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59

Organic yerba mate:

an environmentally, socially
and financially suitable
agroforestry system
Florencia Montagnini1
Beatriz I. Eibl2
Sara R. Barth2, 3

1Yale University
School of Forestry
and Environmental Studies
370 Prospect Street
New Haven, CT 06511
USA

2 Facultad de Ciencias Forestales

Universidad Nacional de Misiones
School of Forest Science
(3380) Eldorado
Misiones
Argentina

3 Instituto Nacional de Tecnologa

Agropecuaria, INTA
EEA Montecarlo
Misiones
Argentina

Photograph 1.
A young yerba mate plant (Ilex paraguariensis Saint Hilaire, Aquifoliaceae) in Ober, Misiones.
Photograph F. Montagnini.
 BOIS ET FORTS DES TROPIQUES, 2011, N 308 (2)
60 FOC US / YERBA MATE IN AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM
RSUM
YERBA MAT BIOLOGIQUE :
UN SYSTME AGROFORESTIER EN PHASE
AVEC LENVIRONNEMENT ET LCONOMIE
SOCIALE ET FINANCIRE
Le commerce de la yerba mat, Ilex paragua-
riensis Saint-Hilaire, est un ngoce lucratif en
Argentine, au Paraguay et au Brsil. Ses
feuilles sont consommes comme du th
avec un march en croissance aux tats-Unis,
en Europe et en Asie, car elles contiennent
des antioxydants, sont nergisantes et consti-
tuent ainsi une alternative au caf. Environ
5% de la superficie de la province de
Misiones en Argentine sont consacrs la
production de la yerba mat. Beaucoup de
paysans natteignent pas les rendements
escompts faute de techniques appropries.
La yerba mat en culture organique (sans
intrants agrochimiques) peut atteindre un
prix plus lev pour les coopratives qui en
font un de leurs produits. Traditionnellement
gre en monoculture, son exploitation peut
entraner lrosion et lpuisement des sols.
Toutefois, la yerba mat pousse en fort sub-
tropicale et tolre lombrage ce qui permet de
la cultiver dans des systmes agroforestiers
(SAF). Cette tude examine les SAF avec la
yerba mat en culture organique laide din-
terviews semi-structures auprs des pay-
sans de la province de Misiones, y compris
les fermes familiales, les grandes fermes, les
compagnies prives et les rserves. Un grand
nombre despces naturelles poussant en
association avec la yerba mat ont t identi-
fies. Le travail supplmentaire requis par les
pratiques de la culture organique est com-
pens par un meilleur prix de vente. Les SAF,
associant yerba mate et arbres, amliorent la
fertilit des sols sans recourir aux fertilisants
tout en procurant des revenus supplmen-
taires. Pour cette association ltude recom-
mande les espces locales suivantes: Balfou-
rodendron riedelianum, Cordia trichotoma,
Nectandra lanceolata, Bastardiopsis densi-
flora, Cedrela fissillis, Jacaranda micrantha,
Araucaria angustifolia, et Ocotea puberula,
du fait de leur dveloppement monopodial et
de leur capacit dauto-lagage; ainsi que
Tabebuia heptaphylla, Enterolobium contorti-
siliquum, Peltophorum dubium, Parapiptade-
nia rigida et Anadenanthera macrocarpa avec
une couronne plus large; toutes ont une
bonne croissance et un bois de qualit. Il est
aussi suggr dintroduire dautres espces
arbores, herbaces et arbustives de valeur
fruitire, mdicinale ou ornementale, diversi-
fiant les produits fermiers. Finalement, cette
agroforesterie associant yerba mat et
espces locales va promouvoir la diffusion de
cette plante en culture organique et diversifier
les revenus en Argentine et ailleurs.
Mots-cls: fort atlantique, certification,
espces locales, amnagement des sols,
ombrage, durabilit.
ABSTRACT
ORGANIC YERBA MATE:
AN ENVIRONMENTALLY, SOCIALLY
AND FINANCIALLY SUITABLE
AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM
Trade in yerba mate, Ilex paraguariensis
Saint Hilaire, is a lucrative business in
Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil. The leaves
of yerba mate are consumed as a tea, with a
market expanding to the USA, Europe and
Asia, as it contains antioxidants and is
energizing, making it an alternative to cof-
fee. Approximately 5 percent of the area of
Misiones province, Argentina, is in yerba
mate production. Many farmers do not
reach expected yields due to lack of ade-
quate technology. Organic yerba mate
(grown without the use of agrochemicals)
can get higher price with most cooperatives
having it as one of their products. Typically
grown in monocultures, its management
can cause erosion and soil exhaustion;
however, yerba mate grows in subtropical
forest and is shade tolerant so it can be erosin y agotamiento del suelo, sin
grown in agroforestry systems (AFS). The
study examined organic AFS of yerba mate
by conducting semi-structured interviews
with farmers in Misiones, including family
farms as well as larger farms, private com-
panies, and reserves. This review recorded
a large number of native species growing in
combination with yerba mate. The extra
work involved in organic practices is com-
pensated by higher prices. Yerba mate AFS
with native trees improve soil fertility with-
out relying on fertilizers, while providing
additional income. The following native tree
species are recommended for growing in
combination with yerba mate: Balfouroden-
dron riedelianum, Cordia trichotoma,
Nectandra lanceolata, Bastardiopsis densi-
flora, Cedrela fissillis, Jacaranda micrantha,
Araucaria angustifolia, Ocotea puberula,
due to their monopodial development and
self pruning ability; as well as Tabebuia
heptaphylla, Enterolobium contor-
tisiliquum, Peltophorum dubium, Parapip-
tadenia rigida and Anadenanthera macro-
carpa of broader crown, all with good
growth and high quality timber. Other tree,
herb or shrub species of fruit, medicinal or
ornamental value can be also added to
increase farm diversification. Finally the
study concludes that agroforestry systems
combining yerba mate with indigenous bceas o arbustivas frutferas o con valor
trees can promote the spread of organic
yerba mate production and diversify
income in Argentina and elsewhere.
Keywords: atlantic forest, certification,
native species, shade, soil management,
sustainability.
F. Montagnini, B. I. Eibl, S. R. Barth
RESUMEN
YERBA MATE ORGNICA: UN SISTEMA
AGROFORESTAL AMBIENTAL, SOCIAL
Y FINANCIERAMENTE ADECUADO
El comercio de la yerba mate, Ilex paragua-
riensis Saint Hilaire, resulta ser un negocio
lucrativo en Argentina, Paraguay y Brasil.
Las hojas de yerba mate se consumen como
t, con mercado expandindose a USA,
Europa y Asia, ya que contiene antioxidan-
tes y es energizante, siendo una alternativa
al caf. Aproximadamente 5 por ciento de la
superficie de la provincia de Misiones en
Argentina est dedicada a la produccin de
yerba mate. Muchos agricultores no obtie-
nen los rendimientos esperados debido a la
falta de tecnologa adecuada. La yerba mate
orgnica (producida sin el uso de agroqu-
micos) puede obtener precios ms altos
siendo uno de los productos de la mayora
de las cooperativas. Tpicamente plantada
en monocultivo, su manejo puede causar
embargo la yerba mate crece en bosque
subtropical y es tolerante a sombra es decir
que puede cultivarse en sistemas agrofores-
tales (SAF). Se estudi los SAF de yerba
mate orgnica conduciendo entrevistas
semi-estructuradas con agricultores en
Misiones, incluyendo chacras familiares as
como establecimientos ms grandes, com-
paas privadas y reservas. Se identific
gran cantidad de especies nativas creciendo
en asociacin con yerba mate. El trabajo
extra requerido por las prcticas orgnicas
se compensa con los mayores precios. Los
SAF de yerba mate con rboles nativos
mejoran la fertilidad del suelo sin necesidad
de fertilizantes y proveen ingresos adiciona-
les. Se recomienda las siguientes especies
arbreas nativas para asociacin con yerba
mate en SAF: Balfourodendron riedelianum,
Cordia trichotoma, Nectandra lanceolata,
Bastardiopsis densiflora, Cedrela fissillis,
Jacaranda micrantha, Araucaria angustifo-
lia, Ocotea puberula, de desarrollo monop-
dico y poda natural, as como Tabebuia hep-
taphylla, Enterolobium contortisiliquum,
Peltophorum dubium, Parapiptadenia
rigida y Anadenanthera macrocarpa de
copa amplia, todas de buen crecimiento y
madera de alta calidad. Asimismo se reco-
mienda incluir otras especies arbreas, her-
medicinal u ornamental para aumentar la
diversificacin. Finalmente este estudio
concluye que los sistemas agroforestales
que combinan yerba mate con rboles nati-
vos pueden promover la difusin de yerba
mate orgnica y diversificar los ingresos en
Argentina y otras regiones.
Palabras clave: bosque atlntico, certifica-
cin, especies nativas, manejo del suelo,
sombra, sostenibilidad.
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Introduction
Trade in yerba mate Ilex paraguariensis, (South American
holly), is a very lucrative business in Argentina, Paraguay, and
Brazil (Day et al., 2011). Yerba mate leaves are processed into
a tea that is traditionally consumed in Argentina, Uruguay,
Brazil and Paraguay, with an increasingly large market expand-
ing to the USA, Europe and Asia. The infused drink made from
yerba mate contains nearly twice the antioxidant levels of
green tea and is nutritious and energizing, making it a good
alternative to the consumption of coffee (Heck, Meja, 2007).
In South America yerba mate has largely remained a drink of
habit and culture, typically prepared in a traditional gourd.
However, in recent years it has grown increasingly popular in
the USA, where it is attractive due to its high antioxidant con-
tent and effect as a stimulant, equivalent to about half the caf-
feine of coffee but with fewer jitters. It is sold in a variety of
forms, including loose-leaf mate, tea bags, ready-to-drink bot-
tled mate, and energy products (Coeli, 2009).
Argentina is the most important producer, with a total
of 203,803 hectares (ha), of which about 75% are in
Misiones with the rest in the neighboring province of
Corrientes (www.inym.org.ar). Approximately 5% of the
Misiones province is currently in yerba mate production
(Inym1, 2006). Yerba mate is grown by small or medium to
large farmers in Misiones, as a family business, a farmers
cooperative, or large-scale enterprise, both for local con-
sumption and for export.

Yerba mate cultivation in Argentina:

history and current trends
Yerba mate, Ilex paraguariensi Saint Hilaire,
Aquifoliaceae (photograph 1) is a medium size tree species
native to a relatively large region encompassing eastern
Paraguay, northeastern Argentina, and southern Brazil. When
the Spanish colonists arrived in the 15 th century, they
observed the Guarani indigenous people consuming it as an
infusion made with dry and ground leaves. The Jesuit priests
who established their religious missions in Misiones, which
gave the Province its name, observed that the Guarani people
who drank mate stayed awake for longer and could work
harder than those who did not. The Spanish people adopted
its use relatively quickly. Domestication of the species started
during the 18th century, and the first successful plantations
were established in the early 1900s in San Ignacio, Misiones.
By 1935, there were a total of 66,000 ha in cultivation; and by
the late 1980s, there were already about 165,000 ha planted
with yerba mate in Misiones (Burtnik, 2006).
In order to maintain quality and pricing levels for small
and medium farmers, rigid quotas dominated yerba mate
production until the 1950s (Lawson, 2009). The relaxation of
these rules and the subsequent surge in plantings and pro-
duction led to an oversupply and a return of the quota system
until 1989 (Schamber, 2000). Yerba mate cultivation
expanded following consumers demand until an over pro-
duction crisis in 1995. Since the creation of the Inym in 2002,
prices have improved and increasing the productivity of exist-
ing yerba mate plantations became important to the sector.
1Instituto Nacional de la Yerba Mate, National Institute for Yerba
Mate, www.inym.org.ar.
Photograph 2.
Soil erosion and degradation due to soil cultivation
practices in a conventional yerba mate plantation
in Montecarlo, Misiones.
Photograph N. Pahr.
As seen in table I, the majority of producers grows less
than 10 ha of yerba mate in their farms, but represent almost
one third of the total area under cultivation. However, they
also have the lowest yields per hectare. This trend is because
they are the poorest and most vulnerable sector, resulting in
challenges incorporating technologies to maintain the pro-
ductive capacity of the plantations and the soils. According
to Inym, adoption of new management practices is the
lowest in plantations less than 20 ha in size. In Misiones
about 15% of producers have high density plantations,
higher than 1,800 plants per hectare (pl/ha), about 48%
have medium density (1,000-1,800 pl/ha), and the remain-
ing 30-35% are low density (table I). In addition, low density
plantations are generally on soils that have been degraded
after over 80 years of continuous monoculture (Inym, 2006).
In the past decade, the smaller producers with densities of
fewer than 1,000 plants per hectare and low technology suf-
fered the greatest impacts from the low price of yerba mate,
as a result of production volumes that exceeded demand.
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62 FOC US / YERBA MATE IN AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM

In response to the increasing marginalization of small Ecology and cultivation

farmers through the market conditions created by neo-lib- of yerba mate
eral policies, small and medium-sized yerba mate farmers
initiated a series of social movements in order to revitalize
declining livelihoods in the 1990s. With the ten largest com- As a tropical or subtropical tree species, yerba mate
panies controlling 80% of yerba mate production in requires high temperatures, high soil and ambient humidity,
Misiones, small and medium-sized farmers began to organ- and deep and well-drained soils. In Misiones yerba mate is
ize into cooperatives. As cooperatives promoted an ethic of grown on red soils locally known as tierra colorada of the
solidarity, integrity, and equality, combined with an institu- Ultisol and Alfisol orders, with good physical conditions,
tional structure and economic power within the yerba mate slightly to strongly acid and of medium to good fertility.
market, cooperatives began to find their voice within the These soils are low in organic matter, nitrogen, and phos-
political economy of yerba mate (Lawson, 2009). phorus (Fernndez et al., 1997). In its natural habitat yerba
mate forms part of the subtropical forest, occupying a
medium stratum and reaching up to 16 meters in height.
This characteristic means that it is tolerant to certain
amount of shade and it is capable of growing in association
Table I. with other trees, which makes it adapted for use in agro-
Composition of the productive sector of yerba mate forestry systems (Inym, 2006).
in Argentina. In small farms, yerba mate is planted in pure plots
from nursery seedlings at 3 or 3.5 m x 1.5 m distance (1,900
to 2,220 pl/ha). Older plantations are found at 3 m x 3 m or
Size of yerba Number Area (ha) Yields (green
mate plantation of farmers leaves, kg/ha) 3.5 m x 3.5 m and even broader planting distances. Weeds
are controlled manually or with herbicides within the yerba
0-10 ha 13,191 73,535 4,250 mate lines, while mechanical control with disk plows or
10-50 ha 3,882 78,224 5,310 weeding tools is performed in the alleys between the yerba
mate lines. In Misiones, the Program for Assistance to Yerba
50-100 ha 246 16,945 6,110
Mate Producers (Programa de Asistencia al Sector Yerbatero,
100-200 ha 79 10,914 6,120 PRACY) of Inym, encourages farmers to grow green winter
Larger than 200 ha 46 23,665 7,472 covers with rye grass, Lolium spp., or black oats, Avena
Total 17,444 203,283 5,323 strigosa, and summer green covers with cowpea, Vigna
unguiculata, dwarf Mucuna, Styzolobium spp., or poroto
Source: Inym, 2010. sable, Canavalia ensiformis. The green covers improve soil
physical and biological conditions, decreasing soil tempera-
tures and helping control weeds and pests.
To prepare the plants for future harvests, during the
early years pruning is done to favor sprouting of multiple
and vigorous stems, encouraging the formation of a broad
crown. Harvesting is done between April and September
(fall to winter), and there is also a summer harvest from
December to February. Harvesting by completely defoliating
the tree is not recommended, as it leads to low yields
(Burtnik, 2006).
One of the principal reasons for the decline in produc-
tivity is longevity, i.e., farmers keep older yerbales (yerba
mate plantations) in production. A major factor in productiv-
ity decline of yerbales over time is the gradual decline of the
productive capacity of soils driven by inadequate soil man-
agement practices (De Bernardi, Prat Kricun, 2001). High
annual precipitation and temperatures and sloping hills
lead to soil erosion and degradation once the original forest
cover is removed; while rates of mineralization of soil
organic matter are accelerated due to inadequate soil man-
agement practices (photograph 2). Many farmers do not
attain expected production levels due to weather abnormal-
ities (drought, storms) or lack of adequate technology
Photograph 3. (improved genetic material, adequate planting density, cor-
Yerba mate AFS with exotic species: kiri (Paulownia spp.), rect and timely pruning practices, height and timing of leaf
in Campo Ramn, Misiones.
Photograph F. Montagnini. harvest, and use of sustainable soil management practices).
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Growing yerba mate Organic farming:

in agroforestry systems an increasing trend contributing
added-value to yerba mate
Agroforestry (growing crops in combination with trees)
can be a useful tool to rehabilitate land degraded by intensive Although due to price instabilities yerba mate produc-
agriculture. Agroforestry systems (AFS) can minimize erosion, tion may not be very attractive, organic yerba mate produc-
reduce or eliminate the use of fertilizers due to increased ers can get substantial price surplus on their product. The
nutrient cycling or the use of nitrogen fixing trees, reduce or current increasing trend towards organic yerba mate pro-
eliminate the use of agrochemicals due to weed suppression duction, id est, not using any agrochemicals, can be
and/or pest management, and provide additional income to encouraged when the yerba mate is grown in combination
the farmer through diversification of products (Montagnini et with native trees. For example, some private companies
al., 2005, 2006). AFS can also contribute to environmental that certify organic farming in Argentina, require the use of
services such as biodiversity conservation and carbon buffer strips with native trees to prevent wind-carried agro-
sequestration (Montagnini et al., 2005). chemicals from nearby farms from reaching the organic
Experiences involving other perennial crop-tree combina- yerba mate fields. Other organic buyers require farmers to
tions such as those of cacao, Theobroma cacao, coffee, Coffea have a minimum number of native species in the yerba
spp., and tea, Camellia sinensis, provide baseline insight into mate fields. Thus, farmers today need to learn what native
how intermediate sub-canopy tree species can function in AFS. tree species are best to grow in combination with their
Several studies of shaded coffee and cacao report the benefi- organic yerba mate.
cial effects of shade on production and on shade tree selection Currently, most yerba mate cooperatives have organic
for optimum productivity, quality, and pest management yerba mate as one of their leading products (Lawson,
(Somarriba et al., 2001). In Misiones, the most widespread 2009). Since Misiones has favorable ecological and soil
AFS of trees associated with perennial crops are hedges of gre- conditions for yerba mate, it is important to take advantage
villea, Grevillea robusta, in tea plantations. There are also of the opportunity presented by the implementation of
yerba mate AFS with native trees such as pino Paran or arau- novel production technologies, along with innovative strate-
caria, Araucaria angustifolia, peterib or loro negro, Cordia tri- gies of commercialization such as developing new organic
chotoma, among others, as well as with exotic species such as yerba mate-based teas and drinks.
kiri, Paulownia spp., paraso, Melia azedarach, and pines, In this article we examine the use of organic AFS of
Pinus elliotti and P. taeda (photograph 3). yerba mate grown in combination with other native tree
species in Misiones, their
ecological and economic
benefits, and provide recom-
mendations for improving
and expanding these prac-
tices. Three objectives of this
research were to:
Determine the current land
use practices of organic yerba
mate farmers, focusing on
their agricultural techniques
and the possibility of expand-
ing organic AFS;
Find out what are the best
native tree species to com-
bine with yerba mate in
organic AFS;
Determine the potential for
increasing organic yerba
mate AFS using native trees
with economic (timber, fuel-
wood) and environmental
(carbon sequestration, biodi-
Photograph 4. versity) values.
Some farms that sell their product to Guayak control weeds
using a roller made of wood which is dragged by a small
tractor between the yerba mate lines. The roller creates a
layer of organic material that protects against soil erosion.
Photograph S. Barth.
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64 FOC US / YERBA MATE IN AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM
Study site: Misiones, Argentina
The province of Misiones in NE Argentina is part of the
Upper Paran Atlantic Forest (figure 1). The Atlantic Forest
extends throughout Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina, and is
one of the most endangered ecosystems in the world. Only
7% of the original Atlantic Forest exists, and Misiones con-
tains the largest continuous expanse (Holz, Placci, 2003).
Misiones with approximately 30,000 km2, is less than 1% of
the countrys area; however, it harbors almost 40% of the bio-
diversity and produces over 75% of the countrys timber. The
climate is classified as Cfa in the Kppen system, correspon-
ding to a subtropical humid climate without a dry season,
with mean annual precipitation of 2,020 millimeters, uni-
formly distributed throughout the year, and mean annual
temperature of 20C, with an absolute maximum of 40C
(January) and absolute minimum of -7C (July) (Silva et al.,
2008). The main agricultural crops in Misiones are yerba mate
(167,722 ha), tobacco (26,380 ha), and tea (34,900 ha).
Government subsidies also contribute to rapid increases in
tree plantations (384,948 ha), which mainly include exotic
species such as pine, Pinus taeda and Pinus elliottii, eucalyp-
tus, Eucalyptus spp. and the native araucaria, Araucaria
angustifolia (Ilany et al., 2010).
Figure 1.
Map showing the province of Misiones
in Argentina, and localities mentioned
in this article.
Methods
An enquiry was conducted with semi-structured inter-
views with organic yerba mate farmers in Misiones, includ-
ing smaller, family-operated farms as well as larger farms,
private companies and private reserves and NGOs (table II).
This enquiry covered a broad range of the yerba mate grow-
ing region of Misiones from Andresito in the northeast cor-
ner of the province bordering Brazil, to Santo Pip, San
Ignacio, and Ober in the south, and San Vicente and Dos
de Mayo in the central region (figure I). During each visit,
questions were used to evaluate land-use history and allo-
cation, the agricultural techniques employed, and the polit-
ical economy of yerba mate production. Interviews included
a walk through the yerba mate fields and observations of
the current yerba mate growing systems.
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Results and Discussion

Guayak
Guayak is an organic, fair-trade yerba mate company
started in 1996 by partners based in Buenos Aires, Argentina,
and California, USA (www.guayaki.com). They promote yerba
mate products in the USA, while engaging in growing and har-
vesting yerba mate with participating farmers and indigenous
groups in Paraguay, Argentina and Brazil.Guayak yerba mate
is a USDA2 organic product certified by OIA3, an international
certification body accredited by IFOAM4. In addition, in 2009
Guayak became the first Fair Trade Certified yerba mate com-
pany in the world (Coeli, 2009).
2 United States Department of Agriculture.
3 Organizacin Internacional Agropecuaria, www.oia.com.ar.
4 International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, www.ifoam.org.
Much of Guayaks yerba mate leaves come from the
COFAECO cooperative in San Mateo do Sul, Paran, the center of
yerba mate production in Brazil. This cooperative includes about
25 small farmers who produce 20 tons organic yerba mate annu-
ally mainly under the shade of older native araucaria trees that
are forbidden to be cut by law. The Guayak company originated
in Paraguay, where Guayak buys yerba mate from indigenous
peoples who plant yerba mate in the forest understory, such as
the Ach Guayak who are compensated for the use of their
name with a licensing fee paid to the tribe, an example of how
sustainable development can empower indigenous populations
as part of a successful commercial endeavor (Coeli, 2009).

Table II.
Organic yerba mate farms visited in Misiones, Argentina, 2007-2010.

Farm Location Farm size Farmers activities Weed control Cover crops Native species recorded Certification
(ha) in yerba mate

Guayak Andresito Varied, Other outside Wood roller, Natural Caafstola, fumo bravo, Organic, Fair
and nearby < 20 ha employment, machete, small vegetation pind, isapuy, timb Trade, Kosher,
locations nurseries tractor with that remains blanco, cacharana, caroba, OIA, accredited
weed cutter after weeding palo rosa, palmito, laurel by US
guaic, laurel amarillo, Department
laurel negro, timb of Agriculture
colorado, guayubira,
anchico, loro negro
(natural regeneration)

Kraus S.A. Colonia Santo 400 Organic tea, Manually with Natural Lapacho amarillo, lapacho Organic, Fair
Domingo beef cattle machete, hoes, vegetation that negro, caafistola, loro Trade, Kosher
Savio, San and use also a remains after negro, cedro, anchico, certified by OIA
Ignacio small tractor weeding araucaria (planted)
with disk plow

Roapip Santo Pip, 100 40 ha yerba, 15 ha Machete, disk Jesuit grass Peterib (planted), cedro, Yerbatera
Department of silvopastoral systems, plow and roller (Axonopus incienso, pind, rabo ROAPIPO
San Ignacio 20 ha pine, nursery compressus) in molle, loro blanco, certified by OIA
plantations, 27 ha trails and roads anchico, cancharana,
natural forest timb, grapia (in yerba
under forest)

Barney Ober and Two farms 13 ha of natural Machete and Kurat Acrocomia, pind, anchico OIA
Family Campo Ramn of 75 has unexploited fuel-powered (Coriandrum blanco, fumo bravo,
each subtropical rainforest, weed cutters sativum), Avena araticu, cedro, guatamb,
tea Negra Criolla, cancharana, laurel guaic
Vicia villosa, (natural regeneration),
mucuna enana lapacho negro, lapacho
and elephant amarillo (planted)
grass

Ruiz de San Vicente, Several Tea, citrus trees, Sling blade, Natural Cancharana, loro negro, ARGENCERT
Montoya Dos de Mayo small farms horticultural crops, machete, small vegetation caroba (natural
Cooperative ~50 ha fish farming tractor with regeneration), caafistola
each weed cutter, (planted)
small tractor
with disk plow
 BOIS ET FORTS DES TROPIQUES, 2011, N 308 (2)
66 FOC US / YERBA MATE IN AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM
Photograph 5.
Yerba mate with native species (pind and laurel guaic)
growing in the lines in the farm owned by Victor Jacinsky,
who sells yerba mate to Guayak in Andresito, Misiones.
Photograph S. Barth.
Farmers we visited associated with the company in
Andresito, Misiones had relatively small yerba mate plantations
(< 20 ha), and its production was a supplement to their income.
Use of agrochemicals or machinery or tools that could damage
vegetation and soils is not allowed. To control weeds, some
farmers use a roller made of wood which is dragged by a small
tractor between the yerba mate lines that does not cut the
weeds, but pushes them down and creates a layer of organic
material and protects against soil erosion (photograph 4).
The participating farmers conduct an annual census of
native species in their parcels. They are expected to have
about 2,000 individuals belonging to at least about 30
native species per hectare of any size and life forms, not just
trees. We recorded a variety of native species growing in the
yerba mate lines, many originating from natural regenera-
tion, which is favored by organic practices as well as by seed
sources and other propagules from surrounding patches of
natural forests (table II) (photograph 5). Guayak has a nurs-
ery to produce native species, and farmers are encouraged
to have their own nurseries to produce their own seedlings
and to sell for additional income. The extra work involved in
using the organic practices is compensated by higher prices
paid by Guayak, about 2-3 times the normal price.
Recently Guayak purchased land for a reserve man-
aged by the Iguaz Agroecological Foundation (Fundacin
Agroecolgica Iguaz) to serve for research on ecological
restoration, dissemination and training, using the Guayak
experience on sustainable agriculture in the Atlantic Forest
ecoregion of Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil.
Kraus
Kraus S.A. is a small family enterprise near San Ignacio
Min, one of the most prominent Jesuit-Guarani missions, a
tourist attraction in Misiones (figure 1, table II). The Kraus
family has maintained the pioneering spirit of their ancestors
who started growing yerba mate in the early 1900s, and it
was the first Argentine company to supply organic green tea
to the domestic market and for export (www.kraus.com.ar).
They use a unique drying system that consists of flowing
warm air produced by indirect heat that comes from a boiler
and provides a smoke-free product which may be specially
preferred in foreign markets (photograph 6).
There are several patches of native forest within and
around the periphery of their 400 hectare farm (photograph
7). Apart from yerba mate (certified by OIA), they grow organic
tea, and beef cattle. They control weeds with machete and
hoes and use a small tractor with a disk plow between the
lines. There is no need for use of pesticides since their yerba
mate is healthy and incidence of pest is minimal.
They plant native tree seedlings at 3 m distance from
each other, within the yerba mate lines, in late winter after
danger is frost has past. Their reforestation project is in collab-
oration with EcoTeas (www.ecoteas.com). The School of Forest
Science of the University of Misiones in Eldorado, collaborates
with them and provides advice on species choice, care and
maintenance. Kraus buys seedlings of native trees from local
nurseries that produce seedlings for reforestation of degraded
land as part of ProSoBo, a social forestry project run by the
Secretary of the Environment of Argentina (www.ambiente.
gov.ar). Several native trees growing from natural regeneration
and from plantings in the lines of a 15 year old yerba mate
plantation (Table II) were recorded. Yerba of this size effec-
tively protects the young seedlings from excess insolation in
summer and occasional frost in winter.
Photograph 6.
The drying system at Kraus farm that enables them
to provide a smoke-free product that may be preferred
in foreign markets.
Photograph B. Eibl.
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YERBA MAT EN SYSTME AGROFORESTIER / LE P OIN T SUR

67

Roapip

Roapip is a 100 ha farm that a Swiss settler, Alberto

Roth bought in 1925 in Santo Pip, Department of San
Ignacio (figure I, table II). Mr. Roth designed a set of novel
soil conservation methods maintaining good soil cover to
avoid soil loss and increase nutrient recycling, and pio-
neered the planting of native trees, which was considered
worthless at a time when Misiones maintained considerable
forest cover (www.fundaroth.org). Roth introduced the art of
composting and production of organic fertilizer using earth-
worms. He planted yerba mate following contour lines to
avoid erosion. He practiced selective clearing without burn- Photograph 7.
ing (rozado sin quemar), felling the tallest trees and keep- Yerba mate field at Kraus farm near San Ignacio, Misiones
showing soil cover and remnant forest in the background.
ing many young trees standing to allow the planted yerba Photograph F. Montagnini.
mate seedlings to grow in a more natural setting.
The Fundacin Alberto Roth (FAR) (Alberto Roth
Foundation) is currently adapting Roths methods to include
the use of machinery. The Roapip yerbales use winter
green covers of vicia, Vicia villosa, a leguminous herb which
reseeds itself every year, germinates in early fall, and leaves
a mat of dry material that lasts into early summer delaying
weed germination. Roapip currently has about 40 has of
yerba mate, 15 ha of silvopastoral systems, 20 ha of slash
pine, Pinus elliotii, and 27 ha of natural forest. Animal hus-
bandry is essential for the production of organic manure,
which is composted with the use of Californian earthworms
(lombricompuesto or earthworm compost). Yerba mate
is processed in the mills and packing plant at the Roapip
farm, and it is marketed by the company Yerbatera
ROAPIP, certified by OIA (photograph 8).
They have a 4 ha, 20-30 year old yerba mate AFS
showed that had been planted with peterib, Cordia tri-
chotoma, a native tree of valuable timber, with abundant
natural regeneration in the understory (photograph 9). Initial
site preparation was done with disk plow to improve water
infiltration. Weeding was done with machete, disk plow and
roller between the yerba mate lines. In another site with
about 50 year old yerba mate planted in forest after selective
logging there were several adult trees of valuable timber
species (photograph 10, table II).
All trails and roads are planted with the native, shade-
tolerant Jesuit grass, Axonopus compressus, to avoid ero-
sion but have to be controlled because it can become inva-
sive. They do not have disease or pest problems in these
Photograph 8.
mixed systems. Management can also affect the presence of Packing plant located at Roapip farm. Their yerba mate is
pests: for example, when harvest is done late, the new marketed by Yerbatera ROAPIP, certified by the OIA.
yerba mate sprouts are more prone to pest attacks because Photograph F. Montagnini.
they are weaker than when the harvest is done earlier in the
season. In these AFS, good populations of natural pest
predators such as dragon flies and birds help to control In the native forest, observations showed a great diversity
pests such as grasshoppers and worms. The nearby forest of native trees and lianas that give their name to the 300 mlong
likely contributes to maintaining a natural balance of pest- trail, Tap Ysyp (in Guarani: liana trail) (photograph 11).The
predator species. forest trail is part of a Roapip ecotourism project. They also
Their native species nursery is well equipped with irri- have a 900 m long agricultural trail that serves to acquaint
gation and shade as needed. They grow seedlings in tubes tourists with their organic yerba mate production system. Visits
on a substrate of pine needles and organic compost. Seeds to the native species nursery, yerba mate processing plant, his-
of native forest species are collected by local people, many toric original house with lodging facilities, and a small museum
of whom belong to the indigenous Takuap village nearby. complement the tours.
 BOIS ET FORTS DES TROPIQUES, 2011, N 308 (2)
68 FOC US / YERBA MATE IN AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM
Photograph 9.
Yerba mate AFS with planted native trees of Cordia
trichotoma (peterib), 20-30 years old, at Roapip,
Santo Pip, Misiones.
Photograph B. Eibl.
Photograph 10.
AFS of 50 year-old yerba mate planted in a forest after
selective logging, with several adult trees of valuable
timber species at Roapip, Santo Pip, Misiones.
Photograph F. Montagnini.
Barney Family
This is a small family business with two farms of 75 has
each located near Ober and Campo Ramn (figure 1). They
own the Anna Park Biological Reserve with 13 ha of natural sub-
tropical rainforest, which is part of the Misiones Green Corridor
and has protected status from the Misiones Ministry of Ecology
and Natural Resources. Yerba mate cultivation is a productive
alternative that generates sustainable income for the reserve
(http://yerbamateannapark.blogspot.com). The Barney family
uses green covers to keep the yerbal clean of weeds and to pro-
tect plants from summer weather. Additional weed control is
done with machete and fuel-powered weed cutters around the
individual plants. They have a small nursery with native tree and
fruit species. Their yerba mate is certified by OIA, sold locally
and for export. They grow tea for additional income, bordered by
natural forest and lines of Grevillea robusta trees.
Several native trees grow in the yerba mate lines, both
planted and from natural regeneration in the yerba mate lines,
including palms, fruit trees, and valuable timber species such as
cedro, Cedrela fissilis (table II, photograph 12). Laurel guaic,
Ocotea puberula, was the only species that had been planted.
Ruiz de Montoya Cooperative
The Ruiz de Montoya agricultural cooperative was
founded in 1953 and has 230 members located around the
town of the same name and others nearby (figure I). They
have a drying and packing facility that processes their
brands Tucangu and Oroy, sold locally and exported
as certified organic by ARGENCERT. They process approxi-
mately 2,500,000 tons annually, of 14 different yerba mate
and tea products (www.yerbaytetucangua.com.ar). The farms
located near the towns of San Vicente and Dos de Mayo (fig-
ure I) sell their unprocessed yerba mate leaves to Ruiz de
Montoya cooperative and receive technical assistance from
the local INTA extension agency. Generally, these producers
obtain prices about 30% higher than that paid by Inym,
although at times the cooperative cannot buy the whole vol-
ume produced. However, yerba mate can remain in the fields
without deterioration so they can delay harvesting to wait for
favorable prices. The farms are inspected twice a year by
ARGENCERT representatives at the Cooperatives expense.
Near the town of Dos de Mayo we visited a farmer who
owns about 50 ha, of which 14 ha are in yerba, the rest are
planted with tea, citrus trees, and horticultural crops for family
consumption and extra cash. There are about 8 farmers with
similar arrangements who have started organic production in the
last 4-5 years, others are getting their certification, and others
are making a decision. It is relatively easy for farmers to convert
to organic production because as yerba mate has historically
held relatively low prices, farmers use low-input production.
They do not apply herbicides, which is the main chem-
ical used in yerba mate production. They weed once or twice
a year and just before harvest time using a sling blade,
machete, and a small tractor with a disk plow set high so it
does not reach the soil. They allow certain amount of weeds
among the yerba lines to maintain soil cover and avoid high
levels of pests. They promote the natural regeneration of

Photograph 11.
A 300 mlong trail, Tap Ysyp (in Guarani: liana trail), at
forest reserve at Alberto Roth Foundation. Patches of natural
forests in farmers properties serve as sources of seeds and
other propagules that promote the natural regeneration of
native species in yerba mate AFS.
Photograph: F. Montagnini.
Photograph 12.
Cedro (Cedrela fissilis) from natural regeneration at the
Barney family farm near Ober, Misiones.
Photograph: B. Eibl.
trees in the yerba mate lines and plant some additional
native species. Fumo bravo, Solanum granulosum-lepro-
sum, is one of the first species to appear from natural regen-
eration, attracting birds that contribute dispersal of more
valuable species (table III). Caafstola, Peltophorum
dubium, is one of the preferred species in yerbales, as it can
be planted from both seeds and stakes. They prefer native
trees species instead of pines, because pine needles affect
the flavor of yerba mate. Many of their seedlings are pro-
duced in a small nursery at a local elementary school.
BOIS ET FORTS DES TROPIQUES, 2011, N 308 (2)
YERBA MAT EN SYSTME AGROFORESTIER / LE P OIN T SUR
69
Selecting tree species
for organic yerba mate AFS
It is important that species chosen for yerba mate AFS
have a root structure that minimizes competition with yerba
mate and crowns that are not too broad or dense so they do
not provide too much shade for the yerba mate. Some
species can have additional characteristics of interest such
as attracting fauna that can contribute to pest control. It is
also helpful when trees lose their leaves in autumn/winter,
allowing greater light penetration during the seasons when
there is less light available. Deciduous trees will also tran-
spire less, thus reducing competition for water.
Table III summarizes the species that we found associ-
ated with yerba mate in our research and the main traits that
make them desirable for combination with yerba mate.
Several of these species have demonstrated good growth
and adaptability in experimental systems in Misiones. For
example, Barth et al. (2008) searched productive alterna-
tives for the recovery of degraded soils in Misiones and
found that guatamb, Balfourodendron riedelianum, and
lapacho negro, Tabebuia heptaphylla, showed the best
adaptability and growth, timb, Enterolobium contor-
tisiliquum, urunday, Astronium balansae, and caafstola,
Peltophorum dubium, had good growth, while rabo molle,
Lonchocarpus muehlbergianum, had low adaptability in the
most degraded sites.
In a long-term experiment to test growth and productiv-
ity of yerba mate in AFS with native trees, Eibl et al. (2000)
found that I. paraguariensis suffered no loss in yield when
intercropped with Enterolobium contortisiliquum (a nitrogen
fixing tree species) or Balfourodendron riedelianum,
although on a per hectare basis it did not produce as much
as in monoculture due to the lower number of yerba mate
plants in the AFS. In the same experiment, Day et al. (2011)
examined soil nutrient content and plant health of the AFS
and compared it to a yerba mate monoculture, mature sec-
ondary forest, and a nearby degraded agricultural field.
Results indicated no competition for nutrients was occurring
between the yerba mate plants and the trees, with some soil
improvement occurring in the long term.
Considering all the visits to organic yerba mate farms
and field experiences mentioned above, the following
species could be recommended: guatamb, peterib, laurel
amarillo, loro blanco, cedro, caroba, araucaria, laurel guaic,
due to their monopodial development and self pruning abil-
ity; and a second group with lapacho negro, timb, caafs-
tola, anchico colorado and curupay with broader crown. All
these species have good growth and high quality timber
(table III). Other species may also have good potential and
deserve attention in future work. For example, fruit, medici-
nal, or ornamental species, including not only trees, but also
herbs or shrubs would increase farm diversification.
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70 FOC US / YERBA MATE IN AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM

Table III.
Native tree species found growing in AFS of organic yerba mate in this study.
Recommended species are marked with an asterisk.

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON BOTANICAL USES FARM/SITE PLANTED OR OTHER CHARACTERISTICS

NAME FAMILY WHERE IT FROM NATURAL
WAS REGENERATION
FOUND

Acrocomia aculeata (Jacq.) Acrocomia Arecaceae Oil, fuel, wildlife, Barney Nat regen Restoration, biological corridors
Lodd. ex Mart. ornamental
Albizia hasslerii (Chodat.) Anchico blanco Fabaceae Fuelwood Guayak Nat regen Nitrogen fixation
Burkart
Anadenantera macrocarpa Curupay Fabaceaeae Fuelwood, Guarani Planted Nitrogen fixation, open crown,
(Benth.) Brenan Timber deciduous, sun loving
Annona spp. Aratic Annonaceae Fruit Barney Nat regen Restoration, wildlife
Apuleia leiocarpa (Vogel.) J. F. Grapia Fabaceae Timber Roapip Nat regen Restoration, wildlife, N fixation,
Macbr. slow growth
Araucaria angustifolia* Araucaria, pino Araucariaceae Timber Kraus Planted Excellent timber. Monopodic growth.
(Bertol.) Kuntze paran Tolerant to frost. Sun loving
Arecastrum romanzoffianum Pind Arecaceae Ornamental, All sites Nat regen Restoration, biological corridors
(Cham.) Becc. wildlife, honey
Aspidosperma polyneuron Palo rosa Apocinaceae Timber Guayak Planted Slow growing, monopodic growth,
Mull. Arg. shade loving
Ateleia glazioviana Baill. Timb blanco Fabaceae Fuelwood Guayak Nat regen Nitrogen fixation
Balfourodendron Guatamb Rutaceae Timber Kraus Planted Excellent timber, monopodic growth,
riedelianum* (Engl.) Engl. slow growing
Bastardiopsis densiflora* Loro blanco Malvaceae Timber, honey Kraus Planted Increases soil pH, cations; semi-
(Hook. et Arn.) Hassl. deciduous, self pruning; sun loving
Cabralea canjerana (Vell.) Cancharana Meliaceae Timber, fruit for Barney, Nat regen Fast growing. Shade loving
Mart. wildlife Ruiz de
Montoya
Cecropia pachystachya Trcul Ambay Cecropiaceae Fruit for wildlife All sites Nat regen Fast growing, pioneer tree, good for
soil improvement, attracts fauna
Cedrela fissilis* Vell. Cedro Meliaceae Timber All sites Nat regen Excellent timber, monopodic, easy to
reproduce, difficult to grow in open
due to shoot borer attacks,
deciduous, sun loving
Cordia trichotoma* (Vell.) Peterib Boraginaceae Timber, honey Roa Pip, Planted and Excellent timber, monopodic, good
Johnst. Kraus nat regen soil improver, deciduous, sun loving
Enterolobium Timb Fabaceae Timber Guayak, Nat regen Nitrogen fixation, grows well in
contortisiliquum* (Vell.) Barney degraded lands, deciduous, sun
Morong. loving
Euterpe edulis Mart. Palmito Arecaceae Palm heart, Guayak Nat regen Grows under shade
wildlife, honey,
ornamental
Holocalyx balansae Micheli Alecrin Fabaceae Ornamental, Guayak Nat regen Restoration, wildlife
timber
Jacaranda semiserrata*, Caroba Bignoniaceae Ornamental, Ruiz de Nat regen Fast growing, monopodic growth,
J. micrantha* Cham. timber Montoya, deciduous, sun loving
Guayak
Lonchocarpus Rabo molle Fabaceae Timber, Barney Nat regen Nitrogen fixation, slow growing,
muehlbergianus Hassl. ornamental root sprouts
Machaerium spp. Isapuy Fabaceae Timber, Guayak, Nat regen Fast growth, grows well in degraded
fuelwood Barney lands
Myrocarpus frondosus Incienso Fabaceae Timber, Roa Pip Nat regen Excellent timber, shade loving
Allemo ornamental,
honey
Nectandra lanceolata* Nees. Laurel amarillo Lauraceae Timber, fruit Guayak Nat regen Grows well in degraded land,
et Mart. ex Nees self pruning
Nectandra megapotamica Laurel negro Lauraceae Timber, fruit Guayak, Nat regen Grows well in degraded land
(Spreng.) Mez. Barney
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YERBA MAT EN SYSTME AGROFORESTIER / LE P OIN T SUR

71

Table III (suite).

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON BOTANICAL USES FARM/SITE PLANTED OR OTHER CHARACTERISTICS

NAME FAMILY WHERE IT FROM NATURAL
WAS REGENERATION
FOUND

Ocotea puberula (Rich.) Ness Laurel guaic Lauraceae Timber Guayak Nat regen Restoration, wildlife
Parapiptadenia rgida* Anchico Fabaceaeae Fuelwood, Guayak, Nat regen and Nitrogen fixation, open crown,
(Benth.) Brenan colorado Timber Kraus planted deciduous, sun loving
Patagonula americana* L. Guayubira Boraginaceae Timber Guayak Nat regen Monopodic, tolerant to frost, sun
loving
Peltophorum dubium* Caafstola Fabaceae Timber, Kraus Nat regen Excellent timber. Fast growing,
(Sprengel.) Taub. fuelwood, honey adapted to degraded lands,
deciduous, sun loving
Solanum granulosum- Fumo bravo Solanaceae Honey, wildlife All sites Nat regen Fast growing, pioneer tree good for
leprosum Dunal soil improvement, attracts fauna
Tabebuia spp.* Lapacho Bignoniaceae Timber, Kraus, Planted Excellent timber. Deciduous,
amarillo fuelwood, honey Barney relatively fast growing, needs
pruning, sun loving
Tabebuia heptaphylla* (Vell.) Lapacho negro Bignoniaceae Timber, Kraus, Planted Excellent timber. Relatively fast
Toledo fuelwood, Barney growing, deciduous, adapted to
ornamental, degraded sites, needs pruning, sun
honey loving
Trema micrantha (L.) Blume Palo plvora Ulmaceae Fuelwood, All sites Nat regen Small tree, semideciduous, excellent
charcoal; good for soil improvement, potential for
animal fodder, P mobilization through mycorrhizae,
honey attracts fauna

Soil improvement in yerba mate AFS

Yerba mate AFS incorporating native trees can improve
soil fertility without relying on fertilizers. In a study of
20 yerba mate plantations of two ages (30 and 50 years old)
both in monoculture and intercropped with the native tree
Araucaria angustifolia, it was found that when comparing
the young plantations, soils in the monocultures had higher
nutrient content than in the AFS; however, the monocultures
were more susceptible than the AFS to a decline in soil
nutrients over time, particularly with respect to Ca, N and C
(Ilany et al., 2010).
In previous research in Misiones, native tree species
prized for their timber, such as Balfourodendron riedelianum,
Bastardiopsis densiflora, Cordia trichotoma, Enterolobium con-
tortisiliquum, and Ocotea puberula, were found to increase soil
macronutrient levels down to 15 centimeters in depth, with an
effect detected at a distance of up to 1 m away from the trunk
(Fernndez et al., 1997). In other research on AFS of yerba
mate with native tree species, at 0-10 cm soil depth yerba in
combination with the N-fixing Enterolobium contortisiliquum
(timb) had higher phosphorus levels than yerba + Tabebuia
heptaphylla (lapacho negro). In addition, yerba + timb, and
yerba + timb and lapacho contained significantly more mag-
nesium than the other treatments (Day et al., 2011).
All of these species were present in the organic yerba
mate farms we visited, generally growing from natural regen-
eration in the yerba mate lines, with farmers appreciating
their role and tending to them. Few native tree species were
planted, in Kraus, Roapip and Barney (tables II and III).
However, since farmers have their own nurseries (Guayak,
Barney, Roapip) or have access to nurseries that grow
native species (Kraus, farmers who sell to Ruiz de Montoya),
its expected that, given sufficient ecological and economic
incentives, farmers will increasingly plant native tree
species in their organic yerba mate AFS.
Microenvironment amelioration
favoring yerba mate growth
and quality in AFS
In Misiones, a bare soil at noon can reach tempera-
tures of up to 55C, while soil temperatures never exceed
32C in yerbales that have green covers and/or trees
(Reutemann, 2009). In addition, in areas with mist, the
trees can act as condensation points and catch water
droplets, producing horizontal precipitation, which can be
an important water input in times of drought (Baggio,
2008; Silva et al., 2008). The presence of trees also moder-
ates the effects of wind (Reutemann, 2009).
Excessive insolation during the summer can damage
plants in monocultures, as mentioned by producers who
sell to Guayak (V. Yasinsky, personal communication, May
2009), and also by researchers from EMBRAPA5 Forestal. In
addition there appears to be a consumer preference for
yerba mate grown under shade due to its better quality
(Baggio et al., 2008).
5 Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuaria, Brazilian Agency
for Agricultural Research, Forestry Division.
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72 FOC US / YERBA MATE IN AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM
Establishment and management
of organic yerba mate AFS
Tree density and spatial arrangement must be suited to
a yerba mate-native tree multistrata system. A final density
of approximately 100 planted trees per hectare (tr/ha)
would be expected, however, tree density could increase
with trees that grow from natural regeneration. Between 171
and 226 trees per hectare were found in natural yerba mate
forest in Paran state, Brazil (Borges et al., 2003). An initial
density of 200-400 tr/ha may be needed to reach the
desired number of mature individuals. A higher tree density
achieves faster results in terms of soil protection and shade
and also allows for the selection of the best trees.
It would be preferred for the trees to be mixed with the
largest possible number of the recommended yerba mate
species mentioned above. Adequate shade and protection,
positive impacts on soils, and desired products stress the
importance of choosing the correct tree species for shade of
yerba mate, ideally selecting among those that combine sev-
eral of the desired characteristics (table III) (photograph 13).
Trees should be planted within the yerba mate lines to leave
free space between the lines to facilitate weeding and harvest
operations. This spacing also stimulates growth in height of
native trees, improving their form, and protects young
seedlings from frost and excess sun.
Photograph 13.
Advantages of growing yerba mate associated with the proper trees: yerba growing under timb
(Enterolobium contortisiliquum, a native, nitrogen fixing tree of good timber) is greener than that
growing under eucalypt trees (held by hand for comparison); Jos Zubczuks farm
in Guaran, Misiones.
Photograph B. Eibl.
Economic advantages of organic
yerba mate: marketing and pricing
Organic certification plays an important role in secur-
ing a premium price for an agricultural product. Among
yerba mate companies marketing products in the U.S.A.,
there is a significant difference between pricing levels for
conventional and organic yerba mate. Organic certification
has allowed companies to charge double or more the price
for conventional export products.
While any level of product branding (Montagnini et al.,
2011) represents the opportunity to secure a significant pre-
mium, just creating an identity for a product can lead to signifi-
cant variations from one product to another. As described
above, these companies have structured their operations and
practices as part of what is often referred to as a values-based
agricultural supply chain. This concept is based on several prin-
ciples, including strategic partnerships based on values. Under
these practices, companies that control significant volumes of
high-quality, differentiated food products, create and distribute
responsibilities and rewards across the supply chain, and oper-
ate effectively at regional levels. In this setting, consumers may
move from merely recognizing a brand or feeling good about it
to a sense of connection to the product. Companies that follow
the practices they champion have a competitive advantage in
the marketplace. These companies have an important role as
business leaders and have the capacity to offer the consumer a
chance to learn about social and environmental issues beyond
the realm of their daily lives and to contribute to sustainable
and fair trade farming in often remote, rural areas of the world.
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Conclusions and recommendations

Interest in organic farming and in yerba mate cultivation
under shade is rapidly increasing in recent years. Thus, there
is a growing demand for appropriate knowledge for these sys-
tems, to obtain better yerba mate prices and other income
from the trees, along with improved livelihoods and environ-
mental quality. This need requires continued research to incor-
porate additional species beyond those recommended here
(photographs 14), as well as to improve management and
other aspects of the yerba mate within agroforestry systems.
The many experiences discussed in this article contribute to
advancing the knowledge needed to promote these systems.
From this study it is recommended to combine yerba mate
with the following species: Balfourodendron riedelianum, Cor- Photograph 14a.
A young seedling of the native tree species timb, Enterolobium
dia trichotoma, Nectandra lanceolata, Bastardiopsis densi- contortisiliquum, planted in a 10 hectare experimental trial
flora, Cedrela fissillis, Jacaranda micrantha, Araucaria angusti- conducted by INTA of Montecarlo, Misiones, to test the suitability
folia, Ocotea puberula, due to their monopodial development of yerba mate combinations with about 14 tree species of interest.
and self pruning ability; as well as Tabebuia heptaphylla, Photograph F. Montagnini.
Enterolobium contortisiliquum, Peltophorum dubium, Para-
piptadenia rigida and Anadenanthera macrocarpa of broader
crown, with good growth and high quality timber. Other tree,
herb or shrub species with fruit, medicinal or ornamental
value should be also added to increase farm diversification.
The emphasis on diversification of yerba mate growing
systems is increasing in Misiones and elsewhere, with farm-
ers and institutions devoting time and resources in pursuing
the best system for each situation (photograph 15). For
example, the Ministerio del Agro y la Produccin of the
province of Misiones has a program focused on soil recovery
and diversification in yerba mate, related to the Instituto
Nacional de la Yerba Mate. The School of Forest Sciences of
the National University of Misiones in Eldorado and the
National Institute of Agricultural Technology of Montercarlo,
Misiones are conducting research on domestication of
native tree species in experimental settings and in farmers Photograph 14b.
fields to record their adaptability for combination with yerba A young seedling of the native tree species peterib, Cordia
mate; silvicultural treatments needed; and provision of trichotoma, planted in a 10 hectare experimental trial conducted
environmental services such as pest management, impacts by INTA of Montecarlo, Misiones, to test the suitability of yerba mate
combinations with about 14 tree species of interest.
on soil conservation and recovery, carbon sequestration,
Photograph F. Montagnini.
wildlife, and biodiversity conservation.

Acknowledgements
Authors are grateful to the farmers, technical personnel,
business partners and other people involved in yerba mate
production in Misiones for generously sharing their experi-
ences and ideas. They thank Kate Carman for the ideas
expressed in her report, Market Driven Restoration: The Role
of Green Marketing and Brand Equity in Yerba Mate
Production, Yale University, May 2008. Also, they thank
Sarah Wyatt for her comments and editing, and Marcio
Lpez and Matt Decker for providing the maps. Part of this
work was presented at the 12th North American Agroforestry
Conference in Athens, Ga, USA, 4-9 June 2011. This research
was supported by the Program in Tropical Forestry of the
Yale University Global Institute of Sustainable Forestry.
Photograph 15.
The Guayak company conducts experiments to test growth of yerba
mate associated with native species in different settings at their
Iguazu Agroecological Reserve: yerba mate has just been planted
in natural forest that has been under cleared to allow plants at 3x1
and 2x1 meters spacing.
Photograph F. Montagnini.
 BOIS ET FORTS DES TROPIQUES, 2011, N 308 (2)
74 FOC US / YERBA MATE IN AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM
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