Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CASSIE MOGILNER
JENNIFER AAKER
SEPANDAR D. KAMVAR
we identify temporal focus (how present vs. future focused have longer futures spanning out in front of them, their
an individual is) to be a key factor that influences the type attention gets pulled in that direction. As individuals get
of happiness one experiences. Of central interest is that we older, however, their futures become less expansive, the pre-
show how ones meaning of happiness affects choice. In sent moment gains importance, and attention becomes more
doing so, we hope to address foundational questions re- centered on the here and now (Carstensen et al. 1999). Thus,
garding the meaning of happiness and individuals resulting ones particular experience of happiness may stem from this
decisions. underlying temporal focus, rather than age per se. That is,
even though age might prove a useful signal of an individ-
THE MEANING(S) OF HAPPINESS uals temporal focus, whether that individual is focused
more on the future or the present moment may in fact be
Happiness is defined as a state of well-being and content- what determines whether happiness is associated more with
ment; a pleasurable or satisfying experience (Merriam- excitement or calm.
Websters Collegiate Dictionary 2009). Drawing on this def- A preliminary finding reported by Mogilner et al. (2011)
inition, some researchers treat happiness as singular in hints at this possibility. The researchers asked a random set
nature, with happiness meaning the same thing to all indi- of young adults (who are chronically more future oriented)
viduals (Layard 2005; Myers and Diener 1995). Other re- to participate in a Buddhist-like meditation that encouraged
searchers suggest that happiness is highly subjective, mean- them to focus on the present, with instructions such as Let
ing distinct things to each individual (Gilbert 2006). Yet a everything that has happened in the past, that is happening
TABLE 1
highly and equally positive in valence (t(42) p 1.68, p p excitement being a more future-focused emotion and calm
.10). Calm was rated significantly more positive (M p 5.72, being a more present-focused emotion. And perhaps most
SD p 1.33) than negative (M p 1.81, SD p .98; t(42) p importantly, these results lay the foundation for the key
13.40, p ! .001). Similarly, excitement was rated signifi- questions: Are these emotions experienced as two types of
cantly more positive (M p 6.07, SD p 1.03) than negative happiness? Do they influence the choices consumers make?
(M p 1.77, SD p 1.13; t(42) p 15.73, p ! .001). Also And why?
consistent with prior research, excitement was rated to be
higher in arousal than calm (t(42) p 10.75, p ! .001), BEING PRESENT AND CHOOSING TEA:
whereas calm was rated to be lower in arousal than excite-
ment (t(42) p 8.88, p ! .001). Specifically, calm was
EXPERIMENT 1
rated more low arousal (M p 4.70, SD p 1.92) than high Existing research has proposed that young people are chron-
arousal (M p 2.67, SD p 1.73; t(42) p 3.95, p ! .001), ically more focused on the future than older people (Cars-
and excitement was rated more high arousal (M p 6.44, tensen et al. 1999; Fingerman and Perlmutter 1995; Mo-
SD p 1.08) than low arousal (M p 1.70, SD p 1.06; t(42) gilner et al. 2011). In experiment 1, we therefore focused
p 17.67, p ! .001). on a sample of young adults, shifting their focus to the
To examine whether calm and excitement differ in their present moment so as to determine whether temporal focus
temporal focus in addition to differing in their levels of affects definitions of happiness and choices between an ex-
arousal, we conducted a mixed model analysis on partici- citing or calming option.
pants temporal focus ratings for the two emotions, con-
trolling for individual and each emotions level of arousal Method
(high or low). The results revealed a significant interaction
effect (F(1, 42) p 32.67, p ! .001). An examination of the Fifty-one students between the ages of 18 and 24 (M p
estimated marginal means showed that calm is more present 20; 59% female) participated in a session comprising a series
focused (MS p 6.09, SE p .21) than future focused (MS of studies conducted in a laboratory at Stanford University.
p 4.25, SE p .30; t(42) p 5.64, p ! .001), and excitement The students received a $10 Amazon.com gift card for their
is more future focused (MS p 5.79, SE p .19) than present participation.
focused (MS p 4.96, SE p .25; t(42) p 2.99, p ! .01). Participants were randomly assigned to either a control
Relatedly, calm is more present focused than excitement condition or treatment, which consisted of a breathing ex-
(t(42) p 3.13, p ! .01), and excitement is more future ercise designed to direct attention to the present moment
focused than calm (t(42) p 3.88, p ! .001). Having con- (Mogilner et al. 2011). The manipulation was inspired by
trolled for arousal, these results suggest that excitement and meditations based in the Buddhist tradition that have been
calm have different temporal orientations, and their temporal shown to increase ones present focus (Brown and Thurman
focus is distinct from their level of arousal. The results of 2006; Tolle 1999). Specifically, participants in the present-
this study are thus consistent with prior findings that specify focus condition put on earphones and listened to a 5-minute
calm and excitement as emotions that are positive in valence recording that instructed them to close their eyes and bring
and that vary in arousal. They further suggest that these their attention to the present moment. The instructions con-
emotions vary along a dimension of temporal focus, with tinued, Let everything that has happened in the past and
434 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH
$100. The experiment involved two ostensibly unrelated Results and Discussion
studies: the first served to make half of the participants more
future focused, and the second induced feelings of calm or The manipulation checks confirmed that participants lis-
excitement and measured happiness and choice. This ex- tening to the exciting song felt more excited (M p 2.52,
periment thus followed a 2 (prime: future vs. neutral) be- SD p 1.16) than those listening to the calm song (M p
tween-subjects # 2 (emotion: excited vs. calm) within-sub- 1.62, SD p .95; t(49) p 5.54, p ! .001), and participants
jects design. listening to the calm song felt calmer (M p 2.71, SD p
First, participants completed a task that primed them to 1.03) than those listening to the exciting song (M p 2.12,
either think about the future or not. Specifically, participants SD p .93; t(49) p 3.47, p p .001).
were presented with a sentence unscramble task that exposed A repeated-measures ANOVA showed a significant in-
them to either future-related words or neutral words (orig- teraction between prime and song version on participants
inally adapted from Srull and Wyer [1979] and similarly reported happiness (F(1, 48) p 9.87, p ! .01; see fig. 3A).
used in Mogilner and Aaker [2009]). For example, partic- Participants in the neutral condition felt happier when they
ipants in the future condition were asked to construct three- were made to feel calm (M p 2.78, SD p 1.12) than when
word sentences out of such word sets as future claim the they were made to feel excited (M p 2.33, SD p 1.18;
your, and participants in the neutral condition were asked F(1, 48) p 4.54, p ! .05). However, when participants were
to construct three-word sentences out of such word sets as led to think about the future, they felt happier when they
milk claim the your. Participants were given 3 minutes to felt excited (M p 2.74, SD p 1.18) than when they felt
reflected in participants choice of song (x2 (3.79), p p .05). and calm (calm, peaceful, serene; a p .85) each song made
As shown in figure 3B, those in the neutral condition were participants feel. After participants listened to both songs
more likely to choose an MP3 of the song that made them and indicated their experienced emotions for each, they were
feel calm (67%) over the song that made them feel excited asked to choose which of the two songs they would like in
(33%). In contrast, those who were primed to think of the the form of an MP3. They then received an MP3 of their
future were more likely to choose the MP3 of the song that chosen song as an additional thank you for their participation
made them feel excited (61%) over the song that made them in the experiment.
feel calm (39%). The experiment concluded with a measure of temporal
These results imply that our finding in experiment 1 that focus. This allowed us to test whether temporal focus un-
young adults naturally define happiness in terms of excite- derlies any age-related differences. Participants were asked
ment (rather than calm) is likely the result of their tendency the extent to which they agreed with five statements (a p
to think about the future. Thus, older adults who are influ- .89; 1 p strongly disagree, 7 p strongly agree): I often
enced to shift their focus away from the present and toward think about the present moment, I typically focus on the
the future are more likely to experience a young form of present moment, Its important to me that my thoughts
happiness and to choose products accordingly. are in the here and now, My mind often focuses on what
is happening now, and I like to be present. After com-
AGE PROXIES TEMPORAL FOCUS: pleting the study, participants were debriefed, paid, and
EXPERIMENT 3 thanked.
exchange for 50 cents. The experiment involved two osten- shown in figure 5A, planned contrasts revealed that those
sibly unrelated studies: the first served to direct participants focused on the future expected to feel happier from the
focus to either the future or the present moment, and the exciting product (M p 2.75, SD p 1.14) than the calming
second measured participants choices between an exciting product (M p 2.39, SD p 1.20; F(1, 48) p 5.02, p ! .05).
and calming product and their anticipated happiness from In contrast, those focused on the present expected to feel
each. happier from the calming product (M p 3.22, SD p 1.31)
Using a similar temporal focus manipulation as in ex- than the exciting product (M p 2.61, SD p 1.23; F(1, 48)
periment 2, we first primed participants to think about either p 12.01, p p .001). These results confirm that ones tem-
the future or the present moment. Participants were pre- poral focus determines whether people believe happiness
sented with a sentence unscramble task that exposed them flows more from feeling excited or calm.
to either future-related words or present-related words. For
example, participants in the future condition were asked to Choice. Whether participants were more focused on the
construct a three-word sentence out of the word set the future future or the present moment influenced their likelihood of
matters my, and participants in the present condition were choosing the exciting or calming product (x2(5.37), p p
asked to construct a three-word sentence out of the set the .02). As shown in figure 5B, those focused on the future
present matters my. Participants were given 3 minutes to were more likely to choose the exciting product (54%) over
construct as many sentences as possible from a list of 14 the calming product (46%), whereas those focused on the
word sets. present were more likely to choose the calming product
.97, t p 4.13, p ! .001). There was also a significant ones temporal focus. Recent work has shown that thinking
effect of the mediator on choice, whereby the more hap- about time in the broad sense increases happiness by leading
piness participants anticipated from the exciting product people to behave in interpersonally connecting ways (Mo-
(over the calming product), the more likely they were to gilner 2010). Building on these findings, the current studies
choose the exciting product (b p 3.12, z p 3.50, p ! .001). suggest that the specific component of time (the present vs.
The mean indirect effect (b p 3.02) from the bootstrap the future) should be considered because the types of ac-
analysis was significant with a 95% confidence interval ex- tivities that make one happy likely differ, as would the kinds
cluding zero (12.47 to .69), and the direct effect (b p of interpersonal connection. Indeed, prior work has identi-
.75) of temporal focus on choice was not significant ( p 1 fied such daily activities as sex, socializing with friends,
.10). Together, this is suggestive of indirect-only mediation, relaxing, meditating, and exercising to be associated with
a form of mediation consistent with full mediation in Baron the greatest feelings of happiness (Kahneman et al. 2004).
and Kennys (1986) procedure. These results suggest that Incorporating the distinction between exciting and calming
the happiness participants anticipated feeling from the ex- activities, along with ones temporal focus, would provide
citing and calming products (as determined by temporal more fine-grained insight into which activities one should
focus) drove their choice of product. These findings there- choose in order to feel happy. For instance, exercise and
fore indicate that the meaning of happiness affects choices, sex might prove more enjoyable among future-focused in-
such that anticipating happiness more from excitement in- dividuals, whereas relaxing and meditating might prove
creases the tendency to choose an exciting option, whereas more enjoyable among present-focused individuals. The al-
generated for feeling calm included the word being, which how people want to feel (ideal affect) is influenced by
suggests that calm indeed pertains to the present state. Thus, culture, such that European Americans value high-arousal
this work identifies temporal focus as another important way positive affect (e.g., excitement) more than Chinese people,
to categorize emotions. Future research is needed to explore but Chinese people value low-arousal positive affect (e.g.,
what other emotions fall near the end points of this present- calmness) more than European Americans. It has been pro-
future temporal continuum (e.g., hope is a future-focused posed that these differences stem from such culturally em-
emotion; MacInnis and de Mello 2005), what types of emo- bedded factors as interpersonal communication norms,
tions are associated with the past (e.g., regret, shame, pride), child-rearing styles, religion, popular media, and childrens
and what are the downstream consequences of an emotions literature (Tsai 2007). The degree to which these cultures
temporal orientation (e.g., are emotional states tied to the
are oriented toward the present or the future may be yet
future associated with a greater propensity to act?).
another factor that explains differences in ideal affect across
Finally, these findings inform marketers looking to con-
nect with consumers by promising happiness. Since hap- cultures. Of theoretic interest is whether the effects we found
piness does not mean the same thing to everyone, marketers among North Americans remain robust in cultures where
might benefit from considering the consumer segment they the meaning of emotions in general, and excitement and
are trying to reach when attempting to cultivate happiness. peacefulness in particular, fundamentally differ (Aaker, Be-
Importantly, how happiness is conveyed mattersfrom net-Martinez, and Garolera 2001).
product benefits, to the personality of the brand, through to Relatedly, in the current work, we focused on the emotional
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