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The Interval of (2n+1)

Natural Laws are principles that govern relationships and interactions. Plato’s famous parody of the shadows on the wall
demonstrates the natural principles. Plato describes how people believe reality to be the shadows of dancing people projected
on the wall of a cave. They do not recognize that the shadows are not the principles or people producing the movement, but the
effects of the dancing people. Natural principles do not only explain the data or the phenomena that is observed which is
analogous to the shadows, but are successful in showing the dancing people who are producing the shadows. The
mathematicians Leibniz, Gauss and Riemann investigated the Realm of the Imaginary. They developed the mathematics to
treat imaginary numbers that they showed to be the dancing people, and showed the natural principles to contain imaginary
numbers. This is like explaining how the people are dancing.

What is Force?
The effects or causality of force result in change, and is the basis for scientific laws. But what is force? How does it originate?
We can look for these answers in the work done by Leibniz, Gauss and Riemann.

Consider a surfer in the curl of a wave. Forces move a balancing surfer on a line
perpendicular to the revolving mass of water. A force propels and thrusts his board.
The force of his motion is a natural principle, deriving from the spiral.

Fig. 1 The Spiral of the Wave tube


The revolving mass of water of this spiral can be resolved into two components, a circular movement around the central axis,
and a horizontal component which thrusts the surfer. The spiral can be thought of as repeating circles with axial component. In
Fig. 1, the cylinder is the wave surface or a long wave tube, and the arrow shows the motion of the force that propels the surfer.
The circulating waves generate this motion.
jtttGGGGGGGG Fig. 2 Period of a spiral
A spiral can be constructed very easily. If you draw a
line on a piece of paper connecting the two adjacent
corners, and then roll the sheet together, the line will
spiral up the sheet. You will see a cylindrical spiral
(Fig. 2). The principle of the spiral motion is axial
motion created from circular motion in a cylindrical
surface. Both components complete one period and
Fig. 3 Construction of a spiral appear as shown in Fig. 3. A spiral is periodical, repeating itself.

Sequential spirals (Fig. 4) can be drawn as rising lines on a flat piece of paper.
If the paper is rolled then the spiral twists up the page. One period is the
completion of the circle. Successive spirals can be constructed by simply
repeated the line. As can be seen, the repeated spirals generate a cylinder.
Fig. 4 Construction of sequential Spirals

If the circular motion is considered (thought) to be a wave tube, then the sketch shows that this motion creates a force
perpendicular to it. Taking the mass of circulating water to be spiral motion, the gliding
of the surfer through the curl demonstrates the force perpendicular to it, which propels
the surfer on his board. This principle is confirmed in physics through the “S” Vector,
the Poynting vector. It is described mathematically by the vector cross product. Two
perpendicular vectors folded into another create another perpendicular vector. The first
two vectors being folded are equivalent to the circulating water, and the third is the
Fig. 5 Thrusting wave force direction of the propelling force.
Force is a principle of action, or we could almost say that this demonstrates a
mathematical force. A spiral creates a force shown by the horizontal vector along its middle axis.

Spiral Principle
A spiral principle becomes apparent in the behavior of polygons. Gauss as a young man, while gaining reputation as a
mathematician, solved a year-old problem by ingeniously realizing that a spiral generates polygons. In his day, a solution to the
construction of a 17-sided polygon had been tried but not constructed. Gauss had done much work with the spiral principle and
considered this principle to be a natural one that could lead to the construction. Seeing it the way that Gauss saw it, means that

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nature used it as a force and principle. He considered a polygon to be generated by a spiral. You can see it in your mind’s eye,
as the sector of one segment after another unfolds while the spiral rotates about its axis. As it continues rotating the sequential
segments unfold. Similar to the way the petals of a flower could be generated by sweeping out the individual petals, one after
another.

Using this concept, the construction for uneven polygons can


be generalized. Even sided polygons are easy to construct; the
arc is simply divided. Thus if the change in angle for the
uneven polygon can be constructed, this can be subtracted
from the even arc. The change in angle for the arc of an
uneven polygon can be considered to be the difference of the
arc of an even polygon minus the arc of the next smaller odd
polygon. So- we have to find a way to construct the difference
between the even and odd arc.
Fig. 6 Constructing an even polygon arc and ()
subtracting the difference to an odd How can the change in angle be constructed?
This appears to be conceptually rather easy.
The uneven side of (n+1) should contribute.
Consider the arcs for an even polygons with
side = n, and the next uneven with side = n +
1. They look like Fig. 7, as seen, two rectangles
are created, one having a side length of = π
/n(n +1). As can be seen in Fig. 7, if this
length is subtracted then the needed length
remains π/(n+1). The arc π/n (length = π /n)
can be constructed from the even polygon. As
seen from the rectangle resulting from the
subtraction, then only the length π /n (n +1)
needs to be constructed this would result in
Fig. 7 Relationships in construction lengths the angle of π/n+1 giving the desired angle to be
constructed.

This should be easy to do. Table 1 suggests that this solution is correct because it shows that the generated data provides “nice,
easy” relationships. Numbers generated by the difference of 2 sequential circle segments

Difference in Angle n = 4 – Angle n = 5 = π/ n - π/ (n + 1)


= π (n + 1 –n)/n(n + 1)
The difference in angles for sequential arcs π(1/n* (n + 1)) (0)

n(n + 1) is the area of a rectangle containing the sides of the difference of two successive squares See Fig. 9.

However after much geometrical searching and thought, the length of 1/n (n+1) cannot be constructed because n*(n+1) is a
rectangle and an area. This relationship of constructing the odd by subtracting from the even is not successful. This is not
apparently a natural principle in the sense of Gauss.

Many attempts to construct the 17-sided polygon ended in failure. Gauss used the concepts in imaginary numbers and the
spiral to arrive at a successful solution, but he did not regard these methods as rational. He regarded it as the need to go beyond
rationality because finding the necessary length was not rationally connected with the area of the rectangle. It required a
principle that applied the area to result in the length. This contradicts Kant’s conclusion that the unknown will never become
known. Kant arrived at this conclusion, because he sets experience as the basis for all reasoning. But the principles generated
by the imaginary numbers, and the solutions of Leibniz, Gauss and Riemann are beyond experience or the rational. Thus we
will search farther, because the table data suggests that we are on the right track.

Relating to Plato’s cave, natural principles are like the dancers whose shadows’ are reflected on the wall, where the shadows
are thought to be real beings. The data in the tables is similar to the shadows, hinting at what the dancers are. Trying to
understand the generating principle, we will make another try at generating the relationships.

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Imaginary Realm
The Imaginary Realm and the principles of the “irrational” can be felt. If we examine Table 1, a trial for 17-sided polygons, we
get a feeling for the natural principles that can generate forces. In this area of work it is pedagogically expedient to actually do
the work, without leaving it to someone else, because circumventing the rational is dependent on the mechanics of doing.
These principles cannot be rationalized, they can only be approached by the manual work of conceptualizing and absorbing
them. The mechanical work of drawing and calculating them leads to deeper understanding beyond the rational. The principles
can be felt in this manner and these imaginary numbers become experience employed by the rational. An area will not produce
a length, but application of the area can lead to a principle to produce the needed relationship.

The principle of the construction takes only a straight edge and a compass. Gauss understood the spiral, as one of the principles
of imaginary numbers and that many-sided polygon is a spiral principle. A polygon can be thought of as repeated arcs or
segments. Thus we can calculate the number of degrees in a sector of a 17-sided polygon, then we only have to construct this
arc and repeat it. The problem becomes the construction of an arc with 21.17647degrees (17 * 21.17647 degrees = 360
degrees). If we use the simple paper construction of a spiral, it looks like Fig. 8. The period of the spiral can be divided into 16
arcs easily and an example is shown for five.

The sequential angles of the following arcs are the angles of the corresponding polygon segments. n = 4 is the magnitude of the
angles of a square, n = 5 is the magnitude of the pentagon. The spiral generation of the arcs of a pentagon is shown. In Fig. 8.
The numbers generated by the periodic spiral give insights into higher principles perhaps from other realms as the world in
which the odd sided polygon is constructed.

An examination of the numbers generated by these


relationships is enlightening, and produces surprising
results.

Looking at the first 10 real numbers:


Fig. 8 Sequential arcs in the polygon construction
for a pentagon

Numbers generated by the difference of 2 sequential segments in a circle. n, and (n +1)


2 3 4 5 6
n 2n +1 n(n+1) Factors n(n+1) (2n +1)/n(n + 1) 1/n(n + 1) Column 4 + 5
1 3 2 2 3/2 ½ 2
2 5 6 2*3 5/6 1/6 1
3 7 12 22 * 3 7/12 1/12 ¾
4 9 20 22 * 5 9/20 1/20 ½
5 11 30 2*3*5 11/30 1/30 2/5
6 13 42 2*3*7 13/42 1/42 1/3
7 15 56 23 * 7 15/56 1/56 2/7
8 17 72 23 * 32 17/72 1/72 1/4
9 19 90 2 * 32 * 5 19/90 1/90 2/9
10 21 110 2 * 5 * 11 21/110 1/110 1/5
16 33 272 (4 * 68) 24 * 17 33/272 1/272 1/4
Note: this is ½ * n(n+1)

Table 1 Numbers generated by the difference of 2 sequential segments in a circle

- 2n + 1 generates the prime numbers. plus factors of primes including the prime squares, cubes …
- n(n +1) is the area of a rectangle with sides the length of the difference of the arcs.
- (2n + 1)/n(n + 1): repeat the primes as a relationship with the area of a rectangle containing the difference of the
periods n, (n +1).
- Column 6 shows that the results are ordered in the order of simple decreasing fractions

The relationships shown in this table are fascinating considering that there appears to be a principle in the factors of n(n+1).
Column 6 adds 4 + 5 and generates even decreasing fractions. Notice the precision in the generation and repetition of the
factors of n(n+1) Are all these relationships random? Gauss didn’t think so, it shows how the proportions are related to each
other, and the unity and perfection of nature. It appears as through there could be an algorithm for the generation of the factors.

However to get back to our task, we have to find the constructible length to subtract from even arc.

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If we are going to be able to construct the difference in arc, then it must be possible to construct the length. But n(n+1) is an
area. No perturbation was successful in this construction with straightedge and compass. This necessitates another solution.

The Difference of Squares

As can be seen in Table 2 Difference of Two Sequential Squares, the


factors generated are similar to the Table 1. Maybe we can try the
relationship of (2n +1) instead of (n +1). If this generates the length
needed to subtract from the even (polygon) arc, then this hunch could be
right. (2n + 1) is the difference in area between two successive squares.

First let’s try a construction principle. Let’s construct odd and even
polygons with this method.
Fig. 9 Difference of Two sequential Squares
This table shows very consistent data. Polygons with sides of 5,7,9,11,13,15,17 …. appear to be constructible, and the factors
generated are consistent, and the sequential prime numbers are repeated and generate composites, which appears to be a result
of this method, and hints at the consistency. The value of (2n +1) produces a series of factors of prime numbers.

Looking at the Construction Principle for (2n + 1)

Difference of two Squares. Construction Principle for Sequential Arcs for (2n +1)
Factors contained in the results
n (π/2) 2n (2n +1) n 2n (2n +1)
2 4 5 2 4 5
3 6 7 3 2*3 2*3
4 8 9 22 2*2*2 32
5 10 11 5 2*5 11
6 12 13 2*3 2*2*3 13
7 14 15 7 2*7 3*5
8 16 17 23 24 17
2
9 18 19 3 2 * 32 19
10 20 21 2*5 22 * 5 3*7
11 22 23 11 2 * 11 23
12 24 25 22 * 3 23 * 3 52
13 26 27 13 2 * 13 33
14 28 29 2*7 22 * 7 29
15 30 31 3*5 2*3*5 31
16 32 33 24 25 3 * 11
17 34 35 17 2 * 17 5*7
18 36 37 2 * 32 22 * 32 37
19 38 39 19 2 * 19 3 * 13
20 40 41 22 * 5 23 * 5 41
3
24 48 49 2 *3 24 * 3 72
3
40 80 81 2 *5 24 * 5 92
2
60 120 121 2 *3*5 23 * 3 * 5 112
2
84 168 169 2 *3*7 23 * 3 * 7 132
4
112 224 225 2 *7 25 * 7 32 * 52
4 2
144 288 289 2 *3 25 * 32 172

Table 2 Construction Principle for Sequential Arcs for (2n +1)

Odd polygons construct from odd angles and the value (2n +1) generates these odd angle values. π /(2n +1) is a length that can
be readily constructed as a standard construction exercise as shown below.

Fig. 10 Length relationships in the Interval of (2n + 1)

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The difference of arcs of π/n and π/(2n +1) can be used to construct
two rectangles as shown. The needed length (1/(2n +1) generates
from a side producing odd angles to use in the construction of odd
polygons. As an example: the difference of angle π/(n) and
π/(2n+1) results in the length to generate the arc of a 17 sided
polygon if n = 8.

The Interval of (2n+1)

Some of these powers are produced and illustrated by the


difference of two sequential squares. These illustrate natural
principles, which manifest themselves in the numbers generated.
The relationships between the numbers are related to the principles.

These results are seen in Table 3, which sets the value of a square (x2) = (2n+1) that is the difference between 2 sequential
squares. If we examine these results more closely, they will demonstrate principles of order.

Difference of 2 sequential squares


x x2 x2 = (2n + 1) 2n/n Factors- 2n or n Prime factors, Characteristics
2n or n
0 02 1 0 0 Empty set
1 12 2 1/o.5 1*1 12 Identity
2 22 4 3/2 3 3
3 32 9 8/4 2*2*2 23
4 42 16 30/15 3*5 3*5
5 52 25 24/12 2*2*3 22 * 3
6 62 36 35/- 5*7 5*7
7 72 49 48/24 2*2*2*3 23 * 3
8 82 64 63/- 7*9 32 * 7
9 92 81 80/40 8* 5 23* 5
10 102 100 99/- 9 * 11 32 * 11
11 112 121 120/60 12 * 5 22 * 3*5
12 122 144 143/- 11 * 13 11 * 13
13 1132 169 168/80 8 * 10 24 * 5
14 142 195/- 5 * 39 3 * 5 * 13
15 125 225 224/112 4 * 56 25 * 7
16 162 256 255/- 5 * 51 3 * 5 * 17
17 172 289 288/144 12 * 12 24 * 32
18 182 324 323/- 17 * 19 17 * 19
19 192 361 360/180 22 * 32 * 5
20 202 400 399 3 * 133 33 * 7
21 212 441 440/220 2 * 11 * 10 22 * 5 * 11
22 222 484 493/- 3 * 161 3 * 7 23
23 232 529 528/264 23 * 33 23 * 3 * 11
24 242 576 575/- 5 * 115 2 * 3 *52
25 252 625 624/312 23 * 3 * 13
26 262 676 675/- 5 * 135 33 * 52
27 272 729 728/364 22 * 7 * 13

Table 3 Difference of 2 Sequential Squares

The principle is of order, the real and imaginary numbers can be generated from the factors in the difference of two squares.
Prime factors seem to suggest not only are the primes factors of composite numbers, but it appears that there is regularity in the
order that they appear in the generation of the composites.

Construction of an Arc with an Interval of 1/(2n + 1)

Subtracting the angle of (2n+1) from the angle of n produces an angle with odd measure (n+1).

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Difference in angles n – (2n+1) = - (n+1)

Dividing 360 degrees evenly by n generates an angle increment of n (1/n). Dividing n by (2n+1) produces the increment of
(2n+1). As seen in Fig. 10 the vertical side of the upper rectangle has a length equal to the arc of (n+1) and constructs this
length completing the assignment. It only remains to summarize the construction of the arc of (2n +1).

Construction.
Take the constructed angle of n and draw a segment connecting one vertex and the axis. On this segment take a straightedge
and tick of (2n+1) equal increments on the segment. This divides the segment equally by (2n+1) resulting in:
n/(2n+1)

Further properties of the difference of squares

The areas generated by the arcs are equal.

Using the Pythagorean theorem: the areas generated by the squares of the two triangles containing the sequential arcs are put
into the equation:

sin2[(2 π)/ (n+1)] + cos2[(2 π)/ (n+1)] = 1


sin2[(2 π)/ (n)] + cos2[(2 π)/ (n)] = 1

Then:

sin2[(2 π)/ (n+1)] + cos2[(2 π)/ (n+1)] = sin2[(2 π)/ (n)] + cos2[(2 π)/ (n)]

Area (n +1) = Area(n)

 the areas of the successive triangles that correspond to the spiral period π/n, π/n+1, π/n+2 are equal.

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