Lithos 63 (2002) 19 40

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The southern margin of the Caribbean Plate in Venezuela:

tectono-magmatic setting of the ophiolitic units and
kinematic evolution
Giuseppe Giunta a,*, Luigi Beccaluva b, Massimo Coltorti b,
Franca Siena b, Carmela Vaccaro b
a
Dipartimento di Geologia e Geodesia, Universita di Palermo, Corso Tukory 131, 90100 Palermo, Italy
b
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Universita di Ferrara, Corso E.1j dEste 32, 44100 Ferrara, Italy
Received 26 February 2001; accepted 11 March 2002

Abstract

The southern Caribbean Plate margin in Venezuela consists of a W E elongated deformed belt, composed of several
tectonic units dismembered along the northern part of the South America continental Plate since the Late Cretaceous. The
present review, based on petrology and tectono-magmatic significance of each unit, makes it possible to define the main
geotectonic elements and to reconstruct the paleogeographic domains from Late Jurassic to Tertiary: (a) Mid-Ocean Ridge
Basalt (MORB) proto-Caribbean oceanic basin (Loma de Hierro Unit); (b) oceanic plateau (Dutch and Venezuelan Islands
basement); (c) rifted continental margin (Cordillera de La Costa and Caucagua El Tinaco Units) with Within Plate Tholeiitic
(WPTh) magmatism; (d) an intra-oceanic subduction zone represented by Island Arc Tholeiitic (IAT) magmatism (Villa de Cura
and Dos Hermanas Units) of Early Cretaceous age; (e) an Early Cretaceous ocean continent subduction trench filled by
melange (Franja Costera); (f) a new intra-oceanic subduction zone, represented by the tonalitic arc magmatism of Late
Cretaceous age (Dutch and Venezuelan Islands). Regional tectonic constraints and coherent kinematic reconstruction suggest an
original near-Mid America location of the Jurassic Cretaceous proto-Caribbean oceanic realm. From Early to Late
Cretaceous one sub-continental subduction with melanges (Franja Costera Unit) and two main stages of intra-oceanic arc
magmatism are recorded in the so-called eo-Caribbean phases. The first consists of generally metamorphosed and deformed
volcano-plutonic sequences with IAT affinity (Villa de Cura and Dos Hermanas Units), probably in relation to a southeastward-
dipping subduction. The second is mainly represented by generally unmetamorphosed tonalitic intrusives cutting the oceanic
plateau in the Dutch and Venezuelan Islands, and related to the new intra-oceanic subduction with reverse lithospheric sinking.
The latter probably marked the onset of the Aves/Lesser Antilles arc system in the Late Cretaceous. D 2002 Published by
Elsevier Science B.V.

Keywords: Caribbean Plate; Venezuela; Oceanic plateau; Ophiolites; Tectono-magmatic settings; Geodynamic evolution

1. Introduction

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +39-91-704-1017; fax: +39-91-
The Caribbean Plate (Fig. 1) represents a litho-
704-1041. spheric fragment between the North- and South-Amer-
E-mail address: giuntape@unipa.it (G. Giunta). ican Plates. It is constituted by the central, slightly

0024-4937/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

PII: S 0 0 2 4 - 4 9 3 7 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 1 2 0 - 2
20 G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940

Fig. 1. Structural sketch map of the Caribbean area. Arrows show the movement directions of the main plates.

deformed oceanic lithosphere of the Venezuelan and
Colombian Basins, bordered by variably wide Meso-
zoic Tertiary deformed belts, which correspond to the
present plate margins. The western and eastern margins
consist of collisional systems with variously evolved
magmatic arcs (Central American Isthmus, Lesser
Antilles). The northern and southern margins are rep-
resented by important shear zones (Motagua Belt in
Guatemala, Greater Antilles, Northern Venezuelan
Cordilleras).
The geodynamic evolution of the Caribbean Plate
has been thoroughly debated in the last decade,
particularly with regard to the Pacific or near-
Mid American origin of the plate (Dengo and Case,
1990; Pindell and Barrett, 1990; Stephan et al., 1990;
Giunta, 1993; Donovan and Jackson, 1994; Iturralde-
Vinent, 1994; Giunta et al., 1997, in press; Meschede
and Frisch, 1998; Kerr et al., 1999).
In the last decade, systematic structural and petro-
logical investigations have been carried out by an
Italian team within the framework of an Italian-Latin
American Bilateral Research Project and IGCP 364
and 433, on the ophiolitic units of the deformed
Mesozoic Tertiary Caribbean plate margins in Gua-
temala, Cuba, Hispaniola, Venezuela and Costa Rica.
The ophiolitic units occur in suture zones or ac-
creted terranes juxtaposed or obducted onto the near-
est continental or oceanic plates. Different magmatic
affinities have been recognised in both volcanic and
plutonic sections: Mid-Ocean Ridge Basaltic (MOR-
 G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940 21

Fig. 2. Tectonic sketch map and cross sections of the Sistema Montanoso del Caribe in Venezuela (modified from Giunta et al., 1997).
Abbreviations of the magmatic affinities: MORB = Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt; IAT = Island Arc Tholeiite; WPTh = Within-Plate Tholeiite.
22 G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940

B) + Oceanic Plateau with minor Ocean Island Basal-
tic (OIB) magmatism; Island Arc magmatism; Within
Plate Tholeiitic (WPTh) magmatism of the rifted
continental margins.
In this paper, new petrological and geological data
on the southern margin of the Caribbean Plate in
Venezuela are presented, with the aim of defining
the affinity and distribution of the igneous associa-
tions and their geodynamic significance. The various
igneous sequences are correlated within a general
tectono-magmatic grid, and integrated in a tentative
kinematic model.
2. Regional framework
The southern margin of the Caribbean Plate is
represented by both the Dutch and Venezuelan Islands
and the northern Cordilleras of Venezuela (Sistema
Montanoso del Caribe of Bellizzia, 1986), linking
the northeastern segments of the Merida Andes with
the Lesser Antilles volcanic islands from the so-called
Barquisimeto depression to the west, as far as the
Trinidad-Tobago islands to the east (Figs. 2 and 3).
This orogenic belt, resembling a flower-like structure,
extends for about 1000 km in length and 350 km in
width (100 km of which resides on land). Southward,
it overthrusts the Guayana continental foreland, which
belongs to the stable cratonic area of the South Amer-
ican Plate, and is delimited northward by the north-
vergent accretionary prism of Colombia and Ven-
ezuela along the Curacao ridge (Stephan et al., 1986).
The southern Caribbean Plate margin consists of a
thrust belt made up of several first-order imbricated
oceanic and continental tectonic units, accreted with
general south-vergence since the Late Cretaceous
(Beck, 1986; Bellizzia, 1986; Ostos, 1990). This belt
has been progressively affected and dismembered by a
severe brittle and ductile/brittle deformation, related to
a W E dextral shear zone with strike slip faults (e.g.
San Sebastian, El Pilar, La Victoria), with conjugate
synthetic (e.g. Tacata, Charallave) and subordinate
antithetic fault systems (Audemard, 1986), accompa-
nied by a clockwise rotation of different segments of
the belt. Accordingly, the deformed belt now outcrops
in morphological highs and lows, delimited by high-
angle faults which, in turn, often run along the
original thrust faults.

Fig. 3. Localities cited in the text: (1) Aruba; (2) Barquisimeto; (3) Caucagua; (4) Cerro Matasiete; (5) Charavelle; (6) Cordillera de La Costa;
(7) Curacao; (8) El Pilar; (9) El Tinaco; (10) Falcon; (11) Gran Roque; (12) La Rinconada; (13) La Sierra; (14) La Victoria; (15) Los Naranjos;
(16) Los Robles; (17) Manrique; (18) Sabana Larga; (19) San Sebastian; (20) Sans Souci; (21) Serrania Interior; (22) Siquisique; (23) Tacata;
(24) Tinaquillo; (25) Villa de Cura; (26) Yumare.
 G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940
As shown in the profiles of Fig. 2, the prominent
elongated Cordillera de La Costa uplift separates two
groups of tectonic sheets: northward, the Cordillera de
La Costa Unit has been overthrust by the Franja
Costera and part of the Caucagua el Tinaco Units;
southward, by the Caucagua-El Tinaco, Loma de
Hierro, Villa de Cura, Dos Hermanas Units (Figs. 2
and 3). Apart from the Cordillera de La Costa, there is
no evidence of close tectonic relationships between
Franja Costera and the other units. Northward in the
tectonic edifice, the Dutch and Venezuelan Islands
Unit occurs, which consists of the alignment of the
Dutch Antilles-Venezuelan and Tobago islands. The
tectonic relations of this latter unit with the other units
are poorly known, and probably consist of a discrete
dextral strike slip high angle fault system.
A polyphase metamorphic event, varying from
prehnite-pumpellyite to amphibolite facies and, in
some cases, blue schist and eclogite, variably affects
these units (Navarro et al., 1988). The deformation
style is characterised by at least two or three ductile
penetrative phases (with foliation, crenulation cleavage
and interference geometries) with variable orientation,
followed by ductile and ductile/brittle deformation,
generally consistent with a dextral shear regime.
The on-land portion of the tectonic edifice over-
thrust the Piemontine foredeep Units southward, and
has been in close tectono-sedimentary relationships
with them since the Late Cretaceous Early Tertiary.
The above mentioned brittle deformation is more
evident in the northern portion of the belt, consisting
of several strike slip transpressional faults which
produce the Cordillera de la Costa morphostructure
and the main contact between the Venezuelan Islands
Units and the rest of the belt. The northwestern limit
of the Sistema Montanoso del Caribe comprises the
Late Tertiary Venezuelan accretionary prism, repre-
senting the northward overthrust onto the Venezuelan
Basin oceanic crust. East of the Cariaco Basin, the
limit coincides with the southwesternmost part of the
Barbados accretionary prism.
3. Analytical methods
About 200 whole-rock major and trace element
analyses were carried out on the magmatic units of the
Southern Caribbean margin; rocks were cored to
23
obtain the freshest chips, which were powdered in
an agate mill. XRF analyses were performed on
powder pellets using a wavelength-dispersive auto-
mated Philips PW1400 spectrometer (Ferrara Univer-
sity). Major elements were determined by a full-matrix
correction procedure with totals to 100 according to
the method proposed by Franzini et al. (1975), whereas
for trace elements, experimentally determined correc-
tion coefficients were used. Accuracy and precision
for trace elements (above 10 ppm) are better than
7% for Rb, Nb, Sr, V and 15% for Zr, Ba, Ni, Co, Cr.
REE and Y were determined by Inductively Coupled
Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS, VG Plasma
Quad; Ferrara University), with an accuracy and
precision greater than 7%. Representative rock sam-
ples of the main magmatic units are reported in Table
1 and Figs. 4 7.
4. Structural and tectono-magmatic significance of
the main units
The main tectonic units of the deformed Southern
Caribbean margin in Venezuela (Beck, 1983; Belliz-
zia, 1986; Navarro et al., 1988; Ostos, 1990; Becca-
luva et al., 1996; Giunta et al., 1997 and references
therein) are briefly described below. Fig. 2 shows a
geological sketch map of the studied belt through
three main schematic transects, in the central, western
and eastern areas. In the tectono-magmatic grid of
Table 2, the spatial-temporal distribution of the vari-
ous igneous associations is correlated with the main
tectonic events, based on available biostratigraphical
and geocronological data (Beck, 1986; Bellizzia,
1986; Navarro et al., 1988; Donnelly et al., 1990;
Stephan et al., 1990; Sinton et al., 1998; White et al.,
1999).
As all samples have suffered, a variable degree
of alteration and low-grade metamorphism, evi-
denced by the high loss on ignition (LOI) in many
samples. Thus, care must be taken in the interpre-
tation of their chemistry (cf. Staudigel and Hart,
1983; Bienvenu et al., 1990). The magmatic affinities
of the different igneous lithologies are therefore
defined on the basis of (1) petrological characteristics,
such as the nature and crystallization order of mag-
matic minerals, and (2) geochemical features, partic-
ularly the distributions of the incompatible and less
 24
Table 1
Major (wt.%) and trace element (ppm) analyses for representative igneous associations of the southern margin of the Caribbean Plate
Unit Venezuela Continental Margin

Sub-unit Dos Hermanas (DH) Villa de Cura (VC)

Chacao El Carmen St. Isabel

Locality Rio Pao Rio Pao Rio Pao Rio Pao Villa de Cura Villa de Cura Villa de Cura Rio Mesia Rio Pao Rio Pao Rio Pao Rio Pao Rio Pao Rio Pao
Sample VNZ 103 VNZ 219 VNZ 135 VNZ 218 VNZ 120 VNZ 190 VNZ 191 VNZ 143 VNZ 112 VNZ 138 VNZ 224 VNZ 226 VNZ 223 VNZ 104
Lithology Bas Bas And And Hz Wh Wh Cp in LH Bas Bas Bas Bas Bas Rhy
Affinity IAT IAT IAT IAT IAT IAT IAT IAT IAT IAT IAT IAT IAT
SiO2 48.22 49.94 56.75 59.08 38.27 46.16 42.66 48.03 44.89 50.71 50.78 44.87 47.25 79.53
TiO2 1.03 0.71 0.73 0.57 0.05 0.37 0.65 0.16 0.63 0.83 0.91 0.71 0.97 0.31
Al2O3 15.85 16.70 16.36 13.96 0.75 3.46 2.56 3.49 12.53 12.44 15.71 13.28 15.94 9.96
Fe2O3tot 10.02 9.93 7.49 8.41 10.71 11.39 17.05 5.71 10.99 10.19 12.26 11.81 10.14 1.96
MnO 0.17 0.18 0.12 0.12 0.16 0.18 0.22 0.11 0.16 0.16 0.11 0.16 0.16 0.04
MgO 7.39 6.89 3.94 3.37 38.28 21.27 23.01 21.68 13.72 10.50 8.74 12.91 7.17 0.51
CaO 9.61 8.84 7.03 7.98 0.78 15.25 12.14 17.68 10.91 8.71 3.53 9.94 8.44 1.40

G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940

Na2O 3.43 3.15 4.26 2.99 0.00 0.23 0.09 0.14 1.09 2.77 1.34 1.31 4.64 4.89
K2O 0.01 0.40 0.21 0.48 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.87 0.88 1.81 1.12 0.60 0.63
P2O5 0.09 0.14 0.10 0.10 0.00 0.07 0.05 0.06 0.14 0.24 0.08 0.21 0.19 0.01
LOI 4.15 3.13 3.01 2.92 10.99 1.56 1.58 2.93 4.06 2.56 4.74 3.69 4.51 0.76
Ni 29 21 10 20 900 169 228 568 264 148 8 223 25 4
Co 32 31 18 16 63 103 41 48 35 34 45 34
Cr 65 63 22 34 932 694 2679 2481 551 340 6 545 41 2
V 272 305 270 214 218 446 94 288 248 300 282 250
Rb n.d. 7 4 7 22 1 1 1 19 14 29 18 9 n.d.
Ba 124 160 56 147 61 58 78 2 403 325 99 422 49 212
Sr 99 388 56 240 5 36 28 26 178 50 84 269 124 52
Nb 1 1 1 2 n.d. n.d. n.d. 1 2 n.d. 1 2
Ta 0.09 0.05 0.06 0.02 n.d. 0.05 0.13 0.04 0.05 0.20
Zr 55 44 49 43 3 9 8 3 22 38 35 24 54 74
Hf 1.46 1.37 1.43 0.39 0.12 0.65 1.00 1.06 0.64 1.43
U 0.06 0.11 0.16 0.04 n.d. 0.06 0.17 0.14 0.07 0.12
Th 0.08 0.24 0.35 0.08 n.d. 0.12 0.23 0.30 0.14 0.22
Y 20.0 15.7 16.0 19 n.d. 7.17 11 4.09 10.9 13.9 13.3 10.9 20.0 2
La 2.25 3.48 2.04 4 n.d. 0.79 2 0.13 2.38 2.10 3.21 2.59 3.63 11
Ce 6.88 9.21 5.98 8 7 2.51 5 0.47 5.46 6.20 8.45 6.08 9.65 14
Pr 1.15 1.41 0.98 0.45 0.10 0.86 1.01 1.33 1.03 1.50
Nd 6.02 7.37 4.95 2.94 0.62 4.50 5.44 6.14 5.14 7.59
Sm 2.16 2.16 1.61 1.12 0.32 1.45 1.75 2.11 1.67 2.56
Eu 0.84 0.73 0.46 0.37 0.28 0.60 0.66 0.75 0.70 0.79
Gd 2.76 2.20 1.94 1.25 0.54 1.49 2.09 2.30 1.74 2.64
Tb 0.45 0.38 0.34 0.20 0.10 0.29 0.34 0.36 0.28 0.45
Dy 3.11 2.54 2.47 1.28 0.64 1.80 2.36 2.31 1.84 3.19
Ho 0.66 0.51 0.52 0.28 0.15 0.32 0.46 0.53 0.41 0.74
Er 1.76 1.54 1.47 0.68 0.38 0.94 1.26 1.37 1.07 1.92
Tm 0.29 0.23 0.26 0.11 0.05 0.16 0.21 0.21 0.15 0.30
Yb 2.00 1.69 1.69 0.71 0.36 1.10 1.16 1.49 1.06 2.20
Lu 0.30 0.25 0.28 0.10 0.05 0.15 0.19 0.23 0.16 0.32
Mg# 59.36 57.87 51.05 44.26 87.63 78.72 72.77 88.26 71.19 67.10 58.54 68.39 58.35 34.01
Unit

Sub-unit Loma de Hierro (LH) Caucagua El Tinaco (TT)

Tinaquillo Sabana Larga Los Naranjos

Locality Rio Rio Rio Rio Rio Rio Rio Siquisique Montagnita Montagnita Montagnita Sabana Sabana Sabana Sabana Rio Rio
Mesia Mesia Mesia Mesia Mesia Mesia Mesia Larga Larga Larga Larga Toro Toro
Sample VNZ 142 VNZ VNZ VNZ VNZ VNZ VNZ VNZ VNZ VNZ VNZ VNZ VNZ VNZ VNZ VNZ VNZ
146/A 144 147 65 145 148 208/F 198 196 197 206 203 205 204 35 139
Lithology Hz Pl-Du Troct M-Gb Gb Dol Dol Bas Hz Gb Gb Gb Gb Dol Dol Bas Bas
Affinity MORB MORB MORB MORB MORB MORB MORB WPTh WPTh WPTh WPTh WPTh WPTh WPTh WPTh
SiO2 40.94 38.26 44.13 46.90 46.92 46.96 47.97 48.38 42.31 49.15 48.53 51.93 50.20 48.47 45.54 47.50 52.44
TiO2 0.00 0.03 0.10 0.29 0.21 0.98 1.22 1.62 0.01 0.43 0.79 0.32 0.34 1.83 0.84 1.36 1.81
Al2O3 0.47 4.00 18.06 9.51 18.01 15.54 14.05 16.37 0.50 17.70 16.93 15.63 13.20 14.87 16.36 12.57 14.87
Fe2O3tot 7.85 7.75 6.95 6.97 5.29 9.38 9.91 7.91 7.84 7.47 9.40 4.22 5.31 12.76 8.91 10.21 7.80
MnO 0.11 0.12 0.10 0.11 0.08 0.16 0.17 0.12 0.11 0.13 0.16 0.08 0.10 0.17 0.15 0.13 0.12
MgO 41.41 35.94 15.46 21.46 10.99 11.14 9.37 5.58 43.01 9.38 8.54 7.46 12.63 7.95 9.53 7.25 6.54
CaO 0.81 2.04 8.81 9.79 12.87 9.81 10.75 6.82 0.84 13.23 12.60 13.23 11.66 6.33 11.94 12.49 7.57

G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940

Na2O 0.00 0.00 1.71 0.23 1.75 2.29 2.12 5.81 0.00 2.15 2.41 4.21 3.22 4.72 2.87 2.78 5.14
K2O 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.04 0.16 0.26 0.94 0.04 0.01 0.12 0.13 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.02 0.86 0.45
P2O5 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.14 0.17 0.17 0.00 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.30 0.08 0.13 0.28
LOI 8.40 11.86 4.57 4.68 3.65 3.35 3.34 7.19 5.37 0.17 0.43 2.82 3.26 2.53 3.76 4.73 2.97
Ni 2251 1694 334 431 189 137 88 190 2338 180 82 46 125 49 109 76 102
Co 108 98 48 40 27 38 36 40 112 40 34 17 27 37 37 36 30
Cr 2518 1535 194 1599 905 403 231 457 2902 601 311 302 964 81 534 209 238
V 37 28 42 127 92 227 297 233 40 180 249 127 168 318 180 272 268
Rb n.d. n.d. 1 1 2 3 12 n.d. 1 2 1 n.d. n.d. 1 1 16 4
Ba n.d. 9 28 58 64 42 94 110 12 60 55 84 178 192 109 27 255
Sr 11 4 212 249 471 148 124 232 10 115 102 121 682 126 153 176 213
Nb n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 4 5 4 n.d. 1 1 n.d. n.d. 9 2 3 10
Ta 0.01 0.01 n.d. 0.34 0.38 0.31 0.07 0.01 0.01 0.62 0.22 0.72
Zr n.d. 3 3 4 4 61 75 90 8 19 25 8 7 155 29 88 137
Hf 0.09 0.11 0.14 1.52 1.92 2.14 0.78 0.28 0.29 3.73 2.19 2.86
U n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.11 0.11 0.09 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.20 0.41 0.71
Th 0.01 n.d. n.d. 0.29 0.36 0.24 0.07 n.d. n.d. 0.63 0.16 0.66
Y 2 3 1.93 3.79 4.26 20.6 24.1 21.8 2 14 15.2 7.25 7.70 40.5 18 27.2 30.9
La n.d. n.d. 0.52 0.37 0.26 3.79 4.67 3.73 n.d. n.d. 2.34 0.28 0.33 8.36 5 3.83 8.58
Ce n.d. n.d. 1.12 0.92 0.90 9.37 11.2 11.2 n.d. n.d. 5.33 1.11 1.24 21.4 12 10.4 21.2
Pr 0.17 0.14 0.15 1.34 1.64 1.78 0.78 0.20 0.24 3.17 1.67 3.08
Nd 0.73 0.78 0.83 6.92 8.31 8.99 3.44 1.33 1.64 16.3 8.60 14.1
Sm 0.19 0.26 0.39 2.06 2.69 2.78 1.27 0.68 0.64 4.84 3.07 3.87
Eu 0.29 0.20 0.27 0.82 1.01 0.92 0.63 0.30 0.35 1.48 1.04 1.40
Gd 0.20 0.30 0.57 2.62 3.07 3.15 1.99 0.84 1.07 5.52 3.58 4.47
Tb 0.05 0.08 0.09 0.45 0.58 0.54 0.35 0.17 0.19 0.97 0.61 0.75
Dy 0.28 0.43 0.70 3.06 3.66 3.49 2.36 1.02 1.26 6.31 4.35 4.67
Ho 0.06 0.12 0.15 0.72 0.83 0.71 0.55 0.26 0.27 1.33 0.91 1.04
Er 0.18 0.39 0.37 1.96 2.28 2.07 1.48 0.68 0.64 3.73 2.26 2.90
Tm 0.03 0.07 0.05 0.33 0.38 0.30 0.23 0.10 0.12 0.54 0.40 0.45
Yb 0.23 0.46 0.35 2.04 2.40 2.06 1.47 0.68 0.66 3.68 2.41 2.81
Lu 0.03 0.08 0.05 0.29 0.41 0.31 0.22 0.10 0.10 0.56 0.36 0.41
Mg# 91.26 90.18 81.51 85.91 80.45 70.16 65.20 58.29 91.57 71.31 64.29 77.78 82.49 55.23 67.91 58.45 62.41
(continued on next page)

25
 26
Table 1 (continued)

Unit Margarita Island

Sub-Unit Franja Costera (FC) Caucagua El Tinaco (TT)

Nirgua Tacagua Matasiete Rinconada Guayacan

Locality Chichiriviche Chichiriviche Chichiriviche P. Cabelio P. Cabelio Paria Paria Araja

Cerro Pedro Manzanillo Manzanillo Manzanillo Isla Playa Playa Playa Guayacan Guayacan
Matasiete Gonzales Bonita Galera Galera Galera
Sample VNZ 151 VNZ 152 VNZ 154 VNZ 210 VNZ 209 VNZ 214 VNZ 215/F VNZ 216 VNZ 171 VNZ 159 VNZ 162 VNZ 231 VNZ 232 VNZ 233 VNZ 238 VNZ 235 VNZ 155 VNZ 167 VNZ 168
Lithology Hz Gb Bas Gb Bas Mt-Wh Dol Hz Hz Gb Gb Gb Gb Gb Dol Bas Dol Di QzDi
Affinity M0RB MORB M0RB M0RB M0RB M0RB WPTh WPTh WPTh WPTh WPTh WPTh WPTh WPTh WPTh GR
SiO2 41.47 49.25 49.02 50.22 49.89 37.91 34.72 41.90 41.56 50.03 51.47 47.80 48.91 47.71 44.72 48.77 48.63 61.48 68.29
TiO2 0.00 0.22 0.75 1.18 0.80 1.90 1.48 0.00 0.00 0.83 0.98 0.62 0.25 0.13 2.62 2.29 1.44 0.57 0.26
Al2O3 0.67 14.60 12.45 11.97 13.78 9.35 13.42 0.55 0.66 14.50 13.95 15.99 17.99 1.94 9.11 14.51 14.63 16.85 15.85
Fe2O3tot 5.97 4.66 12.07 12.22 11.14 18.54 9.29 5.99 7.48 11.28 13.01 9.91 6.65 5.78 12.62 14.18 10.91 5.99 2.03
MnO 0.06 0.08 0.14 0.17 0.15 0.12 0.15 0.11 0.11 0.13 0.21 0.14 0.12 0.12 0.18 0.15 0.26 0.08 0.03
MgO 39.94 14.28 11.31 8.11 9.95 15.23 5.69 39.51 43.09 8.02 6.33 9.57 10.32 26.02 3.80 7.00 10.66 4.79 2.56
CaO 0.05 13.25 10.04 11.90 10.50 13.85 23.28 0.05 0.56 9.25 8.93 9.40 6.59 14.28 14.62 6.70 7.98 2.72 2.33
Na2O 0.00 1.36 1.30 3.53 1.65 0.93 0.43 0.00 0.00 4.41 3.61 3.76 4.59 0.11 1.56 3.10 2.62 3.05 6.40
K2O 0.00 0.11 0.08 0.08 0.32 0.26 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.17 0.28 0.53 0.00 0.95 0.65 0.45 1.26 0.59

G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940

P2O5 0.00 0.06 0.08 0.20 0.13 0.07 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.22 0.15 0.05 0.06 0.39 0.23 0.17 0.11 0.10
LOI 11.83 2.13 2.76 0.42 1.70 1.84 11.20 11.89 6.55 1.33 1.11 2.40 4.00 3.84 9.44 2.42 2.27 3.10 1.55
Ni 1779 231 69 86 70 30 79 1186 2225 46 20 95 147 501 29 74 222 34 27
Co 80 27 27 40 26 93 30 54 111 34 28 35 31 46 33 34 81 12 5
Cr 1755 1479 95 288 183 44 236 2746 2983 150 33 289 559 4739 36 68 367 57 31
V 39 134 323 387 285 1050 272 44 40 358 342 244 123 135 288 298 242 166 47
Rb n.d. 2 2 3 7 1 n.d. n.d. n.d. 1 2 3 9 n.d. 30 14 11 13 5
Ba 12 11 15 131 41 85 8 11 10 28 73 238 943 9 54 462 254 787 94
Sr n.d. 214 242 68 346 93 240 10 6 236 299 306 233 34 61 186 176 231 571
Nb n.d. 1 1 4 4 1 3 n.d. n.d. 1 1 1 n.d. n.d. 19 13 8 3 2
Ta 0.04 0.05 0.25 0.27 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.01 1.42 0.95 0.57 0.20 0.11
Zr n.d. 6 38 70 45 14 85 7 n.d. 39 63 34 10 3 174 140 101 96 106
Hf 0.22 1.09 1.18 2.19 1.20 1.83 0.96 0.29 4.40 3.51 2.54 2.47 2.41
U n.d. 0.04 0.35 0.21 0.24 0.39 0.18 n.d. 0.95 0.63 1.17 0.52 0.19
Th 0.02 0.02 0.26 0.25 0.42 0.89 0.41 n.d. 1.61 1.71 1.34 0.97 0.78
Y 1 4.89 22.7 33 20.5 13 27.1 n.d. 3 17.2 22.9 14.6 2.88 7 27.3 33.8 54.1 16.8 5.75
La n.d. 0.71 1.07 n.d. 4.29 3 3.91 n.d. n.d. 4.03 7.59 4.09 0.66 n.d. 18.8 14.1 15.3 7.98 7.77
Ce n.d. 1.96 3.80 n.d. 8.23 17 10.7 n.d. n.d. 9.32 16.4 9.09 1.86 n.d. 42.9 33.4 55.6 17.0 17.6
Pr 0.35 0.74 1.28 1.70 1.36 2.49 1.41 0.34 5.70 4.58 7.23 2.26 2.11
Nd 1.99 4.35 6.25 8.84 7.53 11.9 7.12 1.81 25.7 21.8 38.3 10.2 8.72
Sm 0.60 1.72 2.04 2.96 2.19 3.40 2.00 0.57 6.33 5.13 10.9 2.47 2.01
Eu 0.38 0.71 0.90 1.03 0.81 1.12 1.02 0.58 1.95 1.69 2.73 0.88 0.60
Gd 0.74 2.48 2.48 3.86 2.40 3.20 2.48 0.69 6.08 6.07 10.1 2.44 1.51
Tb 0.12 0.47 0.45 0.64 0.44 0.53 0.38 0.11 0.91 0.93 1.66 0.41 0.21
Dy 0.68 3.27 2.92 4.19 2.74 3.68 2.31 0.56 5.37 5.35 9.94 2.44 1.01
Ho 0.14 0.78 0.65 0.94 0.59 0.84 0.50 0.11 0.95 1.12 1.89 0.53 0.18
Er 0.41 2.16 1.81 2.62 1.46 2.06 1.24 0.28 2.41 2.87 5.11 1.29 0.46
Tm 0.07 0.33 0.29 0.41 0.22 0.36 0.20 0.04 0.35 0.42 0.85 0.21 0.07
Yb 0.41 2.25 2.05 2.91 1.32 2.60 1.23 0.32 2.18 2.50 5.66 1.55 0.44
Lu 0.06 0.34 0.29 0.46 0.18 0.42 0.21 0.06 0.29 0.35 0.75 0.22 0.07
Mg# 92.98 85.86 64.98 56.79 63.88 61.94 54.81 92.89 91.94 58.47 49.08 65.66 75.44 89.92 37.34 49.43 65.94 61.32 71.45
Unit Venezuelan Island (VI) Trinidade

Sub-Unit Basic Dikes Oceanic plateau Oceanic plateau Arc magmatism Franja Costera(FC)

Sans Souci

Locality Manzanillo Manzanillo Gran Roque Gran Roque Gran Roque Curacao Curacao Curacao Gran Roque Gran Roque Gran Roque Sans Souci Sans Souci
Sample VNZ 161 VNZ 229 VNZ 181 VNZ 184 VNZ 183 CUR 3 CUR 4 CUR 8 VNZ 182 VNZ 186 VNZ 179 TT 2 TT 4
Lithology bD bD Gb Gb Bas Bas Bas Bas QzDi Gr R-Dac Bas Bas
Affinity GR GR MORB MORB MORB MORB OIB MORB GR GR GR MORB MORB
SiO2 48.86 45.99 47.64 49.76 48.51 47.93 51.69 50.46 62.11 76.46 65.83 45.39 48.49
TiO2 0.77 0.77 0.48 0.83 0.97 1.33 1.40 0.89 0.40 0.04 0.59 1.41 1.24
Al2O3 15.83 15.88 18.87 15.60 15.24 15.07 14.74 14.00 17.65 12.78 15.81 13.88 15.46
Fe2O3tot 8.14 8.31 6.57 11.43 10.85 13.24 8.42 10.36 4.67 0.69 3.24 9.63 9.40
MnO 0.13 0.13 0.10 0.17 0.15 0.19 0.10 0.18 0.08 0.01 0.02 0.14 0.15
MgO 12.07 13.33 9.98 7.47 8.69 7.88 9.01 8.64 2.18 0.01 1.27 9.65 10.45
CaO 6.38 7.19 13.31 10.99 12.88 8.74 7.20 13.18 7.13 0.69 2.53 10.52 5.56
Na2O 3.78 3.04 1.58 2.70 1.66 2.53 3.29 1.59 3.99 3.54 4.69 3.14 3.80
K2O 0.36 0.47 0.05 0.11 0.07 0.45 0.07 0.05 0.47 5.22 3.28 0.14 0.91
P2O5 0.13 0.13 0.08 0.19 0.11 0.14 0.59 0.09 0.36 0.07 0.73 0.22 0.17
LOI 3.57 4.74 1.34 0.76 0.86 2.50 3.49 0.55 0.94 0.49 2.01 5.89 4.38

G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940

Ni 597 319 236 67 144 7 3 22 60 103
Co 58 36 33 45 38 11 n.d. 8 39 35
Cr 558 526 1032 9 464 21 27 23 164 352
V 189 185 182 300 306 115 4 116 292 253
Rb 7 10 1 2 1 11 n.d. n.d. 9 98 66 1 28
Ba n.d. 182 8 15 10 119 44 15 133 335 1253 83 303
Sr 417 382 92 118 162 166 495 80 259 31 1060 120 168
Nb 4 3 1 2 3 6 5 4 2 2 6 12 9
Ta 0.21 0.08 0.12 0.20 4.72 3.24 2.22 0.16 0.44
Zr 90 80 20 30 47 68 92 49 156 78 125 105 95
Hf 1.87 0.55 0.82 1.17 2.41 3.19 2.05 3.90 3.48
U 1.56 n.d. n.d. 0.01 0.10 0.48 0.10 0.52 1.58
Th 4.67 0.02 0.03 0.14 0.33 1.31 0.30 1.32 7.06 n.d. 4
Y 28 23.2 9.47 14.5 17.8 23.6 13.7 18.0 20.5 10.5 7 33 26
La 9 9.01 1.05 1.59 2.45 3.40 16.1 2.94 5.98 11.6 25 2 7
Ce 21 18.1 2.92 4.27 6.38 9.07 36.0 7.44 13.9 21.2 47 23 23
Pr 2.42 0.48 0.68 1.06 1.37 5.11 1.06 1.95 2.10
Nd 10.9 2.59 3.46 5.19 7.03 22.3 5.40 8.50 6.68
Sm 2.66 0.86 1.37 1.60 2.23 4.39 1.66 2.37 1.28
Eu 0.96 0.35 0.56 0.68 0.83 1.38 0.66 0.72 0.24
Gd 3.40 1.14 1.69 2.28 3.07 3.94 2.11 2.59 1.25
Tb 0.52 0.22 0.28 0.41 0.56 0.50 0.39 0.44 0.20
Dy 3.08 1.28 2.27 2.61 3.51 2.47 2.50 2.88 1.40
Ho 0.71 0.28 0.45 0.61 0.78 0.44 0.55 0.61 0.29
Er 1.82 0.85 1.30 1.76 2.24 1.14 1.58 1.85 0.91
Tm 0.32 0.13 0.21 0.28 0.33 0.15 0.23 0.34 0.18
Yb 1.89 0.95 1.45 1.89 2.26 0.97 1.53 2.18 1.36
Lu 0.29 0.15 0.20 0.28 0.33 0.13 0.24 0.34 0.22
Mg# 74.60 76.06 75.05 56.43 61.33 54.11 67.94 62.30 48.07 3.68 43.61 66.49 68.76
Rock abbreviations are referred to their magmatic characteristics, irrespective to metamorphism: Hz = mantle harzburgite, Wh = Wehrlite, Mt-Wh = Magnetite-rich Wehrlite, Pl-Du = plagioclase-dunite, Troct = troctolite, Gb = gabbro, M-
Gb = melagabbro, Di = diorite, QzDi = quartzdiorite, Gr = granite, Dol = basaltic dolerite, Bas = basalt, And = andesite, Cp in LH = clinopyroxenite dike in Loma de Hierro, Rhy = rhyolite, R-Dac = rhyodacite, bD = hornblende-rich basic dykes.
mg = MgO  100/(MgO + FeO) mol%, with Fe2O3/FeO = 0.15 as calculated from total Fe2O3.
Affinities: MORB = Mid Ocean Ridge Basaltic magmatism, IAT = Island Arc Tholeiitic magmatism, WPTh = Within Plate Tholeiitic magmatism, OIB = Ocean Island Tholeiitic magmatism, GR = Tonalitic Arc Magmatism.

27
28 G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940

Fig. 4. (A) Chondrite-normalized REE patterns of tholeiitic rocks from the arc magmatism of Venezuela. Normalizing factors after Sun and
McDonough (1989). (B) MORB-normalized incompatible element patterns of tholeiitic rocks from the arc magmatism of Venezuela.
Normalizing factors and island arc calcalkaline and tholeiitic basalt fields after Pearce (1983).

mobile elements, such as REE and high field strength
elements (HFSE), which can effectively discriminate
original tectono-magmatic settings (Beccaluva et al.,
1979, 1983; Saunders et al., 1980; Pearce et al.,
1984).
4.1. Dos Hermanas Unit
This unit overthrusts both the Piemontine Units
southward and the Villa de Cura Units northward (Fig.
2). Fragments of these units are intercalated, as
 G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940
Fig. 5. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns of basaltic (A) and
gabbroic rocks (B) with MORB and Oceanic Plateau affinity from
Venezuela. Normalizing factors after Sun and McDonough (1989).
olistoliths or clasts, in the Late Cretaceous Garrapata
flysch-like deposits of the Piemontine Units (Navarro
et al., 1988). It is not represented in either the east-
ernmost or westernmost areas of the belt.
The Dos Hermanas Unit consists of Late Cretaceous
(Bellizzia, 1986; Ostos, 1990) basaltic andesitic lava
breccias and volcanoclastites metamorphosed in the
prehnite-pumpellyite facies, covered in places by Late
29
Cretaceous limestones of the Escorzonera Fm. (Nav-
arro et al., 1988). The volcanic rocks show porphyritic
texture with phenocrysts of altered olivine (ol), abun-
dant augitic clinopyroxene (cpx), brown amphibole
(amph) and plagioclase (pl) set in a microcrystalline
groundmass. In accordance with the phenocryst assem-
blage, chemical analyses (Table 1) indicate Island Arc
Tholeiitic (IAT) affinity (Beccaluva et al., 1996). Lavas
display flat REE patterns (Fig. 4A), High Field
Strength Element (HFSE) depletion and Large Ion
Lithophile Element (LILE) enrichment compared to
MORB (Fig. 4B), consistent with IAT magmatism.
They are therefore to be considered as resulting from
high-degree remelting of depleted mantle sources,
which underwent intra-oceanic subduction-related
fluid (and LILE) enrichment.
4.2. Villa de Cura Units
This complex overthrusts the Loma de Hierro Unit
along the Agua Fria fault, and outcrops only in the
central sector of northern Venezuela (Fig. 2). It is
constituted by four main tectonic sheets with poorly
defined geometrical relationships due to the intense
folding affecting the whole complex, from the base
upward: (1) wehrlite-clinopyroxenite cumulates and
serpentinized mantle peridotites metamorphosed in
amphibolite facies (Chacao complex), overthrust by
(2) massive metabasalts (El Carmen Unit), (3) a meta-
volcano-sedimentary sequence formed by basaltic to
rhyolitic lithologies intercalated with siltstones and
cherts (St. Isabel Unit) and (4) metatuffs and subordi-
nate metalavas (El Chino El Cano Unit) all metamor-
phosed in blueschist facies and strongly deformed by at
least three ductile, penetrative phases. The age of these
units is Early Cretaceous (Beck, 1986; Bellizzia, 1986;
Navarro et al., 1988; Ostos, 1990).
Chemical analyses (Table 1) of metabasalts suggest
IAT affinity, as supported by the presence of abundant
and large clinopyroxene phenocrysts, as well as the
occurrence of rhyolitic differentiates (Beccaluva et al.,
1996); the clinopyroxenitic/wehrlitic intrusives and
associated mantle harzburgites of the Chacao Com-
plex may therefore be considered as part of the
cumulitic arc basement and subarc mantle involved
in the subduction complex. In Fig. 4A and B, REE
and incompatible element distributions largely overlap
those of Dos Hermanas.
30 G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940

Fig. 6. (A) MORB-normalized incompatible element patterns of tholeiitic magmatism from rifted continental margin (Caucagua El Tinaco
Units). Within-plate basalt field and normalizing factors after Pearce (1983). (B) Chondrite-normalized REE patterns of basaltic and intrusive
rocks from the Caucagua El Tinaco Units. Normalizing factors after Sun and McDonough (1989).
 G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940
4.3. Loma de Hierro Unit
This unit outcrops in fault contact with the Cauca-
gua El Tinaco Unit, along the Santa Rosa fault
system (Fig. 2). It is not represented in north-eastern
Venezuela. The unit can be considered a coherent
oceanic sequence made up of serpentinized mantle
peridotites and layered cumulates (plagioclase-dun-
ites, troctolites, mela-gabbros and gabbros), as well as
basaltic lavas and dolerites (Tiara Fm., Late Jurassic
Early Cretaceous; Beck, 1986; Beccaluva et al.,
1996), discontinuously covered by silicified meta-
limestones, radiolarites (Capas del Rio Guare Fm.,
Early Cretaceous; Beck, 1986) and siltites (Paracotos
Fm., Late Cretaceous; Beck, 1986). The entire
sequence, metamorphosed in greenschist facies, is
deformed and divided in a series of thrust sheets
depending on the competence of lithologies.
Chemical features (Table 1; Fig. 5A,B), together
with the crystallization order of plagioclase before
clinopyroxene in both intrusive and effusive rocks,
share analogies with both Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalts
(MORB) and basalts from oceanic plateaus (Kerr et
al., 1997a). Siquisique basaltic olistoliths in the Fal-
con Tertiary Basin reveal similar petrological charac-
teristics, e.g. flat REE patterns (Fig. 5A), and can
therefore be considered an equivalent of the Loma de
Hierro Unit, in accordance with Bellizzia (1986) and
Stephan et al. (1986).
4.4. Caucagua El Tinaco Units
These units outcrops in tectonic contact with the
Cordillera de La Costa Unit along La Victoria fault, or
overlies it along the Manrique thrust (Fig. 2). In the
Falcon Basin, it is equivalent to the Yumare Unit,
whereas in the eastern areas it may have an equivalent
in the Margarita Island. In the Tinaco Tinaquillo area,
the unit consists of a Palaeozoic continental basement
(Aguadita gneiss and Tinapu Schists of the El Tinaco
Complex), covered by a Early Cretaceous volcano
sedimentary sequence (Tucutunemo Fm.) prevalently
metamorphosed to greenschist facies (Beck, 1986;
Bellizzia, 1986; Ostos, 1990). Igneous products are
represented by basaltic pillow-lavas intercalated in the
Tucutunemo Fm. (Los Naranjos) and by gabbro brec-
cias with associated basaltic dolerites (Sabana Larga).
This tholeiitic magmatism is closely comparable with
31
that occurring in a within-plate setting (Fig. 6A). In the
westernmost area of the unit, the pre-Mesozoic con-
tinental basement is overlain by the Tinaquillo thrust
sheet, which consists of a serpentinized mantle spinel-
lherzolite, with amphibolite facies-metamorphosed
gabbros at the base; the latter are compositionally quite
similar to those occurring in the Sabana Larga breccias
(Table 1). The Tinaquillo complex has been interpreted
by Giunta et al. (1997) and Seiler et al. (1998) as
subcontinental mantle material with associated basic
intrusives. A U/Pb dating on the felsic dyke cutting the
peridotite gives a 150-Ma age for this magmatic event
(Seiler et al., 1998).
On Margarita Island, the mantle spinel-lherzolites of
Cerro Matasiete La Sierra and the metagabbros with
doleritic metabasalts of La Rinconada may represent a
mafic ultramafic equivalent of Tinaquillo. In fact, the
whole La Rinconada complex, intruded in the Juan
Griego terrigenous sequence, exhibits chemical char-
acteristics (Fig. 6) comparable to both Sabana Larga
and Tinaquillo metagabbros (Giunta et al., 1997).
A comparison of the REE patterns (Fig. 6B) of all
these gabbroic rocks with those of associated metado-
lerites (Sabana Larga and La Rinconada) and the basal-
tic lavas from Los Naranjos (Table 1) clearly indicates
that they can be considered as the intrusive (mostly
cumulitic) counterparts of the same tholeiitic magma-
tism developed along a rifted continental margin. In
Margarita, this magmatism evolves to quartz diorite
differentiates (Guayacan Orthogneiss of the litera-
ture). In this framework both the Tinaquillo and Cerro
Matasiete La Sierra lherzolites may be interpreted as
subcontinental mantle material. The high-pressure
metamorphic effects recorded in La Rinconada, as well
as in the associated Juan Griego sedimentary group, are
reflected in amphibolite to eclogite facies parageneses
(Bocchio et al., 1996). The final magmatic event in
Margarita, probable Late Cretaceous/Early Tertiary in
age, is recorded by a series of unmetamorphosed
hornblende-rich basic dykes, presumably representing
a subvolcanic analogue of the mela-diorites (Hooiber-
gites) reported by White et al. (1999) from the Aruba
Tonalitic Batholith.
4.5. Cordillera de La Costa Unit
This represents the tectonic substratum of the
Franja Costera and Cacagua El Tinaco Units and
32 G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940

Fig. 7. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns of tonalitic arc intrusives from the Dutch and Venezuelan Islands Unit. Normalizing factors after Sun
and McDonough (1989).

outcrops in a narrow structural high, elongated from
Barquisimeto to Trinidad (Fig. 2). It is formed by a
PreCambrian Early Palaeozoic continental basement
(Sebastopol Complex, Beck, 1986; Bellizzia, 1986)
and Late Jurassic Cretaceous carbonate-terrigenous
covers with local volcanic intercalations (Las Brisas,
Las Mercedes, Chuspita Fms.; Beck, 1986; Bellizzia,
1986). The whole unit is metamorphosed in greens-
chist facies with different ductile, penetrative defor-
mations.
4.6. Franja Costera Unit
This unit outcrops mainly in the northern border of
the Cordillera de La Costa uplift, irregularly over-
thrusting it southward, while eastward it is repre-
sented by the Sans Souci Unit in northeastern
Trinidad (Fig. 2). It consists of a volcano-sedimentary
and carbonate-terrigenous sequence (Early Creta-
ceous; Ostos, 1990), containing variably sized bou-
dins of mafic and ultramafic rocks (serpentinized
peridotites, gabbros and basalts). The whole se-
quence, which may represent a subcontinental sub-
duction zone, is variably affected by eclogite and/or
amphibolite facies metamorphism, generally re-equi-
librated in green schist facies, and pervasively
deformed by at least three ductile deformation phases
(Beccaluva et al., 1996).
Basalts and gabbros show both flat and LREE-
depleted patterns (Fig. 5A,B), which are geochemical

Notes to Table 2:
Abbreviations: VI = Dutch and Venezuelan Islands, FC = Franja Costera, TT = Caucagua el Tinaco, LH = Loma de Hierro, VC = Villa de Cura,
DH = Dos Hermanas.
MORB = Mid Oceanic Ridge magmatism; IAT = Island Arc Tholeiitic magmatism; OIB = Ocean Island Tholeiitic magmatism; WPTh = Within
Plate Tholeiitic magmatism; GR= Tonalitic Arc Magmatism; P = Mantle Peridotites.
Data sources: Ostos (1990), Beccaluva et al. (1996), Kerr et al. (1996), Giunta et al. (1997), Sinton et al. (1998) and references therein.
 G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940 33

Table 2
Tectono-magmatic grid of the main Venezuelan igneous associations
34 G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940
characteristics compatible with MORB as well as with
basalts from oceanic plateaus (Kerr et al., 1997b).
The general characteristics of the unit may indicate
a melange of oceanic blocks in a clastic matrix
involved at various depths in a subcontinental sub-
duction zone.
4.7. Dutch and Venezuelan Islands Unit
This unit is well exposed in some Venezuelan
islands (e.g. Gran Roque Island). It includes the Dutch
Antilles and the Tobago magmatic units, forming a
long WNW ESE alignment facing the Curacao Ridge
and Venezuelan Basin northward (Fig. 2). The south-
ern limit of this unit is not exposed, and is probably
constituted by a high angle strike slip fault system
which connects it with the main bulk of the Sistema
Montanoso del Caribe. The Dutch and Venezuelan
Islands Unit is made up of a basaltic and gabbroic
basement with MORB affinity (Table 1 and Fig.
5A,B). Its constantly flat REE patterns, together with
the association of picrites and crustal thickening in
Curac ao (Kerr et al., 1996), are all characteristics of
oceanic plateaus (Mahoney et al., 1993). On a
regional scale, this plateau activity in the Caribbean
has been dated mainly from 91 to 88 Ma, but
analogous magmatic events have also been recorded
at 76, 69 and 63 Ma (Kerr et al., 1997b; Sinton et al.,
1998). This is supported by radiolarian-bearing sedi-
mentary covers of the Curac ao Lava Fm. which are
Late Cretaceous in age (Knip Fm.; Jackson and
Robinson, 1994).
On Gran Roque, this oceanic basement, strongly
deformed and metamorphosed (amphibolite to greens-
chist facies), is intruded by undeformed quartz dio-
ritic to granitic rocks, accompanied by several
rhyolitic dykes. The latter rocks are characterised by
L-REE enriched and flat M-to H-REE patterns (Table
1 and Fig. 7), as well as by the abundance of
hornblende. They bear some similarities with calc-
alkaline tonalitic suites and are clearly distinct from
the IAT magmatism of the Villa de Cura and Dos
Hermanas Units.
Fig. 8. (A, B, C, D) Tentative kinematic model for the evolution of the Southern margin of the Caribbean Plate, from Late Jurassic to Cenozoic.
Abbreviations: SOAM = South America; ATL = Atlantic Ocean; CLBB = Colombian Basin; VNZB = Venezuelan Basin; VI = Venezuelan
Islands, FC = Franja Costera, CC = Cordillera de la Costa, TT = Caucagua El Tinaco, LH = Loma de Hierro, VC = Villa de Cura, DH = Dos
Hermanas, P = Piemontine.
Similar geological and petrological occurrences,
dominated by tonalitic magmatism, are described in
the Dutch Antilles (Beets et al., 1982) and in Tobago
(Stephan et al., 1990), and dated at Aruba at 85 82
Ma (White et al., 1999). As previously reported,
hornblende-rich mafic dykes from Margarita most
probably belong to the same magmatic event.
5. Regional constraints for a tentative model
The tectonic setting, magmatic affinities and
regional correlations reported in the previous section
allow a definition of some important constraints for a
tentative reconstruction of the geological evolution of
the northern Venezuelan deformed belt.
(a) Close relationships between the Franja Costera
melange (with oceanic-type blocks) and the continen-
tal margin represented by the Cordillera de La Costa
Units.
(b) Coherent association between the MORB of
Loma de Hierro and the IAT of Villa de Cura and Dos
Hermanas. These groups have been tectono-sedimen-
tarily connected, since the Late Cretaceous, with the
uppermost units of the Piemontine foredeep lying on
the northernmost Guayana shield.
(c) The likely equivalence of the meta-gabbros and
mantle lherzolites of Tinaquillo and La Rinconada and
Cerro Matasiete La Sierra (north-eastern Margarita)
thrust sheets, as parts of the Caucagua El Tinaco
continental Unit.
(d) In Margarita, the lithostratigraphic and geo-
metrical features of the Juan Griego group make likely
its correlation with lower portions of the Cordillera de
La Costa sedimentary sequence. In the same way, the
Los Robles Fm., which could be the original sedi-
mentary cover of Juan Griego, may be correlated to
the upper portion of the Cordillera de La Costa
sedimentary sequence. Moreover, since the Rinconada
magmatic complex intrudes the Juan Griego group, it
follows that there is a close connection between the
Cordillera de La Costa and the entire Caucagua El
Tinaco Units.
G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940 35
36 G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940

Fig. 8 (continued ).
 G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940
(e) Several lines of evidence make it difficult to
correlate the Villa de Cura Dos Hermanas with the
Dutch and Venezuelan Islands Unit: (1) the lack of any
physical continuity between the units; (2) the difference
in their geometrical position in the tectonic edifice,
because (i) the Venezuelan Islands Units are in tectonic
contact southward with the Caucagua El Tinaco (in
Margarita Island), Cordillera de La Costa (or even
Franja Costera) Units and (ii) the definite tectonic
relationships of Villa de Cura Dos Hermanas with
Loma de Hierro and the Piemontine foredeep; (3) the
petrological and geochemical features of the gabbro-
doleritic substratum of the Dutch and Venezuelan
islands (e.g. Gran Roque) are substantially similar to
those of the gabbro-basaltic section of the Loma de
Hierro Unit. However, unlike the Loma de Hierro Unit,
the frequent association with picrites, indicative of
mantle plume and the crustal thickness suggest that
the Dutch and Venezuelan Islands Unit actually repre-
sents the southern margin of the Caribbean oceanic
plateau (Kerr et al., 1996, 1997b, 1999; Sinton et al.,
1998; Beccaluva et al., 1999); (4) the predominantly
tonalitic plutonism in the Dutch and Venezuelan
Islands is petrologically distinct from the IAT volcan-
ism and related pyroxenitic intrusives (Chacao com-
plex) of the Villa de Cura and Dos Hermanas Units; (5)
the probably older age of Villa de Cura Dos Hermanas
(Beck, 1983) and the eastward progressively younger
age from Late Cretaceous (85 82 Ma tonalitic rocks in
Aruba; White et al., 1999) to Paleogene of the Dutch
Antilles Venezuelan Islands alignment (Ostos, 1990).
On the basis of the above statements, the tectonic
units recognized in the southern margin of the Car-
ibbean Plate can be coherently grouped, from Late
Jurassic to Early Tertiary, into distinct geotectonic
elements which may be related to six original paleo-
geographic domains, as reported in Fig. 8A D:
(1) an oceanic basin represented by the Loma de
Hierro (Late Jurassic Early Cretaceous);
(2) a continental margin (Cordillera de La Costa)
which, in its thinner portions (Caucagua El Tinaco),
was progressively affected by rifting episodes, with
mantle diapirism and within plate tholeiite magmatism
in the Late Jurassic Early Cretaceous;
(3) an ocean continent subduction trench filled by
ophiolitic melange (Franja Costera, Early mid-Creta-
ceous), probably facing sectors of the continental
margin (Cordillera de La Costa?);
37
(4) an older (Early mid-Cretaceous) intra-oceanic
subduction zone with IAT magmatism (Villa de Cura,
Dos Hermanas) affecting the oceanic basin of Loma
de Hierro type, facing the stable South American
continental margin;
(5) an oceanic plateau represented by Dutch and
Venezuelan Islands substratum (Late Cretaceous);
(6) a younger (Late Cretaceous) intra-oceanic sub-
duction zone with a magmatic arc represented by
dominantly tonalitic intrusives (Dutch and Venezuelan
Islands), facing the oceanic plateau;
(7) a foredeep basin (Piemontine) set onto the
Guayana continental crust since the Late Cretaceous.
Deformed portions of these paleogeographic
domains, which represent the geotectonic elements
constituting the southern margin of the Caribbean
Plate, are located between the Guayana shield and
the Venezuelan basin; they have been piled up and
dismembered along the northern Venezuela W E
dextral shear zone since the Late Cretaceous.
Taking into account that the original morphological
configuration of the South American continental mar-
gin is largely unknown, any paleogeographic restora-
tion is obviously tentative and highly speculative. In
fact, there is no clear evidence for defining the
original position of the continental margin domain
of Cordillera de La Costa and Caucagua El Tinaco,
as it could have been closely connected with the
Guayana shield, or might have been the equivalent
of the original Andean continental margin, or even a
micro-continent. Fig. 8A shows an intermediate
solution between the first two, which consider an
irregularly shaped continental promontory as a north-
westernmost ending of the South American Plate.
The oceanic domain evolving to an oceanic plateau
(Dutch and Venezuelan Islands) and adjacent to the
thinned and rifted South American continental margin
is supposed to have been generated by spreading
processes in a mid-America position, induced by
the Central Atlantic opening and subsequent separa-
tion of the North from the South American Plates
(proto-Caribbean phase). This view, already put for-
ward by several authors (Giunta, 1993; Beccaluva et
al., 1996, 1999; Meschede and Frisch, 1998; Giunta et
al., in press), is therefore favoured with respect to the
classic hypothesis of the Caribbean Plate as a Pacific
promontory (Duncan and Hargraves, 1984; Burke,
1988; Pindell and Barrett, 1990).
38 G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940
After the Early Cretaceous (Fig. 8B), the South
Atlantic opening and the related northwestward
motion of the South American Plate led to both intra-
oceanic and subcontinental convergences (eo-Carib-
bean phase I of Giunta, 1993; Giunta et al., in press).
This results, on the one hand, in the arc magmatism of
Villa de Cura and Dos Hermanas and the related
subduction complex of Villa de Cura, and on the other
hand, in the ophiolitic melange of Franja Costera.
Since any close physical relation of the ophiolitic
melange (Franja Costera) with the Loma de Hierro
ophiolitic unit is unlikely, the original location of the
latter is difficult to assess, while the characteristics of
subcontinental subduction could be better accomo-
dated in an ocean continent trench system (perhaps
Franciscan-type) below the above mentioned conti-
nental promontory (Fig. 8B). Portions of the previ-
ously rifted continental margins, such as the
Caucagua El Tinaco Units, were also involved in
this subduction zone, reaching the amphibolite/eclo-
gite facies (e. g. La Rinconada Fm.: Bocchio et al.,
1996).
At the same time, the central-western portion of the
proto-Caribbean realm was undergoing crustal thick-
ening possibly by both excess magmatism at spread-
ing centres and repeated eruptions on the prexisting
oceanic crust, leading to an oceanic plateau (Saunders
et al., 1996). Whatever the mode of plateau accretion,
the huge amounts of basaltic, picritic and OIB lavas
erupted are consistent with the proposal that the
Caribbean Plateau was formed by melting of a mantle
plume. This oceanic plateau played a fundamental role
in the Cretaceous evolution of the entire region (Don-
nelly et al., 1990; Kerr et al., 1996, 1997b, 1999; Sinton
et al., 1998; Beccaluva et al., 1999; Lapierre et al.,
1999, 2000).
In the Late Cretaceous (Fig. 8C), the peripheral
portions of the thickened oceanic plateau (Colombian
and Venezuelan Basins, and the adjacent oceanic
substratum of the Dutch and Venezuelan Islands) were
involved in the subduction, but due to the buoyancy
of this still hotter and ticker lithosphere subduction
was interrupted. Nevertheless, the persistent westward
convergence of the Atlantic South American Plates
led to a new west-dipping subduction of the unthick-
ened eastern portion of the Caribbean lithosphere.
This is also supported by regional tectonic reconstruc-
tions (Pindell and Barrett, 1990).
During this time, a portion of the belt constituted
by the Loma de Hierro, Villa de Cura and Dos
Hermanas Units was undergoing a progressive clock-
wise rotation (Skerlec and Hargraves, 1980), during
its approach and collision with the South American
continental margin through the Piemontine foredeep.
Moreover, the subcontinental subduction ceased and
the group of units including Cordillera De La Costa,
Caucagua El Tinaco and Franja Costera began to
shift eastward along a transpressional strike slip
system and contributing to the building of the South
Caribbean margin (eo-Caribbean phase II). Subduc-
tion of the oceanic lithosphere below the Caribbean
plateau gave rise to the unmetamorphosed granitoid
magmatism of the Dutch and Venezuelan Islands (e.g.
Aruba, 85 82 Ma, White et al., 1999; Los Roques,
this work), as well as the development of the original
Aves/Lesser Antilles magmatic arc system, whose
volcanic activity also started in the Late Cretaceous
(Holcombe et al., 1990) (Fig. 8C).
The present configuration of the Antilles arc is
related to the eastward motion of the Colombian and
Venezuelan Basins, relative to the westward drifting
of the two Americas (cf. Pindell and Barrett, 1990).
The eastward migration of the entire system into
transpressive stress-fields, with respect to the South
American Plate, allowed the progressive rotation and
dismembering of the older geotectonic elements along
the constructing southern Caribbean margin.
The Dutch and Venezuelan Islands alignment may
therefore represent the magmatic record of this migra-
tion, marking the end of the main tectonogenetic
phases of the northern Venezuelan deformed belt with
the obduction of the proto- and eo-Caribbean elements
onto and/or against the South American Plate.
Since the Neogene (Fig. 8D), a more recent dextral
transpressive phase, in addition to a further dismem-
bering of the South Caribbean deformed belt, has
produced a second order N S crustal shortening
inside the Venezuela Basin, giving rise to the Curac
ao accretionary prism (Caribbean phase).
Acknowledgements
Authors wish to thank A.C. Kerr and an anony-
mous referee for their perceptive and constructive
criticism. Thanks are also due to R. Tassinari for XRF
 G. Giunta et al. / Lithos 63 (2002) 1940
and ICP-MS analyses. This work has been carried out
within the IGCP-Project 433 Carribbean Plate
Tectonis (project leader: M. Iturralde-Vinent). Fi-
nancial support by Italian MURST (resp.: L. Becca-
luva and G. Giunta) and CNR (resp.: G. Giunta).
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