(TRAVELLING) 1D WAVES

1. Transversal & Longitudinal Waves

 Objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
Derive 1D wave equation for transversal and
longitudinal
Relate propagation speed to physical parameters
Difference between transversal and longitudinal
waves
Energy flux of a wave
 Travelling Waves
Consider a travelling wave
which does not change its shape
as its propagate, for ex. A
travelling Gaussion wave along
the x-axis.

2
Suppose at time t=0, the shape is = exp 2

And suppose, a few moments later (t) it shifts to the right by
()2
the amount of b: = exp 2

Thus the shifting (propagation) speed is v= b/t, so we can write
( )2
(, ) = exp
2
 Travelling Waves
Thus, in general a travelling
wave along the x-axis with
speed v which does not
change its shape is given by a
function: y=f(x)

Question: which of these functions represent a travelling

wave to the right (X+) or left (X-):
a. y= sin(t)cos(x) b. y=x +2t c. y = x+xt + t2
d. y = 2(x-t)2 e. Y = sin (x+t) e. y=2xt+1
 Travelling Sinusional Waves
A special very important travelling
waves is a travelling sinusoidal wave:
, = sin(( ) + 0 )
, = cos(( ) + 0 )
, = exp i(( ) + 0 )
Where (, ) + 0 is
the phase and 0 is the initial phase
A period T is the shortest time needed
for a point along the wave to return
to its original phase ( a full cycle of
vibration)
 Period and Angular Frequency
Since the harmonic functions (sin, cos) have
2 period, then at a certain position along the wave:
, + = , + 2
Or
+ = + + 2
So k = 2 or k = 2/
2
Where = = 2 angular frequency with f=1/T

is the frequency.
Using this new definition of we can also write the
travelling wave function as:
Y(x,t) = A sin (kxt+0)
 Wavelength and its Relations
At certain time, the closest distance along the wave
which has the same phase is called the wavelength
() or it may be identified as the spatial period in
comparison with the temporal period (T).
+ , = , + 2, or
+ = + 2, or
2
= 2 or = is a wave number or angular

2
frequency is space! Compare to

A relationship between and T:
2 2
= = =

It means as a certain point vibrates a full cycle of
vibration, the wave travels a wave length.
 1D Transversal Wave Equation- The MOdel

The rope is under uniform tension

The rope is elastic with no stiffness against
transveral force
The rope is light
Only small deviation from its equilibrium
position
Uniform mass distribution
NO en points effects
Derivation of 1D tRansversal Wave Equation
y
Suppose the tension of the rope T2= T(x+dx)

is T, and the deviation of the ds

2
1
rope from its horizontal position
is small (in amplitude), thus ds T =T(x)
1

and T is constant.
x dx x+dx x

Equation for the forces on horizontal and vertical directions:

2
= 2 2 1 sin 1 = 2

= 2 2 1 cos 1 = 0

Small deviation so : 2 cos 2 = 1 cos 1 = 0

Derivation of 1D tRansversal Wave Equation

SO in vertical direction:
2
0 2 0 tan 1 2

y y 2
0 = 2
x + x
2y 2
0 2 = 2
x

Where , = . The (free) wave equation is then : c 2 = 0 /

2y 1 2
=0
x 2 2 2

We will identify the meaning of c!

 Solution of the Wave Equation
We have seen that y=f(x-vt) or y=f(x+vt) is a travelling wave.
So it must be the solution of the wave equation :
2 1 2
2 2 2 = 0, substitute y = f(x-vt)=f(u) where u=x-vt


= = = = ()

2
2 = = = "()

= =
= = ()
t
2
2 = = = 2 "(), so

 SOlution
2
To be a solution, then: 2 =0

2
and 1 2 = 0 or = which explains why the factor in

front of 2 is actualy v2 or propagation speed. IN case of
wave on the rope:
0
=

We can check the same result is obtained when we use

y=f(x+vt). Thus the general solution of the wave equation
is the linear combination of both:
, = + ( + )
Where f and g are functions depending on the local
vibtration generating the wave.
Propagation direction and speed
Function y=f(u), where u=x-vt : phase, will be determined by
its phase (u).
Suppose a point Q has its phase u=x-vt at t, after a moment
later t=t+t, it will change it phase to u = x-vt=(x+ x) v
(t+t)
If we require that this Q must have the same phase as before
then u=u-u =0 or u=constant.
x-v t =0 or v = x/t
It means that during time t, the position of Q, has shifted by
x, with velocity v.

Or in general = is known as phase velocity of the wave.

Propagation direction and speed

The direction of propagation can be found by looking at the

phase u = x-vt or u=x+vt.
The propagation velocity is = 0, or

= 0 = > 0, propagate to the positive

direction, or

+ = 0 = < 0, to negative direction.

 Harmonic Waves
The most important form of wave is harmonic waves:
, = 0 cos ,
, = 0 sin ,
, = 0 exp i
Where
2
= = = 2, = where T: period

Harmonic waves are the basis functions to express any other
functions in Fourier analysis :
For periodic functions : Fourier Series
For non periodic functions: Fourier Transform
 Energy Propagation
y
v
Wave is propagation of a local
disturbances
Q
The medium does not propagate y (, )
T
The energy (and momentum) is
propagating
x
Consider a wave travelling to X+
At point Q, the energy current flowing to the right is coming
from the tension on the left. The force for vertical vibration at
Q is:

= 0 tan = 0
x

 Energy Propagation
The rate at which the energy is being transferred at Q (power)
is given by:

= = 0
x t
This is the energy current (power) flowing to the right
direction.
Since the wave moving to the right is given by ( ),
then we can also rewrite the energy current flowing to the
right as:
0 2 2
(, ) = = 0
t x
Note: Prove that this last expression is also valid for left-travelling wave!
 Energy Propagation of Harmonic Waves

Suppose the wave is a harmonic wave : = 0 sin( )

The energy current :
2
0 0 2 2
, = = cos2 ( )
t
2

= 0 2
2 2
( ) = 0
x
Considering that 0 = 2 , the energy current can also be expressed as:
2
0
, = = 2
t
Where u : vertical vibration speed! Thus the energy current at a point is
also related to its vibration speed.
 Average Energy Current
In many cases, we are more interested in the average (over
time) of the energy current flow:
IN case of harmonic waves:
< > = < 2 > = 2

Where rms: root mean squares!

2 2 2 2
1 2 2
=< 0 sin > = 0
2
So the average energy current of harmonic waves is :
< > = 2 =<>
1
Where < > 2 02 . What is this?
2
 Average Energy Current

=

Thus <> is the average energy density, in this case
energy/length of the rope.
1 2 2 1 2
< > = 0 =
2 2
It means :
<> = maksimum kinetic energy density (per unit length!)
Energy Current and Energy Density
IN vibration we have learnt:
Total energy = kinetic energy + potential energy
= max kinetic energy
= max potential energy
In case, waves on a rope :
Total energy density = Kinetic Energy Density Max
= Potential Energy Density Max
And :
Average Energy Flow Rate = Propagation Speed * Total Energy Density
< >=
Compare to Electrodynamics : = (current and charge
density)
 Impedance of Waves
As a response to an external force F, the rope vibrates locally
and then propagate which creates waves.
For resistive medium, the rope response will be linear and
characterize with a quantity called : impedance Z as defined :

= = = compared to V = RI in electrity.

0
For a wave travelling to the right: = =

So :
 Impedance of Waves

0
= = =

=
""

For a wave travelling to the right: = so that:

= = and = = ,

0
=

 Energy Current, Impedance and
Current
Using the definition of wave impedance Z, we can rewrite the
energy current as:
0 2 2
, = = or
t t
2

02
x
, =

Compared to electricity : P = R I2 and P = V2/R.
 Longitudinal Waves: in Solid
Suppose we have a solid bar under tension, then we
propagate a longitudinal wave along the bar.
x F(x+x)
F(x) At rest/
equilibrium

Non
equilibrium

x+
Consider an element with length x and x-section A. Because
of the tension F, it moves according to Newtons Law:
2
+ = 2

 Wave Equation : Longitudinal
Waves on a solid bar
Where : displacement from equilibrium position.
The mass element : = 0
If E= the Young modulus of elasticity, then:

=

For small vibration, << x. Using this definition, the
Newtons law of motion can be written as:
2
= 0 Ax 2
x + x
Taking the limit x 0:
2 1 2
2
=
/0 2
 Speed of Waves on Metal
Thus the speed of longitudinal waves on a solid is given by :

2 =
0
Typical metals have densities about 7000 kg/m3 and Young
modulus E= 1011 Pa. So typical sound speed on metals is :
1011
= = =4 km/s
0 7000

In reality, the transversal deformation (as given by Poissons

ratio) of the metals must be taken into account for more
accurate determination of the speed.
 Longitudinal Waves: Sound
There are some quantities which travel like waves:
Displacement of air particles
The density of air
The pressure of air
Air/Gas cannot withstand change in its shape because of
external forces. Therefore it cannot propagate a transversal
wave.
But gas can response to external pressure by changing its
volume (or density). The response is characterized by the Bulk
Modulus K:
 Longitudinal Waves: Sound
The elastic bulk modulus is given by:

= 0 = 0 (I)
0 0

Where sub.-0 refers to equilibrium gas condition, p is the

pressure and is the volume density, whereas V: the volume.
Since gas is compressed when a pressure is applied then
(dp/dV) < 0, so K is always POSITIVE.
Before the wave comes in to the gas: equilibrium pressure
(p0), density (0), and p= f(), f : function.
For small displacement small variation of pressure and
density: = 0 + , = 0 + where : small
variation.
 Density and Displacement
x P(x+x)
P(x) At rest/
equilibrium

Non
equilibrium

x+

Initial volume : (x,x+x) A x

expanded volume : (x+, x+ x+ (x+ x)) (x+(x+ x)-(x))A
The mass inside the initial volume : = 0
The mass inside expanded volume : = ( + (x+ x) (x))
Conservation of mass : 0 = 1 + {(x+ x) (x)}/

0 = 1 +

 Variation in Pressure and
Displacement
But = 0 + , where all variation are small (, ,
/)

So 0 = 1 + =(0 + ) 1 +


0 = 0 1+ + 1 +


0 (II)

It means, when the displacement is large positive then the
pressure drops!
 Equation of Motion
The forces on the element of gas:
2
+ = 2

2
= 0 2

2
= 0 2

But = 0 + , p0 is constant! So:

2
= 0 2 (III)

 Wave Equation(displacement)
From (I):

= 0 =
0
0
2
From (III): = 0 2

02 2
=
2

From (II) : 0

2 0 2 2 1 2
= or 2 =0
2 2 2
0
 Computing K

Speed of sound is then given by: 2 =
0
How to compute K for gas?

= 0
0

Newton assumed the compression and rarefaction of gas

during the propagation of sound was fast, so he assumed it
was an isothermal process.
Assuming ideal gas : =
Where n = M/M0 where M : mass of the gas, M0 mass of 1
mole of the gas
 Speed of sound : Isothermal process
0
So: = = , and the Bulk modulus of the gas is given
0 0
by:
0
= 0 = , and the sound speed:
0 0

= =
0 0

Typical air will have M0 =29 g/mole, in typical room

temperature T=25C = 298 K, and R= 8.31 J/mol K, will give
the estimate:

= = 292 / which a bit lower than experiment (340
0
m/s)
Speed of sound : Adiabatic process
Laplace suggest correction to Newtons idea. The propagation
speed is fast enough so that heat does not have enough time
to flow from the compressed part to the other part. So it is an
adiabatic process:
= =constant
Using this adiabatic relationship and the definition of
compressibility, it can be shown that in this case:

=

At standard room temperature using = 1.4

, = 1 , = 1.3 /3 , gives v = 328 m/s which is
better.
 Energy flux and Impedance

We have shown that = and : 0
0
Thus the variation (excess) pressure is related to the
displacement by :

=

The (excess) force is then F = , the total power P:

= = (A)

The (intensity) or power per unit area or energy flux density is
then :

= (B)

For left propagating wave eq (A) and (B) change the signs!
 Energy flux and Impedance
Using the form of wave propagating to the right direction =
( ), we may rewrite the formula as:
2 2

= =

And the characteristic impedance of the wave can be defined
as :
/
= or = /

For right propagating wave then :

= = 0 0

 Energy flux and Impedance
Using the definition for impedance, we may rewrite the
energy flux density as :
2 2
= = (compare to P=ZI in electricity)

2
2
= = (compare to P=V2 /Z in electricity)

 Summary
In general for any 1D waves (longitudinal/transversal) then :

= = =

Where volume mass density, and is :

a. Transversal waves on a rope : =
2
b. Transversal waves on a solid : = ( )
c. Longitudinal waves on a solid : = ( )
d. Longitudinal waves on air/gas : = ( )
 Summary
Energy flux is given by:
2 2

= =

2 2
1
= =

 Next : Waves at the boundaries
Transmission and reflection!