1.

Basic state
values of
matter

Example 1.1

The pressure inside a boiler is p p = 115.105 Pa and pv = 9.44.104 Pa inside a condenser. Calculate the absol
pressure inside the boiler and condenser if the barometric pressure p b = 0.098 MPa. Find the vacuum in
condenser in % !

Solution:

pp = 11.5 MPa: pv = 94.4 kPa; pb = 0.098 MPa; pa boil = ? ; pa cond = ?

a) The absolute pressure inside the boiler pa boil = pb + pp = 0.098 + 11.5 = 11.598 MPa

The absolute pressure in the condenser pa cond = pb - pv = 0.098 - 0.0944 = 0.0036 MPa

b) The vacuum inside the condenser in % :

x [%] = x.100 = 96.3 %

Example 1.2

A pressure vessel of a volume of 0.1 m3 contains 1.25 kg of oxygen. What is the density and specific volume?
Solution:

V = 0.1 m3; m = 1. 25 kg 02; r = ? ; v = ?

air density

specific volume of oxygen

2. THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION OF STATE f(p,
v, T)=0

Example 2.1

Calculate the densitz and specific volume of carbon dioxide CO2 under normal physical conditions.
Solution :

r=?;v=?

Normal conditions are: pressure p = 0.101325 MPa, temperature t = 0 C.

Using the equation of state p v = r ;
T

The gas constant for CO2 r = 188,97 J/(kg.K); absolute temperature T = t + 273.15 = 273.15 K
Then

Density

Example 2.2

A pressure vessel contains nitrogen at a temperature of t = 20 C and pressure p = 2.2 MPa. The maxim
allowed overpressure is 6 MPa. What is the maximum temperature that the nitrogen can be heated to if
barometric pressure is pb = 0,1 MPa?
Solution:

t = 20 C ; p = 2.2 MPa ; ppmax = 6 MPa ; pb = 0.1 MPa; t2 = ?

The isochoric process

p1 = 2.2 MPa, T1 = t1 + 273 = 20 + 273 = 293 K

p2 = pa max = ppmax + pb = 6 + 0.1 = 6.1 MPa

t2 = T2 - 273 = 812 - 273 = 539 C

3. Ideal-gas mixtures

Example 3.1

1 kg of dry air comprises 23.2 mass % oxygen and 76.8 % nitrogen. Find the volume fractions of air (i.e.
individual volumes), the gas constant, the mean virtual molar mass and the partial pressures of oxygen
nitrogen if the air pressure is p = 0.1013 MPa.
Solution:

wO2= 0.232; wN2 = 0.768; p = 0.1013 MPa ; xO2 = ?; xN2 = ?; r = ?; M = ?; pO2 = ?; pN2 = ?

Volume composition of air

The volume fraction for air

The volume fraction for nitrogen

The gas constant for air

The mean virtual molar

mass for air

or

The partil pressure of oxygen is po2 = xO2 p = 0.209. 0.1013 = 0.02118 MPa

The partil pressure of nitrogen is pN2 = xN2 p = 0.791. 0.1013 = 0.08012 MPa
4. I. LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

Example 4.1

A steel component weighing 0.2 kg heated inside a furnace is then inserted inside a calorimeter containing
kg of water at a temperature of t = 20 C. After stabilisation, the temperature inside the calometer is 75
Calculate the temperature of the component before it was inserted into the calorimeter. The specific h
capacitz of steel is c = 0.469 kJ/(kg.K).
Solution:

mFe = 0.2 kg; mH2O = 0.5 kg; t1H2O =20 C ; t2H2O = 75 C; cFe = 0.469 kJ/(kg.K)

The heat transferred from the steel to the water is

QH2O =mH2O . cH2O (t2H2O - t1H2O) = 0.5 . 4186.8 (75 - 20) = 115.103 J

From the heat balance

QFe = mFe . cFe (tFe - t2H2O) = QH2O

we can calculate

5. Reversible thermodynamic processes of

ideal gasses

Example 5.1

A closed container contains 0.6 m3 of air with a pressure of p 1 = 4.9.105 Pa and temperature t1 = 20 C. Wha
the pressure and temperature after losing 104.5 kJ of heat (i.e. cooling)?
Solution:

V= 0.6 m3 ; p1 = 4.9.105 Pa ; t1 = 20 C ; Q12 = -104.5 kJ; p2 = ?; t2 = ?

In an isochoric process ; where p2and

T2 are the sought values. Here, it is
necessary to use the First Law of
Thermodynamics for an isochoric process
Q = m.. Du = m . cv (t2 - kde is the mass of air
t1),

Pressure

Example 5.2

How much heat must be received by 0.5 kg of oxygen at a pressure of p 1 = 2.94.10 5 Pa and temperature t1 =
C in order to carry out work A 12 = 27 900 J under a constant pressure, and what will the final volume a
temperature be?
Solution:

m = 0.5 kg; p1 = 2.94.105 Pa; t1 = 35 C; A12 = 27 900 J; V2 = ? ; t 2 = ?

The work of the isobaric process (p2 = p1 = p1,2 )

, where

In ab isobaric process

The heat received

Q12 = m.cp (t2 - t1) = 0.5 . 0.917.103 (238 - 35) = 0.931.103 J = 0.931 kJ
Example 5.3

490 kJ of heat is rejected in an isothermic compression of 0.3 m 3 of air with a pressure of p1 = 106 Pa
temperature t = 300 C. Calculate the final volume and pressure!
Solution :

V1 = 0.3 m3; p1 = 106 Pa; t = 300 C; Q12 = -490 kJ; V2 = ? ; p2= ?

From i sothermic work

we get

The pressure ratio

The final pressure

The final volume (from the isothermic equation

p1V1 = p2V2)

Example 5.4

1 kg of air with an initial temperature of t 1 = 30 C and pressure p1 = 0.0981.106 Pa is adiabatically compres

to p2 = 0.981.l06Pa. Deterermine the final volume, the final temperature and volume work done on this syst
(k = l.4 ).
Solution :

t1 = 30 C ; p1 = 0.0981.106 Pa ; p2 = 0.981.106 Pa ; v2 = ? ; t2= ? ; a12 = ?

From the temperature and pressure

in an adiabatic process we get the final temeprature
ratio

t2 = T2 - 273 = 585.5 - 273 = 312.5 C

The final volume (from the equation of state)

The work done on the system

Example 5.5

1.5 kg of air is polytropically compressed from p 1= 0.088.106 Pa and t1 = 18 C to p2 = 0.981.106 Pa and t2 = 1

C. What is the polytropic, final volume the work done on the system the heat lost and the change in inter
energy..
Solution :

m= 1.5 kg; p1 = 0.088.106 Pa; t1 = 18 C ; p2 = 0.981.106 Pa ; t2 = 125 C ; n = ?; V2 = ?; A12 = ?; Q12 = ?; DU =

The temperature-pressure ratio in a polytropic
process is

and the logarithm is

The polytropic exponent n = 1.149

The final volume

The work in a polytropic which is wo

process consumed

The heat lost

The change in internal energy (from the First Law of Thermodynamics)

DU = Q12 - A12 = - 193.103 - (309.103) = 116.103 J

Example 5.6

Air at a temperature of 127 C is compressed isothermically to a quarter of the initial volume and th
adiabatically expands to its original pressure. Calculate the temperature of the air after the adiabatic expansio
Solution:

t 1,2 = 127 C; v2 = v1/4 ; p3 = p1 ; t3 = ?

In an isothermic process from 1 to 2: p1/ p2 = v2/ v1

tj.
In an adiabatic process from 2 -3:
The temperature

t3 = T3 - 273 = 269 - 273 = - 4 C

6. II. The law of thermodynamics,

entropy, T-s diagram

Example 6.1

1 kg of oxygen at a pressure p 1 = 4.9.105 Pa and temperature t1 = 127 C expands isobarically to double

initial volume, then is compressed isothermically to p2 = 39.2.105 Pa. Calculate the change in entropy of
oxygen!
Solution:

p1 = 4.9.105 Pa ; t 1 = 127 C; v2 = 2 v1 ; p3 = p2 = 39,2.105 Pa; Ds = ?

The change in entropy of an isobaric process

Ds12 = c p1n (T2/T1) = cp1n (v2/v1) = cp 1n (2.v1/v1) = 0,917.1031n 2 = 0,917.103.0,6931 = 0,6353. 103 J/(kg.K)

The change in entropy of an isothermic process

Ds(23) = q2,3/ T2,3 , kde T2,3 = T1.( v2/v1) = 400 (2.v1/v1) = 800 K

The total change in

entropy Ds(13) = Ds(12) + Ds(23) = (0.6353 -
0.52 ).103 = 0.1153.103 J/(kg.K)

Example 6.2

1.5 kg of air is compressed polytropically from pressure p1 = 0.88.105 Pa and tempreature t1= 18 C to press
p2 = 9.81.105 Pa and temperature t2.= 125 C. Find the entropy change!
solution:
m = 1.5 kg; p1 = 0.88.105 Pa ; t1 = 18 C ; p2 = 9,81.105 Pa ; t2 = 125 C Ds = ?

The change in entropy in a polytropic process

DS = m Ds = 1.5 (- 0.3765.103) = - 0.5645.103 J/K

(Note: The exponent of this polytropic process was determined in Exercise 5.47)

Example 6.3

Inside a recuperation exchanger with a gas turbine the air is heated by the exhaust gases from temperature
140 C to t2 = 270 C. The gases are cooled from temperature t 3 = 340 C to temperature t4 = 210 C. The ga
considered ideal having the properties of air. The temperature of the ambient t o = 20 C. There is no heat lo
Calculate the exergy loss!
Solution:

t1 = 140 C ; t2 = 270 C ; t3 = 340 C ; t4 = 210 C ; t0 = 20 C; De = ?

Energy loss De = T0 Ds, where Ds is the change in entropy Ds = Ds1 + Ds2

Ds = ( -0.2395 + 0.275 ).103 =0.0355.103 J/(kg.K)

The exergy loss De = 293. 0.0355.103 = 10.4.103 J/kg = 10.4 kJ/kg

7. Carnot cycle

Example 7.1

1 kg of air is executing the Carnot cycle between the temperatures t H= 327 C and tC = 27 C. The high
temperature is 2.106 Pa; the lowest is 1.2.105 Pa. Calculate the work, thermal efficiancy, the received
rejected heat and the exergic efficiency if the ambient temperatrure is to= 20 C !

Soluition :

tH = tmax = 327 C; tC = tmin = 27 C , pmax =2.106 Pa, pmin = 1,2.105 Pa ; ao = ? ; ht = ?; qH = ? /qC/ = ? ; hE = ?

The pressure in point 2 of the cycle

The pressure in point 4 of the cycle

The heat received

The heat rejected

The thermal
efficiency of the
cycle

The exergetic efficiency is given by the ratio of the actually exerted and maximum work

hE = a/a max ; a max = qH - To s = qH To (qH/T1) ; a0 - qH - qC

8. Cycle of IC-engine
Example 8.1

The working gas in internal combustion engines with a combined input of heat is air. If the pressure p
0.0981.106 Pa, temperature t1 = 30 C, compression ratio e = 7, pressure ratio Y = 2, cutoff ratio j = 1
calculate the state values in the characteristic points of the cycle, the input heat, the work done by the syst
and the thermal efficiency of the cycle. The specific heat capacity is constant.

Solution:

p1 = 0.0981.106 Pa; t1 = 30 C; e = 7; Y = 2; j = 1,2 ; q1 = ? ; aC =? : ht = ?

Quantities

Point p [MPa] v [m3/kg] T [K]

1 0.0981x 0.887 303x

 2 1.491 0.127 659

3 2.982 0.127 1318

4 2.982 0.1525 1580

5 0.254 0.887 785

x
quantities given, the rest calculated

Point 1

Point 2

v2= v1 / e = 0.887 / 7= 0.127 m3/kg

Pressure p2 = p1. e k = 0.0981.106. 71,4 = 1.4 91.106 Pa

Temperature

Point 3

Pressure p3 = p2.Y = 1.491.106. 2 = 2.982.106 Pa

specific volume v3 = v2 = 0.127 m3 /kg

Temperature

Point 4

Pressure p4 = p 3 = 2.982.106 Pa

specific volume v4 = v3 j = 0,127. 1,2 =

0,1525 m3/kg

Temperature T4 = j.T3 = 1.2. 1318 = 1580 K

Point 5
The volume V1= V1 = V = 0.14 m3/s

The power necessary for compression of the air in the low-pressure stage is

and for the

high-pressure stage is PVT= PNT= 36.17.103 W

The power of the engine for both stages is

The temperature after compression in both

stages is

The heat loss from both stages during

compression is

The amount of cooling water for the low-

pressure (high-pressure) stage of the
compressor is

The heat loss from the intercooler is

The amount of cooling water for the

intercooler is

The total amount of cooling water that is

necessary is mH2O = m H2O NT + mH2O VT + m H2O MCH = 0.11045 + 0.11045 + 0.4655 = 0.6844 kg/s
10. Gas flow
Example 10.1

A pressure vessel contains oxygen at a pressure of p 1 = 5 MPa. The gas leaves through a nozzle into the ambi
with a pressure of p2= 4 MPa. The initial temperature of the oxygen is 100 C. Calculate the theoreatical sp
upon exit and the mass flow rate (kg/s), if the area of the end of the nozzle is S = 20.10 -6 m2 . Find the speed
mass flow rate of the oxygen upon exit in to the ambient which has a pressure of p2 = 0.098 MPa.
Solution:

p1 = 5 MPa; p2 = 4 MPa , t1 = 100 C, S = 20.10-6 m,2 p2 = 0.098 MPa, w2 = ?, m = ? w2 = ?, m = ?

a) The pressure ratio

Mass flow

b) The pressure ratio

Mass flow

11.Cycle of gas turbines

Example 11.1

Calculate the thermal efficiency of a cycle of a gas turbine with a compression ration of 10, which has a h
input at a constant pressure, k = 1.4.
Solution:

e = 10; k = 1.4 ; ht = ?

The thermal efficiency of a turbine with heat input with p=const.

ht = 1-( 1/ ek-1) = 1 - (1/10 1,4 -1) = 1 - ( 1/ 2,51 ) = 1 - 0.3985 = 0.6015

12. REAL GASES AND VAPOURS

Example 12.1

Calculate the state of water vapour with a pressure of p = 0.59 MPa and a temperature t = 190 C.
Solution :

p = 0. 59 MPa ; t = 190 C; the state of the water vapour = ?

for saturated water H20 it is possible to determine the temperature of the saturated vapour wit
From the table
pressure of 0.59 MPa, t23 = 158.14 C < t = 190 C.

This is a case of superheated vapour and, using the table for superheated water vapour (i.e. the i-s diagram), i
possible to find the specific volume v, the enthalpy i and entropy s of the vapour for the pressure p
temperature t.

The superheating of the water vapour is Dt = t - t23 = 190 - 158.14 = 31.86 K

Example 12.2

What is the heat received by 1 kg of water vapour with a constant pressure of p = 1.47 MPa if the vapour qua
increases from x1 = 0.8 to x 2 = 0.96 ?
Solution:

p = 1.47 MPa ; x1 =
0.8 ; x2 = 0.96 ; q12 =
? ( dp = 0 )

The heat received

q12 = i2 - i1 is equal to
the enthalpy
difference.

a) The calculation
using the i-s diagram
for water vapour:
For pressure p and quality x1 from the i-s diagram: i1 = 2390 kJ/kg . For p and x2: i2 = 2702 kJ/kg. The h
received q = i2 -i1 = 2702 - 2390 = 312 kJ/kg.

b) The calculation using the tables for saturated water H2O:

Enthalpy i1 = i1 + x1(i1- i1)

i2 = i2 + x2 (i2 - i2 )

for p = const. i1 = i2 = i', i1 = i2=i"

The heat received:

q12 = (x2 - x1)( i- i) =(x2-x1).l23

from the table for pressure p l23 = 1951.25 kJ/kg

q12 = ( 0.96 - 0.8 ).1951.25 = 0.16.1951.25 = 312.2 kJ/kg

Example 12.3

Calculate the heat received by 6 kg of water vapour with a volume of 0.6 m 3 at a temperature of p1 = 0.6 M
so that the pressure increases to p2 = 1 MPa at a constant volume. Find also the final quality of vapour.
Solution :

m = 6 kg ; V = 0.6 m3; p1 = 0.6 MPa ; p2 = 1 MPa ; q12 =? ; x2 = ?

a) Using the tables for water vapour, the specific volume of the vapour is:

From the condition v1 = v2 = v and considering the fact that in the initial and final states (1 and 2) the vapou
wet

v = v1 + x1 (v 1 - v1)

v = v2 + x2( v2 - v2) we get the vapour quality

x1 = ( v - v1) / ( v1- v1) ; x2 = ( v - v2) / ( v2 - v2)

From the table for saturated water we substitute for the values of specific volumes of saturated liquid and vapour

The heat received at a constant volume of 1 kg of vapour is q 12 = u2 - u1 = (i2 - p2v2)-(i1 - p1 v1 ) = ( i2 - i1 )

( p2 - p1)

The enthalpy is

i1 = i1 + x1123,1 = 670.5 + 0.3145.2086 = 1326.5 kJ/kg

i2 = i2 + x2123,2 = 762.7 + 0.5112.2015 = 1792.7 kJ/kg

q12 = (1792.7 - 1326.5) - 0.1 .106 (1 - 0.6) = 466.2 - 40 = 426.2 103 J/kg

The total heat received is

Q12 = m . q12 = 6.426.2 = 2557.2 kJ

b) The calculation using the i-s diagram for

water vapour is:

The enthalpy in point 1 for pressure p1 and

the specific volume is v is i1 =1325 kJ/kg.

The enthalpy in point 2 for pressure p2 and

the specific volume v is i2 = 1795 kJ/kg

The vapour quality in point 2 is x2 = 0.51

The heat received is q12 = (i2 - i1) - v.( p2 -p1) = (1795 - 1325 ) - 0.1.106 . (1 - 0.4) = 470 - 40 = 430.103 J/kg.

Example 12.4

1 kg of water vapour at a pressure of p 1 = 3 MPa and temperature t1,2 = 300 C is compressed to one fifth of
original volume while maintaining the temperature. Calculate the final state of the vapour, the work done on
szstem (i.e. consumed) and the heat lost. Illustrate the process in a p-v, T-s and i-s diagram for water vapour.
Solution:

p1 = 3 MPa; t1 =
t1 = t = 300 C ;
v2 = v1/5; state 2
= ? ; a12 =? ; q12 = ?

a) The calculation
using tables for p1, t - state 1

v1 = 0.08119 m3/kg

i1 = 2988 kJ/kg

s1 = 6.53 kJ/(kg.K)

The specific volume v2 = v1/5 = 0.08119/5 = 0.016238 m3/kg

Since the volume of saturated vapour t = 300 C is 0.02164 m3/kg, the final state 2 falls into the area of
vapour, p2 = 8.592 MPa.

v2 = v 2 + x2( v2 - v2) the quality in point 2

The enthalpy in point 2 i2 = i2 + x2l23,2 =

1344.9 + 0.7335 . 1404.2 = 2373.9 kJ/kg

The e ntropy in point 2 s 2 = s2 + x2( s2 - s

2) = 3.2548 + 0.7335 (5.7049 - 3.2548) =
5.0518 kJ/(kg.K)

The difference in internal energies Du = u2 - u1 = (i2- i1) -(p2v2 - plv1) = (2373.9 - 2988).103-(8.592.0.01623
3.0.08119).106 = -510.4.103J/kg

The lost heat q12 = T(s2 - s1) = 573 (5.0518 - 6.53)= -847 kJ/kg

The consumed work a12 = q12 - Du = -847 - (-510.4 ) = -336.6 kJ/kg

b) The calculation using the i-s diagram for water vapour: for p 1 and t we get v1 = 0.08 m3/kg , i1= 2990 kJ/
s1 = 6.53 kJ/(kg.K), v2 = v1/5 = 0,08/5 = 0.016 m3/kg
For temperature t and v2 we obtain x2 = 0.73, p2 = 8.6 MPa from the i-s i2 = 2375 kJ/kg, s2 = 5.05 k
diagram (kg.K)

The difference in internal energies Du = u2 - u1 = (i2 - i1) - (p2v2 - p1v1) = ( 2375 - 2990).103 - (8.6 . 0.016 -
0.08).106 = -615.103 + 0.1024.106 = - 512.6.103 J/kg

The lost heat q12 = T(s2 - s1) = 573 (5.05 - 6.53) = - 573 . 1.48 = - 848 kJ/kg

The consumed work a12 = q12 - Du = -848 - (-512.6) = -335.4 kJ/kg

Example 12.5

1 kg of water vapour at a pressure of p1= 0.3 MPa and temperature t1 = 300 C expands adiabatically to press
p2 = 0.05 MPa. Calculate the final parameters of the vapour, the volume work and the enthalpy change. Plot a
s and i-s diagram.
Solution:

p1 = 0.3 MPa ; t1 = 300 C ; p2 = 0.05 MPa ; state 2= ? ; a12 = ? ; Di = ?

Using the tables for

water vapour:

For p1, t1 we find i1 =

2988 kJ/kg ; v1 = 0.08119
m3/kg;, s1 = 6.53 kJ/
(kg.K) based on the
condition for an adiabatic
process s2 = s1 and
regarding the fact that
s2 < s2 at a pressure of
p2 (this is actually a case
of wet vapour)

The specific volume v2 = v2+ x2(v2 - v2)

= 0.0010299 + 0.836 (3.239 - 0.0010299) =
2.708 m3/kg

Enthalpy i2 = i2 + x2l23,2 = 340.6 + 0.836.

2304 = 2266.2 kJ/kg

(Note: l23,2 = 2304 kJ/kg)

The difference in enthalpies Di = i2 - i1 = 2266.2 - 2988 = -721.8 kJ/kg

The difference in internal energies Du = u2 - u1 = Di - (p2v2 - plv1 ) = -721.8.103 -( 0.05. 2.708 -

0.08119 ).106 = -721.8.103 + 108.17.103= - 613.63.103 J/kg

The volume work a12 = -Du = 613,63 kJ/kg

Example 12.6

Calculate the temperature at which ice melts under a pair of skates with blades 0.25 m long and 1 mm thick (
weight of the skater is m = 70 kg) if 1/10 of the surface area of the blades is touching the ice. The specific h
for melting ice is l12 = 334 kJ/kg, the density of the ice is rL= 0.9168.103 kg/m3, the density of water is
1.0002.103 kg/m3.
Solution:

L = 0.25 m; d = 1 mm ; m = 70 kg ; K = 0.1 ; l 12= 334 kJ/kg; rL = 0. 9168.103 kg/m3; rV = 1.0002.103 kg/m

t12 = ?
The temperature is calculated using the Clausius-Clapeyron
equation

Let T12 = 273 K (i.e. the temperature of melting ice at barometric pressure p) and dT related to it. T
elementary change dT and dpare replaced by

DT = T12(p+Dp) - T12,p = > T12(p+Dp) = T12,p + DT

= 273 - 2.02 = 271.98 K, t2 = -2.02 C

13. VAPOUR FLOW

Example 13.1

Calculate the output speed of water vapour and the diameter of the nozzle of a Lavalovy jet, if the out
quantity of the water vapour is m = 216 kg/h at a pressure p1 = 0.588 MPa and the temperature t1 = 220 C. T
output preessure is p2 = 0.049 MPa.
Solution:

m = 216 kg/h; p1 = 0.588 MPa ; t1 = 220 C ; p2 = 0.049 MPa ,w2 = ? ; d2 = ?

(using the i-s diagram for water vapour)

For pressure p1 and temperature t1 we calculate the enthalpz i1= 2890 kJ/kg

Entalpie v bod 2 i2 = 2420 kJ/kg

The output speed of water vapour

The diameter of the output noyyle of the jet

14. Cycle of thermal power station

Example 14.1

The cycle of a thermal power station works with additional heating of water vapour. Pressure p 1 = 12 M
temperature t1 = 530 C, pressure p2 = 3500 Pa. The heating is carried out at a pressure of p1 = 2.3 MPa t
temperature of t1 = 480 C. Calculate the increase in the quality of the vapour upon exit from the turbine
the increase in thermal efficiency of the cycle with additional heating compared to that without.
Solution:

p1 = 12 MPa; t1 = 530 C; p2 = 3500 Pa, p 1 = 2.3 MPa; t1 = 480 C; Dx = ?; Dht = ?

From the
i-s
diagram
for water
vapour for
states 1, 2,
l, 2 and
2" we
calculate
i1 = 3426
kJ/kg ; i2 =
2956
kJ/kg i1' = 3420 k J/kg;

i2' = 2180 kJ/kg; i2" = 1972 kJ/kg and the quality of the vapourx2 = 0,85 ; x2 = 0,763.

Using the tables for water vapour we obtain i3 = 111.86 kJ/kg

The thermal efficiency of the cycle without additional
heating

The thermal efficiency of the cycle with additional

heating

The increase in the thermal

efficiency Dht = h;t2 - ht1 = 0.453 - 0.439 =
0.014

The increase in the quality of the vapourDx

= x2 - x2 = 0,85 - 0,763 = 0,087

15. Refrigerating
Example 15.1

An ammonia refrigerating station with a power output of Q = 110 kW works at an evaporation temperature
t1 = -15 C. Saturated vapour (see figure below) leaves the evaporator. The condensation temperature t 3 = 30
then follows undercooling of the condensate to temperature t 3 = 25 C. Calculate the theoretical level
refrigeration of the cycle, the amount of refrigerant NH3 in circulation and the theoretical power output of
motor necessary for driving the compressor of the station.
Solution:

Q = 110 kW; t1 = -15 C; t3 = 30 C, t3' = 25 C ; qvth = ? ; mNH3 = ?, P = ?

From the i-log p NH3 diagram - for the given temperatures - we obtain the enthalpies

i1= 1662 kJ/kg,

i2 = 1894 kJ/kg ;

i3 = 536 kJ/kg

The theoretical level of cooling

qvth = i1 - i4 = i1 - i3' = 1662 - 536 = 1126 kJ/kg

The amount of refrigerant in circulation

m NH3 = Q / qvth = 110/1126 = 0.0977 kg/s

The theoretical power output for driving the compressore is P = m( i2 - i1) = 0.0977 ( 1894 - 1662 ) = 22.66 k

16. MOIST (ATMOSPHERIC) AIR

Example 16.1

1000 kg moist air with a temperature of t1 = 40 C and relative humidity j1= 0.2 with a pressure of p = 0.0
MPa is moistened with 5 kg of water with a temperature tw= 20 C. Calculate the state of the air a
moistening.
Solution :

m = 1000 kg ; t1 = 40 C ; j1 = 0.2 ; p =0.098 MPa, mw = 5 kg, tw = 20 C ; the state after moistening = ?

The specific humidity can be determined using the i-x diagram for state 1: x1 = 0.00948 kg/kg s.v.

The amount of dry air

The increase in specific humidity

Dx = x2 - x1 = mw/ mv = 5 / 991 = 0.005048

kg/kg s.v.

x2= x1 + Dx = 0.00948 + 0.005048 =

0.014528 kg/kg s.v.

During moistening, the slope of the straight line is equal to the enthalpy of the moistening medium (i.e. water

iw = 83.7 kJ/kg. For iw and x2 we get for state 2: i2 = 65 kJ/kg s.v. ; t2 =27.9 C

17. Heat transfer

Example 17.1

Calculate the thickness of a concrete wall with a heat conductivity of l = 1.28 W/(m.K), through which h
flows with a magnitude q = 349 W/m2. The temperatures on the two sides of the wall are t1 = 20 C, t2 = -20
Solution :

l = 1.28 W/(m.K); q = 349 W/m2; t1 = 20 C ; t2 = -20 C ; d = ?

From the heat
flow:

Example 17.2

The lining inside a boiler comprises two layers (d 1 = 0.35 m, l1 = 1.4 W/(m.K), d2 = 0.25 m, l2 = 0.55 W/(m.K
The temperature of the inside surface is t 1 = 900 C, the temperature of the outside surface is t 3 = 90
Calculate the heat lost and the temperature between the layers.
Solution:

d1 = 0.35 m, l1 = 1.4W/(m.K), d2 = 0.25 m, l2 = 0.55 W/(m.K), t1 = 900 C, t3 = 90 C ; q = ? , t2 = ?

The heat flow through the double wall is

From the heat flow

we get
through the first layer

Example 17.3

Calculate the heat load q [W/m] and the heat diffusion coefficient k [W/(m.K)], temperatures t S1 , tS2 of the w
of the pipe of the heat exchanger. The dimensions of the pipe are: d 1 = 0.1m, d2 = 0.108 m. The m
temperatures of the media are ti = 350 C, te = 1500 C. The heat transfer coefficients on the inside surface
the pipe are a1 = 300, a2 = 110 W/(m2.K). The heat conductivity coefficient of the material of the pipe is l =
W/(m.K).
Solution:

d1 = 0.1 m ; d2 = 0.108 m ; ti = 350 C ; t e = 1500 C , a1= 300 W/(m2 .K), a2 = 110 W/(m2.K) ; l = 45 W/(m.K
q = ? ; k = ? ; tS1= ? tS2= ?
The heat flow through the double cylindrical wall is
From the heat flow from the ambient 1 to the
wall of the exchanger q = a1 2 p r1 (t1- ti) we get

The temperature is

Example 17.4

Horizontal piping of a diameter of d = 0.057 m is heated by a natural flow of air. The mean temperature of
surface of the piping is t s = 4 C, the temperature of the surrounding air is t o = 36 C. Calculate the heat trans
coefficient from the air to the wall of the piping.
Solution :

d = 0.057 m ; ts = 4 C, to = 36 C , a = ?

For the heat transfer by natural convection the Nu number is calculated as Nu = C ( Gr Pr )n

The "best-guess" (i.e. mean) temperature is t = ( ts + to)/ 2 = ( 36 + 4 ) / 2 = 20 C

Dt = ts - to = 36 - 4 = 32 C

The physical parameters of air at this temperature are l = 2.596.10-2 W/(m.K)

= 15.1.10-6 m2/s Pr = 0.703 = 1/293 1/K

Grashof's number is

Gr Pr = 8.75.105..0..703 = 6.15.105

This value determines the transition mode, for which C = 0.54 , n = 1/4
Then

The heat transfe coefficient is

Pklad 17.5

Insulated piping covered with a layer of paint passes through a room whose walls have a temperature of 27
The diamater of the piping is d = 0.1 m, the length of the piping is l = 8 m. Calculate the heat transferred
radiation if the surface temperature is 7 C. How does this heat change if the piping passes through a 0.2 x
m casing whose internal surface is covered by aluminium paint.
Solution:
t 1= 27 C ; d = 0,1 m ; l = 8 m, t 2 = 7 C ; Q = ? ; Q= ? - for the 0.2 x 0.2 m casing

The heat radiated is (for e1= 0.39 ) Q = e 1 co S1 [(T1 /100)4 - (T2 /100)4] = 0.39. 5.7.p.0.1 . [ ( 300 / 100
( 280/100 )4 ] = 112 W

Q = en co S l [ (T1,/100)4 - (T'2/100)4] = 0.59. 5.7. . 0.1 . 8.[(300 / 100)4- (280/100)4] = 430 W

where

for e1 =0.92 ; e2= 0.39

Example 17.6

Inside a heat exchanger, black oil is cooled from t1 = 300 C to t2 = 200 C and crude oil is simultaneou
heated from t1 = 25 C to t2 = 175 C. Calculate the mean temperature gradient inside this exchanger in
case of a) parrallel flow, b)counterflow. What is the difference between the surface areas of the exchanger in
cases of a) and b) if, in both cases, the heat transfers and the heat transfer coefficients are the same.
Solution:

t1 = 300 C; t2 = 200 C; t1 = 25 C; t'2 = 175 C ; Dts = ?; Dtp = ?; Ss/Sp = ?

a ) The parallel flow exchanger

The mean logarithmic temperature gradient
is

b) The counterflow
exchanger
The mean logarithmic temperature gradient
is

The ratio of the

surface areas in the
case of parallel flow
and counterflow with
the same heat
transfer and heat
transfer coefficients
is
Ss / Sp = Dtp /Dts = 150.75 / 104.2 = 1.447