1) Prior and posterior probability

Say you have a quantity of interest: .

1. The prior is a probability distribution that represents your uncertainty over before you have
sampled any data and attempted to estimate it - usually denoted ()().
2. The posterior is a probability distribution representing your uncertainty over after you have
sampled data - denoted (|X)(|X). It is a conditional distribution because it conditions on
the observed data.

From Bayes' theorem we relate the two:

Taking a step back, we widely accept that the process of having beliefs about the world, interacting with
it, and then updating these beliefs is a fundamental component of learning.

Well, computing the posterior from the prior with Bayes' theorem is simply a mathematical formulation
of updating your beliefs. In fact, these ideas are at the core of Bayesian statistics, so it's well worth your
time becoming familiar with the mechanics of working with them.
2) What are the various types of research?
1. Pure research
a. Also called as the fundamental or the theoretical research.
b. Is basic and original.
c. Can lead to the discovery of a new theory.
d. Can result in the development or refinement of a theory that already exists.
e. Helps in getting knowledge without thinking formally of implementing it in practice based on the
honesty, love and integrity of the researcher for discovering the truth.
2. Applied research
a. Based on the concept of the pure research.
b. Is problem oriented?
c. Helps in finding results or solutions for real life problems.
d. Provides evidence of usefulness to society.
e. Helps in testing empirical content of a theory.
f. Utilizes and helps in developing the techniques that can be used for basic research.
g. Helps in testing the validity of a theory but under some conditions.
h. Provides data that can lead to the acceleration of the process of generalization.
3. Exploratory research
a. Involves exploring a general aspect.
b. Includes studying of a problem, about which nothing or a very little is known.
c. Follows a very formal approach of research.
d. Helps in exploring new ideas.
e. Helps in gathering information to study a specific problem very minutely.
f. Helps in knowing the feasibility in attempting a study.
4. Descriptive research
a. simplest form of research.
b. More specific in nature and working than exploratory research.
c. It involves a mutual effort.
d. Helps in identifying various features of a problem.
e. Restricted to the problems that are describable and not arguable and the problems in which valid
standards can be developed for standards.
f. Existing theories can be easily put under test by empirical observations.
g. Underlines factors that may lead to experimental research.
h. It consumes a lot of time.
i. It is not directed by hypothesis.
5. Diagnostic study
a. quite similar to the descriptive research.
b. Identifies the causes of the problems and then solutions for these problems.
c. Related to causal relations.
d. It is directed by hypothesis.
e. Can be done only where knowledge is advanced.
6. Evaluation study
a. Form of applied research.
b. Studies the development project.
c. Gives access to social or economic programmes.
d. Studies the quality and also the quantity of an activity.
7. Action research
a. Type of evaluation study.
b. Is a concurrent evaluation study.
3) Research design
Action Research Design
Case Study Design
Causal Design
Cohort Design
Cross-Sectional Design
Descriptive Design
Experimental Design
Exploratory Design
Historical Design
Longitudinal Design
 Meta-Analysis Design
Mixed-Method Design
Observational Design
Philosophical Design
Sequential Design
4) Types of correlation
Definition: A statistical tool used to measure the relationship between two or more variables such that the
movement in one variable is accompanied by the movement of another is called as Correlation.

1. Positive and Negative Correlation: Whether the correlation between the variables is positive or negative
depends on its direction of change. The correlation is positive when both the variables move in the same
direction, i.e. when one variable increases the other on an average also increases and if one variable
decreases the other also decreases.The correlation is said to be negative when both the variables move in
the opposite direction, i.e. when one variable increases the other decreases and vice versa.
2. Simple, Partial and Multiple Correlation: Whether the correlation is simple, partial or multiple
depends on the number of variables studied. The correlation is said to be simple when only two
variablesare studied.The correlation is either multiple or partial when three or more variables are studied.
The correlation is said to be Multiple when three variables are studied simultaneously. Such as, if we
want to study the relationship between the yield of wheat per acre and the amount of fertilizers and
rainfall used, then it is a problem of multiple correlations.

Whereas, in the case of a partial correlation we study more than two variables, but consider only two
among them that would be influencing each other such that the effect of the other influencing variable
is kept constant. Such as, in the above example, if we study the relationship between the yield and
fertilizers used during the periods when certain average temperature existed, then it is a problem of partial
correlation.

3. Linear and Non-Linear (Curvilinear) Correlation: Whether the correlation between the variables is
linear or non-linear depends on the constancy of ratio of change between the variables. The correlation
is said to be linear when the amount of change in one variable to the amount of change in another variable
tends to bear a constant ratio. For example, from the values of two variables given below, it is clear that
the ratio of change between the variables is the same:

X: 10 20 30 40 50
Y: 20 40 60 80 100
The correlation is called as non-linear or curvilinear when the amount of change in one variable does not
bear a constant ratio to the amount of change in the other variable. For example, if the amount of
fertilizers is doubled the yield of wheat would not be necessarily be doubled.

Thus, these are three most important types of correlation classified on the basis of movement, number and
the ratio of change between the variables. The researcher must study these carefully to determine the
correlation methods to be used to identify the extent to which the variables are correlated.

5) method of correlation

6) Analysis of variance

Contents:
1. The ANOVA Test
2. One Way ANOVA
3. Two Way ANOVA
4. What is MANOVA?
5. What is Factorial ANOVA?
6. How to run an ANOVA
7. ANOVA vs. T Test
8. Repeated Measures ANOVA
9. Sphericity

The ANOVA Test

An ANOVA test is a way to find out if survey or experiment results are significant. In other words, they
help you to figure out if you need to reject the null hypothesis or accept the alternate hypothesis.
Basically, youre testing groups to see if theres a difference between them. Examples of when you might
want to test different groups:
A group of psychiatric patients are trying three different therapies: counseling, medication and
biofeedback. You want to see if one therapy is better than the others.
A manufacturer has two different processes to make light bulbs. They want to know if one process is
better than the other.
Students from different colleges take the same exam. You want to see if one college outperforms the
other.

Types of Tests.
There are two main types: one-way and two-way. Two-way tests can be with or without replication.

One-way ANOVA between groups: used when you want to test two groups to see if theres a
difference between them.
 Two way ANOVA without replication: used when you have one group and youre double-
testing that same group. For example, youre testing one set of individuals before and after they take
a medication to see if it works or not.
Two way ANOVA with replication: Two groups, and the members of those groups are doing more
than one thing. For example, two groups of patients from different hospitals trying two different
therapies.

http://www.statisticshowto.com/anova/
http://keydifferences.com/difference-between-one-way-and-two-way-anova.html
7) oral presentation
Guidelines for Oral Presentations

Presentations are brief discussions of a focused topic delivered to a group of listeners in order to impart
knowledge or to stimulate discussion. They are similar to short papers with an introduction, main body
and conclusion. The ability to give brief presentations is a learned skill and one that is called on
frequently in the workplace.

Preparation
Visual Aids
Handouts
Practice
Delivery
Equipment Tips
Delivery Tips
Fear and Nervousness
Role of the Audience
Evaluation

http://go.owu.edu/~dapeople/ggpresnt.html

8) procedure of testing hypothesis

https://onlinecourses.science.psu.edu/stat502/node/139
Procedure For Hypothesis Testing

To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data the researcher has collected) whether or not the
hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis testing the main question is: whether to accept the null
hypothesis or not to accept the null hypothesis? Procedure for hypothesis testing refers to all those steps
that we undertake for making a choice between the two actions i.e., rejection and acceptance of a null
hypothesis

(i) Making a formal statement: The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis
(H0) and also of the alternative hypothesis (Ha) This means that hypotheses should be clearly stated,
considering the nature of the research problem For instance, Mr. Mohan of the Civil Engineering
Department wants to test the load bearing capacity of an old bridge which must be more than 10 tons In
that case he can state his hypotheses as under:

Null Hypothesis H0: m = 10 tons

Alternative Hypothesis Ha: m > 10 tons

Take another example The average score in an aptitude test administered at the national level is 80 To
evaluate a states education system, the average score of 100 of the states students selected on random
basis was 75. The state wants to know if there is a significant difference between the local scores and the
national scores. In such a situation the hypotheses may be stated as under

Null Hypothesis H0: m = 80

Alternative HypothesisHa: m 80

The formulation of hypotheses is an important step, which must be accomplished with due care in
accordance with the object and nature of the problem under consideration It also indicates whether we
should use a one-tailed test or a two-tailed test. If Ha is of the type greater than (or of the type lesser than),
we use a one-tailed test, but when Hais of the type whether greater or smaller, then we use a two-tailed
test

(ii) Selecting a significance level: The hypotheses are tested on a pre-determined level of significance
and as such the same should be specified Generally, in practice, either 5% level or 1% level is adopted for
the purpose The factors that affect the level of significance are

(a) the magnitude of the difference between sample means

(b) the size of the samples

(c) the variability of measurements within samples

(d) whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional (A directional hypothesis is one which
predicts the direction of the difference between, say, means). In brief, the level of significance must be
adequate in the context of the purpose and nature of enquiry.

(iii) Deciding the distribution to use: After deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis
testing is to determine the appropriate sampling distribution The choice generally remains between
normal distribution and the t-distribution. The rules for selecting the correct distribution are similar to
those that we have stated earlier in the context of estimation.

(iv) Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value:Another step is to select a
random sample(s) and compute an appropriate value from the sample data concerning the test statistic
utilizing the relevant distribution. In other words, draw a sample to furnish empirical data.

(v) Calculation of the probability: One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would
diverge as widely as it has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true

9) Sample table of content for research

http://steinhardt.nyu.edu/scmsAdmin/media/users/nch1/sample_pages/sample_table_of_contents.pdf