Interpretation of Stratigraphic Sequences

IntegratedInterpretationProcedures

The following is an outline of an integrated interpretation procedure,

which will reveal the sequence stratigraphy for a targeted exploration area.
Using a consistent procedure results in the organized identification and dating
of sequences, sequence boundaries, and systems tracts, which we can then
evaluate in terms of lithology and reservoir potential. The multi-step
interpretation procedure outlined in Table 1 (below) is modified from that of
Vail and Wornardt (1991), and can be applied at both the regional or prospect
level.

In outlining this methodology, our goal is to show how it may be

applied, and what to look for in the interpretation process. While the
methodology outlined in Table 1 is linear; it requires constant
feedback and reworking of previous steps to obtain satisfactory
results. Seismic sequence stratigraphic interpretations require an
artistic, "right-brain" flair combined with a firm understanding of
sequence stratigraphic concepts. It should be emphasized that
only one correct interpretation for a given geologic setting exists
(Vail, pers. comm.), and that it may require numerous guesses
and re-evaluations to obtain this absolute truth when studying
the distant geologic past. While this methodology presents useful
guidelines, it should serve primarily as a basis for the
development of our own procedures, based upon experience,
type location, and available tools and data.

S PROCEDURE TOOL
TEP S

1 Structural Seismi
interpretation of seismic c profiles
data

2 Interpret Well
lithologies from well log logs
character

3 Interpret Well
depositional logs & paleo
environments and data
paleobathymetry

4 Identify major Seismi

2nd order sequences c profiles &
well logs

5 Interpret Faunal
condensed sections abundancies
and
diversities
 6 Establish Biostra
condensed section ages tigraphic
chart

7 Locate Dipme
discontinuities ter log

8 Interpret SBs & Well

systems tract logs
boundaries

9 Interpret SBs, Seismi

mfs and systems tracts c profiles &
tie to well-
logs

1 Tie interpreted Global

0 features to sea level or local cycle
cycle chart chart

1 Identify & Well

1 coordinate logs
parasequences and
marker beds

1 Construct Well
2 seismic sequence logs and
stratigraphic cross seismic
sections

1 Produce Well
3 chronostratigraphic logs
display summary biostratigraph
y& seismic

Table 1. An integrated sequence stratigraphic interpretation

procedure. (Modified from Vail and Wornardt, 1991)

SeismicProfiles

The first step in deciphering sequence stratigraphy from seismic

reflection profiles is to interpret the structure, major faults, and seismic
reflector terminations and truncations of the area. We do this using the
standard loop-tying procedure across the seismic grid. We usually start in the
least complex areas and work toward more complex areas.

As we learned earlier; the geometries of seismic reflectors are the key

to deciphering sequence boundaries and their intervening sequences. To
extract sequence bounding surfaces, we mark reflector terminations
representing the downlap, onlap and offlap stratigraphic surfaces. We do this
using small arrows at critical points, as illustrated on the seismic profile of two
original seismic stratigraphic models: Figure 1 (a generalized stratigraphic
section of a sequence,
 Figure 1

with the vertical axis measured in depth) and Figure 2 (a generalized

chronostratigraphic section of a sequence, with the vertical axis measured in
time ).

Figure 2

The overall morphologies revealed by the sequence boundaries on dip

sections provide a general indication of the former margins of a basin, as well
as its paleobathymetric environments and sequence stratigraphy. Tracing the
offlap break inflection points, which separate relatively flat topsets from
dipping foresets, may help identify the location and evolution of the shelf
break of a basin margin through time.

At this point, insight from an appropriate model, such as the one

illustrated in Figure 3 (Log responses of different systems tract on the shelf
and slope), should help us identify stratigraphic sequences, while internal
morphologies and paleo water depths should give us clues as to the types of
systems tracts present, or at least expected.
 Figure 3

The procedure of "pushing" appropriately coded colors along sequence

boundaries, and within identified systems tracts, expedites the transfer of
interpretations to base maps, the contouring of time values, and the
production of cross sections. Converting time values to depth values is helpful
in detecting velocity-induced false structures. The regional seismic
stratigraphic interpretation ( Figure 4 ) is an excellent example of what an
interpretation should look like.

Figure 4

At this point, the input of well-log and high-resolution biostratigraphic data is

crucial towards developing the investigation beyond the regional level.

WellLogsandCores

The integration of well log data, including SP, gamma ray and
resistivity curves, sonic log velocities, and core samples analyses, enables us
to make a reasonably accurate prediction of lithologies and fluids. We can use
well data to identify sequences and systems tracts, and to date condensed
sections and sequence boundaries.

The detailed interpretation of well log electric curves consists of first

verifying and picking the sequence boundaries, which we correlate with the
seismic reflection profiles at the well site using synthetic seismograms. A
synthetic seismogram is a continuous, vertical record that looks like a seismic
trace but is derived from sonic and density logs (Risch et al., 1994a).
Synthetically derived seismic traces are the best tool for correlating between
time-based seismic reflection profiles and depth-based well data, and are
essential for obtaining an optimal interpretation. Once we have bridged the
gap between seismic and well log data, we can then proceed with the detailed
analysis and interpretation of sequence stratigraphy from well log data.

Figure 1 (Characteristic well-log responses and associated lithologies of

the basin floor fan),

Figure 1

Figure 2 (Characteristic well-log responses and associated lithologies of

the slope fan complex)
 Figure 2

and Figure 3 (Characteristic well-log responses and associated lithologies of

the prograding complex) show the idealized electric well log traces.

Figure 3

In particular, we may note the following:

Basin floor fan ( Figure 1 ): This unit has a characteristic

blocky, "boxcar" character. The interval itself typically consists of a
massive sandbody, although thim pelagic shales can occur interbedded
with the sands. At the outer edges If the sandbody, interbedded shales
may become common and form local barriers to vertical flow. Individual
sand layers typically coalesce in the central sandbody, resulting in a
single hydrocarbon-water contact.

At the upper boundary, pelagic shales may result in an excellent

seal; if channel overbank sands of slope fan rest directly on a basin
floor fan, however, they form a poor seal. The top of the basin fan
typically has a thin transition zone, but an abrupt top may indicate
postdepositional submarine current erosion.

At the sequence boundary, the typically massive sand rests

directly on pelagic shales or marls. Biodirectional downlap may be
recognized from log correlation. Erosion on the boundary is uncommon;
when it does occur, it can indicate proximity to the sluiceway, down
which sands are transported to the central basin.

Slope fan complex ( Figure 2 ): The "nervous" log

character signifies the beginning of the upper boundary, and indicates
a shift from overlying pelagic shale to laminated sand-shale of the
slope fan. The overlying shale typically has a faunal abundance peak.

Within the interval, the channel-overbank units show a crescent

shaped log character. The upper part of the unit consists of overbank
sands that thin and become sparse upward, while the lower part
consists of attached-lobe sands that thicken and become more
abundant upward. Wells in the central lobe may show coarsening-
upward channel sands of "multi-story" highly sandy intervals. Sub-
parallel facies are poorly understood, but may consist of sheet-like
attached lobe facies in areas of abundant sand supply. Six to ten
channel overbank units may stack in one lowlands systems tract.

The lower boundary lies on the sequence boundary or on a

basin floor fan. Faunal abundance peaks may separate units and may
seal the basin floor fan.

Prograding complex ( Figure 3 ): The top of the prograding

complex marks the transition from upward-shallowing to upward-
deepening sediments. Toplap is common below the boundary, and
there may be a transgressive surface of erosion at the boundary.

Thick intervals of coarsening-upward sands may occur near the

top of the sand. Thinner, blocky sands may underlie the boundary. Near
the top of the interval, shoreline and deltaic sands occur, which grade
downward into prodelta and pelagic shales. The prograding complex
pinches out against the offlap break (shelf edge) of the previous
highstand systems tract, while shingled turbidite sands may occur at
the base.

At the lower boundary, clinoform toe pelagic shales rest on

"nervous" laminated silts, sands and shales of the slope fan complex. A
significant faunal abundance peak commonly in the basil pelagic
shales. Note that the displayed electric log curves are idealized and
that actual well log data will consist of an infinite number of variations
on these themes. Variations are frequently indicative of the changing
nature of depositional environments through time, which is precisely
 the kind of information we should be looking for in our search for
hydrocarbon traps.

Thus, the slope fan complex illustrated in Figure 2 may consist

of repetitions of the same pattern and indicate the presence of several
repeated or "stacked" slope fan complexes an excellent potential
hydrocarbon prospect. Or; the well-log data might show a lack of high-
amplitude "kicks" on the electric or gamma ray logs, indicating low
sand contents within an sfc unit a poor exploration prospect.

The power of the sequence stratigraphic method, however,

allows us to understand the basic sedimentary depositional processes
and environments at a given subsurface point and to extrapolate these
laterally in the search for optimal hydrocarbon prospects. The
characteristic well log patterns provide us with a rough guide for
interpreting sequence stratigraphic units from either SP or gamma ray
well logs.

We should reinforce and confirm our interpretations using

synthetic seismograms. Figure 4 shows a correlation between a well log
curve, synthetic seismic profile, and a seismic reflection record.

Figure 4

Note that the area below the label "LOCAL TOP" displays the characteristic
well log pattern indicative of a basin floor complex and overlying slope fan
complex. Synthetic seismic traces and electric logs, generated at the same
scale, can be placed side-by-side for better correlation and for comparisons to
additional data, such as high-resolution biostratigraphy and paleo water
depths. We must continuously cross-correlate between the various tools,
refining our interpretation in an iterative process. It is convenient to have all
data on the same scale; for example, 1 inch = 1,000 feet.
The interpretation of lithologies and associated systems tracts from well logs
involves matching characteristic signatures . In Figure 5 (Characteristic well-
log responses and associated lithologies of the transgressive systems tract )

Figure 5

and Figure 6 (Characteristic well-log responses and associated

lithologies of the highstand systems tract ), we see idealized gamma
ray log curves through a transgressive and a highstand systems tract,
respectively.

Figure 6
 Transgressive systems tract ( Figure 5 ): The lowest
resistivity and highest gamma ray values indicate the most clay-rich
shale at the maximum flooding surface. A faunal abundance peak is
common at this boundary. Also, there is a discontinuity surface,
indicating downlap above and apparent truncation below.

The interval itself becomes finer-grained and thinner-bedded

upward. Neritic shales form the best seal near the top, while estuarine,
beach and shoreface sands occur near the base. The basinal equivalent
is a pelagic shale. Ravinement surfaces backstep on successive
parasequence boundaries and may underlie beach-shoreface sand
bodies, while barrier islands and shoreface sands can be well-preserved
and more permeable than highstand systems tract sands. Lowstand
incised-valley erosion is common at the sequence boundary; below the
boundary, erosional truncation is common

Highstand systems tract ( Figure 6 ): Lowstand erosion

and incised valleys are common at the sequence boundary, while
submarine canyons cut into the shelf of the preceding highstand
systems tract. Truncation and toplap are common below the boundary.
Shoreline and deltaic sands predominate near the top of the interval;
sands become coarser-grained and thicker-bedded upward. The
interval progrades into neritic shales toward the basin, and the basinal
equivalent is pelagic shale. Correlation of sands is difficult due to
discontinuous coastal plain and alluvial facies; consequently, reservoir
continuity is only fair to poor.

Downlap of shale-rich clinoform toes onto the boundary of the

maximum flooding surface. There may also be a planktonic abundance
peak characteristic of a thin limestone.

We continue our analysis, using an iterative process between

seismic profiles, synthetic seismic traces and well log data. We perform
this back-and-forth procedure until we obtain a satisfactory
interpretation, have identified all sequences and systems tracts in a
given well, and have tied the interpretation to the seismic data ( Figure
7 , Integrated sequence stratigraphy of seismic profile with well log
profile and correlation, Gulf of Mexico).
 Figure 7
The interpretation shown in Figure 7[atxht]0 results from the
integration of biostratigraphic data, from which condensed section ages and
paleo water depths have been extracted, and correlation with the gamma ray
log to the right. The integrated sequence stratigraphic methodology provides
a continuous history of sedimentary deposition along the seismic profile,
enabling us to extract systems tracts and to evaluate their hydrocarbon
potential.
Minor, repetitive incursions of well log curves within individual systems
tracts are indicative of parasequences, which we can best identify from
continuous core samples. While using cores and cuttings to confirm our
lithologic interpretations of well data is highly recommended, the use of high-
resolution biostratigraphy is a must.
HighresolutionBiostratigraphy

Biostratigraphy is the study of the paleontological aspects of rocks, and

the differentiation of rock units through the study of the fossils they contain
(American Geological Institute, 1984). Biostratigraphy involves extracting,
cataloguing and determining the species of microscopic fossils in the
sedimentary record. Different species, such as benthic bottom dwellers or
pelagic surface dwellers, may indicate particular environments and ecological
habitats.

The input of biostratigraphic information is essential to a successful

seismic sequence stratigraphic interpretation and reduces the risks in
exploring for hydrocarbons. Biostratigraphic data is useful not only for dating
purposes, but also for determining past depositional environments and
associated paleobathymetry, since depositional environments enable us to
understand the sedimentary record in terms of sequence stratigraphy.

High-resolution biostratigraphy consists of detailed paleontologic

sampling at regular downhole intervals of 30 to 60 feet (Vail and Wornardt,
1991). We can then tabulate a paleontological checklist of fossil species
content and abundances, showing quantitative variations of fossil species with
depth, which we can then correlate to well logs and seismic sections.

Such a checklist provides a simple visual display of species content and

abundances, relative to well depth. Biostratigraphic results displayed in this
manner represent a statistical approach, which provides a practical method
for extracting biostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic data. In addition, this
statistical approach represents a reliable and repeatable method for
identifying paleoenvironments and for selecting condensed sections.
Condensed sections are characterized by an abundance of fossils associated
with periods of low terrigenous sediment input, when sedimentation is
restricted to pelagic and hemipelagic deposition.

This is clearly shown by the microfossil histograms, and interpreted

systems tracts of Figure 1 (Microfossil content versus well depth ).

Figure 1

This slow sedimentation results from the removal of sedimentary sources and
deepening marine conditions. Since condensed sections are associated with
the maximum flooding stages and coastal onlap, their detection is essential in
the interpretation of stratigraphic sequences.
 These histograms enable us to recognize important biostratigraphic
references from the patterns produced by fossil abundances and diversities.
We can readily see the presence of a maximum flooding surface and a
condensed section between well depths 2640 and 2790 feet on Figure 1 . Note
the annotated abundance and diversity values and the selection of systems
tracts boundaries.

When integrating biostratigraphic data with well logs and seismic

reflections, we can generally locate sequence boundaries directly above fossil
abundance peaks for deepwater environments. In addition, the telltale electric
log readings and the nature of seismic reflectors combine to provide us with a
high level of confidence as we choose a particular sequence boundary or
subunit.

Biostratigraphic data also reveals the paleobathymetry of stratigraphic

formations, as certain fossils, particularly benthic bottom-dwellers, are
associated with well-defined marine environments Associated with water
depth. Hence a plot of paleo water depths, derived from biostratigraphic data,
overlain on a graph of well log and paleo data, enables us to confirm our
interpreted depositional environments. This process reduces such errors as
interpreting a blocky sand to represent a basin floor fan when paleo water
depths indicate the presence of an inner neritic environment.

The assembly of an integrated graphical data display, including all of

the above tools, tremendously enhances our confidence in deciphering the
sequence stratigraphic record. Once we assemble an integrated graphical
display, we should then correlate it to an appropriate sea level cycle chart to
further reinforce our interpreted depositional environments, ages, and
associated lithologies.

At this point in our integrated sequence stratigraphic interpretation,

the emerging picture of the subsurface should enable us to predict the lateral
and vertical distribution of source rocks, reservoir sands, and seals. The
precision of our predictions is a function of the well data and seismic grid
spacing more than anything else. For exploration at the prospect level, 3-D
seismic coverage can provide the requisite resolution for detecting small
petroleum traps, while a more widely spaced seismic grid will provide only a
general idea of potential targets.

SeaLevelCycleCharts

We can greatly enhance our seismic sequence stratigraphic

interpretations by tying them to a sea level chart, both to verify the
interpretation and to provide a chronostratigraphic reference. We do this by
comparing our interpretations to either the global cycle chart, from Haq et al.
(1987), or an appropriate locally derived chart

Because the global cycle chart of Haq et al. covers a long period of
geologic history, it is consequently limited to the extraction and correlation of
first- through third-order stratigraphic sequences. We may need a more
detailed chart when seeking finer details at the prospect and production level,
when stratigraphic sequences of the third-order and smaller are involved. With
time and experience, individual exploration teams develop their own charts,
based upon their preference of chronostratigraphic events, and how these fit
into a particular geologic setting. The global cycle chart serves more
frequently as a general guideline until further studies refine it into smaller
time periods for specific sedimentary basins.

With the accumulation of experience from seismic sequence

stratigraphy in exploration efforts around the world, minor modifications to
current sea level cycle charts are inevitable, as the science is still in its
infancy. As work progresses, sequence stratigraphic models for various
settings will be refined.

PredictionofLithofaciesandDepositionalEnvironments

A completed sequence stratigraphic interpretation is a powerful tool for

predicting subsurface rock properties. A review of the integrated data,
assembled from wells and seismic reflection profiles and displayed as
stratigraphic charts, can reveal depositional environments and associated
lithologies.

Using displays of this type, we can confidently assess potential

producing zones. We can target particular zones for exploration, and analyze
these further in terms of source rocks, seals and potential reservoir traps.
Understanding the sequence stratigraphy of an area not only enhances our
confidence in an interpretation and lowers exploration risks, but most
importantly provides an accurate framework for laterally extrapolating
depositional environments and lithologies away from a well-site. The modeling
of seismic reflection character for potential stratigraphic traps, based upon
detected lithologies, provides additional confirmation and verification of
targeted hydrocarbon traps. As a general rule of thumb, we assume that long-
term rises in relative sea level, such as those associated with second-order
tectonic cycles, tend to produce source rocks, while the falling phase of these
long-term cycles produce the reservoir rocks (Vail, pers. comm.)

ReservoirExploitationandProduction

Applying sequence stratigraphy, using the procedures outlined above,

enables the seismic sequence stratigrapher to make valid, and potentially
economic, predictions as to the composition of sedimentary rocks in the
geologic record.

To obtain meaningful results, we must do more than follow a simple

procedure; we must develop a thorough understanding of the sequence
stratigraphic concepts and hone our interpretation skills through practical
experience. By using all available data and our best abilities in our quest for
hydrocarbon resources, we can make more than an educated guess about the
nature of the subsurface geology at both the regional and prospect levels.
Sequence stratigraphy provides a comprehensive framework not only for
understanding cyclic depositional processes but more importantly for
detecting the resulting sedimentary deposits in the subsurface.

The mapping of reservoir-quality sands and seals, together with an

understanding of the source rocks and migration paths, enables us to select
high-quality prospects, such as those associated with the lowstand,
transgressive and high-stand systems tracts ( Figure 1 , Siliciclastic sequence
stratigraphic model showing systems tracts and the distribution of sands).
Reservoir-quality sands are also distributed throughout most of the other
systems tracts.
Figure 1