Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend
access to Hispania.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded from 161.139.39.211 on Tue, 31 Mar 2015 00:55:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Media/Computers
Abstract: The World Wide Web and emerging multimedia tools and software provide students with unprece
dented opportunities to comprehend authentic texts and learn new vocabulary by using and creating annotations
with written and spoken text and visual information. The present study examines the effects of pictorial
(videos, images) and verbal (Spanish definitions, English translations) glosses/annotations on vocabulary
learning and comprehension of an authentic literary text. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the
following groups: 1) control (without access to glosses), 2) choice-lookup (access to verbal and pictorial glosses),
3) forced-lookup (required to consult all available verbal and pictorial glosses). Choice and forced-lookup groups
performed significantly better on the vocabulary test and summary than the control group. No statistically
significant differences in performance were found between choice and forced-lookup groups.
Key Words: annotations, CALL (computer-assisted language learning), computer-mediated learning, glosses,
multimedia learning, reading comprehension, second language (L2), Spanish language, vocabulary learning
1.0 Introduction
Second-language (L2) learners have unprecedented access to a range of authentic texts and
lessons on theWorld Wide Web to develop reading skills, strategies, and vocabulary
knowledge (Brandi, 2002; Kern, Ware andWarschauer, 2004; LeLoup andPonterio, 2005,
2006; Lomicka and Cooke-Plagwitz, 2004; Osuna andMeskill, 1998;Walz, 1998). Instructional
software increasingly provides multimedia features, allowing students to look up immediately the
of unknown words and access resources to enhance
meanings designed comprehension
(Aguilar and Oviedo, 2001 ;Learn Spanish Now [version 9.0]). Brandi (2002), Lyman-Hager and
Davis (1996), andMartinez-Lage (1997) discuss the process of developing Web-based lessons
and multimedia annotated texts inGerman, French, and Spanish guided by currentL2 reading
research.1
theyhave read because theyhave a solid understanding of the assigned text" (149).
Abraham, Lee B.
"Second Language Reading Comprehension and Vocabulary Learning with Multimedia"
Hispania 90.1 (2007): 98-108
This content downloaded from 161.139.39.211 on Tue, 31 Mar 2015 00:55:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Vocabulary Learning with Multimedia 99
The present study focuses on an unresolved issue in computer-mediated L2 reading by
examining how intermediate-level students use multimedia annotations forvocabulary learning
and comprehension of an authentic L2 text.This article first summarizes previous research on the
relationship between L2 vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension, followed by a
review of studies ofmultimedia glosses. We then consider a theoretical framework for learning
with multimedia, then briefly describe the current study, itsfindings, and the implications for
future research.2
In one of thefirst studies ofL2 readingwith multimedia glosses, Chun and Plass ( 1996) found
that studentswho selected a textor picture annotation forGerman vocabulary performed better
on a vocabulary test than learnerswho only had access to text annotations and than those
learnerswith access to text and video annotations.3 In Plass, Chun, Mayer, and Leutner (1998),
studentswho looked up both visual and verbal annotations understood the story better than
learnerswho looked up only visual or only verbal annotations. Yoshii and Flaitz (2002) found that
learners using text combined with pictures significantly outperformed learners on vocabulary
testswith access only to pictorial annotations or only text annotations. Al-Seghayer (2001)
observed that the use of text combined with video annotations brought greater gains in L2
vocabulary learning than the use of text combined with picture annotations.
Davis and Lyman-Hager ( 1997) examined the relationship between the typeof glossed infor
mation used by intermediate-level second language learners and their understanding of an
authentic French short story. English translations were themost common type of annotation
looked up (85%). Students infrequentlyresorted to available grammatical explanations, cultural
notes, French definitions, pronunciation, and pictures. However, the frequent consultation of
English translations and other aids did not result in significantly better comprehension. Davis
and Lyman-Hager (1997) suggest that glosses and other multimedia aids did not enhance
students' understanding because "the quantity of unknown cultural references and unknown
vocabulary may have simply overloaded students' limited comprehension capacities" (62).
Lomicka (1998) found that access to a range of glosses enhanced L2 reading comprehension.
Chun (2001 ) did not find a relationship between thenumber ofwords looked-up and performance
on reading comprehension measures for a German text.Ariew and Ercetin
(2004) and Sakar and
Ercetin (2005) found thatvideo annotations negatively affect comprehension.
Research on reading inmultimedia environments has also focused on the role of other con
tributingfactors such as individual differences inprocessing visual information to determine if
This content downloaded from 161.139.39.211 on Tue, 31 Mar 2015 00:55:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
100 Hispania 90March 2007
"going back and forth between hyperlinks (e.g. glosses, audiolinks) is helpful to vocabulary
learning and text comprehension or whether it can be distracting and the source of cognitive
overload" (Chun 2001,392). Plass, Chun, Mayer, and Leutner (2003) found that low-verbal ability
and low-spatial ability learnerswho were required to look up both visual and verbal information
learned fewer vocabulary words than high-verbal ability and high-spatial ability students.Chun
and Payne (2004) found that studentswith lower verbal short-termworking memory looked up
more words when provided with multimedia (pictures, videos, English translations, and German
definitions) than studentswith greater verbal short-termworking memory. However, Chun and
Payne (2004) did not find a relationship between working memory and students' performance on
measures of reading comprehension and vocabulary learning. Consistent with previous studies
ofmultimedia glosses, LI translationswere themost frequently consulted glosses for low and
high verbal short-termworking memory groups but theiruse did not enhance comprehension or
retention of new vocabulary.
As reviewed above, findings from studies on the effectofmultimedia glosses on vocabulary
learning and reading comprehension in a number of languages have been mixed. Studies have
found thata combination of textand visual information ismost effective forvocabulary learning
and, in some cases, for reading comprehension. However, recent research indicates thatL2
learners,when given a choice, select LI (English) translations rather than picture or video
glosses and thatmultimedia information can impose a cognitive load on learners and impede
vocabulary learning and comprehension.
The Generative Theory ofMultimedia Learning suggests that looking up both visual and
verbal glosses inamultimedia environment enhances retentionof vocabulary and facilitates text
comprehension (Mayer 2001). "The contiguous presentation of two types of informationallows
for their simultaneous storage in short-termmemory and for building referential connections
between both representations. These connections allow formore retrieval routes to access the
vocabulary item and may lead to additive effects in recall. This process is also strongly
dependent on learnervariables, such as preferences and abilities" (Chun and Plass 1997,69-70).
As such, learning new vocabulary and understanding authentic textswith multimedia occurs
when students select, organize, and connect a verbal gloss with the corresponding visual gloss
under conditions which do not overload the limited capacity of short-term/working memory
(Mayer 1997;Miller 1956; Sweller and Chandler 1994).
To date, few studies have looked at the effectiveness of multimedia glosses in compre
hending L2 texts in Spanish (Lafford, Collentine and Karp 2003). As such, the objective of the
study described below is to understand how students use multimedia resources while reading an
authentic Spanish text.
3.0 Method
This study used a pretest-posttest control group design to address the following questions:
1. Do studentswho read an authentic text in Spanish with pictorial and written annota
tions learn more vocabulary words than those students required to look up all
informationprovided in every annotated word or than studentswho do not have access
to annotations?
2. Do studentswho read an authentic text in Spanish with pictorial and written annota
tions recall more main ideas than those students required to look up all information
provided in every annotated word or than students who do not have access to
annotations?
This content downloaded from 161.139.39.211 on Tue, 31 Mar 2015 00:55:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Vocabulary Learning with Multimedia 101
As described below, students used a multimedia software program, completed a productive
vocabulary pretest and posttest (Appendix A), and wrote a summary of the story.
102 students (61 females and 41 males) enrolled ina third-semester intermediate-level Span
ish course at a large university in the southwestern United States volunteered to participate in
the study.4All students were non-native speakers of Spanish and were fluent in English.
Students participated in this study as a regular class activity. The mean Grade Point Average at
the timeof testingwas 3.35 (SD = 0.48).5
Each studentwas randomly assigned to one of the following threegroups: 1) control group,
2) choice lookup, or 3) forced (no-choice) lookup. Learners in theforced lookup condition looked
up every piece of informationfor the85 words with annotations (i.e., Spanish definitions, English
translations, pictures, and videos). The forced lookup condition was designed to reflect the
common strategyof L2 readerswho "perceive the textas a series of isolatedwords, each ofwhich
has to be deciphered individually inorder tomove on with reading" (Martinez-Lage 1997, 122)
and also to investigate thepossibility thatgoing back and forthbetween the textand theglosses
would induce a high cognitive load, and thereby,significantly impede students' comprehension
when compared with the control group and students in the free lookup group (Chun 2001).
Students in the choice lookup condition freely looked up any of the verbal or visual information
for the 85 annotated words. Students in the control group read the story in themultimedia
environment but were not able to use any of the glosses. Students were not able to access the
software between laboratory sessions.
3.2 Materials
Students read a 1,012 word version of Gregorio L?pez y Fuentes's Una carta a Dios in
Ciberteca (Chun and Plass, 1998) with eighty-fiveglossed vocabulary words and phrases. All 85
annotated (glossed) words have English and Spanish definitions and pronunciation (audio) in
Spanish available. In addition, 30 of the 85 glossed words have pictures and 15of the 85 glosses
have short video clips available. Students access glosses by clicking on a word or phrase
containing a symbol and move the annotated word to a menu bar located at the top of the screen
(Figure 1).
Figure 1
Word "Ma?z" (Chun and Plass
_Glossed 1998)_
This content downloaded from 161.139.39.211 on Tue, 31 Mar 2015 00:55:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
102 Hispania 90March 2007
3.3 Tasks
All students completed a vocabulary pretest inwhich theywrote an English translation for
twentyof the eighty-five annotated words inUna carta a Dios and indicatedwhether or not they
had guessed a word's meaning (Appendix A). Students were awarded one point for correct
answers regardless of whether or not they guessed themeaning or no points if the responses
were incorrect or if the participant did not respond. Partial credit (0.5 points) was awarded for
minor spelling errors. Students completed a vocabulary posttest which was the same as the
pretest, except that the order of items on the posttest was changed to prevent carryover effects.
The Appendix lists the twentyglossed words of thepretest and posttest for teacher information.
Ten annotations with text (English translation and Spanish definitions), three annotations
with text and pictures, three annotations with text and video, and four annotations with text,
pictures, and video formed the basis of the vocabulary pretest and posttest. Items on the
vocabulary pretest and posttest were selected from the 85 annotated words based on the
following criteria: 1) type of annotation available (text only, text+ picture, text+ video, text+
picture + video), 2) number of times each gloss occurred, 3) part of speech, 4) page number, and
5) importance of the annotated word forunderstanding main ideas.
Students wrote or typed a summary inEnglish and were asked to indicate whether or not
theyhad already read the storybefore participating in the study inorder to determine and analyze
any effects of prior knowledge. None of the participants had previously read the story.
Scores for the summaries were derived from a three-stage procedure based on the idea unit,
a widely recognized unit of text analysis (Lee and Ballman 1987; Riley and Lee 1996). Two
experienced instructorsof Spanish, working independently, identified 147 idea units, ranked
themaccording to their importance, and then independently scored each summaryusing tenmain
idea units. One point was awarded for each of themain idea units included in the students' recall
protocols. A studentwho received a score of 10 identifiedall tenmain idea units in the summary
while a score of 0 meant that the student did not include any of the tenmain idea units.6
3.4 Procedure
This content downloaded from 161.139.39.211 on Tue, 31 Mar 2015 00:55:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Vocabulary Learning with Multimedia 103
4.0 Results
Statistical analyses indicated thatcontrol, choice-, and forced-lookup groups were equiva
lentwith regard toGrade Point Average (GPA), the number of years of Spanish taken in high
school, and thenumber of semesters of college-level Spanish taken.
In order to adjust for any prior knowledge of vocabulary, a one-way multivariate analysis of
covariance (MANCOVA) was conducted with lookup condition (control, choice, forced) as the
between-subjects factor and vocabulary pretest scores as the covariate. Scores on the vocabu
laryposttest and summarywere the dependent variables and the level of statistical significance
for theMANCOVA was set at .05.
A statistically significant effect for lookup condition was found indicating thatperformance
on the vocabulary posttest and summary accounted for 20% of the variance among the three
lookup conditions when adjusting for differences on the vocabulary pretest (Table 1).
Table 1
Multivariate Analysis ofCovariance of theVocabulary Posttest and Summary
Wilks'Source F Hypothesis Error Significance Partial r|2
_Lambda_df_dj__of F_
Covariate3 .37 83.05 2 97
.000*** .63
Lookup Condition
.64_12.19 4_194_.000***_.20_
Note. Partial r\2= effect size. aCovariate = vocabulary pretest. ***p < .001.
Table 2
Analysis ofCovariance of theVocabulary Posttest and Summary
F Hypothesis Error Significance Partial r\2
_df__df_o??_
Vocabulary Posttest 23.11 2 98 .000***
.32
m
Sum
ary_9.94 2_98_.000***_.\J__
Note. Partial r\2= effect size. * * *p < .001.
The ANCOVAs for the effect of treatmentgroup on thevocabulary posttest and summary
were significant (Table 2). Post-hoc analyses of theANCOVA for thevocabulary posttest, using
theBonferroni method, indicated that the choice- and forced-lookup groups performed signifi
cantly better than the control group. There were no statistically significant differences in scores
on the vocabulary posttest between the choice-lookup and the forced-lookup groups. For the
summary,post-hoc analyses of theANCOVA showed that the choice and forced lookup groups
performed significantly better than the control group. There were no statistically significant
differences inperformance on the summary between the choice- and forced-lookup conditions
(Table 2 and Table 3).
Table 3
Percentages, Means and Standard Deviations for theVocabulary Pretest, Vocabulary
Posttest, and Summary
Vocabulary Pretest3 Vocabulary Posttest3
Summaryb_
_% M SD % M SD % M SD
Control 31 6.1 2.15 35 6.9 2.77 22 2.2 2.06
ChoiceLookup 29 5.9 2.87 47 9.4 3.27 43 4.3 2.33
Forced Lookup 31 6.2 2.80 49 9.7 3.21 36 3.6 2.31
This content downloaded from 161.139.39.211 on Tue, 31 Mar 2015 00:55:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
104 Hispania 90March 2007
4.01 Analyses ofLog Files
Log files of the choice-lookup group revealed that studentsmost often consulted English
translations, followed by Spanish definitions, pictures, and videos (Table 4).
Table 4
Glosses Consulted by theChoice-Lookup Group
Glosses Consulted
N %
LI 1981 81
L2 197 8
Picture 7 170
Video 4107
Total 2455100
= = =
Note. N number; LI English translations; L2 Spanish definitions.
Students' log files in the choice-lookup group indicated no statistically significant correla
tions between thenumber of times students consulted LI, L2, picture, and video annotations and
the number ofmain ideas recalled in the summary (Table 5). Such findings are consistent with
previous research inmultimedia and Web-based environments (Chun 2001; Chun and Payne
2004; Davis and Lyman-Hager 1997; Liu 1995; Sakar and Ercetin 2005). A significantnegative
correlation was found between the number of times students looked up video annotations and
their performance on the vocabulary posttest. As students looked up video annotations, their
overall performance worsened. As shown inTable 5, no significant correlations were identified
between the number of times students consulted LI, L2, and picture annotations and
performance on the vocabulary posttest.
Table 5
Correlations between theNumber ofGlosses Consulted by theChoice-Lookup Group
and theVocabulary Posttest and Summary
_M_SD_r_p__r_p__
58 LI 21.81 -.12 .51 -.10 .56
6 L2 13.01 .28 .12 .17 .34
Picture5.78
5 -.26 .13 -.10 .72
4.47 -.39* .02 -.23 .19
Video_3
Note. LI =
English translations; L2
=
Spanish definitions; r = Pearson correlation coefficient;
= level. *p < .05.
p probability
5.0 Discussion
This content downloaded from 161.139.39.211 on Tue, 31 Mar 2015 00:55:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Vocabulary Learning with Multimedia 105
the choice lookup group used LI, L2, and picture annotations did not necessarily enhance nor
interfere with performance on a measure of reading a which coincides
comprehension, finding
with earlier studies (Chun and Plass 1996; Chun 2001 ;Chun and Payne 2004; Davis and Lyman
Hager 1997).
Students in theforced-lookup groupmay have experienced cognitive overload while reading
because they devoted limited resources of short-termmemory to trying to understand the text
while also looking up ("clicking on") all L1, L2, picture, and video annotations for 85words (Chun
2001 ;Chun and Plass 1997;Mayer 2001 ;Sweller and Chandler 1994). One learnerstated,"I did not
really get a full understanding of what the storywas really about partly because I was busy
looking up everyword with a symbol next to it.Iwas only able topick a few thingsfrom the story
due to the distraction of looking words up." Another studentpointed out, "I felt like Iwas [so]
overloaded with understanding the new vocabulary words that I could not seem to focus on the
plot of the story. I remember words such as beans, corn, rain, storms, hail, sweet, and so on, but
"
itwas hard to get the essential point of the story."A thirdstudent commented, Una carta a Dios
was a complete blur. I can truthfullysay that Iwas too busy trying to learn the vocabulary and
that I didn't really absorb the story line."
The absence of a statistically significant difference inperformance between the forced- and
choice-lookup groups on thevocabulary posttest and summarymay be due to the complexity of
Una carta a Dios forboth groups. This finding is consistentwith Lyman-Hager and Davis ( 1997)
who found that the large number of unknown words and cultural information imposed a high
cognitive loadwhich, in turn,hindered learners' comprehension. Replications of this studywith
intermediate and advanced learners as well as the use of the research designs proposed below
may shed further lighton thisfinding.
6.0 Limitations
The objective of this studywas to understand how intermediate-level learners use multi
media glosses to enhance comprehension and learn vocabulary. Since students in the choice
lookup group primarily consulted LI translations (81%) and consulted picture (7%) and video
(4%) annotations infrequently (Table 4), we could not find a positive effect of the selection,
organization, and connection of verbal with visual annotations on reading comprehension and
vocabulary learning for thisgroup as proposed by theGenerative Theory ofMultimedia Learning
(Mayer 1997,2001).
7.0 Conclusions
Future research should collect information on the types of annotations accessed (log files)
during students' interactions to understand learners' strategies and processes inmultimedia
CALL environments (Blake 1992; Chapelle 1998; Collentine 2000; Hegelheimer and Tower 2004;
Noblitt and Bland 1991). Short-term and longitudinal studies could compare theperformance of
third-and fourth-semester intermediate learners as well as upper-level studentswith Ciberteca
and with othermultimedia software andWeb sites as suggested by Lafford, Collentine and Karp,
2003. Research incorporating think-aloud protocols would also provide needed informationfor
understanding learners' strategies when interactingwith authentic multimedia texts (Bowles
2004; Chun 2001 ;Lomicka 1998). Studies should also explore the relationship between the type,
length, organization, and genre of texts and incorporate the six types of glosses identified in
Roby's (1999) taxonomy. Research designs involving a visual group, only receiving picture and
video annotations, a verbal group, with access only to English translations and Spanish defi
nitions, a combined group, with visual and verbal annotations available, and a control group
without access to glosses could be implemented to investigate the effects of learners'
preferences forverbal and visual informationon vocabulary learning and comprehension.
With increasing emphasis on literacyat all levels of instruction,replications and exploratory
This content downloaded from 161.139.39.211 on Tue, 31 Mar 2015 00:55:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
106 Hispania 90 March 2007
research on learners' use of annotations with multimedia are fundamental forunderstanding the
conditions forwhich current and ever-evolving multimedia technologies can be designed to
enhance second-language literacy. Future studies will provide much needed guidance for L2
instructionas we continue to construct a comprehensive empirical foundation of L2 reading and
vocabulary learningwith existing and emerging computer-mediated multimedia technologies.
NOTES
'The author would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their valuable feedback. All errors are solely
the author's.
2Multimedia is defined as "the presentation of material in verbal form (printed or spoken text) and in pic
torial form" (static graphics, illustrations, graphs, images, maps, animation, and video) (Mayer 2001, 2). The
terms "glosses" and "annotations" are used interchangeably and refer to supplemental information in the form
of an LI (English) translation, L2 (Spanish) definition, or pictorial information such as video, images or
animation to explain the meaning of a word or phrase.
3Bowles (2004) LI and L2 text glosses in vocabulary
reviews studies of traditional pen-and-paper learning
and reading comprehension and Busch (2003) discusses additional computer-mediated L2 reading projects.
4A pilot study of third- and fourth-semester Spanish classes determined that fourth-semester Spanish
courses were too advanced for measuring the effectiveness of glosses on vocabulary retention and reading
comprehension but appropriate for third-semester students.
5One native speaker of each of the following languages participated in the study: French, Mandarin, Arabic,
and Zuni.
6Inter-rater reliability of the summary, calculated with Cronbach's coefficient alpha, was .83. The internal
consistency estimate of reliability using Cronbach's coefficient alpha for the vocabulary pretest was .69 and .74
for the posttest. Pretest-posttest reliability of the productive vocabulary test was .73.
WORKS CITED
Aguilar, Julia Van Loan, and Jos? Miguel Oviedo. (2001). Textos en contexto: Literatura hispanoamericana en
multimedia. Instructor's Resource Manual, Textbook and CD-ROM. Boston: Heinle y Heinle.
Al-Seghayer, Khalid. (2001). "The Effect of Multimedia Annotation Modes on L2 Vocabulary Acquisition: A
Comparative Study." Language Learning and Technology 5: 202-32. 13 Mar. 2001 <http://llt.msu.edu/
vol5numl/alseghayer/default.html>.
Ariew, Robert, and Gulcan Ercetin. (2004). the Potential of Hypermedia Annotations
"Exploring for Second
Language Reading." Computer Assisted Language Learning 17: 237-59.
Bernhardt, Elizabeth B. (2003). "Challenges to Reading Research from a Multilingual World." Reading
Research Quarterly 38: 112-17.
Blake, Robert J. (1992). "Second-Language Reading on the Computer." ADFL Bulletin 24: 17-22.
Bowles, Melissa A. (2004). "L2 Glossing: To CALL or Not to CALL."
Hispania 87: 541-52.
Brandi, Klaus. (2002). "Integrating Internet-Based Reading Materials into the Foreign Language. Curriculum:
From Teacher- to Student-Centered Approaches." Language Learning and Technology 6: 87-107. 17
Dec. 2002 <http://llt.msu.edu/vol6num3^andl/default.html>.
Busch, Hans-J?rg. (2003). "Computer-Based Readers for Intermediate Foreign-Language Students." Educa
tional Media International 40: 277-85.
This content downloaded from 161.139.39.211 on Tue, 31 Mar 2015 00:55:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Vocabulary Learning with Multimedia 107
Haynes, Margaret. (1993). "Patterns and Perils of Guessing in Second Language Reading." Second Language
Reading and Vocabulary Learning. Eds. T. Huckin, M. Haynes, and J. Coady. Norwood, NJ: Ablex
Publishing. 46-62.
Hegelheimer, Volker, and Dustin Tower. (2004). "Using CALL in the Classroom: Analyzing Student Interac
tions in an Authentic Classroom." System 32: 185-205.
Kern, Richard. (2000). Literacy and Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford UP.
?.
(2003). "Literacy as a New Organizing Principle for Foreign Language Education." Reading between the
Lines: Perspectives on Foreign Language Literacy. Ed. P.C. Patrikis. New Haven, CT: Yale UP. 40-59.
Kern, Richard, Paige D. Ware, and Mark Warschauer. (2004). "Crossing Frontiers: New Directions in Online
Pedagogy and Research." Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 24: 243-60.
Lafford, Barbara A., Joseph G. Collentine, and Adam S. Karp. (2003). "The Acquisition of Lexical Meaning by
Second Language Learners: An Analysis of General Research Trends with Evidence from Spanish." Spanish
Second Language Acquisition: State of the Science. Eds. B. A. Lafford and R. Salaberry. Washington, DC:
Georgetown UP. 130-59.
Laufer, Batia. (1997). "The Lexical Plight in Second Language Reading: Words You Don't Know, Words You
Think You
Know, and Words You Can't Guess." Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition: A Rationale
for Pedagogy. Eds. J. Coady and T. Huckin. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP. 20-34.
Learn Spanish Now. (Version 9.0). 2004 Computer software. Merrimack, NH: Transparent Language.
Lee, James F., and Terry L. Ballman. (1987). "FL Learners' Ability to Recall and Rate the Important Ideas of
an Expository Text." Foreign Language Learning: A Research Perspective. Eds. B. VanPatten, T. R.
Dvorak, and J. F. Lee. Philadelphia: Newbury House. 108-18.
Lee, James F., and Darlene F. Wolf. (1997). "A Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis of the Word-Meaning
Inferencing Strategies of LI and L2 Readers." Spanish Applied Linguistics 1: 25-64.
LeLoup, Jean W., and Robert Ponterio. (2005). "Vocabulary Support for Independent Online Reading."
Language Learning and Technology 9: 3-7. 13 May 2005 <http://llt.msu.edu/vol9num2/net/
default.html>.
?. and Foreign Language Instruction: Where We Have Been, Where We Are Now, and
(2006). "Technology
Where We Are Headed." ACTFL 2005-2015: Realizing Our Vision of Languages for All. Ed. A. L.
Heining-Boynton. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. 153-74.
Liu, Min. (1995). "Contextual Enrichment through Hypermedia Technology: Implications for Second
Language Learning." Computers in Human Behavior 11: 439-50.
Lomicka, Laura. (1998). "To Gloss or Not Gloss: An Investigation of Reading Comprehension Online."
Language Learning and Technology 1.1: 41-50. 13 Feb. 1999 <http://llt.msu.edu/vollnum2/article2/
default.html>.
Lomicka, Laura, and Jessamine Cooke-Plagwitz, (Eds.). (2004). Teaching with Technology. Boston: Thomson
Heinle.
Lyman-Hager, Mary Ann, and James N. Davis. (1996). "The Case for Computer-Mediated Reading: Une Vie de
Boy." The French Review 69: 775-90.
Martinez-Lage, Ana. (1997). "Hypermedia Technology for Teaching Reading." Technology-Enhanced
Language Learning. Eds. M.D. Bush and R.M. Terry. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company.
121-63.
Mayer, Richard E. (1997). "Multimedia Learning: Are We Asking the Right Questions?" Educational
Psychologist 32: 1-19.
?. (2001). Multimedia
Learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP.
Mecartty, Frances H.
(2000). "Lexical and Grammatical Knowledge in Reading and Listening Comprehension
by Foreign Language Learners of Spanish." Applied Language Learning, 22: 323^8.
Miller, George A. (1956). "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for
Processing Information." Psychological Review 63: 81-97.
Noblitt, James S., and Susan K. Bland. (1991). "Tracking the Learner in Computer-Aided Language Learning."
Foreign Language Acquisition and the Classroom Ed. B. F. Freed. Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath. 120-31.
Osuna, Maritza M., and Carla Meskill. (1998). "Using theWorld Wide Web to Integrate Spanish Language and
Culture: A Pilot Study." Language Learning and Technology 1.2:71-92. 29 Apr. 2002 <http://llt.msu.edu/
vol 1num2/article4/default.html>.
Plass, Jan L., and Linda C. Jones. (2005). "Multimedia Learning in Second Language Acquisition." The
Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. Ed. R. E. Mayer. New York: Cambridge UP. 467-88.
Plass, Jan L., Dorothy M. Chun, Richard E. Mayer, and Detlev Leutner. (1998). "Supporting Visual and Verbal
Learning Preferences in a Second-Language Multimedia Learning Environment." Journal of Educational
Psychology 90: 25-36.
?. in Reading a Foreign Language
(2003). "Cognitive Load Text with Multimedia Aids and the Influence of
Verbal and Spatial Abilities." Computers in Human Behavior 19: 221^43.
Riley, Gail F., and James F. Lee. (1996). "A Comparison of Recall and Summary Protocols as Measures of
Second
Language Reading Comprehension." Language Testing 13: 173-90.
Roby, Warren B. (1999). "What's in a Gloss?" Language Learning and Technology 2: 94-101. 13 Feb. 1999
<http://llt.msu.edu/vol2num2/roby/index.html>.
This content downloaded from 161.139.39.211 on Tue, 31 Mar 2015 00:55:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
108 Hispania 90March 2007
Sakar, Asim, and Gulcan Ercetin. (2005). "Effectiveness of Hypermedia Annotations for Foreign Language
Reading." Journal of Computer-Assisted Learning 21: 28-38.
Swaffar, Janet, and Katherine Arens. (2005). Remapping the Foreign Language Curriculum: An Approach
through Multiple Literacies. New York: Modern Language Association.
Sweller, John, and Paul Chandler. (1994). "Why Some Material is Difficult to Learn." Cognition and Instruction
12: 185-233.
Walz, Joel. (1998). "Meeting Standards for Foreign Language Learning with World Wide Web Activities."
Foreign Language Annals 31: 103-14.
Yoshii, Makoto, and Jeffra Flaitz. (2002). "Second Language Incidental Vocabulary Retention: The Effect of
Text and Picture Annotation Types." CALICO Journal 20: 33-58.
Young, Dolly J., and Constancio K. Nakuma. (2002). "What Don't You Understand? Understanding
Misunderstandings in Foreign Language Reading." Southern Journal of Linguistics 26: 66-87.
AppendixA
Vocabulary Pretest and Posttest
1. cartero _
I guessed the meaning of this word. yes no
2. la cosecha _
I guessed the meaning of this word. yesno
3. pasar hambre _
I guessed the meaning of this word. yesno
4. el granizo _
I guessed the meaning of this word. no
yes
5. dulce _
I guessed the meaning of this word. yes no
6. la fe
I guessed the meaning of this word. yes no
7. sembrar _
I guessed the meaning of this word. yesno
8. el sueldo _
I guessed the meaning of this word. yes no
9. el buz?n _
I guessed the meaning of this word. yesno
10. los ladrones _
I guessed the meaning of this word. no
yes
11. las monedas _
I guessed the meaning of this word. yesno
12. el frijol _
I guessed the meaning of this word. yesno
13. la mitad _
I guessed the meaning of this word. no yes
14. enfadarse _
I guessed the meaning of this word. yesno
15. la ayuda _
I guessed the meaning of this word. yesno
16. soplar _
I guessed the meaning of this word. yes no
17. afligirse _
I guessed the meaning of this word. yes no
18. re?r
I guessed the meaning of this word. yesno
19. en medio (de) _
I guessed the meaning of this word. yesno
20. arrugar la frente _
I guessed the meaning of this word. yes no
This content downloaded from 161.139.39.211 on Tue, 31 Mar 2015 00:55:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions