5 Ampere and Maxwell A Fine Balance

As we have pointed out earlier E = /o and B = o j + o o E t

together yield the law of
charge conservation in the form of the equation of continuity. It is reassuring that the
displacement current term o o E
t
proposed originally by Maxwell (though with a different
justification) makes this possible it gives us a very physical way to understand that Amperes
term, whcih historically came first, needed Maxwells term to complete it. We will now discover
through physical examples, the o j and o o E
t
do not just complete each other, they complement
each other beautifully.

1 The Magnetic Field of an Infinite Straight Wire

Carrying a Steady Current
Let us use B = o j + o o Et
to look afresh at the field of an infinite straight wire carrying a
steady current I. Assuming that the positive charges balance the negative charges, there is no
electric field (and even if there is, e.g. as seen from a moving frame, the electric field is
time-independent). Thus we are left with

E = o j (1)

or its integral version I

B dl = o Ienc (2)
C

and wire.jpg

where Ienc is the current enclosed by the loop C. From symmetry, the magnetic field must be
equal at all points on a circle centred on the wire, which we align along the z axis in an (R, , z)
coordinate system. Since V = 0, the magnetic field must be azimuthal (we will look at this
more carefully later in the chapter on static fields). Thus we have the well-known result

o I
B= (3)
2R

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Now let us regard the steady current from a complementary point of view as the superposition
of the currents due to a large number of moving point charges, with their electric fields neutralized
by a chain of opposite charges of the appropriate density. We ask what B = o j + o o E t
tells us about the situation looked at this way.
A point charge q moves along the z axis at a velocity v. The charge density and current are
non-zero only at the instantaneous position of the charge. Because the charge is moving, it is
obvious that its electric field is time-dependent. So if we wish to determine the magnetic field at
any point, the answer must lie in the Maxwell term o o E t
, not in the Ampere term o j. Thus

E 1 E
B = o o = 2 (4)
t c t

Charge - 1.jpg

From symmetry it is clear that the strength of the magnetic field must be equal at all points on a
circle centred on the the z axis. In an (R, , z) coordinate ssystem the magnetic field must be
along , else it would violate B = 0. So if we consider a circular loop C of radius R around
the z axis, we have, on integrating
ZZ
1 d
2RB = 2 E dS (5)
c dt S

Charge - 2.jpg

For a moving charge

q (1 v 2 /c2 ) rq
E= 2 (6)
4o (1 v sin /c ) rq2
2 2 3/2

Since dS is along rq
E dS = E d = 2E sin d (7)
and so
1 q (1 v 2 /c2 ) d
2RB = 2 2 sin (8)
c2 4o (1 v 2 sin /c2 )3/2 dt

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With a little trigonometry we can show (see exercises) that
d v
= sin (9)
dt R
Using R = rq sin , we find that (see exercises)
v
B= E sin (10)
c2
or
v
B= E (11)
c2
This was of course entirely to be expected it is what we got earlier using field transformations ,
but it is useful to see how the E
t
produces a magnetic field.

If we now regard E as the electric field of the moving charge in a current element, we have the
equivalence Idl qv, and so we can write, as we did in an earlier chapter,
o I R
dB = dz (12)
4 (R + 2 z 2 )3/2
2

o I
where z = z vt. The integral of this over all z gives us, as before, B = 2R
.

2 The Displacement Current

The effect of c12 E
t
is often called a displacement current. One context in which this name becomes
clear is that of a circuit with a capacitor. We imagine that the current varies with time, so that
there is continuity across the capacitor. But we still assume that the current in the wire is steady
an assumption that is valid so long as the circuit and its elements are small.

2.1 The Magnetic Field Around the Wire

First Surface

Consider the loop Cout shown in the diagram, and two possible surface bounded by this loop.
Surface S1 is penetrated by the wire, as shown. Since there is no electric field outside the
capacitor, the intergral of B is just

2RBout = o I (13)

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Second Surface

On the other hand, if we use S2 , the current through it is zero everywhere. However, since the
current is time-varying the charge on the plates of the capacitor change with time. Thus the
electric field between the plates varies with time. The flux of this electric field through S2 is
non-zero only in the portion between the plates, and here it is equal to
ZZ
Q
E dS = 2 a2 (14)
a o

where Q is the charge on the capacitor plate within the surface, and a is the radius of the plates.
Thus ZZ
1 d 1 dQ 1
2RBout = 2 E dS = 2
= I (15)
c dt o c dt o c2
from which the expected expression for B follows. We have used the continuity equation over a
closed surface enclosing the capacitor plate to get dQ
dt
= I.

Third Surface
Now let us consider a surface that goes through the plates, as shown in the figure below. There is
now a current through the surface as well, and so there are contribution from both the Ampere
and the Maxwell terms. To determine the contribution of the first term, we first need to work out
surface current K on the capacitor plate. From symmetry, it is obvious that K depends only on R
and point in the direction R. Using the continuity equation over a cylindrical surface of radius R
capped at both ends we find (see exercises)

d Q R2 R2
I 2RK = = I (16)
dt a2 a2

- top view.jpg

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 the capacitor.jpg

from which it follows that

I  R2 
K= 1 2 (17)
2R a
Notice that K vanishes at the boundary of the plate (R = a), as it should.
Now, we have
1 1 d Q R2
2RBout = 2R K +
o c2 c2 dt a2
2
I  R I R2 (18)
= 1 2 +
o c2 a o c2 a2
= o I
as required.

2.2 The Magnetic Field Inside the Capacitor

First Surface

The changing electric field inside the capacitor must produce an electric field. Cylindrical
symmetry again tells us that the field must be azimuthal, as it is outside the capacitor. If we draw
a circular loop Cin of radius R, as shown in the figure, we find

to calculate B(in).jpg

1 d Q R2 R2
2RBin = = I (19)
c2 dt a2 a2
or
o IR
Bin = (20)
2a2
Second Surface

The same magnetic field can be obtained by stretching the surface outside so that it is penetrated

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by the wire, as shown in the diagram. Now the outer side of the surface inside the capacitor
points in the opposite direction, and so
1 1 d Q 2 2

2RBin = I (a R ) (21)
o c2 c2 dt a2 o
or, as expected,
o IR
B= (22)
2a2

2.3 Change in Magnetic Field at the Boundary

Finally, let us consider a cylindrical surface cutting through the capacitor and open at both ends.
At first glance one might wonder how to apply Stokes Theorem to a surface bounded by two
loops, but that problem is easily solved by making a fine incision along the length of the cylinder,
thus connecting the two outer loops and making themm one. Since the longitudinal incision is
bounded by two stretches of the path of equal length and in opposite directions, the ir total
contribution to the line integral is zero. The outer and inner loops must be circumscribed in
opposite directions so that when seen together they form one path. Now we find (see exercises)
dQ R2
2R (Bout Bin ) = o I o (23)
dt a2
or
o I  R2 
Bout Bin = 1 2 (24)
2R a

- 2.jpg

Notice that the right hand side is just the surface current o K. That, as we will discover later, is
not a coincidence.

3 Can a Spherically Symmetric Current Have a Magnetic

Field?
In volume 2 chapter 18 of Feynmans Lectures he motivates the necessity for the Maxwell term by
pointing out that it is impossible for a spherically symmetric current to have a magnetic field. Let
us understand this by considering a spherical capacitor. We imagine the capacitor discharging,
but not thorough a wire: instead we let the space between the inner and outer spheres be filled
with a uniformly conducting material, so that as the discharge occurs the current flows in a
spherically symmetric fashion. Now let us consider a spherical surface of radius r concentric with
the spheres and in between them. Here, I = dQ dt
and E = 4Qorr2 , and so we get
1 I 1 d Q r
B= r + =0 (25)
o c2 4r2 c2 dt 4o r2

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Since B = 0 as well, B = 0. The Ampere and Maxwell terms cooperate perfectly to ensure
that the impossible does not happen. There is indeed a fine balance between them.

current.jpg

4 Exercises
d v
1. Show that dt
= R
sin for the moving charge.
v
2. Complete the steps leading to B = c2
E.

3. a) Consider and infinite parallel-plate capacitor that is charged at the beginning and is then
filled uniformly in between with a conducting material. Show that as it discharges no
magentic field is developed.
b) Find the discharge time in terms of the resistance of the material and the capacitance.
Then write the resistance in terms of the resistivity of the material and check what
expression emerges for the discharge time. What does this tell you about the time-scale over
which charge flows in a conductor?

4. *** Consider a circular parallel-plate capacitor connected to an otherwise infinite straight

line current that oscillates as I = Io cos t . Assume that the charging and discharging
happen slowly, find the electric field and, from that, the magnetic field inside the capacitor.
Try out different surfaces. The condition just stated that the charging and discharging
happen slowly needs to be made sharper: the time-scale over which I changes is
obviously determined by , but here needs to be a natural time-scale of the system with
which this can be compared so that slowly makes sense. What is this natural time-scale
(or, alternatively, natural frequency)? One way to look at the magnetic field is as a
consequence of the changing magnetic field. Given Maxwells Equations, what do you see
happeing if you take this logic far enough?