Soil Mechanics Fifth edition RF. Craig Gi Engineering of Dundee Gi CHAPMAN & HALL Londen» Glasgow * New York «Tokyo = Melbourne « MeckasBlackie Academe & Professional, Wester Cleddens Road, Bishop gow Got 2NZ, UK References Seepage FIURADOSE, 24. Soil water 22 Permeability 23 Seepage theory 24 Flow nets 28 Anisotropic soil conditions 2.6 Non-homogeneous soil conditions 2.7 Transfer condition 2.8 Seepage through embankment dams 29. Grooting 2.10 Frost heave Problems References Bitectve stress TEN AON EPRYACI 3.5 Influence of seepage on effective stress Problems References shear suengn FTORB DI THUS 4.1 The Mohr-Conlomb failure eriteion 42 Shear strengthCORIOUDANONE 7 (CONTENTS cenath of sands rength of saturated clays te concept References lateral aarth pressure ine's theory of earth pressure 63 Coulomb's theory of earth pressure theory to retaining walls 6.7 Anchored or propped sheet pile walls 68 Braced excavations one-dimensional method ton-Bjerrum method The stress path metho« 7.6 Degree of cons heory of one: consolidation Correction for construction period al solution TAAL Vertical drains Problems References ue 139 [ CONTENTS 8 Bearing capacity CAPAC FORTIES 88 Ground anchors Problems Refecences MSiuTP do2 Padi) Sab of pee Problems References 10 Ground investigation 10.5 Geophysical methods References Principal symbols Answers to problems Index‘The unit for stress and pressure used in this book is kN/m* (kilonewton per square metre) or, where appropriate, MN/m? (meganewion per the studeat has no prior Pande sttitae 1MNim? = 1MPa (megapascal) Robert F. Craig Dundee September 1991Basic characteristics of soils fa 1.1 THE NATURE OF sons PeURADADONE void space between the particles containing ‘cementation can be duc to carbonates or oxides precipitated between the the size and shap undergo change and the particles can be The des the formation of soil from rock may be either physical or chemical. The physical process may be erosion by the action of wind, water or glaciers, or disintegration caused by alternate freezing a fine rock flour formed by the grinding arrange of bulky prises (Fg 11) is desorbed as single gain, each particle being in direct contact wi ng particles withou being any bond or cobesion between them. The structure ma be lose, mediam dense or dense, depending on the way packed togeih example, is formed by the breakdown of felspar by the action of water"THE NATURE OF SOLS kom © Auminion © Onygen (© Hycront Sie ttabacron ‘Alon etahesron 7 Sica sheat ‘suming shoot being known as form sheet structures which are represented symbolically in Fig. 1.2(). ‘The various clay minerals are formed by the stacking of combinetions of the basic sheet structures with different forms of bonding between the H bond Ke bond H bond ig. 1.3 Clay minerals: (2) kaolinite, ) montmerillonte. combined sheets, The structures of the principal clay minerals are rep- um ions held between them. Monimorillonte has fe. In the octahedral sheet there is partial substitution of aluminium by magnesium. The space between the com- bined sheets is occupied by water molecules and (exchangeable) other than potassium. Theze is a very weak bond between the combined sheets due to these ions. Considerable swelling of montmorillonite can occur due to additional water being adsorbed between the combined sheets. cations form a dispersed layer adjacent to the particle, the cation con- on decreasing with increasing distance from the surface utay TASIG GHERAGTERSTCS OF SOLS space. The term doi ce and the dispersed layer of c xy (due to cation exchange) or an jn a decrease in layer thickness. yer thickness, an increase in tempera- thickness. eld round a clay hydrogen bonding and molecules are tion to the negatively charged surfaces. In addition the exchangeable tract water (Le. they become hydrated). The particle is thus surrounded by a layer of adsorbed water. The a ind appears to have a high viseost increasing distance from the patti at the boundary mn depending on the ch valency or concentration will result in a decrease in force, and vice versa. Attraction between particles is due to as a dispersed structure. If, on the other hi ion of the pa referred to as a floccidate { PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS Fig. 1.5. Portle size ranges. occur in the form of connectors or @ example of the structure of a natural graded mixture of particles from two or more size ranges. All clay size Particles are not necessarily clay mineral particles: the finest rock flour Soils whose properties a referred to as fine o influenced mainly ‘by sand and grav coarse oF coarse-grained soils In more general terms, a soil is cons ies adhere after wet required to crumb tadhere when wet due to surface tension. A soil which does not possess these characteristics is said to be cohesionless. 12 PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS. ‘The particle size analysis of a soil sample involves determining the per- cemtage by we 1 different size ranges. The par- licle size distibution of a coarse-grained soil can be determined by theBasi {ARACTERISTICS OF SOUS J [ FUASTICITY OF FINE-GRAINED SOILS ‘method of sieving. The soll sample is passed through a series of standard res having successively sm izes. The weight of soil retained in each sieve tive percent weight passing ea sd. If fine-grained particles are pre- sent in the soil, the sample should be treated with a defloceulatin, and washed through the sieves. tion of a fine-grained soil or the fine- s settle in a suspension: the lager the ing velocity and vice versa. The law does not pply to particles smaller than 0.0002 mm, the set ize of a particle changed from tion. If pipette samples are taken at the specified depth at times cor- aes, An alternative procedure specific gravity of the i entation methods are given in BS 1377 of a soil is presented as a curve on ing the percentage by Particle size is rep- ving the same degree same shape regardless of their positions on the particle size distribution plot. Examples of particle size distribution curves appear in Fig, 1.8. The particle size corresponding to any specified value on the ‘percentage smaller’ scale can be read from ‘the particle size distribution curve. The size such that 10% of the particles are smaller than that size is denoted by Dye. Other sizes such as Dao and Dy can be defined in a similar way. The size Dyo is defined as the effective size. The general slope and shape of the distribution curve can bbe described by means of the coefficient of uniformity (Cy) and the coefficient of curvature (Cz), defined as follows: particles of intermedia resented on a logarithm aay a2) 18 PLASTICITY OF FINE-GRAINED SOLS Plasticity is an important characteristic in the case of fine-grained toils, the term plasticity describing the ability of a soil to undergo unrecover- able deformation at constant volume without crackiag or crumbling. icity is due to the presence of clay minerals or organic mi ' particular water content to the mas of solid particles) ‘water content a soil may tency. Depending on consistency depends on the Any decrease is reduction in the volume of a soil in the naturally in the plastic state, The upperBASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLS ] IASHOITY OF NE GRANED SOUS | 1d by means of arbitrs 2). The be crumbled and broken up, using a mortar and ‘without crushing individual particles: only material pass- ing a 425 jm BS sieve is used in the tests. ‘The apparatus for the liquid t consists of a penetrometer fitted |, 35mm long: the cone and the sliding tached have a mass of 80g. The test sol is mixed homogeneous paste and stored for 5. $Smm the cup to should cover the range of approximately 15mm to 25am from the drier to the wetter state ofthe soil. Cone penetration is plotted against water content and the best straight line fitting the for liquid ‘metal cup, mounted on an edge pivot: the cup rests i rubber base. A mechanism enables the cup to be 10mm and dropped onto the base. Some of the s diameter through the pivot of the cup, dard grooving tool ‘The two halves of the sil gradually flow together asthe cup is repeatedly roped onto the bat at arate of two dros per second. The number of drops, or blows, required to clos fom of the groove over a is recorded. Repeat ball. Part ofthe soil semple (approximately 2.5, approximately 6mm in cach hand. The thread is then placed on a glass plate and rolled with the tips of the fingers of one hand.unt ameter is reduced to approxi- mately 3mm: the rolling pressure must be uniform throughout the test. ‘The thread is then remoulded between the fingers (the water content being reduced by the heat of the fingers) and the procedure is repeated by mote than 0.5%be] [ Se GUNG OF IS ‘ll, DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION 14 SOIL DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION name can be deduced, Particle size n be determined either by standard laboratory tests by simple visual and manusl procedures. Secondary material charsc- ies are the colour of the soil and the shape, texture and composition Of the particles. Mass charact field but in many cases they can be detected in undisturbed sampl iucture has been essentially preserved. characteristics should include an assessment of isi firmness or strength, and details of any beddi gical details, referred if definitely known, shook type of deposit may be stated (6.8. srbed condition, for example to support a founda be adequate and the addition of the soll jowever, classification is particulary useful | for example Rapid assessment procedures and classification both requi “These ean be determined by the a knowledge of grading Jvoratory procedure using standa defining the particle size distribution and ‘obtained for the sol in question. Alternat be assessed using a rapid procedure whi based on the appearance and feel of the where the use of the labor visible to the naked eye and fee between the fingers; finer material feels smooth to the touch. The size boundary between sand and gravel is 2mm and this represents about the largest size of particles which will hold together by capillary attraction must be made as to whether the being more difficult for sands rvels. 'f a predominantly coarse soil contains a significant proportion of fine ‘important to know whether the fines are essentially plastic or tnon-plastc (i.e. whether the fines are predominantly clay or silt respec- tive). This can be judged by the extent to which the soil exhibits cohesion and plasticity. A small quantity of the soil, with the largest particles removed, should be moulded together in the hands, ad Water If necessary. Cohesion i indicated at an a lt content, cat be moulded into fiom mass. Past king or crumbling, ty are pronounced then ¢ absent or only weakly Day strength test ‘A pat of soil about 6mm thick is allowed 0 dry compl in an oven, The strength of the dry soil is then 2: breaking and crumbling between the fingers. Inor rely high dry strength; the greater the strength the higher the liquid Inorganic silts it have little or no dry strength, crumbling easly between the finger[ ot, DEERPROW AD GASCRTON | moulded together and again un to break into lumps at a diameter of around n, inorganic clays of bi surface of the pat: if the the surface becomes dull contain a significant proportion of dispersed vegetable produces a di ‘sand, and peat description. Mixtures of the basic ior clay (termed fine boulders, over 35% ie case of gravels, particle shape ; Subangular, subrounded, rounded, fi fe) and tex ture (rough, smooth, polished) can be described if necessary. Particle ‘compesition can also be described. Gravel particles are usually rock up to 5% sand Sandy GRAVEL. 5% -20% sand Very sandy GRAVEL 35% 65% gravel fragments (c.g. sandstone); sand particles usually consist of individual ‘mineral grains (e.g. quartz) types are named in Table 1.1, the predominant com- Deposits containing over 50% of ferred to as very coarse and normally can be used to describe the structure of descriptions are: ded, gravelly SAND. ‘with occasional silt Firm, grey, laminated CLAY of low partings 0.5-2.0mm Dense, brown, heterogeneous, well graded, very silly SAND and GRAVEL with some COBBLES: Ti Stiff, brown, closely fissured CLAY of high plasticity: London Clay Spongy, dark brown, fibrous PEAT ‘The British Soil Classification System ‘The British Soil Classification System is shown in detail in Table 1.4. Reference should also be made to the plasticity chart (Fig. 1.6). The soil38 Tisio CHARACTERISTICS OF SONS So DESCRIPTION AND GUASSIFIGRTION Tae 12 Table 4 Bish ol Casiticnton Syste for Enpoesing Paros Sate Tam : Solo nny entice aa io Mle | GRAVEL and SAND ma ‘Ligaid ‘Sands, gravels Loose sandy GRAVEL ang gravelly SAND, init ovate sits 82 | Suy GRAVEL E3-5| cayeyoRavet oa EEE Reva onave E [Seed | verysayey 4 [Bday | “ome een 2 (B88 Cane indented by te thumb oS mame Orsi eats ee: ER | I ows See| 2, | suysann SM |swo seo Bis) Ge | stoxs et Be 038 ae omogeocos Be Interstratified ssee Heteropencone weathered i at 4 F 328 EE ldes ‘MS. 4 Seni 5,80 Ee | eae [Sm rs ake |} | Seody CLAY "cs |cts. etc ge ‘SILT (M-SOIL) Me ML, ete saleg law fe le Les ze fe i” is Sia : ead Boul ee Se ORGAN Sons Dap ig mien wer woSOIL DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SONS & Me 0010 Teo Table 15 Main terme e Graven ~G Well graded w SAND S Poorly graded P Uniform Pu Gap-raded Pe FINE son Fo L SILT (6-861 Mo r CLAY co H or v o E or vu On ° PEAT fa can be represented by a point on the chart the zone within ed into five ranges of the four highest ranges ({, H, V and E) can be combined as closer designation is not required or if cedure has been used ing the dominant size fraction is placed first in the has a significant content of organic matter the group symbol, If a s | sulfic O is added as the may consist of two or mors i of the group symbol. A group symbol 1s, for example: group or subgroup should always be given, as above, ie syinbol, the extent of subdivision dependi >a. Ifthe rapid procedure has been used to assess grad- the group symbol should be in brackels to ret degree of accuracy associated with this proce ‘The term FINE SOIL or FINES (F) is used when it isnot req SILT (M) and CLAY (C). SILT AY (C) above the A plastic properties over a : same liquid limit. SILT qualified as gravelly if more than 50% ofthe coarse size and as sandy if more than 50% of the coarse frac The alternative term M-SOIL is introduced le size distribution, pl ize (but with a signifieant proportion of clay. above the A-line. Fine soils containing significant amounts of organic matter usually have high to extremely high liquid a3 organic silt, Peats usually have very Any cobbles or boulders (particles retsined on a 63mm BS sieve) are removed from the ie the classification tests are carried out al sample should be dete il and cobbles or boulders ca B (BOULDERS) join ‘The Unified Soil Classification System In the Unitied Soil Classification System, developed in the United States, the group symbols con 1.6. The Unified system, including the laboratory classification criteria, is detailed in Table 1.7 andTable 1.6 Primary ‘W Well paced Ps Poorly graded M: With non plate fines Ce With pas fines ©: Organicsoil 1: Of low plancty (wt < 50) Pe Peat Hi Of high plasticity (w, > 50) the associated plasticity chart is shown in Fig. 1.7. Classification may be based on either laboratory or Held test procedures. Soils exhibiting the characteristics of two groups should be given s boundary classification denoted by dual symbols connected by a hyphen. Example 1.1 ‘The results of particle size analyses of four soils A, B, Cand D are shown in Table 1.8, The results of limit tests on soil D are: Liguid limit Cone penetration (mm) 155 RO 198.422.2249 Water content (4) 303 408 421 Me 45.6 Plastic limi ‘Water content (%6) Bo m3 The fine fraction of soil C has liquid limit of 26 and a plasticity index of, 9. (a) Determine the coefficients of uniformity and curvature for s B and C. (b) Classify the four soils according to both the British and Unified systems The particle sive dite Soil De Dn Dn aA 047 35 6 OM 16 5 O30 ong ¢ ou 24 R008 is obtained from Fig. 1.9, in which cone penetration is plotted against water content. The percentage water con- tent, to the nearest integer, corresponding to @ penetr the liquid timit and is 42. 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