3 s4] and t = [t1 t2 t3]. Using the MATLAB
expression
[U, V] = meshgrid(s, t) % U and V are (34) matrices
we obtained the matrices
s1 s2 s3 s4 t1 t1 t1 t1
U = s1 s2 s3 s4 and V = t 2 t2 t2 t 2
s1 s2 s3 s4 t 3 t3 t3 t 3
If we perform the dot multiplication

Z = U.*V
then the execution of the program

s= [s1, s2, s3, s4];

t = [t1, t2, t3];
[U, V] = meshgrid(s, t) % (34) matrices
Z = U.*V
results in the equivalent matrix
s1 * t1 s2 * t1 s3 * t1 s4 * t1
Z s1 * t 2 s2 * t 2 s3 * t 2 s4 * t 2
s1 * t 3 s2 * t 3 s3 * t 3 s4 * t 3
Thus, we have the product of all combinations of the
elements of vectors s and t.

Summation and Cumulative Summation Functions

sum: When v = [v1, v2, , vn], then
length ( v )
S sum(v )
k 1
vk
where S a scalar.
If Z is a (34) matrix with elements zij, then
3 3 3
3
S sum ( Z ) zn1 , zn 2 , zn 3 , zn4 (1 4)
n =1 n =1 n =1 n =1
To sum all the elements in an array, we use
3 3 3 3 4 3
S sum (sum ( Z )) zn1 + zn 2 + zn 3 + zn4 zni (11)
n =1 n =1 n =1 n =1 i =1 n =1

Example
Evaluate
4
z mm
m =1
Thus,
m = 1:4;
z = sum(m.^m)
which, when executed, gives
z=
288

cumsum: For a vector v composed of n elements vj, cumsum

creates another vector of length n whose elements are
1 2 n

y cumsum (v ) vk , vk , ... v k (1 n)
k =1 k =1 k =1
If W is (mn) matrix composed of elements wjk, then

1 1 1

wk 1 wk 2 ... w kn
k =1 k =1 k =1

2 2

Y cumsum (W ) k =1
wk 1 w k2 ( m n)
k =1
... ...
m m
w wkn

k =1
k1
k =1


Example
Consider the convergence of the series
N=10
1
S
n =1 n 2
N

Thus,
S = cumsum(1./(1:10).^2)
S=
1.0000 1.2500 1.3611 1.4236 1.4636 1.4914
1.5118 1.5274 1.5398 1.5498

Example
We shall evaluate the following series expression for the
hyperbolic secant for N = 305 and for five equally spaced
values of x from 0 x 2 and compare the results to the
exact values.
N
n(-1)( n-1)/2
sech x 4
n =1,3,5 n + 4 x
2 2
Thus,
nn = 1:2:305; % (1153)
xx = linspace(0, 2, 5); % (15)
[x, n] = meshgrid(xx, nn); % (1535)
s = 4*pi*sum(n.*(-1).^((n-1)/2)./
((pi*n).^2+4*x.^2)); % (15)
se = sech(xx); % (15)
compare = [xx ' s' se' (100*(s-se)./se)'] % (52)

compare =
0.0000 1.0021 1.0000 0.2080
0.5000 0.8889 0.8868 0.2346
1.0000 0.6501 0.6481 0.3210
1.5000 0.4272 0.4251 0.4894
2.0000 0.2679 0.2658 0.7827
x approx sech(x) % error

Mathematical Operations with Matrices

Addition and Subtraction
If we have two matrices A and B, each of the order
(mn), then
a11 b11 a12 b12 ... a1n b1n

a b a22 b22
A B 21 21 ( m n)
... ...

am1 bm1 amn bmn
The MATLAB expression for matrix addition or

subtraction is
W = A + B or W = A B

Multiplication
If we have an (mk) matrix A and a (kn) matrix B, then
c11 c12 c1n
c c22
C AB 21 ( m n)

cm1 cmn
where
k
clp alj b jp
j 1
For the conditions stated, the MATLAB expression for

matrix multiplication is
W = A*B

Note: The product of two matrices is defined only

when the adjacent integers of their respective orders
are equal; k in this case. In other words, k
clp alj b jp
(mk)(kn) (mn) j 1
where the notation indicates that we have summed the

k terms.
Matrix Transpose
It can be shown that if C = AB, then its transpose is
C ( AB) BA
If A is an identity matrix (A = I) and m = n, then
C IB BI B

Example
We shall multiply the following two matrices and show
numerically that the transpose can be obtained either
of the two ways indicated previously.
11 12
11 12 13
A B 21 22
21 22 23 31 32
The script is
A = [11, 12, 13; 21, 22, 23];
B = [11, 12; 21, 22; 31, 32];
C = A*B
Ctran1 = C'
Ctran2 = B'*A'


C=
776 812
1406 1472
A = [11, 12, 13; 21, 22, 23];
Ctran1 = B = [11, 12; 21, 22; 31, 32];
776 1406 C = A*B
812 1472 Ctran1 = C'
Ctran2 = Ctran2 = B'*A'
776 1406
812 1472

Now consider the following series

k
w ( x, y) f j ( x ) g j ( y )
j=1
Suppose that we are interested in the value of w(x, y) over

a range of values for x and y: x = x1, x2, , xm and y = y1,
y2, , yn. Then one can consider
k
w( xi , y j ) f l ( xi ) gl ( y j ) i = 1, 2,..., m j = 1, 2,..., n
l =1
as one element of a matrix W of order (mn) as follows.

Let F be a matrix of order (mk)
f1 ( x1 ) f 2 ( x1 ) ... f k ( x1 )
f (x ) f 2 ( x2 )
F 1 2 (m k )
... ...

f1 ( x m ) ... f k ( xm )
and G be a matrix of order (kn)

g1 ( y1 ) g1 ( y2 ) ... g1 ( yn )
g (y ) g (y ) ...
G 2 1 2 2 ( k n)
... ...

k 1
g ( y ) ... g k ( y n
)
then
w11 w12 ... w1n
w w22 ...
W FG 21 ( m n)
... ...

wm1 ... wmn
where
k
wij w( xi , y j ) fl ( xi ) gl ( y j )
l 1

Thus, matrix multiplication performs the summation of the

series at each combination of values for x and y.
We now consider three special cases of this general

matrix multiplication:
1. The product of a row and a column vector
2. The product of a column and a row vector
3. The product of a row vector and a matrix

Product of a Row Vector and Column Vector

Let a be the row vector c11 c12 c1n
c c
a = [a1 a2 ak] (1k) C AB 21 22

and b be the column vector cm1 cmn
k
b = [b1 b2 bk] (k1) clp alj b jp

j 1
Then the product d = ab is the scalar

(1k)(k1)
b1 l =1 and p = 1
b k k
d ab a1 a2 ... ak a j b j = a j b j (11)
1
... j =1 j =1

bk

This is called the dot product of two vectors.

The MATLAB notation for this operation is either
d = a*b
or
d = dot(a, b)

Product of a Column and Row Vector

Let a be an (m1) column vector and b a (1n) row
vector. Then the product H = ba is
a1 a1b1 a1b2 ... a1bn
a a b a2 b2 ...
H ba 2 b1 b2 ... bn 2 1 (m n)
... ... ...

am am b1 ... am bn
The elements of H, which are hij = biaj, are the individual

products of all the combinations of the elements of b and
a.
k
clp alj b jp l = 1, 2, , m
j 1 p = 1, 2, , n

Example - Polar to Cartesian Coordinates

y
Consider a vector of radial values
r = [r1 r2 rm]
y = rsin r and a vector of angular values
= [ 1 2 n]
then
x = rcos x r1
r
X r * cos( ) 2 cos1 cos2 ... cosn
...

rm
r1cos1 r1cos2 ... r1cosn
r cos r cos
2 1 2 2
... ...

mr cos1 ... rm cos n

and
r1
r
Y r * sin( ) 2 sin1 sin2 ... sinn
...

rm
r1sin1 r1sin2 ... r1sinn
r sin r sin
2 1 2 2
... ...

mr sin 1 ... rm sin n
A typical MATLAB program would look like

r = [0:0.05:1]'; % (211)
phi = 0:pi/20:2*pi; % (141)
x = r*cos(phi); % (2141)
y = r*sin(phi); % (2141)

Product of a Row Vector and a Matrix

Let B be an (mn) matrix and a a (1m) row vector. Then,
the product g = aB is
b11 b12 ... b1n
b b22
g aB a1 a2 ... am 21
... ...

bm 1 ... bmn
m m m
a j b j1 a j bj 2
k
... a j jn (1 n)
b clp alj b jp
j =1 j=1 j=1
j 1
l=1
p = 1, 2, , n

Now consider the series

m
r ( x ) pk hk ( x )
k =1
Suppose that we are interested in the value of r(x) over a

range of values x1, x2, , xn. Then
m
r ( xi ) pk hk ( xi ) i = 1, 2, ..., n
k =1
is one element of a vector r of order (1n) as follows.

Let p be a vector of order (1m) with elements pk and V be
the (mn) matrix
h1 ( x1 ) h1 ( x2 ) ... h1 ( xn )
h (x ) h (x )
V 2 1 2 2 ( m n)
... ...

m 1
h ( x ) hm ( x n
)

Then, r = pV gives
m m m

r pV pk hk ( x1 ) pk hk ( x2 ) ... p h
k k ( x n (1 n)
)
k =1 k =1 k =1

Example - Summation of a Fourier Series

The Fourier series representation of a rectangular pulse
of duration d and period T is given by
d
K sin kd/T

f ( ) 1 + 2 cos(2k )
T k =1 kd/T
where = t/T. Let us sum 150 terms of f() (K = 150) and
plot it from 1/2 1/2 when d/T = 0.25.
We see that
r ( xi ) f ( )
sin kd/T m
r ( xi ) pk hk ( xi )
pk i = 1, 2, ..., n
kd/T k =1
hk ( xi ) hk ( i ) cos(2k )

The program is
k = 1:150; % (1150)
tau = linspace(-0.5, 0.5, 100); % (1100)
sk = sin(pi*k/4)./(pi*k/4); % (1150)
cntau = cos(2*pi*k'*tau); % (150100)
f = 0.25*(1+2*sk*cntau); % (1150) (150100) (1100)
plot(tau, f)

Example -
N
1 cos(n )
u( , ) 4 e n sin(n )
n
3
n 1
Assume that the length of is Nx and that the length

of is Ne. Then, we note that

1 cos n
n 3

en sin n
(1 N ) (1 Ne )
(1 N ) (1 N x )
(1 N ) [Not permissible] [Not permissible]

In order to have the matrices compatible for

multiplication, we take the transpose of vector n

1 cos n
n 3

en sin n
( N 1)(1 Ne )
( N 1)(1 N x )
(1 N ) ( N N x ) ( N N e )
From
meshgrid(, f(n)) ( N N x )

1 cos n
n 3
en sin n

( N Ne )
(N Nx )
[dot multiplication]

Now we take the transpose and perform matrix

multiplication

1 cos n
n 3
en sin n ( N N )
x e
( N Ne )
( N N x ) ( N x N )
From the matrix multiplication of these two

expressions, we are summing over n, which is
what we set out to do.

n = (1:25)*pi; % (125)
eta = 0:0.025:1; % (141)
xi = 0:0.05:0.7; % (115)
[X1, temp1] = meshgrid(xi, (1-cos(n))./n.^3); % (2515)
temp2 = exp(-n'*xi); % (2515)
Rnx = temp1.*temp2; % (2515)
temp3 = sin(n'*eta); % (2541)
u = 4*Rnx'*temp3; % (1541)
mesh(eta, xi, u)
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0.8
0.6 1
0.8
0.4
0.6
0.2 0.4
0.2
0 0

Determinants
A determinant of an array A of order (nn) is represented
symbolically as
a11 a12 ... a1n
a21 a22 ...
A
... ...
a n1 ... ann
For n = 2:
A a11a22 a12 a21
For n = 3:
A a11a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21a32 a13 a22 a31
a11a23 a32 a12 a21a33

The MATLAB expression for the determinant is

det(a)
Example
If A is defined as
1 3
A
4 2
then the determinant of A is obtained from
A = [1, 3; 4, 2];
d = det(A)
d=
-10
A class of problems, called eigenvalue problems, results in

a determinant of the form
A B 0
where A and B are (nn) matrices and j, j = 1, 2, , , n are
the roots (called eigenvalues) of this equation.
One form of the MATLAB expression to obtain is
lambda = eig(A, B)

Example - Eigenvalues of a Spring-Mass System

The eigenvalues of a three-degree-of-freedom spring-
mass system are obtained from the characteristic
equation
K - 2 M 0
where
50 -30 0 3 0 0
K -30 70 -40 N/m and M 0 1.4 0 kg
0 -40 50 0 0 5
and j = j
A B 0

The program is
K = [50, -30, 0; -30, 70, -40; 0, -40, 50];
M = diag([3, 1.4, 5]);
w = sqrt(eig(K, M))
w=
1.6734 50 -30 0
3.7772 K -30 70 -40
7.7201 0 -40 50
% rad/s
3 0 0
M 0 1.4 0
0 0 5

Matrix Inverse
The inverse of a square matrix A is an operation
such that
A-1 A = AA-1 = I
provided that A is not singular, that is, its determinant is
not equal to zero (|A| 0).
The expression for obtaining the inverse of matrix A is
either
inv(A)
or
A^-1
Note: 1/A A^-1; 1/A will cause the system to respond
with an error message. However, 1./A is valid, but it is
not the inverse.
Example - Inverse of Matrix

We shall determine the inverse of the magic matrix and
the product of the inverse with the original matrix. The
program is
invM = inv(magic(3))
IdentMat = invM*magic(3)
Its execution gives
invM =
0.1472 -0.1444 0.0639
-0.0611 0.0222 0.1056
-0.0194 0.1889 -0.1028
IdentMat =
1.0000 0 -0.0000
0 1.0000 0
0 0.0000 1.0000
Solution of a System of Equations

Consider the following system of n equations and n
unknowns xk, k = 1, 2, , n
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2 n xn = b2
...
an1 x1 + an 2 x2 + ... + ann xn = bn
We rewrite this system of equations in matrix notation
as follows:
Ax = b
where A is the following (nn) matrix

a11 a12 ... a1n

a a22 ...
A 21 ( n n)
... ...

a n1 ... ann
and
x1 b1
x b
x 2 (n 1) and b 2 (n 1)
... ...

xn b n
The symbolic solution is obtained by pre-multiplying both
sides of the matrix equation by A-1. Thus,
A1 Ax A1b
x A1b
since A-1A = I, the identity matrix, and Ix = x.

The preferred expression for solving this system of

equations is
x = A\b
where the backslash operator indicates matrix division
and is referred to by MATLAB as left matrix divide. An
equivalent way of solving a system of equations is by
using
x = linsolve(A, b)

Example
Consider the following system of equations
8 x1 + x2 + 6 x3 = 7.5
3 x1 + 5 x2 + 7 x3 = 4
4 x1 + 9 x2 + 2 x3 = 12
which, in matrix notation, is
8 1 6 x1 7.5
3 5 7 x 4
2
4 9 2 x3 12
We shall determine xk and verify the results.

A = [8, 1, 6; 3, 5, 7; 4, 9, 2];
b = [7.5, 4, 12]'; 8 1 6 x1 7.5
x = A\b 3 5 7 x 4
2
z = A*x 4 9 2 x3 12
x=
1.2931
0.8972
-0.6236
z=
7.5000
4.0000
12.0000

Example Temperatures in a Slab

A thin square metal plate has a uniform temperature
of 80 C on two opposite edges and a temperature of
120 C on the third edge and a temperature of 60 C
on the remaining edge.
A mathematical procedure to approximate the
temperature at six uniformly spaced interior points
results in the following equations.
4T1 T2 T6 200
T1 4T2 T3 T5 80
T2 4T3 T4 140
T3 4T4 T5 140
T2 T4 4T5 T6 80
T1 T5 4T6 200

The temperatures are determined from the following script.

c = [4 -1 0 0 0 -1 4T1 T2 T6 200
-1 4 -1 0 -1 0 T1 4T2 T3 T5 80
0 -1 4 -1 0 0 T2 4T3 T4 140
T3 4T4 T5 140
0 0 -1 4 -1 0
T2 T4 4T5 T6 80
0 -1 0 -1 4 -1 T1 T5 4T6 200
-1 0 0 0 -1 4];
d = [200, 80, 140, 140, 80, 200];
T = linsolve(c, d')
T=
The execution of this script gives 94.2857
82.8571
74.2857
74.2857
82.8571
94.2857

Chapter2 VectorsAndMatrices

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An Engineers Guide to MATLAB Chapter 2

AN ENGINEERS GUIDE TO MATLAB

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 1

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 2

Definitions of Matrices and Vectors

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 3

Definitions of Matrices and Vectors

a11 a12 ... a1n

The elements of the matrix are denoted aij, where i

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 4

Diagonal Matrix: When n = m and aij = 0, i j; thus

Identity Matrix: Diagonal matrix with aii = 1; thus

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 5

Column Matrix - Vector:

When aij = ai1 (there is only one column), then

When aij = a1j, (there is only one row), then

a a11 a12 a1n a1 a2 an (1 n)

Default definition of a vector in MATLAB

Transpose of a Matrix and a Vector

w11 = a11 w12 = a21 ... w1m = am1

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 7

For a column vector -

For a row vector -

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 8

Caution about blanks: If a = h + ds, then f is written as

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 9

Ways to Assign Numerical Values to the Elements

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 10

If s, d, and f are any combination of numerical values,

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 11

Also, when d is omitted MATLAB assumes that d = 1. Then

The number of terms, called the length of the vector, that

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 12

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 13

Generation of n Equally Spaced Values

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 14

If equal spacing on a logarithmic scale is desired, then

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 15

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 16

Transpose of a Vector with Complex Values

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 17

If the transpose is desired, but not the conjugate, then

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 18

Accessing Elements of Vectors Subscript Notation

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 19

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 20

Accessing Elements of Vectors Using Subscript Colon

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 21

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 22

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 23

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 24

Two useful functions: sort and find

find: Determines the locations (not the values) of all the

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 25

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 26

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 27

One of the great advantages of MATLABs implicit vector

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 28

Minimum and Maximum Values of a Vector: min and max

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 29

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 30

Example - Analysis of the elements of a vector

Copyright Edward B. Magrab 2009 31