SHEAR STRENGT, [ REFERENCES 153] ip, A.W. (1966) The strength of soils as engineering materials, chnigue, 16, 91-128, op; A.W., Alpan, L, Blight, G-E. and Donald, 1.8. (1960) the measurement of residual strength, Geotechnique, 21, 273-328, 4, Bishop, A.W. and Henkel, D.J. (1962) The Measurement of Sail Properties in the Triaxial Test, 2nd eda, Edward Arnold, London, e, A.W. and apparatus for controlled stress path testing, Geotechnique 657-70. 6. Bjerrum, L. (1973) Problems of soil mechanics and construction om soft clays in Proc. 8th International Conference SMFE, Moscow, Vol. 3, pp. 111-58. 7. British Standard 1377 (1990) Methods of Test for Soils for Civit Engineering Purposes, British Standards Institution, London. 8. Bromhead, E.N. (1979) A Simple ring shear apparatus, Ground Engineering, 12, No. 5, 40~4 9. Cornforth, D.H. (1964) Some experiments on the influence of strain conditions on the strength of sand, Geotechnique, Md, 143-67. 10. Head, KH, (1986) Manual of Soil Laboratory’ Testing, three volumes, Pentech, London, 11. Hight, D.W., Gens, A. and Symes, M.J. (1983) The development of 355-8. P.R. (1981) The drained 1, 181-213. 13, Penman, A.D.M. (1956) A field piezomet rats, Geotechnique, 6, 57-65, 1M, Penman, A.D.M. (961) A a Suction in Soils, Butterworth, London, pp. 53-8. , KH., Schofield, A.N. and Weoth, C.P. (1958) On the 1 of soils, Geo 16. Rowe, P.W. for static equilibrium fof an’ assembly of particles in contact. Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 269, 500-27, 17, Skempton, A.W. (1954) The pore pressure coefcients A and B, Geotechnique, 4, 143-7. 15, 18, Skempton, A.W. and Sows, V.A. (1963) The behaviour of saturated clays during sampling and testing, Geotechnique, 13, 269-90. 19. Skempton, A.W. (1985) Residual strength of clays in landslides, folded strata and the laboratory, Geotechnique, 38, 1-18Stresses and displacements coil mass due to applied loading are chapter. Many problems can be treated by ans the element, and neglecting tae = Fexe BY equating forces tions ere obtained: xH0 (61a) a) or Gat) 158 vat te a Fig. 5:1. Two-dimensional state of stress in an clement. =% oom a ae tnd the shear stan by ae rear oe s are not independent; they must be compatible with each other if the soil mass as a whole is to remain continuous, This requ lowing relationship, known as the equation of compatibility in two dimensions: Bee, Oey tte 2) However, these ‘an appropriate idealization of the stress—strain is employed. One such idealization is shown by the dotted lin‘STRESSES AND DISPLACEMENTS: | unloading and reloading were to take place subsequent to yielding in the strain hardening model, as showa by the dotted line Y°U in Fig. 5.2(d), 1e characteristics of yielding, are described by a yield function, i | Jaw and a flow rule respectively. The yield function is written in terms of [ ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY stress components or principal stresses. The Mohr—Coulomb criterion (Equation 4.6) is one possible yield function if perfectly plastic behaviour is assumed. Alternatively, the yield function could be expressed in terms of critical state parameters (Section 4,5). The hardening law represents the relationship between the increase in yield stress and the correspond. ing pla mponents. The ow ies of the plastic strain components during tress. The harder ferms of critical state p the most widely use stress at a point below a loaded area on the surface of a soil mass been shown [2] that the vertical s the surface due to foundation loading range of soil char ‘where they are in by a relatively dense or stif stratum. It should be noted, how- i ively characteristics, The insensitivity of the vertical stress the contact pressure is non-uniform, the fon the soil characteristics. A comprehensive collection of led by means of critical state parameters, g soil displacements up to failure to be determined. sement solutions from elastic theory ean be used levels. These solutions require a knowledge of modulus (E) and Poi required for certain stress solutions. It sho modulus (G), where independent of the drainage conditions, assuming that the soil is isotropic.162 ‘STRESSES AND DISPLACEMENTS ‘STRESSES FROM ELASTIC THEORY 163 f constant rate of increase in jacent 10 @ boreh pre-formed holes can be was developed 10 the ground and fitted inside a cutting head at the 1 function of the ‘pumped down the slurry is shaft: the ‘The only expansion of the Results from a strain-controlled test in clay fom the slope of an unloading~ suring that the soil remains in ‘Wroth {20} has shown that, in the case be satisfied if the reduction in pressure during the unloading stage is less than 2c, For a saturated clay the undrained shear strength (¢,) cen also be obtained from the following equation derived from the analysis of Gibson ‘and Anderson: jerpretation of pressuremeter tests in sands has enables ‘An analysis for the been given by Hughes, Wroth and Windle [11]. The analys values for the angle of shearing resistance (") and the angle of (w) to be determined. A comprehensive review of the use of pressure- ‘meters, including examples of test results and their application in design, hhas been given by Mair and Wood [12] 82 STRESSES FROM ELASTIC THEORY ‘The stresses within a semi-infinite, homogeneous a point due to ‘by superposition, In practice, loads are not usually surface but the results for surface loading can be applied conservatively in problems concerning loads ‘A range of solutions, suitable for determining the st‘STRESSES AND DISPLACEMENTS ‘STRESSES FROM ELASTIC THEORY 1s ven in the following sections. Negative values of loading 1 to excavation are required or in problems Point load Retering oF 1X due to a poit load @ on the sree ae =32 \“* «= 2% } 20) 9 - TE ee ay Q we -Be-of oan (13) fluence factor fy, wher 3 1 52 fen ati $ tan Then an Sy Values of Jy in tems of rz ate given in Table S.1. The form of the illustrated in Fj ). The left-hand side Line load Referring to Fig. 5. per unit length on th the stresses at point X due to a line load of Q ce are as follows (2) Stesses due to point load. (2) Variation of vert due to(i) STRESSES AND DEPUACENENTS ‘STRESSES FROM ELASTIC THEORY 7 = oy 5 06 Los eft oa 02 aves carrying uniform pressure. the vertical stress under any ‘of square area carrying uence factors for 2, and ind Davis [16]. uniform pressure are 9, (which depend on Influence chart for vertical stress 005, ie. each influence area represents a vertical influence areas covered by the required vertical stress is the scale drawing of the loaded area ie given by ee 1 0 ‘under comer of rectangular srea earring a vniform re. (Reproduced trom FE. Fadum (1948) Proceedings 2nd Intemational Conference SMPE, Rotterdam, Vol, 3, by permision of Professor Fader.) 2, = 0.005Ng Example 6.1 A 1d of 1500KN is carried on a foundation 2m square at a shallow ‘a point Sm below dis‘STRESSES AND DISPLACEMENTS { SiRESES FROM ELASTO EDA me] Fig. £11 Newmark’s intuence cher pressure ~ 0.005. (Reproduced from N.M. Newmark Computation of Sreses in Elastic Foundations, University of| 338, by permission of Profestor Newmark.) Uniform pressure, four quarters to enable Fig. 5.10 to be ene sim Then, for z = Sm, m=n=02 From Fig. 5.10, i= 0.018 toon oom a: | | Jl ig. 5.2 Hence, 0, = Agh = 4 x 375 x 0.018 = 27% (b) From Table 5.1, fp = 0.478 since rlz = 0 ver Toad, ly below a point Mews, 220.8 = 20? ‘The point load assumption should not be used X (Fig. $.5(a)) is lese than three times 1 foundation. 1e depth to the point ger dimension of the Example 52 ‘m= 100 and n = 1.50, and I= 0.193 For the wo rectangles (2) corrying« negarve pressure of 300kN/n® m= 1.00 and n = 0.50, and therefore 1, = 0.120 Hence, 65 = (2 x 300 x 0.193) = (2 x 300 x 0.129) 4 kNim?Fa DISPLACEMENTS FROM ELASTIC THEORY 1S ‘STRESSES AND DISPLACEMENTS (b) Using Newmark’s influence char represents 1¢ scale to which the rectangular area must be drawn. The the centre of the chart. The umber of influence areas covered by ly 30 e, N= 30), hence a = 0.005 x 30 x 300 = SKN Im Example 5.3 A strip footing 2m wide carries 2 uniform pressure of 250kNim? on the centre of the footing before and after the application of the pressure Before loading: of = By! =3 x 10.2 = 30,6kNim? > Koo! = 0.40 x 30.6 = 12.2kNim? After loading: Referring to Fig. 5.7(e), for a point 3m below the centre © 36°52’ = 0.683 radians cos(a +26) = 1 ‘The increases in total stress due to the applied pressure are: ta, H(a+ sina) = 22668 + t= 8.004? doe 2 (0.643 — 0.600) = 3.44Nin? Hence, of = 20.6 + 99.0 a= 122434= 59 DISPLACEMENTS FROM ELASTIC THEORY n area carrying @ u Infinite, homogeneous, isotropic mas cam be expressed as Table §.2 Influence Factors for Vertical Displace- ment under Fesible Area Carrying Uniform Pressure Shape of area h Centre Commer Average Square D056 (095 Rectangle LIB=2 152076 1.30 Rectangle LIB=S 21005 .83 Grete 10 ost os CT. ATT placomen Fig. 5:13, Distributions of vertical (0) ely, where J i an influence factor depending on the shape of the loaded area. In the case of a rectangular area, B is the lesser dimension (the greater increase with depth and vary across the loaded area, being grester under the centre of the area than al the edges As ares ibution of vertical displacement will be of the form shown in Fig. 5.13(b): the contact pressure will again be uniform if the area is exible. Due to the variation of E, and to heterogenci i ‘theory is little used in practice in the ease of sands.L STRESS AD OSPLACENENTS B = ous 6.28) f embedment and sy depends on the smpling disturbance and idated—undrained test were used. Ifthe specimen were ted then a more realistic value of E, would be ob- 12 may be either isotropic under } to f of the in-situ DISPLACEMENTS FROM ELASTIC THEORY 00 01 02 08 1 2 6 1 20 80 100 000 6 ig. 5.15 Coeffcions for vertical displacement effective overburden pressure, or under Ko conditions to simulate the ; however, the value of By it observations are taken during the ‘or particular clays, correlations can be the range of working stress, within this range, and the immediate settlems‘STRESSES AND DISPLACEMENTS. REFERENCES 19 for local yield has been given by D'Appolonia condition (E') a could be determined. Example 84 A foundation 4m x 2m, carrying a uniform pressure of 150kN in located at a depth of 1m in for which the value of E, second layer. Determine the average Founda Now, DIB = 0.5, and therefore from Fig. 5.15, py = 0.94 (2) Considering the upper clay layer, with E, = 40MN/m®: HIB=42=2 and LIB=2 y= 0.60 Hence, from Equation 5.28, 5, = 0.94 x 0.60 x (2) Considering the two layers combined, with E, = 7SMNix*: HIB =122=6 and LIB=2 vy 0.85 150 x2 5 (3) Considering the upper layer, with E, = 75MNim#: HIB=2 and LIB=2 = 0.60 4, = 0.94 X 0.85 x. = 3.2mm the principle of superposition, the settlement of the foun- =42432-23= 5mm ‘PROBLEMS 5.1 Caleulate the vertical stress in a soil mass at a depth of Sm vertically below @ point load of SOOOKN acting near the surface. Plot the variation of vertical stress with radial distance (up to 10m) at a 10m) below the 5.4 A shallow found YISKN/m?, Deter ‘mid-point of one by means of Newmi 53 A line load of 150kN/m acts 2m behind the back surface of an ‘4am high. Calculate the total thrust, and plot the distribution of pressure, on the structure due to the line Toad, 5.6 A foundation 4m x 2m carries « uniform pressure of 200kN/n? at fa depth of Im in a layer of saturated clay 11m deep and underlain by a hard stratum, If £, for the clay is 4SMN/m*, determine the average value of immediate settlement under the foundation. REFERENCES. , Proceedings of Conference on In- ms in Soils and Rocks, British Geotechnical Society, 7, Fadum, RE. (1948) Infvence values for estimating stresses inelastic‘STRESSES AND DISPLACEMENTS CP. and Windle, D. (1977) Pressuremeter i, 27, 455-77. 12. Mair, RJ. ard Wood D.M. (1987) Pressuremeter Testing: Methods 15, Marsland, A. and Randolph, MF. Icom pressuremeter tests and large Geoteclnique, 27, 217-43. 14. Newmark, N.M. (1942) Influence Charts for Computation of Stresses udations, University of llicois Bulletin No. 338. ) Comparisons ofthe results late tests in London clay, 1S. a simple interpretation of the pressuremeter ter Geotechnigue, 22, pp. 451-1. 16. Poulos, H.G. and Davis, E.H. (1974) Blastic Solutions for S New York, “Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, m. RE, (1963) Principles of Se Reading, Massachuset 18, Timoshenko, $. and Good edn, McGraw-Hill, New York le, D. and Wroth, C-P. (1977) The use of a self-boring pressure- ity, Sed CP. (1984) The interpretation of insite 3, 447-89, tests, Geo- Lateral earth pressure 61 INTRODUCTION chapter deals with the magnitude and di between a soll mass and an adjoi plane strain are assumed, ie. structure are assumed to be zero. The rigorous treatment ofthis type of problem, with both stresses and displacements being considered, would ive a knowledge of appropriate equations defining the stress relationship for resented by the rigid-pos slic collapse oecurs after the state of pl reached in part of a soil mass, resu roferred to as the collapse load. Determination ofthe collapse load using plasticity theory is complex and would require that the equilibrium equations, the yield criterion and the flow rule were satisied he ity condition would not be involved unless also provides the means of avoiding complex analyses. The limit theorems[a] LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE Sher sts ‘Shear ain Fig. 6.1. Idealived strese-strsin relationship. ¥ ean be used to calculate lower and upper bounds to the true ceases rems produce the be the exact value of the collapse load. The Lower bound theorem Ifa state of stress can be found which st no point exceeds the failure criterion for the soil and les the self-weight Toad system thus cons In the lower bound approach the conditions of equilibrium and yield are satisfied with no consideration of the mode of deformation: Mobr—Coulomb failure criterion is also taken to be the yield cx the upper bound approach a mechanism of pl cho mass must be compatible ty and with any boundary restrictions. It ean be shown that for lundrained conditions the slip surface, in section, should consist of Straight line or a circular arc (or @ combination of the twa): for drained spiral (or a combination of the two). 62 RANKINE'S THEORY OF EARTH PRESSURE Rankine's theory (1857) considers the state of stress mass when when shear The theory the conditions of a lower bound plasticity solution. The Mohr the state of stress at failure in @ two-dimensional denoted by ¢ and g. Shear at an angle of (45° + 2) to the major principal plane. If the soll mass as a whole is stressed such that the principal stresses at every point are in the same directions then, theoreti (known 28 a slip Ii shown in Fig, 6.2. It should be appreciated that the state of plastic TANENES TORY OF EAR PRED | DesLATERAL EA Le Pau [ [RANKINES THEORY OF EARTH PRESSURE 185, © Me Fig. 63 Active and pussive Rankine states cquilibrium can be developed only ‘mass can take place. Consider now a semi-infinite mass of soi to be homogeneous subjected element at any depth 2 is so, and a horizontal stress, and, since there sfer of weight if the susface is horizontal, no shear ial planes. The vertical and horizon- his must be the min wn the major principal 7) is the overburden pressure at depth z and isa fixed irength parameter ¢ given below. Hoi - 08) sab ate) on(L + sin §) = 0 ~ sin 4) ~ 2e cos eon (Lit) Mase) s~ ry sing) 1 esing ones) VGH) tan"{45° — ($/2)] can be substituted for (1. ~ sin 4)/ fs defined as the active pressure coefficient then Equation 6.1 can be written as a= Kays ~20VK, (62) When the horizontal stress becomes equal said to be in the active Rankine the active pressure there being two sets of fi the horizontal (the direction of the increase until a state of plastic equilibrium 1 becomes a maximum value and is the equal to the overburden pressure, is then the minor principal Jor principal stress oy. The stress ossLise || [LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE TNGGNES THEORY OF EARGH PRESRE ] 187 {Lenser Sow ee Fig. 64 Active and passive pressure disrbutione. ‘The maximum value g reached when the Mobr circle though the point representing the fixed value ¢3 touches the falure envelope for the sol. In this ease the horizontal stress (rp) represen compression. Ri ent, Equation 6.3 enn he written Pp = Kt + 2eVK, (64) iy with depth as rep = 0, triangular distributions are obtained in each case, When cis greater than zer0, the value ofp, is 2er0 ata particular depth 2g. From Equation 6.2, with pa = 0, = ae 65) ‘This means that in the active case the sol is in a state of tension between the surface and depth 2. In practice, however, this tension cannot be relied upon to act on the wall, since cracks ate likely to develop within the tension zone and the part of the pressure distribution diagram above depth 29 should be neglected. The force per sf wall due to the active pressure distribution ). For a vertical wall surface of is referred to as height 1: P= [rae = ERA HP — 28) ~ 2c VK )(H ~ 20) The force P, acts at a distance of KH — ze) above the bottom of the wal surtoe. The force due to the passive pressus tion is referred to a8 the ‘The two components of P, act above the bottom of the wall surface ped as 2 surcharge in the pressure diagram at the boundary between the two layers due to the different values of sh in the fully drained condition, the active end passive pressures must be expressed in terms of the effective ‘weight of the soil and the effective stress parameters c’ and ¢'. For example, ifthe water at the surface and if no seepage is taking place, the active press th zis given by1 LATERAL BRRTH PRESSURE js assumed that the wall surface is smooth rable friction may be developed between the depending wall material, In principle, either in an overestimation of active pressure and an jon of passive pressure (i.e. lower bounds to the respective weight of the sand is 20kNim? RANKINES THEORY OF EARTH PRESSURE ml veo | Fig. 6.6 components ofthe thru () $x 027 x 7x2 = 9.2KN/m @) 027 x 7 x2%3 =76 @) $x 027 x 20-98) x F = 124 Whxoaxs a4 ‘Total thrust = 933kNim Example 62 ‘The soil conditions adjacent to a sheet pile wall are given in Fig. 6.7, a surcharge pressure of SOK /m? b 1 ace calculated using K, = 0.24, Ky = 4.17 and y= IBKNim?. Soil 1 is then considered as a surcharge of (18 6) KN?LATERAL ERRTH PRESSURE [RANKINES THEORY OF EARTH PRESSURE. Soil{1} 6.00. me. 67 Table 61 Sail Depth Presate ©) Nie) ‘ave pressure " =120 xe=m04259 it I 1 6 2 6 0x VO.36) = 569-120 = 449 209 9.x VO.36) + (0.36 x +110 =559 = 126 Qx 10x v27~|~ T1433 = 1084 X10. V2.78) + (2.78 x 30.2 = 1935 are hombie element tical and at angle f to ‘The vertial stress and at B 10 the appropriate normal to their respective planes they a i In the active case the vertical stress at depth z on a plane inclined at angle f to the horizontal i given by oe 72 605 8fe] | "TRTERAG ARO PRESSURE RANKINES THEORY OF EARTH PRESSURE ®] and is represented by the distance OA on the stress diagram, Fig. 6.8(b) expansion of the soil is sufficient to induce the state of plastic circle representing te of stress in the int A (Such that the greater part of the wards the origin) and touch the failuce ‘The active pressure py is then represented by OB 1B’) on the diagram. Ps and 24, giving the active pressure coeffi can be derived diagram, jo l= 08 OB OD— AD “a OA OA OD+AD Now, OD = OC cos f AD = V(OC? sin? — OC? sin? A) therefore = £08 f — V(cos? f — cos? $) Ko~ cos pt Vico 8 exe 8) © Thus the ative pressure, ating parallel to the slope, is even by pam Kyecosp (69) and the total active thest on a vertical wall surface of height His = ERI? cos p 619 In the pusiv case, the vertical sesso it represented by the distance the resenting the state of stress rium has been induced by pass through B' (such that the greater part on the side of B’ away from the origin) and touch the failure envelope. The passive pressure pis then represented by OA’ (numerically equal to OA) and when ¢ ~ O the passive pressure coef ficient (equal to ppl) is given by _ cos f+ V{ cos? f ~ cos? 4) _ 6.10) Ko = cos p— V(c08" f— cos* 8) (out) “Then the passive pressure, acting parallel to the slope, is given by Bp = Kotz cos B 6.12) and the total passive resistance on a vertical wall surface of height His By = Kilt? cos 8 6.3) ‘The active and passive pressures can, of course, be obtained graphically from Fig. 6.8(b). The above formulae apply only when the sheac strength parameter cis zero: when c is greater than zero the graphical procedure should be used. The directions of the two sets of failuse planes cen be obtained from Fig. 6.8(6). In the active case the coordinates of point A represent the state of stress on a plane inclined at angle ff to the horizontal therefore point BY is the ordinates cepresent the state of stress on a plane parallel to that line.) ‘The state of stress on a vertical plane is represented by the coordinates of point B. Then the failure planes, which are shown in Fig. 6.8(a), are parallel to B'F and B'G (F and G lying on the ‘silure envelope). In the passive case the coordinates of point B' represent the state of stress on a plane inclined at angle f to the horizontal, and therefore point A is the origin of planes: the state of stress on a vertical plane is represented by the coordinates of point A’. Thea the failure planes in the passive case are parallel to AF and AG. Referring to Equations 6.8 and 6.11, it is clear that both K, and K, become equal to unity when f= 9: this is incompatible with real soil behaviour. Use of the theory is inappropriate, therefore, in such = Oand ” = 40°, Determine the ‘thrust on the wall and the dicections of the two sets of relative to the horizontal Int ive thrust can be obtained by ealeulato Using __ £08 20° ~ V{(cos? 20° — cos? 40") Ks cos 20" ¥ V(cos? 20° — coe? 40") = 0.265 P, = LK,yH cos 8 = 0.265 « 18 x 6 x 0.940 = 81 KN ‘The result can also be determined using a stress diagram (Fig. 6.9) Draw the failure envelope on the v/a plot and a straight line through the origin at 20° to the horizontal, At a depth of 6m, 9, = 2 COs f= 18 X 6 X 0.940 = 102KNim*ANKINES THEORY OF EARTH PRESSURE 8] 194] [ 4 On= 1021W/n# int F469 and this tance OA) along the 20" lie. The Mohr ci 6.9 and the active presure (distance OB or OB') i sealed from the diagram, ve pe = Nini? Then P, = bry = 4% 27 x 6 = BLRNIm are parallel to BF and B'G in Fig. 6. The direc- es are measured as 59° and 71°, respectively, to the (adding up to 90° + ¢). late strain in the soil is zero the corresponding earth pressure at rest and is usually expressed by the equation Pressure terms of effective stress Lateral prenure cotton and lateral pressure coeticient, Po™ Koy't (6.14) where Ko is defined as the coefficient of earth pressure at-est, in terms of effective stress. Since the at-rest condition does not involve failure ofthe soil, the Mohr circle representing the vertical and horizontal stresses does not touch the failure envelope and the horizontal stress cannot be evaluated. The value however, can be de pressure in situ have been and, using the pressuremeter, pressure ‘cient. The exact relationship depends on the intial value of Ky and on ‘whether excavation or backfilling is involved in construction. The strain required to mobilize the passive pressure is considerably greater than thst requited to mobilize the active pressure, Experimental evidence indicates,LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE { COULOMBS THEORY OF EARTH PRESSURE | ocr Fig. 6.11 Typical relationship between Ko and overconsolidation ratio for a clay Table 6.2 Coefficient of Earth Pressure At-Rest Dense sand 035 Loose sand os Normally consolidated clays (Norway) 05-06, Cay, OCR = 3.5 (Londo 10 corresponding: percentages f the order of 0.25% and 1% r For normally consolidated sot sd approxi- 4 by the following formula Ky=1~ sing’ (6.15) For overconsolidated soils the value of Ky depends on the stress history ‘and can be greater than unity, a proportion of the ‘oped during being retained in the 5 effective vertical stess is subsequently reduced. Mayne and Kulhawy [11] he following correlation for overconsolidated soils during ex- ‘pansion (but not recompression): Ky = (1 — sin $°) (OCR) (6.156) OCR being the overconsolidation ratio. A typical relationship between Xo and overconsolidation ratio for a clay, determined in the triaxial hown in Fig. 6.11 and some typical values of Ky for dit- ferent soils are given in Table 6.2 63 COULOMB'S THEORY OF EARTH PRESSURE theory (1776) the wedge of and the adjacent soil the soil and the wall m: laboratory by meat assumed if appropriate in of the failure surface is curved near the active and pessive cat active case the cur plane surface is relatively small, This is also tue in the passive case for values of 6 lss than 4/3, but for the higher values of 8 normally appro- the error becomes relatively large. nb theory is now interpreted 2s an upper bound solution, collapse of the soil mass above the chosen failure pl ring as the wall moves away from or into the soil. Thus, in general, the theory underestimates the total active thrust and overestimates the tot i ads). When & ete case ) Passe caze Mig. 6.12 Curvature due to wall fiton,=] TAREah, Tas (COULOMBS THEORY OF EARTH PRESSURE 199 set a8 Fig. 6.13 Coulomb se with ¢ = 0. Rankine theory for the case of a vertical wall and a horizontal soil surface, i.e. the solution for this case is exact because the upper and lower bound results coincide, Aetive case terms of W and the ing the sine rule, P can be expressed maximum value of P, eorre- given by 8P/90 = 0. This leads to P.= Koi? (6.16) Pa sin = #)hin } aa Isin(a. ‘sin(f + 4)sin(d ~ A) (rey es Y of the total active thrust is not given by the Fy can be extended 10 50 is greater than zero: a value is then sel ‘wall parameter cy. It is assumed that tension cracks may extend 10 depth zp, the trial feilure plane (at angle @ to the horizontal) extending from the heel of the wall to the bottom of the tension zone, as shown in Fig, 6.14. The forces acting on the soil wedge at failure are as follows: 1. The weight of the wedge (1). 2. The reaction (P) between the wall and the soi, acting at angle 5 below the normal ‘The force due to thé constant component of shearing resistance on the wall (Cy = ey x EB), ‘The reaction (R) on the failure plane, acting at angle below the norinal. 4TATERAL ART PRES J e plane due to the constant component of shear (6s = 0) an expression for P ccan be obtained by resolving forces vertically and horizontally. The total is given by the maximum value of P, for which P/30 = 0. ig value is Pedr — a) 20st adf(a+ &) re coefficient Kis unity and ent Kye, Where: seenfiled) at depth z can be expressed as Pa = Kye ~ Kyo (6.8) re=ayfn(s +9) ow varameters being those appropriate to the drainage he problem. The depth of the tens which py = In general the active press where (6.20) is realistic to assume that tension crack depth will ined height of sol. A tension crack close to the oF pa with water after heavy rainfall pressure should be assumed to act on the wall ia ituation. The hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the worst-case design (COULOMBS THEORY OP EARTH PRESSURE the crack should then be continued as a constant value down to the level ch by means of a horizontal filter. Values of K; for a = 90° and fi = OF are given in Table 6.3. In gen- alues of the coefficient K, can be calculated from Equation 6.17 nce on the selection of appropriate values of J and cy is given in Passive case In the passive case the reaction P acts at angle 5 above the normal to the wall surface (or 6 below the normal if the wall were to settle more than he reaction R at angle @ above the normal to the gle angle between W and R is (0 + 4). The tolal passive resistance, equal to the minimum value of P, is given by: 2, AK? (ay where 7 pe sing +B sin(a — f) (622) However, in the passive case it is not generally realistic to neglect the curvature of the faiture surface and use of Equation 6,22 overestimates passive resistance, seriously so for the higher values of @, representing an error on the unsafe side. ; spirals. Coefficients have also been obtained by Sokolovski [20] by ‘numerical integration. In general the passive pressure at depth z can be expressed Pp = Kyre + Ky (6.23) reoalel) Values of K, (after Caquot and Keris in Table 6.4. Coefficients (for the not where (628) yea = 90" and f= 0° are given I component of passive resis"APPLICATION TO RETAINING WALLS [= m2] LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE Table 6. Active Fressire Coefients (Equation 6.17) for @ = 90 and f= * é Ee ee ee 6 056 04800405 0333 or 3 055504880577 0308 os 6 058 nae? 0357 0301 oe 6 ass nae a3 0257 ona a csi oer 03850257 ex ‘Table 6.4 Possive Pressure Coefficients (Caquot and Kerite) for @ = 90° and a=0 é Fema 6-0 17020426 3.0035 b= a9 2H 32S 5.0 o- 125934749687 168 b=% 208295) MBL BT é=6 293014296 BS ther values of # are given in [13]. The tables given in y= 0.3 = 2V(0.33 * 1.5) = 2x8 {/i5)_ aves) ~* 6.20, 29 = i with water, the hydrostatic pressure Kin? ‘re calculated 2 fol he tension erack te \ w 40 Dent np Fig. 6.18 ¥ = 2OKNim? above the water table and 7' = (20 — 9.8)kN/m* below the water table. Atz = Om, py = ~(.Al x 8) 3kN/m? Atz = 4m, py = (0.33 x 20 x 4) ~ (141 x 8) = 15.1kNin? Atz = 8m, py = (0.33 x 20 x 4) + (0.33 x 10.2 x 4) ~ (1.41 x 8) = 28.6KNim® ‘Ata depth of 8m (ie. 41 below the water table) the pore water pressure u = 4x 9.8 = 38.2KNim? = O7.8RN In? ‘The pressure distribution is shown in Fig. 6.15. Negative pressures are neglected the bottom of the tension crack jue down to the level at which pressures exceeds 16.7 kN/m* the sum ofthe ative and poe wa 64 APPLICATION OF EARTH PRESSURE THEORY TO RETAINING WALLS In the Rankine theory the state ofAPPLICATION 70 RETAINING WALLS |] ig. 6.10 (and consequently providing a inst passive failure) 19 appropriate value of ¢ is of prime iny passive case. The dificl strains vary significan soil mass and in particular along the ‘which is governed &} ie mobilized value of ¢ varies. In dense sands the average value of @ along the failu passive condition is approached, corresponds to a point beyond the peak oon the stress-strain curve (e.g. Fig. 4.8(6)): use of the peak value of @ would result, therefore, in ion of passive resistance. Tt ever, that peak values of obtained from tri tice, In both eases, therefore, used in design. Experimental work by confirms this point, strgin required 10 mobilize active and passive ‘case depend on the value of Ko, representing the state of stress, and on the subsequent stress path, which depends ‘on the const ique and, in particular, on whether backilling or ‘excavation is involved in construction. tion in the backfilled case is greater th articular soil. It should be noted d Strain at a given point is interpreted as been placed and compacted to the In the case of backfilled walls, aeral the required deforma- in the excavated case for a backfilled walls the lateral cccurting after backfill has teal pressure is also influenced by : ich is not considered in the earth bactciling the weight of the compaction plant lateral pressure on the wall. As each layer is the wall moves downwards wall surface. When the compact rebound of the the pressure near the top value, he passive case the minimum deformation requirement is a sotax tional movement of the wall, abe ear the top of the wall, by propping) during compaction. A simple ans ing idual lateral pressure after compaction has been proposed by mobilized. The relat ‘opment of passive re the pressure under In this method the the compaction plan al pressure increment due to the termined from elastic theory forLATERAL EARTH PRESSURE (GRAVITY AND CANTILEVER WALLS 2T Fig, 617 Gravity and cenilever retaining wal, successive depths of backfill and it is assumed, conservatively, that n0 reduction jerement takes place when the plant is remaved. DESIGN OF EARTH-RETAINING STRUCTURES tions are required Of passive resistance. Design is ‘generally based on states with the incorporation of a sui fable factor of sefety with respect to passive resistance to satisfy the requirements of serviceat it states. The higher the factor of safety required to mobilize the passive resist- ance necessary for stability. 65 GRAVITY AND CANTILEVER WALLS cinforced concrete (Fig. .17(b)) are more economic because the ‘The first step in the design is to determine all the forces acting on the ‘wall, from which the horizontal and vertical components (R, and Ry y) of the resultant force R acting on the base of the wall are obtained. The position ofthe force R (Fig. 6.17(c) is then determined by dividing the algebraic sum of the moments of all forces about any point fon the base by the vertical component R,. To ensure that the base ins compressive over the entire base width, the result ‘where 6 isthe angle of friction between the base and the underlying sol. If an adequate value of F, cannot be achieved a key may be incorporated in the base. constructed on a compressible soll such as 2 point of the base.GRY mo CANTER wh T= Fly. 6.18 Clay backfill should be avoided if at all posse since climatic changes are likely to cause successive swelling and shrinkage of the soil. Swelling es ou, and movements of, the wall: sub in the formation of racks in the soil + of coarse permeable rable behind a lated (Table 6.5). The be 23.5kN/m?. The active pressure is Table 65 Force per m (RN) ‘Arm (m) ) 9.22 x 40 x 5.40 270 82 @ 3x02 x17 x 540% 180 383 Ry Smxo30x23 = 10 a9 300x040 235 = 130 23 5.00% 1.75 x 17 ois 1302 173 x 40 oe i M-37 fact on this vertical, and therefore the Rankine theory (8 = 0) is used to calculate the active pressure: the pressure distribution is shown in Fig. 6.18, For g’ = 40° (and d= Lever atm of base resultant: the mide third Eccentricity of base reaction: = 1.86 = 1.50= 036m ‘The maximum and minisium base pressures are given by Rf, 4) oF) = B23, 4 S038 aS 3 = 162kNim® and 26kNim? ) = at 20m The factor of safety against sliding is given by _ Retand Ry ~ 2223tan 30° oa 16 FLATERAL EARTH PRESSURE GRAVITY AND CANTILEVER WALLS all 070m oso 1G Fig. 6.19 Example 6.6 Details of @ gravity retaining wall are shown in Fig. 6.19, the unit weight of the wall being 23.5kNim*. The unit wei 18kN/m and the appropriate shear strength paramet =) agai 8 ‘As the back of the wall and the soil surface are both inclined, the value K, will be calcu 1m Equation 6.17. The values of the angles in ‘equation are: a = 100°, @ = 38, § = 25° and f= 27. Hence 62s 100" in 3" sin 18 8 laa wal = 0.39 Then, from Equation 6.16, Py= $x 0.39 x 18 x 6 = 126KNIm height and at 25° above the normal, or 35° above the I. Consider moments about the heel of the wall (Table 6.6). acting Lever arm of base res M _ S204 R417 C Eccentricity of base reection: e=177~ 2752 = 040m FForee perm (kN) Ara (m) Moment per m (kim) cos 35° = 1032, 2.00 2064 Ry= 1082 sin 3s" = 23 03s 233 HXTosx6xa3s = 740 070 518 r0x6x235 = 987 1.40 1382 $x 05% 525% 235= 308 192 ca @ixorsx235 =I 235 33.6 R= 4 = 320 = 200kN/m? and 14 kim? ‘The factor of safety against sliding is given by ain. Assume a failure plane horizontal. The relevant parameters for the backfill ae c' = 0, @' = 38°, = 15" and yay = 20KNim?, the f drainage syst ‘The flow net for seepage ee the permeability t of the backfil, the drain remains unsaturated and the pore pressure at every point drain is zero (atmospheric). Thus, at every point on the boundary between the drain and the baciLATERAL EARTH PRESSURE ‘The water forces on the other two boundaries of the soil wedge axe zero. ‘The total weight (WV) of the soil wedge is now calculate ‘The forces acting on the wedge are shown in Fig. 6.20(b). Since the dlicections of the four forces are known, together with the values of 7 and U, the force polygon can be deawn, from which aiven by: P, cos 6 = 105kNim re surfaces would have to be chosen in order that the max- imum value of total active thrust can be determined, ined drain shown in Fig. 6.20(e) the flow lines and cqui- deain are vertical and horizontal, respectively. Thus the failure plane the pore water pressure is zet0. This For $’ = 38° and 5 = 15°, The horizontal thrust is: Pycos 8 = 4 X 0.21 x 20 x 6 X cos 15° = 73KkNim For the cate of no drainage system behind the wall, the pore water is static, and therefore the horizontal thrust = Hy cos 8 + yal? = x 0.1 x 10.2 x 6 x cos 15°) + x 9.8 x = 37-4176 = 213kNim 66 CANTILEVER SHEET PILE WALLS Walls ofthis type are used only when the tively small. In sands and gravels these wal structures, but in general they are used stability of a cantilever shot pile wall is due eat veloped below the lower soil surface. The mod © near the lower end of the assive resistance acts in front ‘below O, as shown in Fi ined height of soil is rela- unlikely to be a sudden change in pastive pressure from front point 0. HGw El x20 xe ag & jyLATERAL EARTH PRESSURE "ANCHORED OR PROPPED SHEET PILE WALLS ] 218 87 ANCHORED OR PROPPED SHEET PILE WALIS Aina supporto sheet pile walls canbe proved by 2 row oft @ Fig. 6.22 Anchored sheet pile wall free earth sopport method. Free earth support method 2 cubic equation in d which can be solved ‘Having determined the value of d, the it ength of wall, can be calculated from the maximum the depth of embedment be increased by 20% to guard against excess dredging, scour, or the presence of weak pockets of soil depends on how the mn how the lateral eing that due to passive resistance: ive and p: rated in Fig. 6. 10 produce # conLATERAL EARTH PRESSURE AIGiORED OX POPES aE Pu WAS | zz Fig. 6.23 conditions ion under working istance is only developed under Under working conditions, and analytical th a factor of safety greater than unity, experimen ing equilibrium value. In view of the uncertainty regarding the ectual used in the case of cantilever sheet pile walls (Section 6.6). Bending moments should also be calculated for F = 1 in the case of cantilever wall Etfect of floxtility and aviour of an anchored wall is also influenced by its degree of ‘or stiffness. In the case of flexible sheet pile Fig, 6.24 ‘These redistributions of lateral pressure are the result ofthe phenomenon known as arching. No such redistributions take place in the case of stiff walls, such as concrete diaphragm wall. keep the yielding mass in its original postion, the pressure on the yielding pat of the support is reduced and the pressure on the stationary parts is Increased. This transfer of pressure from a yielding part to adjacent non-[ TRNGHORED On PROPPED SH a WAR yielding parts of a soi above tie level or clays and are sreater in dense san Redistributions of earth pressure 1 lower bending moments than those obtained from the free earth support method of analysis; the {greater the flexibility ofthe wall the greater the moment reduction. Rowe [17, 18] proposed the use of moment reduction coefficients, to be applied c earth support analyses, based on the flexibility of the presented by the parameter p = H'/EJ, where and ET isthe flexural rigidity. ‘The tie influeaced by earth pressure redistribution and factors are tment of the free earth support value of this force. force is also given for ular, maximum bending moment and prop force increased as ness increased. For backfilled walls and for excavated walls in 1g & low Ky value (of the order of 0.5), maximum bending moment and prop force were both lower than these obtained using the for stiff walls, such as diaphragm ving a high K; value (in the range yi, maximum bending moment and rop force were both significantly higher ree earth support method. For the particular {eared al nd mate tial properties considered by Potts and Fourie, shown in Fig. 6.25 were obtained for a factor of cay element ‘A.B. Fourie (1985), Geotechnique, Led) joment and prop force, isis, and Mj, and Th, denote the corresponding values obtained from a limiting equilibrium (free earth sopport) analysis. Pore water pressure distribution ‘Sheet pile and diaphragm walls are normally analysed in terms of effec- Care is therefore required in deciding on the ‘unbalanced. The net distribution, on the back of the wall, could be determined from the flow net, as illustrated in Example 2.1, However, in ‘most situations an approximate distribution, ABC in Fig. 6.26(b), can be ‘obtained by assuming that the total head is dissipated uniformly along the back and front wall surfaces between the two water table levels. The maximum met pressure occurs opposite the lower water table level and, referring to Fig. 6.26(b), is ven by: 2ba be In general, the approximate method will underestimate net water is relatively close to the hem teLATERAL EARTH PRESSURE ‘ANCHORED OR PROPPED SHEET PILE WALLS 21 BEES, Sa \ Tie 626. Various pore water presse distribution. Jower boundary of the flow region (i. sizes of euvlinear squares in the Row net 6.26) a depth of water i shown in fron le behind the ion DEFG should be used in appropriate ease, the net pressure at G being given by: _ Qb + ea “Deere” be hydrostatic and the net pressure distribution tracted in a clay whic co surface ofthe wall, This implies pressure in ex consequent upward seepage in font ofthe wall Tor short‘erm situations for walls in clay (e.g. during and ied ater excavation fssures ope hi pressure should be assumed over the depth in question: the water inthe cracks or fissures would also result in softening ofthe cay. Soften wold also occur near the sil surface infront ofthe wall as 3 safe design in the event of rapid softening of the clay taking place or if ree delayed during the temporary stage of construction: however, low factor of safety could be used in such cases, Pactield and details of a Seepage pressure Under conditions of steady seepage, use of the approximation t head that the seepage pressut 6.26(0), for example, the seepage pressure at any dept "tea ‘The effective unit weight of the soil therefore would be increased to (y' + j) behind the wall, where seepage is downwards, and reduced t0 (Y ~)) in front of the' wall, where seepage is upwards: these values should be used in the calculation of active and pastive pressures respec- tively. Thus under conditions of steady seepage, active pressures are to the correspond.ae LATERAL, EARTH PRESSURE [ANCHORED OR PROPPED SHEET 28 Fig. 6.27 (a) Plate anchor. (b) Ground anchor. ‘Tie-back anchorage Tie rods are norm stance behind the passive res yield is not excessive. (b) of the anchor is not wan half the depth (d,) from the surface tothe bottom af the anchor, the anchor can be assumed to develop passive resistance over the depth must be situated beye plane YZ (Fig. 627(2)) to censure that the passive wedge of the anchor does not encroach on the active wedge behind the wall: the lower end (X) of the active wedge should be taken at the bottom of the wall if the free earth support method be used to support sheet ‘anchors and are described in Section 8. cantilever sheet pile w of the excavation, The Fig. 6.28 Table 627 Force per m (kN) Moment perm (kN) jxogrxaxas? — =2811 28.11d + 32.79 O2TxITx35xd = 16.054 Bose fxomxio2x@ ©1384 ced? JxaqxitxPxd = 15.2 18.724 — 5.24 ATX Ix dx} = 31454 asm 37x 10.2% 0x} = 943d ae is 17kNim* and below the water table the saturated unit weight is 2DKN/m?, Itc’ = 0, 6! = 35° and 6 = 0, dk tembedment of the pling to give a fa passive resistance, For ¢’ = 35° and 6 = 0, K, = 0.27 and K, = 317. Below the water table the effective unit weight of the s = 10.2kNim’ ‘The earth pressure diagrams are shown in Fig. 6.28. The distributions of hydrostatic pressure on the two sides of the wall balance and can be i ns. The procedure is to equate moments (20-98) the following equation: ~2.680° — 7.694? + 12.384 + 27.55 = 0 + 2.87? — 4.624 = 10.28LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE a [ANCHORED OR PROPPED SHEET PILE WALLS 28 mae Fig. 6.29 d= 2.0m ‘Then the required depth of embedment = 1.2(2.0 + 1.0) = 3.6m. ‘The force R should be evaluated and compared with the net passive resistance available over the additional 20% embedment depth, ‘Thus for d= 200m: R= (2811 + 3212 + SSL — 15.72 ~ 62.90 ~ 37. = 50.6KN Passive pr fon the back of the wall between depths of 5.5 and 6.1m, Ata depth of 5.8m the net passive pressure is given Pp ~ Pu = (3:7 XAT x 3.5) ~ (0.27 17 x 7 = 0.27) x 10.2 x 2.3} 296(6.1 ~ 5.5) = UTSKN (PR therefor Example 69 A quay wall is to be co Fig. 6.29. Above Table 6.8 Force per m (XN) Arm (a) }x026x 17x68 -=905 2m 0.26 x 17 64x (¢ +24) = 28.34+679 d+ 61 0.26 10.2 x (a + 2.4)? = 133d? + 636d + 7.64 243 +65 Basxi2x dx} = 92d 2a +73 Tie = 0 Equating the algebraic sum of the moments about A to zero yields the following equation: 5.66" ~ 44.748 + 253.04 + 714.8 = 0 @ + 1.90 = 44,74 = 126.3 By trial the solution is: d=524m For a quay wall this value would be increased by 20%, giving a depth of cembedment of 6.29m. ‘The algebraic sum of the forces in Table 6.8 must equate to zero, and thus for d = 5.24m: 90.5 +2162 477.5 ~ 268.6~T=0 T= 114.6KN Hence the force in each tie is (2 114.6) = 2291. For a continuous enchor, # = I in Equation 6.27. Therefore, using @ factor of safety of 2.0: 2x2 106 17.85 — 0.26) 4,=2.74m Hence 6 = 2.48m for an anchor centred 1.50.m below th = 751m? urface.26 LATERAL EARTH PRESSUHE "ANCHORED OR PROPPED SHEET PILE WALLS eal Example 6.10 Table 69 A propped Force perm (kN) ‘Arm (m) Moment per clay is shown in Fi (Nm) and below the coefficients to be used Fig. 6.30 procedure moments about A to zero. However, Jever arms and moments were expressed io term ment depth d, complex algebraic expressions would re prefer- able to assume series of trial values of d and calculate the corresponding values of factor of safety F,: (e computer program could be written). The depth of embedment for F, = 2.0 ean then be obtained by interpolation. Following this procedu value of d= 6.0m will be selected, ‘Then the maximum net water pressure, at level D is 12.0 iy = jeg 845 9.8 = 22.11 and the average seepage pressure is: $x 030 x 20x1F =68 OO 0 0.30 %20 x15 «45 =0s 275 ana 9x48 a1 3s 2368 ) +129 45)}60 =15k2 BO 1266.0 pra x4 222035 2028 Pana x60 =93 70 sa 42x75) 030% 2.9)6.0F «4973 9.0 45, eg 98 = TKN 7 i Thus, below the water ta (+) 10.2 42.7 = 12.9108 and passive forces are calculated using: (7 ~f) = 102 - 2.7 = 75kNim® active forces are calculated using: ‘The calculations are repeated for three other values of d, the results being 1s follows: dm) 39 $1 60 69 Fo 087 140 1832.33 Referring to Fig. 6 for F, = 2.0 the required depth of embedment is 63m, id, shearing forces and bending moments will be apparent a= BA x 4.5% 9.8 = 28.7kN im? “no = 8.7KNimLATERAL BARTH PRESSURE BRAGED EXCAVATIONS 25 2oh----~ Sean fc fancing mma 0 0 ¥ ~20 1000 2 4 : ¢ A xin) m a 2) oh 0 x wobfesebee SS wl ul Fig, 631 48 ° I> BS x98 9 34? Yt j= 102 +34= 13.6KNim? yf ~ j= 102-34 68kNim? The forces on the will are calculated for d = 4.2m, as shown int Table 6 Multiplying the ealeulated value by 1.25 to allow for arching, the prop force for 2m spacing 1.25 x 2% 112.5 = 281kN ‘The shearing forces and bending moments, calculated for d = 4.2m, are given in Table 6.11 and are plotted to scale in Fig. 6.31. For the requited embedment depth of 6.3m it is recommended that bending moments Even by the dotted line should be used in design. ‘Table 6.10 Force pet m (RN) 68 405 43 mas nana ing moment, in) 88 BRACED EXCAVATIONS ‘Sheet piling or timbering is normally used to support the sides of deep, narrow excavations, stability being maintained by means of struts acting across the excavation, as shown in Fig, 6.32(a). The piling is usually led in stages a8 excavation proceeds, driven first, the struts being When the first row of struis and no significant yielding of the soil mass will have taken place. As de tion increases, significant yielding of the soll oceurs before first row of struts theory cannot be used for this type of w place along a surface of the form showa ia 6.32(a), only the lower[ze] TATERAL EARTH PRESSURE DIAPHRAGM WALLS 231 a of struts. The us 1, being based on from field measurements, Such an envelope should not be thought of as representing the actual distribution of earth pressure with depth but 2s a hypothetical pressure diagram f:om which the strut loads ean be obtained with some degree of confidence. The pressure envelope proposed by Teraaghi and Peck [23] for mé 6.3%(e), being @ uniform distrit value, ‘According to Peck [ depends on the value of to dense sands is shown in Fig. tion of 0.65 times the Rankine active the behaviour of a braced excavation in clay where cy is the ‘equilibrium and for this condition Peck proposed ‘own in Fig, 6.32(4) should be used to estimate the strut than 4, plastic zones can be expe: 1¢ excavation and the envelope showr ‘should be used provided the abscissae are greater than those 2(d), If this is not the case, Fig. 6.32(@) should be used ‘number. In general the value of m 1: however, in the case of soft, not- value of m as low 26 0.4 may be approy y for which the stability number is treater than about 7 there is @ possibility that the base of the excavation fail by heaving (see Section 8. should be analysed before the strut losds are considered. Due to base heave and the inward defor- imation of the clay there ment of the in damage to tion: advance warning of excessive movement 0 thus be obtained. In general the greater the flex the longer the time before struts or anchors are instale I be the movements outside the excavation. 89 DIAPHRAGM WALIS {A diaphragm wall is a relatively thin reinforced conerete membrane cast in a trench, the sides of which are supported prior to casting by the hydrostatic pressure of a slu as an aid to excavation. The trench is filled with the bentonite slurry a5 excavation proceeds: excavation thus takes place through the slurry 8 the gel into a uid but theRESSURE [z]| UATERAL EN DIAPHRAGM WALLS 28 lished when disturbance ceases, The slurry tends to gel becomes reves become contaminated with soil and cement in the course of const Dut can be cleaned and re-used. in the soil: high water to diaphragm wall construction. In soils of low perme: clays, there will be virtually no Bite level can thus be a considerat 3g in a layer of bentonite- a. However, if a permeability can be improved, with a ct siderable reduction in bentonite Joss. Trench stability depends om the presence of an efficient seal on the soil surface: the efficiency of the seal becomes more he sol desirable from the point to soils of high permeability ing particles in suspension, On the other asity will be displaced more cleanly from the soil surfaces and the reinforcement, and will be more easily pumped and decontaminated. The specification for the slurry must reflect a com- promise between these conflicting concrete using a tremie concrete (which bas a density of approximately twice that of the slurry) being raised in stages as the level of concrete rises. Once the wall (con structed af a series of individual panels keyed together) has been com- pleted and the concrete has achieved adequate strength, the soil on one le of the wall can be excavated. Iti usual for ground anchors (Seetion te levels, as excavation proceeds, to tie ied soil. The method is very convenient deep basements and underpasses, an important advantage being that the wall can be constructed close to adjoining structures: provided that the sol is moderately compact, ground defocma porated as part of ‘The decision whether to use a triangular or a trapezoidal of lateral pressure in the design of a diaphragm wall depends on the obably be ipated wal defo ted in the cas les of the trench, the ben! rmeable layer on the surface of the s the wedge is on the point wedge is in a condi ‘A triangular distribution would ingle row of tie-backs near tl fe rows of tie-backs over the height jon might be considered appropriate, against ly imper- soil above a the angle @ can be assumed to be (45° + 6/2). The unit weight of the slurry is and that of the soil is 7. The dept above the bottom of trench. The normal and tangential components of the res the failure plane are N and Considering force equi P4Teosa—Nsina=0 W-Tsina~Neosa=0 respectively, Pm Buln ry is nEf and the height of the water table24 TATERAL EARTH ESSE 4 REINFORCED EARTH 1 and We if cote In the case of @ sand (c’ = 0) an effective stress analysis is relevant. Hence: T= (N-U)tang =U, the boundary water force on the failure plane, is given by wh U = Hyslmit? cosee and amas + 6'2 In the case of @ saturated clay (, = 0) a Hence: ess analysis is relevant. Tm cH cose a the above equations. The sensitive to the level of the larry unit weight water table required for 6.10 REINFORCED EARTH Reinforced earth con: reinforcing elem: compacted soil mass within which tensile Aluminium slloys, plastics and geotextles, any deformation of the fil. In most cases the facing precast concrete units, which can move to @ limited extent relative to fone another, or pl sequently can withstand relatively lage different features of a reinforced earth wall are shown in Fig. 6.34. A wall of this type is generally more economic than an equivalent concrete cantilever retaining wall. The reinforced earth principle can also be used in embank- rents, normally by the use of geotextiles. rodistib snot necess ‘The shearing resi ‘mined by means’ of resistance depends on tnd a gradual deformation of the stru to collapse. from a direct shear test can thus be expected to be lower than those for the same initial density in an earth structure, Direct shear values would have to be adjusted to allow for28 Cc TERA EAR REE am | [zz] Experimental work has indicated that the maximum tensile stress in a reinforcing element occurs not at the face of the structure but at a point Within the reinforced soil, the position of this point varying with depth as iicated by the curve AB in Fig. 6.34(a). This curve divides the soil mass active’ zone within which sheat stresses on reinforcement is towards the face ofthe structure and a zone of resistance wit the shear stresses act inwards. ser [10] developed 9 design method based on the analysis of the inforcing clements fracture the bottom at a point 0.3 from the face, as shown in Fig. 6.34(2). The distribution of lateral pressure predicted by the method is of the form shown in Fig. 6.34(b).. value of K, the lateral pressure coefficient, is approxi mately equal to Kin decreasing to and 0 may be made by assuming that the curve of n be represented by the bilinear approximation Fig. 6.34(a). Consider a reinforcing element at depth 2 ‘below the surface of the soil mass. The tensile force in the element due to the transfer of lateral stress from the soil to the element is given by T= KeS5, 6.30) where Kis the appropriate earth pressure coefficient at depth z, ois the vertical stress, 5, is the estimated as: tan r+ 42) 3 where L isthe length of the reinforcing element at depth 2 and K, is the forthe backfill beyond the elements. However, 1 value Gyyy above is likely to overestimate the ie value Of 2, for design purposes is likely to be between 7z and gqy- Given the permissible tensile strength of the mate- ‘ial, the required cross-sectional area of the element can be obtained from Equation 6.30, nal resistance available on the surfaces of the element (only the top and bottom surfaces being considered) is given by R= MLege tans 622) and 3 = angle of friction between soil and element. Hence the factor of gainst ‘bond! failure, which should not be less thaa 2, is given by the ratio RIT. The external stability of reinforced eatth structure must idered. A reinforced earth wall, although behaving as be relatively from the as the vertical plane’ through the inner end of the lowest reinforcing clement. The total active thrust on this plane should be calculated by the Rankine theory. The factor of safety against sliding between the reinforced fill end the foundation soil should not be less than 2, the angle of shearing resistance of the weaker soil being used in the analysis. The ion on the base must be wholly compressive and must lowable bearing capacity of the foundation soil. Al Not exceed the potential failure surfaces encompassing the structure should be analysed, 28s for slopes (see Chapter 9): a minimum factor of safety of 1.5 should be censured. a send of unit weight 17kN/m?, having shear strength parameters ¢ = 0 and g' = 37. The height of the wall is 6m and the surface of the backdil is horizontal. Determine the total active theust on the wall according to the Rankine theory. Ifthe wal is prevented from yielding, what is the approximate value of the thrust on the wall? 6.2 Plot the distribution of active pressuce on the wall surface shown in "Fig. 6.35. Calculate the total thrust on the wall (active + hydrostatic) and determine its point of application. Assume 8 = 0 and cy = 63 Aline of sheet driven 4mm into a firm clay and ret fone side, a 3m depth of Bl on top of the clay. Water tab the surface of the clay. The unit weight of the fill is 18kN/in® the seturated unit weight of the clay is 20kN/m?. Calculate the active and passive pressures at the lower end of the sheet piling (a)(z=) LATERAL BART PRESSURE ae ] Fig. 6.35 Fig. 6.36 Mg. 637 int, = 26 and = 64 weight is 17KN/m®: the unit weight of the ° on the base of the wall, what is ‘concrete is 23.5 N/m? the factor of safety again 65 bottom of the excavation to give a factor of safely of 2.0 with respect to passive resistance. 6.46 The section through a gravity retaining wall is shown in Fig. 6 3f the wall material i 23.5kNim? Ot safety aan! ling, What woud be the factor of ety pst ‘were assumed that passive resistance is mobilized over 2 Sep of LS in ont ofthe wal?za] 240 LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE rods at Fig. 6.39 Fig. 6.38 | 6 | ‘weight above the water 642 table of I7EN/m? and shear strength parameters c’ = O and ¢” = Which are spaced at 065m vert 35%. Tie rods ace spaced at 2.5m centres, 1.5m below the sueface of ‘measure 65mm by 3mm in section and are 5.0m in length: t the backfill. The water level in front of the wall and the water table sile strength is 340N/mm?, The unit weight of the Lochind the wall are both Sm below the surface ofthe backfill. Using N/mm and the angle of friction between the fill and the free earth suppost method, determine the depth of peactration 35°. Determine the factors of safety against bond required for a factor of safety of 2.0 with respect to gross passive failure and tensile failure for an element 3.6m below the top of the wall, the lateral pressure coefficient at that depth being 0.25. value of K; for the material retained by the reinforced earth wall is 0.30, REFERENCES 1. Barden, L. (1974) Sheet Pile Wall Design Based on Rowe's Method, gto the Burland ~Potts- Wal in a braced excavation 9m deep in a dense sand are CIRIA Technical Note 54, London, British Standard 8002 (Draft) (1588) Code of Practice for Earth Retaining Structures, British Standards Institution, London. Brooker, F.W. and Ireland, H.0. rated t0 stress history, Canadian Gi 1965) Earth pressures at rest . Burland, J.B, Potts, D.M. and Walsh, N.M. (1981) The overall22 LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE -REFERENOES 8 of free and propped embedded cantilever retaining walls, Ground Engineering, 14, No. 5, 28-38, 6. Caguot, A. and Kerisel, J. (1948) Tables for the Calculation of Passive Pressure, Active Pressure and Bearing Capacity of Founda- tions, Gauthier Villars, Pais, 7. Drucker, D.C. and Prager, W. (1952) Soil mechanics and plastic design, Q. Appl. Math., 10, 157-65. 979) The effects of compaction on retaining S. (1982) Reinforced Earth, ‘Thomas Telford, London and Schlosser, F. (1978) Theoretical analysis of failure in teinforeed earth stuctures in Proc, Symposium on Barth Rlnforce ‘ment, ASCE Convention, Pitsburgh, ASCE, New York, 11, Mayne, P.W. and Kalhewy, FH. (1982) Ky-OCR re scil, Journal ASCE, 108, No. G16, 851~72 12, Nash, JKT-L, and lones, GK. (1963) The support of trenches using fuid tad, in Grows and Driling Muds in Engineering Practice, CE, London 13, Padficld, CJ. and Mair, RJ. (1984) Design of retaining walls embedded in stiff lay, CIRIA Report 104 14, Peck, RB. (1968) Deep excavations and tunnelling ia soft ground, in Proc. 70h International Conferance SMFE, Mexico (State of the Art Volume), Mexican Society SMFE, pp. 225-81 15, Potts, DIM. and Fourie, A.B. (1984) The behaviour of a propped retaining wall: Results ofa numerical experiment, Geotechnique, 34, 383-404 16, Potts, DIM. and Fourie, A.B. (1985) The effect of wall ttfess oa the behaviour of a propped re Geotechnique, 38, 347-52. 17, Rowe, P-W. (1952) Anchore , Proc. Tastution of Givi 18, Rowe, P.W. (1957) Sheet pile walls in lay, Proe, Ins Engineers, Past 1,7, 629-54 19, Rowe, P.W. and Peeker, K. (1968) Passive earth pressure measure- sents, Geotechnigue, 18, 57-78 20, Sokolovski, V.V. (1965) States of Granular Media, Pergamon, Oxford.” 21, Terzaghi, K, (1943) Theoretical Soll Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, New Yori. 22. Terzaghi K. (1954) Anchored bulkheads, Transactions ASCE, 119, p. 1243 B, Terzaghi, K. and Peck, RB. (1967) Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, ud edn, John Wiley and Sons, New York. 24, Techebotariff, GP. (1962) Retaining structures, in Foundation ion of Civil Engineering (ed. G.A. Leonards), McGraw-Hill, New York, Chapter 5 25, Wroth C.P. and Hughes, J.M.O. (1973) An instrument for the in-situ ‘measurement ofthe properties of soft clays, in Proc. th International Conference SMFE, Moscow, Vol. 1(2), 481-94.