Solution

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Chapter 6
Solutions
Denniston
Topping
Caret
6th Edition
6.1 Properties of Solutions
Solution - homogeneous mixture
Solute - the substance in the mixture present
in lesser quantity
Solvent - the substance present in the largest
quantity
Aqueous solution - solution where the
solvent is water
Solutions can be liquids as well as solids and
gases
6.1 Properties of Solutions Examples of Solutions
Air - oxygen and several trace gases are

dissolved in the gaseous solvent, nitrogen
Alloys - brass and other homogeneous
metal mixtures in the solid state
Focus on liquid solutions as many important
chemical reactions take place in liquid
solutions
6.1 Properties of Solutions General Properties of Liquid
Solutions
Clear, transparent, no visible particles
May have color
Electrolytes are formed from solutes that are
soluble ionic compounds
Nonelectrolytes do not dissociate
NaCl(s ) H

2O
Na + (aq) + Cl- (aq )
Volumes of solute and solvent are not additive
1 L ethanol + 1 L water does not give 2 L of solution
6.1 Properties of Solutions
Solutions and Colloids
Colloidal suspension - contains solute
particles which are not uniformly
distributed
Due to larger size of particles (1nm - 200 nm)
Appears identical to solution from the
naked eye
Smaller than 1 nm, have solution
Larger than 1 nm, have a precipitate
6.1 Properties of Solutions Tyndall Effect
Tyndall effect - the ability of a colloidal
suspension to scatter light
See a haze when shining light through the mixture
Solutions: light passes right through without scattering
Colloidal suspension Solution

-light as haze, scatters light -no haze
6.1 Properties of Solutions Degree of Solubility
Solubility - how much of a particular solute can
dissolve in a certain solvent at a specified
temperature
Factors which affect solubility:
1 Polarity of solute and solvent
The more different they are, the lower the solubility
2 Temperature
Increase in temperature usually increases solubility
3 Pressure
Usually has no effect
If solubility is of gas in liquid, directly proportional
to applied pressure
6.1 Properties of Solutions Saturation
Saturated solution - a solution that contains all the
solute that can be dissolved at a particular
temperature
Supersaturated solution - contains more solute
than can be dissolved at the current temperature
How is this done?
Heat solvent, saturate it with solute then cool slowly
Sometimes the excess will precipitate out
If it doesnt precipitate, the solution will be
supersaturated
6.1 Properties of Solutions Solubility and Equilibrium
If excess solute is added to a solvent, some
dissolves
At first, rate of dissolution is large
Later, reverse reaction precipitation occurs
more quickly
When equilibrium is reached the rates of
dissolution and precipitation are equal, there is
some dissolved and some undissolved solute
A saturated solution is an example of a dynamic
equilibrium
6.1 Properties of Solutions Solubility of Gases: Henrys Law
Henrys law the number of moles of a gas
dissolved in a liquid at a given temperature is
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas
above the liquid
Gas solubility in a liquid is directly proportional to
the pressure of the gas in the atmosphere in
contact with the liquid
Gases are most soluble at low temperatures
Solubility decreases significantly at higher
temperatures
Carbonated beverages CO2 solubility less when warm
Respiration facilitates O2 and CO2 exchange in lungs
6.2 Concentration Based on Mass
Concentration - amount of solute dissolved
in a given amount of solution
Concentration of a solution has an effect on
Physical properties
Melting and boiling points
Chemical properties
Solution reactivity
6.2 Concentration Based on
Weight/Volume Percent
Amount of solute = mass of solute in grams
Amount of solution = volume in milliliters
amount of solute
concentration =
Mass
amount of solution
Express concentration as a percentage by
multiplying ratio by 100% = weight/volume
percent or % (W/V)
W grams of solute
% = 100%
V milliliters of solution
6.2 Concentration Based on Calculating Weight/Volume
Percent
Calculate the percent composition or % (W/V) of
2.00 x 102 mL containing 20.0 g sodium chloride
Mass
20.0 g NaCl, mass of solute

2.00 x 102 mL, total volume of solution
% (W/V) = 20.0g NaCl / 2.00 x 102 mL x 100%
= 10.0% (W/V) sodium chloride

Calculate Weight of Solute from
6.2 Concentration Based on
Weight/Volume Percent
Calculate the number of grams of glucose in
7.50 x 102 mL of a 15.0% solution
Mass
W grams of solute
% = 100%
V milliliters of solution
15.0% (W/V) = Xg glucose/7.50 x 102 mL x 100%

Xg glucose x 100% = (15.0% W/V)(7.50 x 102 mL)
Xg glucose = 113 g glucose
6.2 Concentration Based on Weight/Weight Percent
W grams solute
% = 100%
W grams solutions
Weight/weight percent is most useful for
Mass
solutions of 2 solids whose masses are

easily obtained
Calculate % (W/W) of platinum in gold
ring with 14.00 g Au and 4.500 g Pt
[4.500 g Pt / (4.500 g Pt + 14.00 g Au)] x 100%
= 4.500 g / 18.50 g x 100% = 24.32% Pt
6.2 Concentration Based on Parts Per Thousand (ppt) and
Parts Per Million (ppm)
As percentage is the number of parts of
solute in 100 parts of solution, ppt and
Mass
ppm change the calculation only by orders

of magnitude
ppt = g solute / g solution x 103 ppt
ppm = g solute / g solution x 106 ppt
ppt and ppm are most often used for very
dilute solutions
6.3 Concentration of Solutions:
Moles and Equivalents
Chemical equations represent the relative
number of moles of reactants producing
products
Many chemical reactions occur in solution
where it is most useful to represent
concentrations on a molar basis
6.3 Moles and Equivalents Molarity
The most common mole-based
concentration unit is molarity
Molarity
Symbolized M
Defined as the number of moles of solute per
liter of solution
moles solute
M=
L solution
6.3 Moles and Equivalents Calculating Molarity from Moles
Calculate the molarity of 2.0 L of solution
containing 5.0 mol NaOH
Use the equation moles solute
M=
L solution
Substitute into the equation:
MNaOH = 5.0 mol solute
2.0 L solution
= 2.5 M
6.3 Moles and Equivalents Calculating Molarity From Mass
If 5.00 g glucose are dissolved in 1.00 x 102 mL of
solution, calculate molarity, M, of the glucose solution
Convert from g glucose to moles glucose
Molar mass of glucose = 1.80 x 102 g/mol
5.00 g x 1 mol / 1.80 x 102 g = 2.78 x 10-2 mol glucose
Convert volume from mL to L
1.00 x 102 mL x 1 L / 103 mL = 1.00 x 10-1 L
Substitute into the equation: moles solute
M=
L solution
Mglucose = 2.78 x 10-2 mol glucose
1.00 x 10-1 L solution
= 2.78 x 10-1 M
6.3 Moles and Equivalents Dilution
Dilution is required to prepare a less
concentrated solution from a more
concentrated one
M1 = molarity of solution before dilution
M2 = molarity of solution after dilution
V1 = volume of solution before dilution
V2 = volume of solution after dilution
moles solute
M= moles solute = (M)(L solution)
L solution
6.3 Moles and Equivalents Dilution
In a dilution will the
number of moles of solute
change?
No, only fewer per unit
volume
So, M1V1 = M2V2

Knowing any three terms
permits calculation of the
fourth
6.3 Moles and Equivalents Calculating Molarity
After Dilution
Calculate the molarity of a solution made by
diluting 0.050 L of 0.10 M HCl solution to a
volume of 1.0 L
M1 = 0.10 M molarity of solution before dilution
M2 = X M molarity of solution after dilution
V1 = 0.050 L volume of solution before dilution
V2 = 1.0 L volume of solution after dilution
Use dilution expression M1V1 = M2V2

X M = (0.10 M) (0.050 L) / (1.0 L)
0.0050 M HCl OR 5.0 x 10-3 M HCl
6.3 Moles and Equivalents Representation of Concentration
of Ions in Solution
Two common ways of expressing
concentration of ions in solution:
1. Moles per liter (molarity)
Molarity emphasizes the number of
individual ions
2. Equivalents per liter (eq/L)

Emphasis on charge
6.3 Moles and Equivalents Comparison of Molarity and
Equivalents
1 M Na3PO4
What would the concentration of PO43- ions be?
1M
Equivalent is defined by the charge
One Equivalent of an ion is the number of grams
of the ion corresponding to Avogadros number of
electrical charges
molar mass of ion (g)
One equivalent of an ion =
number of charges on ion
6.3 Moles and Equivalents Molarity vs. Equivalents 1 M Na3PO4
1 mol Na+ = 1 equivalent Na+
1 mol PO43- = 3 equivalents PO43-
Equivalents of Na+?
3 mol Na+ = 3 equivalents of Na+
Equivalents of PO43-?
1 mol PO43- = 3 equivalents of PO43-
6.3 Moles and Equivalents Calculating Ion Concentration
Calculate eq/L of phosphate ion, PO43- in a
solution with 5.0 x 10-3 M phosphate
Need to use two conversion factors:
mol PO43- mol charge
mol charge eq PO43
5.0 x 10-3 mol PO43- x 3 mol charge x 1 eq
1L 1 mol PO43- 1mol charge
1.5 x 10-2 eq PO43- /L
6.4 Concentration-Dependent
Solution Properties
Colligative properties - properties of
solutions that depend on the concentration
of the solute particles, rather than the
identity of the solute
Four colligative properties of solutions
1. vapor pressure lowering
2. boiling point elevation
3. freezing point depression
4. osmotic pressure
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Vapor Pressure of a Liquid
Consider Raoults law in molecular
Solution Properties
terms
Vapor pressure of a solution
results from escape of solvent
molecules from liquid to gas
phase
Partial pressure of gas phase
solvent molecules increases
until equilibrium vapor
pressure is reached
Presence of solute molecules
hinders escape of solvent
molecules, lowering
equilibrium vapor pressure
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Vapor Pressure Lowering
Raoults law - when a nonvolatile solute is added
Solution Properties
to a solvent, vapor pressure of the solvent
decreases in proportion to the concentration of
the solute
Solute molecules (red below) serve as a barrier to
the escape of solvent molecules resulting in a
decrease in the vapor pressure
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Freezing Point Depression and
Solution Properties Boiling Point Elevation
Freezing point depression may be explained
considering the equilibrium between solid and
liquid states
Solute molecules interfere with the rate at which
liquid water molecules associate to form the solid
state
Boiling point elevation can be explained
considering the definition as the temperature at
which vapor pressure of the liquid equals the
atmospheric pressure
If a solute is present, then the increase in boiling
temperature is necessary to raise the vapor pressure
to atmospheric temperature
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Freezing Point Depression
Freezing point depression (DTf) - is proportional
Solution Properties
to the number of solute particles
Solute particles, not just solute
How does an electrolyte behave?
Dissociate into ions
An equal concentration of NaCl will affect the
freezing point twice as much as glucose (a
nonelectrolyte)
Each solvent has a unique freezing point
depression constant or proportionality factor
DTf=kf m
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Boiling Point Elevation
Boiling point elevation (DTb) - is
Solution Properties
proportional to the number of solute
particles
An electrolyte will affect boiling point to
a greater degree than a nonelectrolyte of
the same concentration
Each solvent has a unique boiling point
elevation constant
DTb=kb m
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Molality
Solute concentration is expressed in
Solution Properties
mole-based units
Number of particles is critical, not the mass
of solute
Molality (m) = moles of solute per kg of
solvent
The denominator is in kg solvent, not in kg
solution
moles solute
Molality =
kg solvent
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Osmotic Pressure
Some types of membranes appear impervious
Solution Properties
to matter, but actually have a network of small
holes called pores
These pores may be large enough to permit
small solvent molecules to move from one side
of the membrane to the other
Solute molecules cannot cross the membrane as
they are too large
Semipermeable membrane - allows
solvent but not solute to diffuse from one side
to another
Solution Properties
Osmosis - the
movement of
solvent from a
dilute solution to a
more concentrated
solution through a
semipermeable
membrane
Requires pressure
to stop this flow
Solution Properties
Osmotic pressure () - the amount of
pressure required to stop the flow across
a semipermeable membrane
=MRT
Osmolarity - the molarity of particles in
solution
Osmol, used for osmotic pressure
calculation
Calculating Osmolarity
Solution Properties
Calculate the osmolarity of 5.0 x 10-3 M Na3PO4
Na3PO4 is an ionic compound forming electrolytes
1 mol Na3PO4 yields 4 product ions
[5.0 x 10-3 mol Na3PO4 / L] x 4 mol particles
1 mol Na3PO4
= 2.0 x 10-2 mol particles / L
2.0 x 10-2 mol particles / L = 2.0 x 102 osmol
Calculating Osmotic Pressure
Solution Properties
Calculate the osmotic pressure of a 5.0 x 10-2 M
solution of NaCl at 25C (298 K)
Definition of osmotic pressure, =MRT
M is osmolarity =
[5.0 x 10-2 mol NaCl / L] x 2 mol particles
1 mol NaCl
= 1.0 x 10-1 mol particles / L
Substitute into osmotic pressure equation:
= 1.0 x 10-1 mol particles x 0.0821 L x atm x 298K
Liter K x mol
= 2.4 atm
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Tonicity and the Cell
Living cells contain aqueous solution and these cells are
Solution Properties
also surrounded by aqueous solution
Cell function requires maintenance of the same osmotic
pressure inside and outside the cell
Solute concentration of fluid surrounding cells higher
than inside results in a hypertonic solution causing
water to flow into the surroundings, causing collapse =
crenation
Solute concentration of fluid surrounding cells too low,
results in a hypotonic solution causing water to flow
into the cell, causing rupture = hemolysis
Isotonic solutions have identical osmotic pressures and
no osmotic pressure difference across the cell
membrane
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Tonicity and the Cell
Solution Properties
Crenation Hemolysis Isotonic

6.4 Concentration-Dependent Pickling Cucumber in Hypertonic
Solution Properties Brine Due to Osmosis
6.5 Water as a Solvent
Water is often referred to as the universal
solvent
Excellent solvent for polar molecules
Most abundant liquid on earth
60% of the human body is water
transports ions, nutrients, and waste into and out of
cells
solvent for biochemical reactions in cells and
digestive tract
reactant or product in some biochemical processes
6.6 Electrolytes in Body Fluids
CATIONS IN THE BLOOD and CELLS
Na+ and K+ two most important cations
Blood Cells
Na+ 135 meq/L 3.5 5.0 meq/L

K+ 10 meq/L 125 meq/L
6.6 Electrolytes in Body
Active transport - the transporting of
Na+ and K+ ions across the cell
membrane
Cellular energy must be expended to
Fluids
make concentration of ions different on

each side of the cell membrane
This is accomplished via large protein
molecules embedded in cell membranes
Danger to the body occurs when Na+
and K+ both in blood and in cells
becomes too high or low
- Na+ too low:
Fluids
- Decrease of urine output

- Dry mouth
- Flushed skin
- Fever
- Na+ too high:

- Confusion, stupor, or coma
- K+ too high:
- Death by heart failure
- K+ too low:
- Death by heart failure
Fluids
ANIONS IN THE BLOOD

Cl-
- acid/base balance
- maintenance of osmotic pressure
- oxygen transport by hemoglobin
HCO3-
- Form in which most waste CO2 is carried
out of the body
PROTEINS IN THE BLOOD
Fluids
Blood clotting factors

Antibodies
Albumins (carriers of nonpolar substances which
cannot dissolve in water)
Proteins are transported as a colloidal suspension
The blood also transports nutrients and waste
products
Chapter 7
Energy, Rate, and Equilibrium
Denniston
Topping
Caret
6th Edition
7.1 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics the study of energy,
work, and heat
applied to chemical change
Calculate the quantity of heat obtained from
combustions of one gallon of fuel oil
applied to physical change
Determine the energy released by boiling water
The laws of thermodynamics help us to
understand why some chemical reactions
occur and others do not
7.1 Thermodynamics The Chemical Reaction and Energy
Basic Concepts from Kinetic Molecular
Theory
Molecules and atoms in a reaction mixture are
in constant, random motion
Molecules and atoms frequently collide with
each other
Only some collisions, those with sufficient
energy, will break bonds in molecules
When reactant bonds are broken, new bonds
may be formed and products result
Change in Energy and
Surroundings
7.1 Thermodynamics
Absolute value for energy stored in a

chemical system cannot be measured
Can measure the change in energy during
these chemical changes
System contains the process under study
Surroundings the rest of the universe
7.1 Thermodynamics Changes in the System
Energy can be lost from the system to the
surroundings
Energy may be gained by the system at the
expense of the surroundings
This energy change is usually in the form of heat
This change can be measured
7.1 Thermodynamics Law of Conservation of Energy
First Law of Thermodynamics energy of

the universe is constant
This law is also called the Law of
Conservation of Energy
Where does the reaction energy come from
that is released and where does the energy
go when it is absorbed?
7.1 Thermodynamics Changes in Chemical Energy
A-B + C-D A-D + C-B
Consider the reaction converting AB and
CD to AD and CB
Each chemical bond is stored chemical
energy
If a reaction will occur
Bonds must break
Breaking bonds requires energy
Exothermic Reactions
If the energy required to break the bonds is
7.1 Thermodynamics
less than the energy released when the bonds
are formed, there is a net release of energy
This is called an Exothermic reaction
Energy is a product in this reaction
A-B + C-D A-D + C-B
These bonds must

be broken in the These bonds are
reaction, requiring formed, releasing
energy energy
Endothermic Reactions
If the energy required to break the bonds is
7.1 Thermodynamics
larger than the energy released when the
bonds are formed, there will need to be an
external supply of energy
This is called an Endothermic reaction
A-B + C-D A-D + C-B
These bonds must

be broken in the These bonds are
reaction, requiring formed, releasing
energy energy
Exothermic Reaction
Combustion
7.1 Thermodynamics
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)
CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + 211 kcal
Endothermic Reaction
Decomposition
22 kcal + 2NH3(g)
N2(g) + 3H2(g)
7.1 Thermodynamics Enthalpy
Enthalpy represents heat energy
Change in Enthalpy (DHo) energy difference
between the products and reactants of a chemical
reaction
Energy released, exothermic reaction, enthalpy
change is negative
In the combustion of CH4, DHo = -211 kcal
Energy absorbed, endothermic, enthalpy change is
positive.
In the decomposition of NH3, DHo=+22 kcal
Spontaneous and
Nonspontaneous Reactions
7.1 Thermodynamics
Spontaneous reaction - occurs without

any external energy input
Most, but not all, exothermic reactions
are spontaneous
Thermodynamics is used to help predict
if a reaction will occur
Another factor is needed, Entropy
Spontaneous and
7.1 Thermodynamics
DSo is positive
DSo is negative
Spontaneous and
7.1 Thermodynamics
Are the following processes exothermic or

endothermic?
Fuel oil is burned in a furnace
C6H12O6(s) 2C2H5OH(l) + 2CO2(g)

DH=-16 kcal
N2O5(g) + H2O(l) 2HNO3(l) + 18.3 kcal
7.1 Thermodynamics Entropy
The second law of thermodynamics the
universe spontaneously tends toward increasing
disorder or randomness
Entropy (So) a measure of the randomness of
a chemical system
High entropy highly disordered system, the
absence of a regular, repeating pattern
Low entropy well organized system such as a
crystalline structure
No such thing as negative entropy
7.1 Thermodynamics Entropy of Reactions
DSo of a reaction = So(products) -

So(reactants)
A positive DSo means an increase in
disorder for the reaction
A negative DSo means a decrease in
disorder for the reaction
Processes Having Positive
Entropy
7.1 Thermodynamics
Phase change
Melting
Vaporization
Dissolution
All of these processes have a positive DSo

Entropy and Reaction
Spontaneity
7.1 Thermodynamics
If exothermic and positive DSo

SPONTANEOUS
If endothermic and negative DSo
NONSPONTANEOUS
For any other situations, it depends on the
relative size of DHo and DSo
7.1 Thermodynamics Greatest Entropy
Which substance has the greatest

entropy?
He(g) or Na(s)
H2O(l) or H2O(g)
7.1 Thermodynamics Free Energy
Free energy (DGo) represents the
combined contribution of the enthalpy and
entropy values for a chemical reaction
Free energy predicts spontaneity of
chemical reactions DGo = DHo - TDSo
Negative DGoAlways Spontaneous
Positive DGoNever Spontaneous T in Kelvin
Free Energy and Reaction
Spontaneity
7.1 Thermodynamics
Need to know both DH and DS to predict the

sign of DG, making a statement on reaction
spontaneity
Temperature also may determine direction of
spontaneity
DH +, DS - : DG always +, regardless of T
DH -, DS + : DG always -, regardless of T
DH +, DS + : DG sign depends on T
DH -, DS - : DG sign depends on T
7.2 Experimental Determination
of Energy Change in Reactions
Calorimetry the
measurement of heat energy
changes in a chemical reaction
Calorimeter device which
measures heat changes in
calories
The change in temperature

is used to measure the loss
or gain of heat
7.2 Determination of Energy
Change in Reactions Heat Energy in Reactions
Change in temperature of a solution, caused by a
chemical reaction, can be used to calculate the
gain or loss of heat energy for the reaction
Exothermic reaction heat released is absorbed
Endothermic reaction reactants absorb heat from
the solution
Specific heat (SH) the number of calories of

heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of
the substance 1 oC
Q = ms Ts SH s
7.2 Determination of Energy
Change in Reactions Heat Energy in Reactions
Specific heat of the solution along with the total
number of g solution and the temperature
change permits calculation of heat released or
absorbed during the reaction
S.H. for water is 1.0 cal/goC
To determine heat released or absorbed, need:
specific heat
total number of grams of solution
temperature change (increase or decrease)
7.2 Determination of Energy Calculation of Heat Energy in
Change in Reactions Reactions
Q is the product
ms is the mass of solution in the calorimeter
DTs is the change in temperature of the solution from
initial to final state
SHs is the specific heat of the solution
Calculate with this equation
Q = ms Ts SH s
Units are: calories = gram x C x calories/gram - C
7.2 Determination of Energy Calculating Energy Involved in
Change in Reactions Calorimeter Reactions
If 0.10 mol HCl is mixed with 0.10 mol KOH in a
coffee cup calorimeter, the temperature of 1.50 x
102 g of the solution increases from 25.0oC to
29.4oC. If the specific heat of the solution is 1.00
cal/goC, calculate the quantity of energy evolved in
the reaction
DTs = 29.4oC - 25.0oC = 4.4oC
Q = ms x DTs x SHs
= 1.50 x 102 g solution x 4.4oC x 1.00 cal/goC
= 6.6 x 102 cal
7.2 Determination of Energy Calculating Energy Involved in
Change in Reactions Calorimeter Reactions
Is the reaction endothermic or exothermic
0.66 kcal of heat energy was released to the
surroundings, the solution
The reaction is exothermic
What would be the energy evolved for
each mole of HCl reacted?
0.10 mol HCl used in the original reaction
[6.6 x 102 cal / 0.10 mol HCl] x 10 = 6.6 kcal
7.2 Determination of Energy Bomb Calorimeter and
Change in Reactions Measurement of Calories in Foods
Nutritional Calorie
(large C Calorie) =
1 kilocalorie (1kcal)
1000 calories
the fuel value of
food
Bomb Calorimeter
is used to measure
nutritional Calories
7.2 Determination of Energy Calculating the Fuel Value of
Change in Reactions Foods
1 g of glucose was burned in a bomb calorimeter. 1.25 x
103 g H2O was warmed from 24.5oC to 31.5oC.
Calculate the fuel value of the glucose (in Kcal/g).
DTs = 31.5oC - 24.5oC = 6.1oC
Surroundings of calorimeter is water with specific heat
capacity = 1.00 cal/g H2O oC
Fuel Value = Q = ms Ts SH s
= 1.25 x 103 g H2O x 6.1oC x 1.00 cal/g H2O oC
= 7.6 x 103 cal
7.6 x 103 cal x 1 Calorie / 103 cal = 7.6 nutritional
Calories
7.3 Kinetics
Thermodynamics determines if a reaction
will occur spontaneously but tells us
nothing about the amount of time the
reaction will take
Kinetics the study of the rate (or speed) of
chemical reactions
Also supplies an indication of the mechanism
step-by-step description of how reactants
become products
Kinetic Information
Kinetic information represents changes over
time, seen here:
7.3 Kinetics
disappearance of reactant, A
appearance of product, B
Alternative Presentation of
Kinetic Data
Rather than the graph shown before, this figure
7.3 Kinetics
demonstrates the change from purple reactant to

green product over time from the molecular
perspective
Kinetic Data Assessed by Color
Change
Change in color over time can be used to monitor
7.3 Kinetics
the progress of a chemical reaction

The rate of color change can aid in calculating the
rate of the chemical reaction
The Chemical Reaction
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) +2H2O(g) + 211 kcal
C-H and O=O bonds must be broken
7.3 Kinetics
C=O and O-H bonds must be formed

Energy is required to break the bonds
This energy comes from the collision of the molecules
If sufficient energy available, bonds break and atoms
recombine in a lower energy arrangement
Effective collision is one that produces product
molecules
leads to a chemical reaction
Activation Energy and the
Activated Complex
Activation energy the minimum amount of
7.3 Kinetics
energy required to initiate a chemical reaction

Picture a chemical reaction in terms of changes
in potential energy occurring during the reaction
Activated complex an extremely unstable,
short-lived intermediate complex
Formation of this activated complex requires
energy (Ea) to overcome the energy barrier to
start the reaction
Activation Energy and the
Activated Complex
Reaction proceeds
from reactants to
7.3 Kinetics
products via the

activated complex
Activated complex cant
be isolated from the
reaction mixture
Activation energy (Ea) is
the difference between the
energy of the reactants and
that of the activated
complex
To be an Exothermic reaction requires a net release of energy (DHo)
Activation Energy in the
Endothermic Reaction
This figure diagrams an
7.3 Kinetics
endothermic reaction
Reaction takes place
slowly due to the large
activation energy
required
The energy of the
products is greater than
that of the reactants
Factors That Affect Reaction
Rate
7.3 Kinetics
1. Structure of the reacting species

2. Concentration of reactants
3. Temperature of reactants
4. Physical state of reactants
5. Presence of a catalyst
Structure of Reacting Species
Oppositely charged species react more rapidly
Dissociated ions in solution whose bonds are already
broken have a very low activation energy
7.3 Kinetics
Ions with the same charge do not react

Bond strength plays a role
Covalent molecules bonds must be broken with the
activation energy before new bonds can be formed
Magnitude of the activation energy is related to bond
strength
Size and shape influence the rate
Large molecules may obstruct the reactive part of the
molecule
Only molecular collisions with correct orientation lead to
product formation
The Concentration of Reactants
Rate is related to the concentration of one or
more of the reacting substances
7.3 Kinetics
Rate will generally increase as concentration

increases
Higher concentration means more reactant
molecules per unit volume
More reactant molecules means more collisions
per unit time
The Temperature of Reactants
Rate increases as the temperature increases
7.3 Kinetics
Increased temperature relates directly to

increased average kinetic energy
Greater kinetic energy increases the speed of
particles
Faster particles increases likelihood of collision
Higher Kinetic Energy means a higher
percentage of these collisions will result in
product formation
The Physical State of Reactants
Reactions occur when reactants can collide
frequently with sufficient energy to react
7.3 Kinetics
Solid state: atoms, ions, compounds are close together

but restricted in motion
Gaseous state: particles are free to move but often are
far apart causing collisions to be relatively infrequent
Liquid state: particles are free to move and are in close
proximity
Reactions to be fastest in the liquid state and
slowest in the solid state
Liquid > Gas> Solid
The Presence of a Catalyst
Catalyst a substance that increases the reaction
rate
Undergoes no net change
7.3 Kinetics
Does not alter the final product of the reaction

Interacts with the reactants to create an alternative
pathway for product production
Use of a Solid Phase Catalyst
N2+3H2 2NH3
7.3 Kinetics
Haber Process is a synthesis of ammonia facilitated

by a solid phase catalyst
Diatomic gases bind to the surface
Bonds are weakened
Dissociation of diatomic gases and reformation of NH3
Newly formed NH3 leaves the solid surface with
catalyst unchanged
Mathematical Representation of
Reaction Rate
Consider a decomposition reaction with the
7.3 Kinetics
following balanced chemical equation:

2 N 2O5 ( g )
4 NO 2 ( g ) + O 2 ( g )
When heated N2O5 decomposes to 2
products NO2 and O2
When holding all factors constant, except
concentration, rate of reaction is
proportional to the concentration
Mathematical Representation of
Reaction Rate

2 N 2O5 ( g )
4 NO 2 ( g ) + O 2 ( g )
7.3 Kinetics
Reaction rate is proportional to reactant

concentration rate [N 2 O 5 ]
Concentration of N2O5 is denoted as [N2O5]
Replace proportionality symbol with = and
proportionality constant k
k is called the rate constant
rate = k[N 2 O 5 ]
Rate Equation
For a reaction Aproducts we write the equation:

7.3 Kinetics
rate = k[A]n
This is called the rate equation (or rate law)
The exponent n is the order of the reaction
If n=1, first order
If n=2, second order
n must be determined experimentally
This exponent is not the same as the coefficient of the
reactant in the balanced equation
Rate Equation
For the equation A + B products
the rate equation is:
7.3 Kinetics
rate = k[A]n[B]m
What would be the general form of the
rate equation for the reaction:
CH4+2O2CO2+2H2O
Rate = k[CH4]n[O2]m
Knowing the rate equation and the order
helps industrial chemists determine the
optimum conditions for preparing a
product
Writing Rate Equations
Write the form of the rate equation for the
oxidation of ethanol (C2H5OH)
7.3 Kinetics
The reaction has been experimentally determined to

be first order in ethanol and third order in oxygen
Rate expression involves only the reactants
Concentrations: [C2H5OH][O2]
Raise each to exponent corresponding to its order
rate = k [C2H5OH][O2]3
Remember that 1 as an exponent is understood and
NOT written
Knowing the rate equation and the order helps
industrial chemists determine the optimum conditions
for preparing a product
7.4 Equilibrium
Rate and Reversibility of Reactions
Equilibrium reactions chemical reactions
that do not go to completion
Completion all reactants have been converted
to products
Equilibrium reactions are also called Incomplete
reactions
Seen with both physical and chemical processes
After no further observable change,
measurable quantities of reactants and
products remain
Physical Equilibrium
Physical equilibria are reversible reactions
Dissolved oxygen in lake water
7.4 Equilibrium
Stalactite and stalagmite formation

Sugar dissolved in water
Reversible reaction a process that can
occur in both directions
Use the double arrow symbol
Dynamic equilibrium the rate of the
forward process in a reversible reaction is
exactly balanced by the rate of the reverse
process
Sugar in Water
1. If add 2-3 g of sugar into 100 mL water
7.4 Equilibrium
All will dissolve with stirring in a short time

No residual solid sugar, sugar dissolved completely
Sugar (s) Sugar (aq)
2. If add 100 g of sugar in 100 mL of water
Not all of it will dissolve even with much stirring
Over time, you observe no further change in the
amount of dissolved sugar
Appears nothing is happening Incorrect!
Sugar in Water
2. If add 100 g of sugar in 100 mL of water
Appears nothing is happening Incorrect!
7.4 Equilibrium
Individual sugar molecules are constantly going into

and out of solution
Both happen at the same rate
Over time the amount of sugar dissolved in the
measured volume of water does not change
An equilibrium situation has been established
Sugar(s) Sugar(aq)
Some molecules dissolve and others return to the
solid state the rate of each process is equal
Dynamic Equilibrium
sugar(s) sugar(aq)
7.4 Equilibrium
The double arrow serves as an indicator of

a reversible process
an equilibrium process
the dynamic nature of the process
Continuous change is taking place without
observable change in the amount of sugar
in either the solid or the dissolved form
Equilibrium Constant
ratef = forward rate rater = reverse rate
7.4 Equilibrium
at equilibrium: ratef = rater

ratef = kf[sugar(s)]
rater = kr[sugar(aq)]
kf[sugar(s)]=kr[sugar(aq)]
Equilibrium constant (Keq) ratio of the two rate
constants
kf [sugar(aq )]
K eq = =
kr [sugar(s )]
Chemical Equilibrium
The Reaction of N2 and H2
7.4 Equilibrium
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

Mix components at elevated temperature
Some molecules will collide with
sufficient energy to break N-N and H-H
bonds
Rearrangement of the atoms will produce
the product NH3
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
Initially the forward
7.4 Equilibrium
reaction is rapid
Reactant concentrations are
high
Product concentration
negligible
Forward reaction rate
decreases with time
Concentrations of reactants
are decreasing
Product concentration
increasing
Equilibrium occurs when the rate of reactant depletion is
equal to the rate of product depletion
Rates of forward and reverse reactions are Equal
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
7.4 Equilibrium
Basic equation divides into 2 parts:

forward rxn: N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
reverse rxn: 2NH3(g) N2(g) + 3H2(g)
ratef = kf[N2]n[H2]m
rater = kr[NH3]p kf [NH 3 ]p
K eq = =
k r [N 2 ]n [H 2 ]m
ratef=rater
kf [NH 3 ]p
K eq = =
7.4 Equilibrium
k r [N 2 ]n [H 2 ]m
The exponents in the rate expression are
numerically equal to the coefficients
[NH 3 ]2
K eq =
[N 2 ][H 2 ]3
Keq is a constant at constant temperature
The Generalized Equilibrium-
Constant Expression for a Chemical
Reaction
7.4 Equilibrium
aA + bB cC + dD
A and B are reactants
C and D are products
a, b, c, and d are the coefficients of the
balanced equation
[C]c [D]d
K eq = a b
[A] [B]
Writing Equilibrium-Constant
Expressions
Equilibrium constant expressions can only be
7.4 Equilibrium
written after a correct, balanced chemical equation

Each chemical reaction has a unique equilibrium
constant value at a specified temperature
The brackets represent molar concentration
All equilibrium constants are shown as unitless
Only the concentration of gases and substances in
solution are shown
Concentration for pure liquids and solids are not shown
Writing an Equilibrium-Constant
Expression
7.4 Equilibrium
Write an equilibrium-constant expression for

the reversible reaction:
H2(g) + F2(g) 2HF(g)
No solids or liquids are present
All reactants and products appear in the expression
Numerator term is the product term [HF]2
Denominator term is the reactants [H2] and [F2]
Each term contains an exponent identical to the
corresponding coefficient in the balanced equation
Keq = [HF]2
[H2][F2]
Writing an Equilibrium-Constant
Expression
7.4 Equilibrium
Write an equilibrium-constant expression for the

reversible reaction:
MnO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) Mn2+(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2O(l)
MnO2 is a solid
H2O(l) is a product, but negligible compared to solvent water
Numerator term is the product terms [Mn2+] and [Cl2]
Denominator term is the reactants [H+]4 and [Cl-]2
Each term contains an exponent identical to the corresponding
coefficient in the balanced equation
Keq = [Mn2+] [Cl2]
[H+]4 [Cl-]2
Interpreting Equilibrium Constants
Reversible arrow in chemical equation
7.4 Equilibrium
indicates equilibrium exists

The numerical value of the equilibrium
constant tells us the extent to which
reactants have converted to products
1. Keq greater than 1 x 102
Large value of Keq indicates numerator
(product term) >>> denominator (reactant term)
At equilibrium mostly product present
Interpreting Equilibrium Constants
2. Keq less than 1 x 10-2
7.4 Equilibrium
Small value of Keq indicates numerator

(product term) <<< denominator (reactant term)
At equilibrium mostly reactant present
3. Keq between 1 x 10-2 and 1 x 102
Equilibrium mixture contains significant
concentration of both reactants and products
Calculating Equilibrium Constants
A reversible reaction
7.4 Equilibrium
is allowed to proceed 2NO2(g) N2O4(g)

until the system
reaches equilibrium
Amount of reactants
and products no longer
changes
Analyze reaction
mixture to determine
molar concentrations
of each product and
reactant
Calculating an Equilibrium
Constant
HI placed in a sealed container and comes to
7.4 Equilibrium
equilibrium; equilibrium reaction is:

2HI(g) H2(g) + I2(g)
Equilibrium concentrations:
[HI] = 0.54 M
Keq = [H2] [I2]
[H2] = 1.72 M 2
[I2] = 1.72 M
[HI]
Substitute concentrations:Keq= [1.72] [1.72] = 2.96
[0.54]2
0.29
= 10.1 or 1.0 x 101
LeChateleirs Principle
LeChateleirs Principle if a stress is
7.4 Equilibrium
placed on a system at equilibrium, the

system will respond by altering the
equilibrium composition in such a way as
to minimize the stress
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
If reactants and products are present in a
fixed volume and more NH3 is added into
the container, the system will be stressed
Stressed = the equilibrium will be disturbed
LeChateleirs Principle
Adding NH3 to the system causes stress
7.4 Equilibrium
To relieve stress, remove as much of added

material as possible by converting it to
reactants
Adding N2 or H2 to the system causes
stress also
To relieve stress, remove as much of added
material as possible by converting it to
product
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
Equilibrium shifted
Product introduced:
Reactant introduced:
Effect of Concentration
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
7.4 Equilibrium
Adding or removing either reactants or products

at a fixed volume is saying that the concentration
is changed
Removing material decreases concentration
System will react to this stress to return
concentrations to the appropriate ratio
A: Reaction at
equilibrium
B: Shift to reactant
with more red color
C: Shift to product
A B C with loss of red color
Effect of Heat
Exothermic reactions: treat heat as a product
7.4 Equilibrium
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) + 22 kcal

Addition of heat is
treated as increasing
the amount of product
More product shifts
equilibrium to the left
Increases amount of
reactants
Decreases amount of
product Heat favors the blue species
while cold favors the pink
Effect of Heat
Endothermic Reaction treat heat as a
7.4 Equilibrium
reactant
39 kcal + 2N2(g) + O2(g) 2NH3(g)
This reaction shift will shift to the right if heat
is added by increasing the temperature
Effect of Pressure
Pressure affects the equilibrium only if one
7.4 Equilibrium
or more substances in the reaction are gases

Relative number of gas moles on reactant
and product side must differ
When pressure goes upshift to side with
less moles of gas
When pressure goes downsshifts to side
with more moles of gas
Effect of Pressure
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
7.4 Equilibrium
If increase pressure, which way will the

equilibrium shift?
Increased pressure favors decreased volume with more
product (2 moles) formed and less reactant (4 moles)
2HI(g) H2(g) + I2(g)

If increase the pressure in this reaction, which way
will the equilibrium shift?
No shift in equilibrium as both reactant and product
have 2 moles of gas
7.4 Equilibrium Effect of a Catalyst
A catalyst has no effect on the

equilibrium composition
It increases the rate of both the forward
and reverse reaction to the same extent
While equilibrium composition and
concentration do not change, equilibrium
is reached in a shorter time
Chapter 8
Acids and Bases and Oxidation-
Reduction
Denniston
Topping
Caret
6th Edition
8.1 Acids and Bases
Acids: Taste sour, dissolve some metals,
cause plant dye to change color
Bases: Taste bitter, are slippery, are
corrosive
Two theories that help us to understand
the chemistry of acids and bases
1. Arrhenius Theory
2. Brnsted-Lowry Theory
Arrhenius Theory of Acids and
Bases
8.1 Acids and Bases
Acid - a substance, when dissolved in

water, dissociates to produce hydrogen
ions
Hydrogen ion: H+ also called protons
HCl is an acid:
HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Bases
8.1 Acids and Bases
Base - a substance, when dissolved in

water, dissociates to produce hydroxide
ions
NaOH is a base
NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Bases
8.1 Acids and Bases
Where does NH3 fit?

When it dissolves in water it has basic
properties but it does not have OH- ions
in it
The next acid-base theory gives us a
broader view of acids and bases
Brnsted-Lowry Theory of Acids
and Bases
8.1 Acids and Bases
Acid - proton donor

Base - proton acceptor
Notice that acid and base are not defined
using water
When writing the reactions, both accepting
and donation are evident
Brnsted-Lowry Theory of Acids
and Bases
8.1 Acids and Bases
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) Cl-(aq) + H3O+(aq)

acid base
What donated the proton? HCl

Is it an acid or base? Acid
What accepted the proton? H2O

Is it an acid or base? Base
Brnsted-Lowry
. Theory of Acids
and Bases
8.1 Acids and Bases
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

base acid
Now let us look at NH3 and see why it is a
base
Did NH3 donate or accept a proton? Accept
Is it an acid or base? Base
What is water in this reaction? Acid
8.1 Acids and Bases Acid-Base Properties of Water
Water possesses both acid and base

properties
Amphiprotic a substance possessing both acid
and base properties
Water is the most commonly used solvent for
both acids and bases
Solute-solvent interactions between water and
both acids and bases promote solubility and
dissociation
8.1 Acids and Bases Acid and Base Strength
Acid and base strength degree of

dissociation
Not a measure of concentration
Strong acids and bases reaction with water is
virtually 100% (Strong electrolytes)
8.1 Acids and Bases Strong Acids and Bases
Strong Acids:
HCl, HBr, HI Hydrochloric Acid, etc.
HNO3 Nitric Acid
H2SO4 Sulfuric Acid
HClO4 Perchloric Acid
Strong Bases:
NaOH, KOH, Ba(OH)2
All metal hydroxides
8.1 Acids and Bases Weak Acids
Weak acids and bases only a small
percent dissociates (Weak electrolytes)
Weak acid examples:
Acetic acid:
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Carbonic Acid:
H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) HCO3-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
8.1 Acids and Bases Weak Bases
Weak base examples:
Ammonia:
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Pyridine:
C5H5NH2(aq) + H2O(l) C5H5NH3+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Aniline:
C6H5NH2(aq) + H2O(l) C6H5NH3+(aq) + OH-(aq)
8.1 Acids and Bases Conjugate Acids and Bases
The acid base reaction can be written in
the general form:
HA + B A- + HB+
acid base
Notice the reversible arrows
The products are also an acid and base
called the conjugate acid and base
8.1 Acids and Bases
HA + B A- + HB+
acid base base acid
Conjugate Acid what the base
becomes after it accepts a proton.
Conjugate Base what the acid
becomes after it donates its proton
Conjugate Acid-Base Pair the acid and
base on the opposite sides of the
equation
8.1 Acids and Bases Acid-Base Dissociation
HA + B A- + HB+
The reversible arrow isnt always written
Some acids or bases essentially dissociate 100%
One way arrow is used
HCl + H2O Cl- + H3O+
All of the HCl is converted to Cl-
HCl is called a strong acid an acid that
dissociates 100%
Weak acid - one which does not dissociate
100%
8.1 Acids and Bases Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
Which acid is
stronger:
HF or HCN? HF
Which base is
stronger:
CN- or H2O? CN -
8.1 Acids and Bases Acid-Base Practice
Write the chemical reaction for the following acids
or bases in water.
Identify the conjugate acid base pairs.
1. HF (a weak acid)
2. H2S (a weak acid)
3. HNO3 (a strong acid)
4. CH3NH2 (a weak base)
Note: The degree of dissociation also defines weak
and strong bases
8.1 Acids and Bases The Dissociation of Water
Pure water is virtually 100% molecular
Very small number of molecules dissociate
Dissociation of acids and bases is often called
ionization
H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Called autoionization
Very weak electrolyte
8.1 Acids and Bases Hydronium Ion
H3O+ is called the hydronium ion
In pure water at room temperature:
[H3O+] = 1 x 10-7 M
[OH-] = 1 x 10-7 M
What is the equilibrium expression for:
H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
+
K eq = [H 3O ][OH ] -
Remember, liquids are not included in equilibrium

expressions
8.1 Acids and Bases Ion Product of Water
This constant is called the ion product for
water and has the symbol Kw
+
K w = [H 3O ][OH ] -
Since [H3O+] = [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-7 M, what

is the value for Kw?
1.0 x 10-14
It is unitless
8.2 pH: A Measurement Scale
for Acids and Bases
pH scale a scale that indicates the acidity

or basicity of a solution
Ranges from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very basic)
The pH scale is rather similar to the
temperature scale assigning relative values
of hot and cold
The pH of a solution is defined as:
pH = -log[H3O+]
Scale for Acids and Bases
A Definition of pH
8.2 pH: A Measurement
Use these observations to develop a

concept of pH
if know one concentration, can calculate the
other
if add an acid, [H3O+] and [OH-]
if add a base, [OH-] and [H3O+]
[H3O+] = [OH-] when equal amounts of acid
and base are present
In each of these cases 1 x 10-14 = [H3O+][OH-]
Measuring pH
pH of a solution can be:
Calculated if the concentration of either is
known
[H3O+]
[OH-]
Approximated using indicator / pH paper
that develops a color related to the solution
pH
Measured using a pH meter whose sensor
measures an electrical property of the
solution that is proportional to pH
Calculating pH
How do we calculate the pH of a solution

when either the hydronium or hydroxide
ion concentration is known?
How do we calculate the hydronium or
hydroxide ion concentration when the pH
is known?
Use two facts:
pH = -log[H3O+]
1 x 10-14 = [H3O+][OH-]
Calculating pH from Acid
Molarity
What is the pH of a 1.0 x 10-4 M HCl solution?
HCl is a strong acid and dissociates in water
If 1 mol HCl is placed in 1 L of aqueous
solution it produces 1 mol [H3O+]
1.0 x 10-4 M HCl solution has [H3O+]=1.0x10-4M
pH = -log[H3O+]
= -log [H3O+]
= -log [1.0x10-4]
= -[-4.00] = 4.00
Calculating [H3O+] from pH
What is the [H3O+] of a solution with pH = 6.00?
pH = -log[H3O+]
4.00 = -log [H3O+]
Multiply both sides of equation by 1
-4.00 = log [H3O+]
Take the antilog of both sides
Antilog 4.00 = [H3O+]
Antilog is the exponent of 10
1.0 x 10-4 M = [H3O+]
Calculating the pH of a Base
What is the pH of a 1.0 x 10-3 M KOH solution?
KOH is a strong base (as are any metal hydroxides)
1 mol KOH dissolved and dissociated in aqueous
solution produces 1 mol OH-
1.0 x 10-3 M KOH solution has [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-3 M
1 x 10-14 = [H3O+][OH-]
Solve equation for [H3O+] = 1 x 10-14 / [OH-]
[H3O+] = 1 x 10-14 / 1.0 x 10-3 = 1 x 10-11
pH = -log [1 x 10-11]
= 11.00 pH = -log[H3O+]
Calculating pH from Acid
Molarity
What is the pH of a 2.5 x 10-4 M HNO3 solution?
We know that as a strong acid HNO3
dissociates to produce 2.5 x 10-4 M [H3O+]
pH = -log[H3O+]
pH = -log [2.5 x 10-4]
= 3.60
Calculating [OH-] from pH
What is the [OH-] of a solution with pH = 4.95?

First find [H3O+] pH = -log[H3O+]
4.95 = -log [H3O+]
[H3O+] = 10-4.95
[H3O+] = 1.12 x 10-5
1 x 10 -14 = [H O+][OH-]
Now solve for [OH-] 3
[OH-] = 1 x 10-14 / 1.12 x 10-5

= 1.0 x 10-9
The pH Scale
For a strong acid For a strong base

HCl molarity pH NaOH molarity pH
1.0 x 100 0.00 1.0 x 100 14.00
1.0 x 10-1 1.00 1.0 x 10-1 13.00
More Acidic
More basic
1.0 x 10-2 2.00 1.0 x 10-2 12.00
1.0 x 10-3 3.00 1.0 x 10-3 11.00
1.0 x 10-4 4.00 1.0 x 10-4 10.00
1.0 x 10-5 5.00 1.0 x 10-5 9.00
1.0 x 10-6 6.00 1.0 x 10-6 8.00
1.0 x 10-7 7.00 1.0 x 10-7 7.00
Each 10 fold change in concentration

changes the pH by one unit
8.3 Reactions Between Acids and
Bases
Neutralization reaction the reaction of an acid
with a base to produce a salt and water
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Acid Base Salt Water
Break apart into ions:
H+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH- Na+ + Cl- + H2O
Net ionic equation
Show only the changed components
Omit any ions appearing the same on both sides of
equation = Spectator Ions
H+ + OH- H2O
Net Ionic Neutralization Reaction
8.3 Reactions Between
The net ionic neutralization reaction is more

Acids and Bases
accurately written:
H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) 2H2O(l)
This equation applies to any strong acid / strong
base neutralization reaction
An analytical technique to determine the
concentration of an acid or base is titration
Titration involves the addition of measured
amount of a standard solution to neutralize the
second, unknown solution
Standard solution solution of known
concentration
8.3 Reactions Between Acid Base Titration
Buret long glass
Standard solution
tube calibrated in mL
Acids and Bases
is slowly added
which contains the
until the color
standard solution
changes
The equivalence Indicator a
point is when the substance which
moles of H3O+ changes color as
and OH- are equal pH changes
Flask contains a
solution of unknown
concentration plus
indicator
8.3 Reactions Between Relationship Between pH and
Acids and Bases Color in Acid-Base Indicators
Determine the Concentration of a
Acids and Bases Solution of Hydrochloric Acid
Place a known volume of acid whose concentration
is not known into a flask
Add an indicator, experience guides selection, here
phenol red is good
Known concentration of NaOH is placed in a buret
Drip NaOH into the flask until the indicator
changes color
8.3 Reactions Between Determine the Concentration of a
Indicator changes color
equivalence point is reached
Mol OH- = Mol H3O+ present in the unknown acid
Volume dispensed from buret is determined
Calculate acid concentration:
Volume of Hydrochloric Acid: 25.00 mL
Volume of NaOH added: 35.00 mL
Concentration of NaOH: 0.1000 M
Balanced reaction shows that HCl and NaOH react 1:1
35.00 mL NaOH x 1L NaOH x 0.1000 mol NaOH
103 mL NaOH 1L NaOH
= 3.500 x 10-3 mol NaOH
3.500 x 10-3 mol NaOH x 1 mol HCl
1 mol NaOH
= 3.500 x 10-3 mol HCl
this amount of HCl is contained in 25.00 mL
3.500 x 10-3 mol HCl x 103 mL HCl
25.00 mL HCl 1 L HCl
= 1.400 x 10-1 mol HCl / L HCl = 0.1400 M HCl
Alternative strategy to solve the acid concentration
(Macid)(Vacid) = (Mbase)(Vbase)
(Macid) = (Mbase)(Vbase)
(Vacid)
(Macid) = (0.1000 M) (35.00 mL)
(25.00 mL)
= 0.1400 M HCl
8.3 Reactions Between Calculating the Concentration of
Acids and Bases Sodium Hydroxide
Calculate [NaOH] if 25.00 mL of this solution were
required to neutralized 45.00 mL of 0.3000 M HCl
Alternative strategy to solve the acid concentration
(Macid)(Vacid) = (Mbase)(Vbase)
(Mbase) = (Macid)(Vacid)
(Vbase)
(Mbase) = (0.3000 M) (45.00 mL)

(25.00 mL)
= 0.5400 M NaOH
Polyprotic Substances
The previous examples have the acid and base

Acids and Bases
at a 1:1 combining ratio
Not all acid-base pairs do this
Polyprotic substance donates or accepts more
than one proton per formula unit
Hydrochloric acid is monoprotic, producing one H+
ion for each unit of HCl
Sulfuric acid is diprotic, each unit of H2SO4
produces 2 H+ ions
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

8.3 Reactions Between Dissociation of Polyprotic
Acids and Bases Substances
Step 1.
H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) HSO4-(aq) + H3O+(aq)

Step 2.
HSO4-(aq) + H2O(l) SO42-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
In Step 1 H2SO4 behaves as a strong acid
dissociating completely
In Step 2 HSO4-( behaves as a weak acid
reversibly dissociating, note the double arrow
8.4 Acid-Base Buffers
Buffer solution - solution which resists large

changes in pH when either acids or bases are
added
These solutions are frequently prepared in
laboratories to maintain optimum conditions
for chemical reactions
Buffers are also used routinely in
commercial products to maintain optimum
conditions for product behavior
8.4 Acid-Base Buffers The Buffer Process
Buffers act to establish an equilibrium between a
conjugate acid base pair
Buffers consist of either
a weak acid and its salt (conjugate base)
a weak base and its salt (conjugate acid)
Acetic acid (CH3COOH) with sodium acetate
(CH3COONa)
An equilibrium is established in solution
between the acid and the salt anion
A buffer is LeChateliers Principle in action
Addition of Base to a -
(OH )
Buffer Solution
Adding a basic substance to a buffer causes

changes
The OH- will react with the H3O+ producing water
Acid in the buffer system dissociates to replace
the H3O+ consumed by the added base
Net result is to maintain the pH close to the initial
level
The loss of H3O+ (the stress) is compensated
by the dissociation of the acid to produce
more H3O+
Addition of Acid (H3 +
O) to a
Buffer Solution
Adding an acidic substance to a buffer causes

changes
The H3O+ from the acid will increase the overall
H3O+
Conjugate base in the buffer system reacts with
the H3O+ to form more acid
Net result is to maintain the H3O+ concentration
and the pH close to the initial level
The gain of H3O+ (the stress) is compensated
by the reaction of the conjugate base to
produce more acid
8.4 Acid-Base Buffers Buffer Capacity
Buffer Capacity a measure of the
ability of a solution to resist large
changes in pH when a strong acid or
strong base is added
Also described as the amount of strong
acid or strong base that a buffer can
neutralize without significantly changing
pH
8.4 Acid-Base Buffers Preparation of a Buffer Solution
Buffering process is an equilibrium reaction
described by an equilibrium-constant
expression
In acids, this constant is Ka
+ -
[H 3O ][CH 3COO ]
Ka =
[CH 3COOH]
If you want to know the pH of the buffer,
solve for [H3O+], then calculate pH
Calculating the pH of a Buffer
Solution
Calculate the pH of a buffer solution in which

Both the acetic acid (acid) and sodium acetate (salt)
concentrations are 2.0 x 10-2 M
Sodium acetate, the salt, is also the conjugate base
Ka = 1.75 x 10-5 [H 3O + ][CH 3COO - ]
[H3O+] = [acid]Ka Ka =
[CH 3COOH]
[conjugate base]
= {(2.0 x 10-2 M) x (1.75 x 10-5)} / 2.0 x 10-2 M
= 1.75 x 10-5
pH = -log 1.75 x 10-5 = 4.76
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
Solution of equilibrium-constant expression

and pH can be combined into one operation
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation is this
combined expression
[H 3O + ][CH 3COO - ]
Using these two equations: K a = [CH COOH]
3

pKa = -log Ka just as pH = -log[H3O+]
pKa = pH log ( [CH3COO-] / [CH3COOH] )
Henderson-Hasselbalch
pH = pKa + log( [CH3COO-] / [CH3COOH] )
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
pH = pKa + log( [CH3COO-] / [CH3COOH] )

can be rewritten
pH = pKa + log ( [conjugate base] / [weak acid])
8.5 Oxidation-Reduction Processes
Oxidation-reduction processes are responsible
for many types of chemical change
Oxidation - defined by one of the following

loss of electrons
loss of hydrogen atoms
gain of oxygen atoms
Example: NaNa+ + e-
Oxidation half reaction
Oxidation-Reduction Processes
8.5 Oxidation-Reduction
Reduction - defined by one of the

following:
Processes
gain of electrons
gain of hydrogen
loss of oxygen
Example: Cl + e- Cl-
Reduction half reaction
Cannot have oxidation without reduction.

8.5 Oxidation-Reduction Oxidation and Reduction as
Complementary Processes
Na Na+ + e-
Cl + e- Cl-
Processes
Na + Cl Na+ + Cl-
Oxidizing Agent Reducing Agent
Is reduced Is oxidized
Gains electrons Loses electrons
Causes oxidation Causes reduction
8.5 Oxidation-Reduction Applications of Oxidation and
Reduction
Corrosion - the deterioration of metals
caused by an oxidation-reduction
Processes
process
Example: rust (oxidation of iron)
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
Combustion of Fossil Fuels
Example: natural gas furnaces
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
8.5 Oxidation-Reduction Applications of Oxidation and
Reduction
Bleaching
Processes
Most bleaching agents are oxidizing

agents
The oxidation of the stains produces
compounds that do not have color
Example: Chlorine bleach - sodium
hypochlorite (NaOCl)
Biological Processes
Respiration
Processes
Electron-transport chain of aerobic

respiration uses reversible oxidation and
reduction of iron atoms in cytochrome c
Metabolism
Break down of molecules into smaller pieces
by enyzmes
Voltaic Cells
Voltaic cell electrochemical cell that

converts stored chemical energy into
Processes
electrical energy
Lets consider the following reaction:
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
Is Zn oxidized or reduced?
Oxidized
Copper is reduced
Voltaic Cells
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

Processes
If the two reactants are placed in the same

flask they cannot produce electrical
current
A voltaic cell separates the two half
reactions
This makes the electrons flow through a
wire to allow the oxidation and reduction
to occur
8.5 Oxidation-Reduction Voltaic Cell Generating
Processes Electrical Current
Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
Zn Zn2+ + 2e- Reduction
Oxidation cathode electrode where
anode electrode reduction occurs
where oxidation occurs
8.5 Oxidation-Reduction Voltaic Cell Generating
Processes Electrical Current
Silver Battery
Batteries use the concept of the voltaic cell

Modern batteries are
Processes
Smaller
Safer
More dependable
Electrolysis
Electrolysis reactions uses electrical

energy to cause nonspontaneous
Processes
oxidation-reduction reactions to occur

These reactions are the reverse of a
voltaic cell
Rechargeable battery
When powering a device behaves as voltaic cell
With time the chemical reaction nears completion
Battery appears to run down
Cell reaction is reversible when battery attached
to charger
8.5 Oxidation-Reduction Comparison of Voltaic and
Processes Electrolytic Cells
Chapter 9
The Nucleus, Radioactivity and
Nuclear Medicine
Denniston
Topping
Caret
6th Edition
9.1 Natural Radioactivity
Radioactivity process by which atoms
emit energetic particles or rays
Radiation the particles or rays emitted
comes from the nucleus
Nuclear symbols what we use to designate
the nucleus
Atomic symbol
Atomic number
Mass number
Nuclear Symbols
mass number
11
number of
protons and
neutrons
5 B
atomic symbol
atomic number
number of protons
Writing Nuclear Symbols
11
5 B
This defines an isotope of boron
In nuclear chemistry often called a
nuclide
This is not the only isotope of boron
boron-10 also exists
How many protons and neutrons does
boron-10 have?
5 protons, 5 neutrons
Three Isotopes of Carbon
Each nucleus contains the same number of protons
Only the number of neutrons is different
With different numbers of neutrons the mass of
each isotope is different
Unstable Isotopes
Some isotopes are stable
The unstable isotopes are the ones that produce
radioactivity
To write nuclear equations we need to be able to
write the symbols for the isotopes and the
following:
alpha particle
beta particles
gamma rays
Alpha Particles
Alpha particle (a) 2 protons, 2 neutrons

Same as He nucleus (He2+)
Slow moving, and stopped by small
barriers
Symbolized in the following ways:
2+
4
2 He 4
2 He 4
2
Beta Particles and Positrons
Beta particles (b) fast-moving electron
Emitted from the nucleus as a neutron is
converted to a proton
Higher speed particles, more penetrating
than alpha particles
The symbol is
0
1 e 0
-1
Gamma Rays
Gamma Rays (g) pure energy

(electromagnetic radiation)
Highly energetic
The most penetrating form of radiation
Symbol is simply
g
9.1 Natural Radioactivity Properties of Alpha, Beta, and
Gamma Radiation
Ionizing radiation produces a trail of ions
throughout the material that it penetrates
The penetrating power of the radiation
determines the ionizing damage that can
be caused
Alpha particle < beta particle < gamma rays
9.2 Writing a Balanced Nuclear
Equation
Nuclear equation used to represent
nuclear change
In a nuclear equation, you do not balance
the elements, instead...
the total mass on each side of the reaction
arrow must be identical
the sum of the atomic numbers on each side of
the reaction arrow must be identical
9.2 Writing a Balanced Alpha Decay
U Th + He
Nuclear Equations
238 234 4
92 90 2
238 = 234 + 4
mass number
92 = 90 + 2
atomic number
Beta Decay
9.2 Writing a Balanced
Nuclear Equations
Upon decomposition, nitrogen-16
produces oxygen-16 and a beta particle
In beta decay, one neutron in nitrogen-
16 is converted to a proton and the
electron, the beta particle is released
16
7 N O + e
16
8
0
-1
Positron Emission
Nuclear Equations
A positron has same mass as an electron, or beta
particle, BUT opposite charge (+)
Unlike beta decay, the product nuclide has the
same mass number as the parent BUT the
atomic number has decreased by one
11
6 C B+ e
11
5
0
1
11
6 C B+
11
5
0
1
Gamma Production
Nuclear Equations
Gamma radiation occurs to increase the
stability of an isotope
The energetically unstable isotope is called a
metastable isotope
The atomic mass and number do not
change
Usually gamma rays are emitted along
with alpha or beta particles
99 m
Tc
43
99
43Tc +
9.2 Writing a Balanced Predicting Products of Nuclear
Nuclear Equations Decay
To predict the product, simply remember
that the mass number and atomic number
are conserved
239
92 UX+ e 0
-1
What is the identity of X?

239
93
Np
9.3 Properties of Radioisotopes
Nuclear Structure and Stability
Binding Energy the energy that holds the
protons, neutrons, and other particles
together in the nucleus
Binding energy is very large
When isotopes decay (forming more stable
isotopes,) binding energy is released
Stable Radioisotopes
9.3 Properties of
Radioisotopes
Important factors for stable isotopes
Ratio of neutrons to protons
Nuclei with large number of protons (84 or more)
tend to be unstable
The magic numbers of 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, or 126 help
determine stability these numbers of protons or
neutrons are stable
Even numbers of protons or neutrons are generally
more stable than those with odd numbers
All isotopes (except 1H) with more protons than
neutrons are unstable
Half-Life
9.3 Properties of
Half-life (t1/2) the time required for

Radioisotopes
one-half of a given quantity of a
substance to undergo change
Each radioactive isotope has its own
half-life
Ranges from a fraction of a second to a
billion years
The shorter the half-life, the more unstable
the isotope
Half-Lives of Selected
Radioisotopes
9.3 Properties of
Radioisotopes
Decay Curve for the Medically
Useful Radioisotope Tc-99m
9.3 Properties of
Radioisotopes
Predicting the Extent of
Radioactive Decay
9.3 Properties of
Radioisotopes
A patient receives 10.0 ng of a radioisotope with a half-life
of 12 hours. How much will remain in the body after 2.0
days, assuming radioactive decay is the only path for
removal of the isotope from the body.
Calculate n, the number of half-lives elapsed
using the half-life as the conversion factor
n = 2.0 days x 1 half-life / 0.5 days = 4 half lives
Calculate the amount remaining
10.0 ng 5.0 ng 2.5 ng 1.3 ng 0.63 ng
1st half-life 2nd half-life 3rd half-life 4th half-life
0.63 ng remain after 4 half-lives
Radiocarbon Dating
Radiocarbon dating the estimation of
the age of objects through measurement
of isotopic ratios of carbon
Ratio of carbon-14 and carbon-12
Basis for dating:
Carbon-14 (a radioactive isotope) is
constantly being produced by neutrons from
the sun
14
7 N+ n C+ H
1
0
14
6
1
1
9.5 Radiocarbon Dating Radiocarbon Dating
Living systems are continually taking in
carbon
The ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 stays
constant during its lifetime
Once the living system dies, it quits

taking in the carbon-14 14 C 14 N + 0 e
6 7 -1
The amount of carbon-14 decreases
according to the reaction:
The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years
This information is used to calculate the age
9.4 Nuclear Power
Energy Production
E = mc2
Equation by Albert Einstein shows the connection
between energy (E) and mass (m)
c is the speed of light
The equation shows that a very large amount of
kinetic energy can be formed from a small amount
of matter
Release this kinetic energy to convert liquid water into
steam
The steam drives an electrical generator producing
electricity
Nuclear Fission
9.4 Nuclear Power
Fission (splitting) occurs when a heavy

nuclear particle is split into smaller nuclei
by a smaller nuclear particle
1
0 n+ 235
92 U 236
92 U 92
36 Kr + 141
56 Ba + 301 n + energy
Accompanied by a large amount of

energy
Is self-perpetuating
Can be used to generate steam
9.4 Nuclear Power Fission of Uranium-235
Chain reaction the reaction sustains itself
by producing more neutrons
Representation of the Energy
Zones of a Nuclear Reactor
9.4 Nuclear Power
A nuclear power plant uses a fissionable material

as fuel
Energy released by the fission heats water
produces steam
drives a generator or turbine
converts heat to electrical energy
9.4 Nuclear Power Nuclear Fusion
Fusion (to join together) combination of two
small nuclei to form a larger nucleus
Large amounts of energy is released
Best example is the sun
An Example: 2 H + 3 H 4 He + 1n + energy
1 1 2 0
No commercially successful plant exists in U.S.

Breeder Reactors
9.4 Nuclear Power
Breeder reactor fission reactor that

manufactures its own fuel
Uranium-238 (non-fissionable) is
converted to plutonium-239 (fissionable)
Plutonium-239 undergoes fission to
produce energy
9.5 Medical Applications of
Radioactivity
Modern medical care uses the

following:
Radiation in the treatment of cancer
Nuclear medicine - the use of
radioisotopes in the diagnosis of medical
conditions
Cancer Therapy Using Radiation
Based on the fact that high-energy
Radioactivity
gamma rays cause damage to

biological molecules
Tumor cells are more susceptible than
normal cells
Example: cobalt-60
Gamma radiation can cure cancer but
can also cause cancer
Nuclear Medicine
The use of isotopes in diagnosis
Radioactivity
Tracers small amounts of radioactive

substances used as probes to study internal
organs
Nuclear imaging medical techniques
involving tracers
Example:
Iodine concentrates in the thyroid gland.
Using radioactive 131I and 125I will allow the study
of how the thyroid gland is taking in iodine
Tracer Studies
Isotopes with short half-lives are preferred for
Radioactivity
tracer studies. Why?
They give a more concentrated burst
They are removed more quickly from the body
Examples of imaging procedures:

Bone disease and injury using technetium-99m
Cardiovascular disease using thallium-201
Pulmonary disease using xenon-133
9.5 Medical Applications of Making Isotopes for Medical
Radioactivity Applications
Artificial radioactivity a normally stable,
nonradioactive nucleus is made radioactive
Made in two ways:
In core of a nuclear reactor
In particle accelerators small nuclear
particles are accelerated to speeds
approaching the speed of light and slammed
into another nucleus
9.5 Medical Applications of Examples of Artificial
Radioactivity Radioactivity
197
79 Au + n
1
0
198
79 Au
Tracer in the liver
Used in the diagnosis of Hodgkins
disease
66
30 Zn + p
1
1
67
31 Ga
Preparation of Technetium-99m
Some isotopes used in nuclear medicine have
Radioactivity
such a short half-life that they need to be
generated on site
99mTc has a half-life of only 6 hours
99
42 Mo 99m
43 Tc + e
0
-1
9.6 Biological Effects of
Radiation
Radiation Exposure and Safety
The Magnitude of the Half-Life
Isotopes with short half-lives have one major
disadvantage and one major advantage
Disadvantage: larger amount of radioactivity per
unit time
Advantage: if accident occurs, reaches
background radiation levels more rapidly
9.6 Biological Effects of Radiation Exposure and Safety
Shielding
Alpha and beta particles need low level
Radiation
of shielding: lab coat and gloves

Lead, concrete or both required for
gamma rays
Distance from the Radioactive Source

Doubling the distance from the source
decreases the intensity by a factor of 4
Radiation Exposure and Safety
9.6 Biological Effects of
Time of Exposure
Radiation
Effects are cumulative

Types of Radiation Emitted
Alpha and beta emitters are generally less
hazardous then gamma emitters
Waste Disposal
disposal sites are considered temporary
9.7 Measurement of Radiation
Nuclear Imaging
Isotope is administered
Isotope begins to concentrate in the organ
Photographs (nuclear images) are taken at
periodic intervals
Emission of radioactive isotope creates the
image
Computer Imaging
9.7 Measurement of
Computers and
television are coupled
Radiation
Gives a continuous
and instantaneous
record of the voyage
of the isotope
throughout the body
Gives increased
sensitivity
CT scanner is an
example
The Geiger Counter
9.7 Measurement of
Detects ionizing radiation

Radiation
Has largely been replaced by more

sophisticated devices
Film Badges
9.7 Measurement of
A piece of photographic film that is

Radiation
sensitive to energies corresponding to

radioactive emissions
The darker the film, when developed,
the longer the worker has been
exposed
Units of Radiation Measurement
9.7 Measurement of
The Curie
Radiation
The amount of radioactive material

that produces 3.7 x 1010 atomic
disintegrations per second
Independent of the nature of the
radiation
9.7 Measurement of
The Roentgen
Radiation
The amount of radiation needed to

produce 2 x 109 ion pairs when passing
through one cm3 of air at 0oC
Used for very high energy ionizing
radiation only
9.7 Measurement of
Rad Radiation absorbed dosage

Radiation
The dosage of radiation able to transfer

2.4 x 10-3 cal of energy to one kg of
matter
This takes into account the nature of the
absorbing material
9.7 Measurement of
The Rem
Roentgen Equivalent for Man
Radiation
Obtained by multiplication of the rad by a

factor called the relative biological effect (RBE)
RBE = 10 for alpha particles
RBE = 1 for beta particles
Lethal dose (LD50) - the acute dosage of
radiation that would be fatal for 50% of the
exposed population
LD50 = 500 rems
Chapter 10
An Introduction to Organic
Chemistry:
The Saturated Hydrocarbons
Denniston
Topping
Caret
6th Edition
10.1 The Chemistry of Carbon
Why are there so many organic compounds?
1. Carbon forms stable, covalent bonds with other
carbon atoms
Consider three allotropic forms of elemental carbon
Graphite in planar layers
Diamond is a three-dimensional network
Buckminsterfullerene is 60 C in a roughly spherical
shape
Why are there so many
organic compounds?
2. Carbon atoms form stable bonds with
other elements, such as:
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Halogen
Presence of these other elements
confers many new physical and
chemical properties on an organic
compound
organic compounds?
3. Carbon atoms form H2C CH2
double or triple bonds
with: H2C O
Other carbon atoms
(double & triple) H2C NH
Oxygen (double only)
Nitrogen (double & triple) double bonds
These combinations act HC CH
to produce a variety of
organic molecules with HC N
very different properties
triple bonds
organic compounds?
4. Carbon atoms can be arranged with these
other atoms; is nearly limitless
Branched chains
Ring structures
Linear chains H2
C
CH3CH2CH2CH3 H2C CH2
H2C CH2
Two organic compounds may even have the

same number and kinds of atoms but
completely different structures and thus,
different properties
These are called isomers
Isomers
Many carbon compounds exist in the

form of isomers
Isomers are compounds with the same
molecular formula but different structures
An isomer example: both are C4H10
but have different structures
Butane
Methylpropane
Isomers
All have the same molecular formula: C4H8
Important Differences Between
Organic and Inorganic Compounds
Bond type
Organics have covalent bonds
Electron sharing
Inorganics usually have ionic bonds
Electron transfer
Structure
Organics
Molecules
Nonelectrolytes
Inorganics
Three-dimensional crystal structures
Often water-soluble, dissociating into ions -
electrolytes
Important Differences Between
Melting Point & Boiling Point
Organics have covalent bonds
Intermolecular forces broken fairly easily
Inorganics usually have ionic bonds
Ionic bonds require more energy to break
Water Solubility
Organics
Nonpolar, water insoluble
Inorganics
Water-soluble, readily dissociate
Comparison of Major Properties of
Families of Organic Compounds
Hydrocarbons contain only carbon
and hydrogen
They are nonpolar molecules
Not soluble in water
Are soluble in typical nonpolar organic
solvents
Toluene
Pentane
Families of Organic Compounds
Hydrocarbons are constructed of chains

or rings of carbon atoms with sufficient
hydrogen atoms to fulfill carbons need
for four bonds
Substituted hydrocarbon is one in which
one or more hydrogen atoms is replaced
by another atom or group of atoms
Division of the Family
of Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbon Saturation
Alkanes are compounds that contain only
carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen single
bonds
A saturated hydrocarbon has no double or
triple bonds
Alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated
because they contain at least one carbon to
carbon double or triple bond
Cyclic Structure of Hydrocarbons
Some hydrocarbons are cyclic
Form a closed ring
Aromatic hydrocarbons contain a benzene
ring or related structure
Common Functional Groups
10.2 Alkanes
The general formula for a chain alkane is
CnH2n+2
In this formula n = the number of carbon atoms
in the molecule
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons
Contain only carbon and hydrogen
Bonds are carbon-hydrogen and carbon-carbon
single bonds
Formulas Used in
Organic Chemistry
Molecular formula - lists kind and number of each
type of atom in a molecule, no bonding pattern
Structural formula - shows each atom and bond in a
molecule
Condensed formula - shows all the atoms in a
molecule in sequential order indicating which atoms
are bonded to which
Line formula - assume a carbon atom at any location
where lines intersect
Assume a carbon at the end of any line
Each carbon in the structure is bonded to the correct
number of hydrogen atoms
The Tetrahedral Carbon Atom
(a) Lewis dot structure

(b) The tetrahedral shape around the carbon atom
(c) The tetrahedral carbon drawn with dashes and
wedges
(d) The stick drawing of the tetrahedral carbon
atom
(e) Ball and stick model of methane
Drawing Methane and Ethane
H H H
in plane
H
H C C
behind plane H H 109.5 o
H in front of plane H H
Staggered form of ethane
Comparison of Ethane and
Butane Structures
Names and Formulas of the First
Ten Straight-Chain Alkanes
Comparison of Physical Properties of
Five Isomers of Hexane
Compare the basic linear structure of hexane
All other isomers have one or more carbon atoms
branching from the main chain
Branched-chain forms of the molecule have a much
smaller surface area
Intermolecular forces are weaker
Boiling and melting points are lower than straight chains
Physical Properties of
Organic Molecules
1. Nonpolar
2. Not water soluble
3. Soluble in nonpolar organic solvents
4. Low melting points
5. Low boiling points
6. Generally less dense (lighter) than water
7. As length (molecular weight) increases, melting
and boiling points increase as does the density
Properties of Alkanes
200
150
100
50
0
Melting Point
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Boiling Point
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
Number of Carbons in Chain
Properties of Alkanes
Most of the alkanes are hydrophobic:

water hating
Straight chain alkanes comprise a
homologous series: compounds of the same
functional class that differ by a CH2- group
Nonpolar alkanes are:
Insoluble in water (a highly polar solvent)
Less dense than water and float on it
Alkyl Groups
H H
H C H H C or CH3
H H
An alkyl group is an alkane with one hydrogen
atom removed
It is named by replacing the -ane of the alkane
name with -yl
Methane becomes a methyl group
Alkyl Groups
All six hydrogens on ethane are equivalent

Removing one H generates the ethyl group
All 3 structures shown at right are the same
HH CH3 CH2
HCCH CH2 CH3
HH C2H5
Names and Formulas of the First
Five Alkyl Groups
Alkyl Group Classification
Alkyl groups are classified according to the
number of carbons attached to the carbon
atom that joins the alkyl group to a molecule
All continuous chain alkyl groups are 1
Isopropyl and sec-butyl are 2 groups
Iso- Alkyl Groups
Propane: removal of a hydrogen generates
two different propyl groups depending on
whether an end or center H is removed
CH3 CH2 CH3
CH3CH2CH2 CH3CH CH3

n-propyl isopropyl
Sec- Alkyl Groups
n-butane gives two butyl groups depending
on whether an end (1) or interior (2) H is
removed
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 CH CH2 CH3

n-butyl sec-butyl
Structures and Names of Some
Branched-Chain Alkyl Groups
More Alkyl Group Classification
Isobutane gives two butyl groups
depending on whether a 1o or 3o H is
removed
CH3
CH
o 3 CH CH3
1 C o 3 C
CH3 CH3
CH3 CH CH2 CH3 C CH3
isobutyl t-butyl
Nomenclature
The IUPAC (International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry) is
responsible for chemical names
Before learning the IUPAC rules for
naming alkanes, the names and
structures of eight alkyl groups must be
learned
These alkyl groups are historical names
accepted by the IUPAC and integrated
into modern nomenclature
Carbon Chain Length and Prefixes
IUPAC Names for Alkanes
1. The base or parent name for an alkane is

determined by the longest chain of
carbon atoms in the formula
The longest chain may bend and twist, it is
seldom horizontal
Any carbon groups not part of the base chain
are called branches or substituents
These carbon groups are also called alkyl
groups
Rule 1 applied
Find the longest chain in each molecule
A=7 B=8
A CH3
CH2CH2CH CH2CH3
B CH3
CH2
CH3CH2CH2 CH2
CH3
CH3CH2CH CH2CH CH3
2. Number the carbon atoms in the

chain starting from the end with the
first branch
If both branches are equally from the
ends, continue until a point of
difference occurs
Number the carbon atoms correctly
Left: first branch is on carbon 3
Right: first branch is on carbon 3 (From
top) not carbon 4 (if number from right)
CH1
3 6 7 8
CH3 2
CH CH2CH2CH3
2
4
5 CH2CH2CH CH2CH3 CH3CH CH2CH CH2CH3
3 2 1 3 4 5
6 CH2 this branch would be on C-4
if you started at correct C-8
7 CH3
3. Write each of the branches/substituents in
alphabetical order before the base/stem
name (longest chain)
Halogens usually come first
Indicate the position of the branch on the main
chain by prefixing its name with the carbon
number to which it is attached
Separate numbers and letters with a hyphen
Separate two or more numbers with commas
CH3
CH2 CH3
CH3 CH2 CH CH2 CH CH3
Name : 4-ethyl-2-methylhexane
Hyphenated and number prefixes are
not considered when alphabetizing
groups
Name the compound below
5-sec-butyl-4-isopropylnonane
CH3
CH3 CH CH2 CH3
CH CH CH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
When a branch/substituent occurs more
than once
Prefix the name with
di
tri
tetra
Then list the number of the carbon branch for
that substituent to the name with a separate
number for each occurrence
Separate numbers with commas
e.g., 3,4-dimethyl or 4,4,6-triethyl
Name
CH3 CH2CH3
CH3CH CH CH2CH CH2CH3
CH3
5-ethyl-2,3-dimethylheptane
ethyl>dimethyl
Practice: IUPAC Name
Name
CH
1
3 CH 3
CH CH 3
CH
2
2 CH2
CH3C3 CH
4 CH
5 C6 CH CH
2 2 2 3
CH3 CH
7
2CH
8
2
CH
9
2
CH
10
3
6-ethyl-6-isobutyl-3,3-dimethyldecane
Structural Isomers
Constitutional/Structural Isomers differ in how
atoms are connected
Two isomers of butane have different physical
properties
The carbon atoms are connected in different
patterns
CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 CH3 CH CH3
Butane Isobutane
Bp 0.4 oC Bp 12 oC
Mp 139 oC Mp 145 oC
10.3 Cycloalkanes
Cycloalkanes have two less hydrogens than

the corresponding chain alkane
Hexane=C6H14; cyclohexane=C6H12
To name cycloalkanes, prefix cyclo- to the
name of the corresponding alkane
Place substituents in alphabetical order before
the base name as for alkanes
For multiple substituents, use the lowest
possible set of numbers; a single substituent
requires no number
Cycloalkane Structures
Cyclopropane
Cyclobutane
Cyclohexane
Type of Formula: Structural Condensed Line

Naming a Substituted Cycloalkane
Name the two cycloalkanes shown below

Parent chain 6 carbon ring 5 carbon ring
cyclohexane cyclopentane
Substituent 1 chlorine atom a methyl group
chloro methyl
Name Chlorocyclohexane Methylcyclopentane
cis-trans Isomers in Cycloalkanes
Atoms of an alkane can rotate freely around the
carbon-carbon single bond having an unlimited
number of arrangements
Rotation around the bonds in a cyclic structure is
limited by the fact that all carbons in the ring are
interlocked
Formation of cis-trans isomers, geometric isomers, is a
consequence of the lack of free rotation
Stereoisomers are molecules that have the same
structural formulas and bonding patterns, but
different arrangements of atoms in space
cis-trans isomers of cycloalkanes are stereoisomers
whose substituents differ in spatial arrangement
cis-trans Isomers in Cycloalkanes
Two groups may be on the same side (cis) of the imagined
plane of the cycloring or they may be on the opposite side
(trans)
Geometric isomers do not readily interconvert, only by
breaking carbon-carbon bonds can they interconvert
10.4 Conformations of Alkanes
Conformations differ only in rotation about carbon-
carbon single bonds
Two conformations of ethane and butane are shown
The first (staggered form) is more stable because it allows
hydrogens to be farther apart and thus, the atoms are less
crowded
Two Conformations of Cyclohexane
Chair form (more stable) Boat form

A A H H
E H H H H
E A E
A E
E E H H H
A H
A
H H
E=equitorial A=axial
10.5 Reactions of Alkanes
Alkanes, cycloalkanes, and other

hydrocarbons can be:
Oxidized (by burning) in the presence of excess
molecular oxygen, in a process called
combustion
Reacted with a halogen (usually chlorine or
bromine) in a halogenation reaction
Alkane Reactions
The majority of the reaction of alkanes are
combustion reactions
Complete CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
Complete combustion produces
Carbon dioxide and water
Incomplete 2CH4 + 3O2 2CO + 4H2O

Incomplete combustion produces
Carbon monoxide and water
Carbon monoxide is a poison that binds
irreversibly to red blood cells
Halogenation
Halogenation is a type of substitution reaction, a
reaction that results in a replacement of one group
for another
Products of this reaction are:
Alkyl halide or haloalkane
Hydrogen halide
This reaction is important in converting unreactive
alkanes into many starting materials for other products
Halogenation of alkanes ONLY occurs in the presence
of heat and/or light (UV)
H Br
H + Br2 heat or H
light
+HBr
Petroleum Processing
Fraction Boiling Pt Range Carbon Typical uses
C size
Gas -164-30 C1-C4 Heating, cooking
Gasoline 30-200 C5-C12 Motor fuel
Kerosene 175-275 C12-C16 Fuel for stoves,
diesel and jet
engines
Heating oil Up to 375 C15-C18 Furnace oil
Lubricating 350 and up C16-C20 Lubrication, mineral
oil oil
Greases Semisolid C18-up Lubrication,
petroleum jelly
Paraffin Melts at 52-57 C20-up Candles, toiletries
(wax)
Roofing, asphalt

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Air - oxygen and several trace gases are

Colloidal suspension Solution

20.0 g NaCl, mass of solute

% (W/V) = 20.0g NaCl / 2.00 x 102 mL x 100%

= 10.0% (W/V) sodium chloride

15.0% (W/V) = Xg glucose/7.50 x 102 mL x 100%

solutions of 2 solids whose masses are

ppm change the calculation only by orders

So, M1V1 = M2V2

Use dilution expression M1V1 = M2V2

2. Equivalents per liter (eq/L)

Crenation Hemolysis Isotonic

Na+ 135 meq/L 3.5 5.0 meq/L

make concentration of ions different on

- Decrease of urine output

- Na+ too high:

ANIONS IN THE BLOOD

Blood clotting factors

Absolute value for energy stored in a

First Law of Thermodynamics energy of

These bonds must

These bonds must

Spontaneous reaction - occurs without

Are the following processes exothermic or

C6H12O6(s) 2C2H5OH(l) + 2CO2(g)

DSo of a reaction = So(products) -

All of these processes have a positive DSo

If exothermic and positive DSo

Which substance has the greatest

Need to know both DH and DS to predict the

The change in temperature

Specific heat (SH) the number of calories of

demonstrates the change from purple reactant to

the progress of a chemical reaction

C=O and O-H bonds must be formed

energy required to initiate a chemical reaction

products via the

1. Structure of the reacting species

Ions with the same charge do not react

Rate will generally increase as concentration

Increased temperature relates directly to

Solid state: atoms, ions, compounds are close together

Does not alter the final product of the reaction

Haber Process is a synthesis of ammonia facilitated

following balanced chemical equation:

Reaction rate is proportional to reactant

For a reaction Aproducts we write the equation:

The reaction has been experimentally determined to

Stalactite and stalagmite formation

All will dissolve with stirring in a short time

Individual sugar molecules are constantly going into

The double arrow serves as an indicator of

at equilibrium: ratef = rater

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

Basic equation divides into 2 parts:

written after a correct, balanced chemical equation

Write an equilibrium-constant expression for

Write an equilibrium-constant expression for the

indicates equilibrium exists

Small value of Keq indicates numerator

is allowed to proceed 2NO2(g) N2O4(g)

equilibrium; equilibrium reaction is: