Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Flow measurement
8 Flow speed Area methods for flow measurement in channels .......................................................................................... 8.27
8.1 Flowmetering by means of floats................................................................................................................................................................. 8.27
8.2 Current meters .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8.28
ISBN 1-919849-24-6
Flow measurement 8.1
1 Introduction
The increasing demand on existing water sources, continually increasing costs of irrigation schemes and
accompanying development costs necessitate that existing water be used economically and effectively.
Regular measurements provide valuable information to the irrigation farmer or irrigation board, that can be
used very effectively to:
Flow measurement with structures in open channels depends on the flow rate to flow depth relation, which
is determined for each structure by means of calibration. Besides the physical structure to be installed in
open channels, it is necessary to measure the flow depth at the structure so that the relation can be used to
determine the flow rate.
The flow depth can be measured with various instruments, which varies from measuring plates, which do
not collect continuity data, to mechanical or electronic sensors with automatic registers. The sensors can
be in contact with the water, such as submersible pressure sensors or float-and-counterweight mechanisms,
or it can make a distance observation, as in the case of ultrasonic sensors.
A further component sometimes found with measuring apparatus, is telemetric communication systems
that make it possible to collect data from the automatic register per radio or modem over a relatively far
distance. This makes it possible to monitor the measurement at distant points without physically visiting
the measuring point.
2 Weirs
The weir is one of the oldest, cheapest, most straightforward and reliable structures for the determination
of flow in channels where sufficient water depth is available.
A simple weir consists of a structure in wood, metal or concrete placed perpendicular to the flow in a
channel. The structure has a sharp-edged opening or notch of specific shape and dimension through which
the water can flow. Weirs are identified by shape as indicated below.
8.2 Irrigation Design Manual
The approach velocity of the water in the pool formed upstream of a weir should preferably be
lower than 0,1 m/s. Therefore the cross-sectional area of the pool should be relatively large
compared to the cross-sectional area of the stream flowing through the weir.
Where it is not practically possible to keep the approach velocity within acceptable limits, relevant
improvements to the specific flow equations should be made.
Q
va = (8.1)
yb
If the approach velocity (va) is known, the velocity head (ha) can be determined by the equation:
va 2
ha = (8.2)
2g
va 2
H = h+ (8.3)
2g
By repeated calculations of ha and va for improved values of the flow rate (Q), the approach
velocity can be determined to the required accuracy thereby giving an acceptable flow rate. In
most cases one repetition would be sufficient.
When the channel feeding the water to the weir is wider than the weir crest, the sides of the stream
will narrow where it crosses the weir. The width of the stream flowing over the weir will be
slightly narrower than crest width. The phenomenon is known as end contraction.
To make allowance for end contractions, the overflow width in the basic equation must be
modified as follows:
Free overflow occurs when the flow after the weir is not backed up. With flood run-off, the water
level on the downstream side of the weir may rise above the weir crest height. This reduces the
overflow capacity and is known as a submerged condition.
hB
= (8.5)
h
Table 8.1: Reduction factors for different degrees of submergence for sharp-crested weirs
Reduction in discharge
0,2 0,07
0,4 0,15
0,6 0,26
0,8 0,42 (unstable)
0,9 0,55 (unstable)
With water measurement it must be attempted to always achieve a ventilated nappe, thereby
ensuring reasonable accuracy of the observed readings. When water flowing over the weir does
not make direct contact, an air bubble will be formed below the nappe. A certain amount of the air
will be drawn along with the overflowing water. If an air bubble is not sufficiently aerated, a
vacuum will be formed which increases the curvature of the nappe and leads to an increase in
discharge over the weir. The problem can be solved by installing an aeration tube downstream of
the weir (see Figure 8.7).
The following discharge correction should be made for the different nappe types:
Normally the observer has a reasonable idea of the quantities to be measured and taking the following
into account, a choice can be made of the suitable weir for particular circumstances:
The maximum expected water height above the weir must be at least 60 mm to prevent the nappe
from adhering to the weir crest. Furthermore it is difficult to take accurate readings on the
measuring scale if (h) is too low.
The length of the rectangular and Cipolletti weirs must be at least equal to three times the water
height above the weir crest.
The V-notch is the most suitable for measurements smaller than 100 m/h.
The V-notch is as accurate as the other weir types for flows between 100 and 1 000 m/h provided
that submergence does not occur.
The weir crest must be as high above the channel floor as possible so that free overflow (of the
nappe) will take place.
The flow depth over the weir should not exceed 600 mm.
The structure must be sturdy and placed as close to perpendicular to the flow direction as possible,
in a straight section of the channel.
The inner face of the structure must be smooth and set up vertically to the water surface.
Flow measurement 8.7
The crest must be level in the case of rectangular and Cipolletti weirs. The sides of the V-notch
must be equidistant from an imaginary vertical line drawn through the lower point of the V.
The weir crest must preferably be higher than 2h and in any case never lower than 300 mm above
the channel floor (see Figure 8.7).
The distance between the sides of the notch and the channel sides must not be less than 2h and
never less than 300 mm.
The nappe should only touch the sharp crest of the notch and not the thicker part of the structure.
The measuring scale must be fixed at a distance 4h from the structure in a position where it can be
easily read.
If the cross-sectional area of the water flowing through the weir is A and the maximum expected
height above the weir is h, the cross-sectional area of the water pool above the restriction must not
be less than 8A for a distance of 20h from the structure.
If the water pool above the structure is smaller than prescribed, the approach velocity may be too
high and the measuring scale readings accordingly too low. The approach velocity will then have
to be taken into account when determining Q.
The measuring scale must be calibrated to accommodate the maximum expected water level above
the weir.
The structure must not let any water pass through the floor or sides.
The channel section downstream of the structure must be sufficiently large to prevent high backing
up of water.
The accuracy of weirs decreases with a high percentage of silt in the water.
This chapter will deal with imperial as well as metric equations as both are in use.
8.8 Irrigation Design Manual
90 V-notch [
Q = 1,38 (h + h a )2,5 - h a2,5 ]
Rectangular, submerged [
Q = 1,84 L (h + h a )1,5 - h1,5
a ]
Rectangular with end contractions [
Q = 1,84 (h + h a )1,5 - h1,5 ]
a (L - 0,2 h)
Q = C L h1,5 (8.6)
The value of C will depend on the depth of overflow that is the breadth of the weir crest (t) and the
discharge depth over the crest (h). In practice most crests fall between sharp and broad crested and the
following adjustments must be made for a weir with discharge depth (h) and crest breadth (t).
Provided that the h/t ratio is between 0,3 and 3,0, the C-value can be interpolated between 1,45 and 1,822.
These refined C-values for rectangular weirs replace the original C-values developed by T B Francis
shown in Tables 8.2 and 8.3.
For end contractions and approach velocities, the same terminology applies to both sharp-crested and
broad-crested weirs. Discharge under submerged conditions is influenced minimally provided that the
degree of submergence is less than 0,67. Equation 8.5 also applies to broad-crested weirs.
= hB (8.5)
h
Table 8.4: Reduction factors for different degrees of submergence with broad-crested weirs
Reduction in discharge
0,2 0,0
0,4 0,0
0,6 0,0
0,8 0,01
0,9 0,15
Flow measurement 8.11
Example 8.1:
A sharp-crested weir is installed in a river with approximately rectangular section (b = 10,0 m) as shown below:
Section B-B
Section A-A
(a) h = 0,5 m
(b) h = 1,5 m
Solution:
(a) Considering end contractions:
L' = L - 0,1 nh
= 5 - 0,1 2 0,5
= 4,9 m
Q = CL' h1,5
= 1,822 4,9 0, 5 1,5
= 3,15 m 3 /s
Q
va =
yb
3,15
=
1,5 10
= 0,21 m/
2
va
ha =
2g
= 0,002 2 m
8.12 Irrigation Design Manual
No end contractions.
Q1 = C L h1,5
= 1,822 5 1,51,5
= 16,73 m3/s
Q2 = 1,822 5 0,51,5
= 3,22 m3/s
Q
va =
yb
19,95
=
2,5 10
= 0,8 m/s
Determine velocity head from equation 8.2:
v 2a
ha =
2g
= 0,03 m
Recalculate Qtotal:
= 0,82 m/s
v 2a
ha =
2g
= 0,03 (same as previous calculatio n)
Determine velocity head:
4 Parshall flumes
8.14 Irrigation Design Manual
The Parshall flume works on the venturi principle to determine flow in open conduits. The flume consists
of three main parts, namely:
The floor of the converging section is level in length and breadth, while the throat section slopes
downwards and the diverging section slopes upwards.
The Parshall flume is named after Ralph L Parshall, an irrigation engineer at the Colorado Agricultural
College in the USA. He began with experiments to design an improved flow measurement device to
replace the known weirs and other devices of the time in approximately 1915.
The Parshall flume has three major advantages as a flow measuring device, namely:
An exceptionally high degree of flow measuring accuracy, even under partially submerged conditions
(see Table 8.5).
Due to the small drop in water level, it is suitable for channels with very flat floor slopes. All flumes
should be installed level in all directions to maintain a high measurement accuracy.
Relatively expensive to build as Parshall flumes are normally installed as permanent concrete
structures on water schemes. Portable units of wood, metal, fibre cement and GRP are commercially
available.
The smaller the flume, the more important it is to maintain strict construction tolerances, making
construction more difficult.
Special care must be taken with installation, particularly on smaller flumes to provide accurate
readings. All flumes must be installed level in all directions.
The size of flume to be used for a particular purpose will be determined by the average maximum flow to
be measured, the permissible head loss through a flume and the normal channel water depth. The final
choice of flume is based on the throat width best suited to the channel dimensions and hydraulic
properties. Generally the throat width of a Parshall flume should be approximately 0,3 - 0,5 times the
upstream width of the water surface during channel design conditions. Metric units cannot be used as
Parshall flumes are experimentally calibrated with imperial units. Dimensions for these flumes will be in
imperial units for some time to come, therefore the same units will be used in this manual.
Submerged flow conditions where the water level in the diverging section is such that it retards
free flow.
Flow measurement 8.15
Often two measuring plate readings (h en hB) are given to distinguish between submerged and free-
flow conditions. Both measuring plate datums are set to the average crest height of the Parshall flume.
The water flow through the throat and diverging sections can occur in two ways:
At high velocities it will be a thin layer approximately parallel to the downward sloping section of
the throat (condition Q in Figure 8.10).
With the backwater pushing up the water level in the throat section to form a ripple wave
(conditions S in Figure 8.10).
During condition S a marked decrease in outlet velocity occurs, decreasing erosion of the conduit
walls and reducing the drop in water level.
The degree of submergence may also be determined by using equation 8.5. Provided that the ratio
does not exceed certain limits, the flow rate through the flume will not be influenced by a rise in the
tail water level. The permissible degree of submergence for free flow varies with throat width as
shown in Table 8.5
1 - 3 inches 0,50
6 - 9 inches 0,60
1 - 8 feet 0,70
10 - 50 feet 0,80
If submerged flow occurs according to Table 8.5, Figure 8.14 is used to determine flow reduction
due to submergence, which is then subtracted from the free-flow reading. Figure 8.14 applies
only to 1 foot throat width Parshall flumes and the flow reduction (see Figure 8.14) must be
adjusted for larger Parshall flumes with correction factor M (see Table 8.6).
1 1,00 5 3,7
2 1,76 6 4,31
3 2,45 7 4,9
4 3,10 8 5,45
8.16 Irrigation Design Manual
10 1,0 25 2,5
12 1,2 30 3,0
15 1,5 40 4,0
20 2,0 50 5,0
When submerged conditions occur with large Parshall flumes, the correction factors of Table 8.7
are used for throat widths larger than 10 feet.
The equations for submerged flow are more complicated and are not dealt with in this chapter.
Flow measurement 8.17
With weirs it is advisable to place a flume in a straight section of conduit to avoid the effect of cross-
flow.
4.5 Examples
Example 8.2:
Determine the flow through a Parshall flume for the following:
1-foot Parshall flume: h = 0,16 m
hB = 0,1 m
Solution:
Free-flow determination:
hB
=
h
= 0,625
Example 8.3:
Determine the flow through a Parshall flume for the following:
1-foot Parshall flume: h = 0,16 m
hB = 0,128 m
Solution:
Free-flow determination:
hB
=
h
= 0,8
Free-flow limit: 0,7 (from Table 8.5)
Example 8.4:
Determine the flow through a Parshall flume for the following:
2-foot Parshall flume h = 0,671 m and hB = 0,396 m
Solution:
Free-flow determination: = hB/h = 0,396/0,671 = 0,59
Free-flow limit: 0,7 (from Table 8.5)
0,59 < 0,70, therefore free-flow conditions occur
From Table 8.8 for h = 0,671 m
Q = 0,770 m3/s = 2 772 m3/h
Example 8.5:
Determine the flow through a Parshall flume for the following:
3-foot Parshall flume. h = 0,643 m and hB = 0,566 m
Solution:
Free-flow determination: = hB/h = 0,566/0,643 = 0,88
Free-flow limit: 0,7 (from Table 8.5)
0,88 > 0,70 therefore submerged conditions occur
From Figure 8.14 for h = 0,643 m and = 0,88 m,
Q = 0,083 8 m3/s
5 Crump weir
In the past the Crump did not come to its right in the irrigation industry because it tends to cause a back-up
of water on the upstream side. The most important features of the Crump are as follows:
Straightforward structure
High accuracy
Relatively insensitive to submerged conditions
Flow curves can easily be determined for any width
The Crump consists of two parallel walls with a specially shaped overflow wall on the downstream side.
The wall top is sloped at 1:2 on the upstream side and 1:5 on the downstream side. The crest should
preferably be protected by a galvanized steel angle profile. The walls may be of concrete or plastered
brickwork. It is important that the inner distance between the walls remains constant as specified. In the
absence of a solid foundation, the walls are to be founded or the complete structure may be built on a
concrete slab. One disadvantage of the Crump is the straight side walls which lack stability and may fall
over.
A stilling basin is recommended to make readings easier and more accurate. A tube or small hole big
enough to avoid blocking, must be provided between the flume and stilling basin. The best position with
respect to height, is just below the crest of the overflow wall. The distance is specified below and is rather
critical. A tube can also be placed beneath the overflow wall to facilitate drainage if the channel upstream
of the wall needs to be dried out. If the channel is wider than the flume, side walls must be provided to
gradually concentrate the water, the ideal angle being 1:3. This type of flume is very suitable for
rectangular concrete channels because the parallel walls exist and all that remains is the building of the
overflow wall.
Dimensions
The width of the Crump will be determined by the minimum and maximum flows to be measured.
The wider the Crump is, the smaller the scale-reading will be for a specific flow. The absolute
minimum reliable reading with a Crump is 50 mm, therefore the width of the Crump should be such
that the minimum flow to be measured gives a reading of at least 50 mm. It is, however, preferable to
choose the width so that the minimum flow will give a reading of 100 mm.
The most generally used scale lengths are 300 mm and 500 mm. The maximum reading and therefore
also the maximum flow measurable by a Crump will be determined by the scale length. Table 8.10
shows the flow for different widths and specific scale readings, thereby allowing determination of a
width (B).
8.22 Irrigation Design Manual
Most of the Crump's dimensions are determined by the measuring scale length to be used (see
Table 8.11). This applies to all Crump widths.
The other Crump dimensions as determined by the normal flow depth for maximum flow directly
downstream of the proposed position of installation are as follows:
hB
= (8.7)
h
The downstream height begins to influence the upstream height when > 0,75. Figure 8.16 may
be used to determine the reduction in discharge for a given degree of submergence.
8.24 Irrigation Design Manual
Figure 8.16: Reduction factors for different degrees of submergence for a Crump weir
Weirs:
Keep the ponding area free of sediments and plant growth
Ensure that there is no leakage through or around the device
Regularly check the position of the weir plate relative to the crest
Maintain the condition of the crest finish in good order
Remove rust from steel sections by wire brush and coat with a bituminous paint
Flumes:
Remove sediments and accretions especially in approach and venturi sections
If manufactured from steel, remove rust by wire brush and coat with a bituminous paint
Avoid erosion immediately downstream of the device
Recast the floor if the existing one is no longer level
Regularly check the measuring scale position relative to the crest
Flow measurement 8.25
the dimensions of the opening are small in relation to the water pressure above it; and
the water pressure at the centre of the opening, for all practical purposes, is the same as the pressure at
the edge of the opening.
An orifice to be used for flow measurement is usually rectangular or circular in shape and placed
perpendicular to the flow direction in a vertical structure in the channel.
An orifice is under free-flow conditions when the water discharges in an air medium and submerged flow
conditions when it discharges in a water medium. Flow measurement is possible under submerged as well
as free-flow conditions.
As with weirs, orifices have full contraction if the orifice edge is sharp and it is located far from the
channel wall.
One disadvantage of an orifice as a flow measurement device is that it is relatively easily blocked by silt or
sand build up as well as flotsam in the flowing water.
The discharge for a submerged orifice with full contraction as well as for free flow, is determined by the
following general equation:
Q = CA 2 g h (8.8)
C-value
The C-value for short pipes and sluice openings can be determined as follows:
Short pipes
L/D 2 3 5 11 25 50 100
Sluice opening
Wall thickness (T) [m] 0,1 0,2 0,4 0,75 1,5 3,0 4,0
Example 8.6:
Determine the discharge through a sluice opening of 600 mm 200 mm. The difference in water level
before and after the sluice = 0,35 m. Wall thickness = 0,1 m.
Solution:
Cross sectional area = 0,6 0,2
= 0,12 m2
Repeat the process 5 times with the float in different flow paths
v = Cf v f (8.9)
Average flow
depth [m] 0,3 0,6 0,9 1,2 1,5 1,8 2,7 3,7 4,6 6,1
Cf 0,66 0,68 0,70 0,72 0,74 0,76 0,77 0,78 0,79 0,8
Q = Ak v (8.10)
Example 8.7:
Determine the discharge for a parabolic channel with a flow depth (y) = 400 mm and top width
(W) = 2 m
Solution:
distance
Float velocity ( v f ) =
time
10
=
(11 + 12 + 10)/3
= 0,91 m/s
2 yW
Cross sectional area of parabola ( Ak ) =
3
2 0,4 2
=
3
= 0,54 m 2
Figure 8.19: Flow speed is measured at representative points in the cross section area
Flow measurement 8.29
The flow depths are also registered during the measurement and the collective information is
usually used to determine the flow rate to flow depth relation for measuring structures.
Figure 8.20: Flow depths are measured at the representative points in the cross-section area
The flow rate in the different portions can be calculated by means of the continuity equation.
vi + vi +1 d i + d i +1
qi = ( Li+1 Li ) (8.11)
2 2
where qi = the flow rate for the partial cross section areas between measuring points i and i + 1
[m/s]
vi = average flow speed at point i [m/s]
di = depth of the water at point i [m]
Li = distance of a reference point to point i in the channel [m]
The total flow rate in the channel can be determined by adding the flow rate of the different
portions.
n
Q = q i (8.12)
i =1
9 Other methods
Besides the methods described in this chapter , there are quite a number of other flow measuring methods
which are often used in practice.
For flow measurement a stopwatch must measure to 0,1 second accuracy, therefore for an accuracy
of 1%, it must be possible to fill the container in 20 seconds.
V
Q = (8.13)
t
Example 8.8:
Determine the flow [/h] for the following case:
Container diameter = 100 mm
Container depth = 200 mm
Average filling time = 20 s (five readings)
Solution:
D2
Container volume = h
4
0,12
= 0,2
4
= 0,0016 m 2
V
Q=
t
0,0016
=
20
= 0,08 10 - 3 m 3 /s
= 288 /h
M
Q = (8.14)
t
If a pipe is erected vertically so that the water is ejected straight up, the flow can be determined if
the jet height (h) and the pipe diameter (di) are known (see Figure 8.19). As it is difficult to
measure the jet height above the pipe end, this method is not very accurate and an accuracy of
10% may be expected. This method will therefore only be used to make an estimate of the flow.
Table 8.16 indicates the flow [/s] for pipe diameters up to 300 mm and jet heights to 1 m.
9.3.2 Horizontal
To determine the flow rate of pipes delivering horizontally, both the horizontal distance (x) and
the vertical distance (y) from the same point at the pipe end to the same point on the jet must be
measured. For convenience, the distance from the upper inside edge of the pipe to a point on the
top of the jet is measured (see Fig. 8.20). As in the vertical method, this method is also very
inaccurate. Table 8.17 indicates the flow [/s] for pipe diameters of 50, 100 and 150 mm for a
horizontal distance (x) of 150 mm and a vertical distance (y) varying from 6 mm to 200 mm.
Table 8.17: The flow [/s] from horizontal pipes ( x = 150 mm)
6 16,1 50
8 14,3 47
10 12,7 45 108
15 10,1 40 94
20 8,6 35 83
25 7,6 32 76
30 6,9 29 70
40 5,9 24 64
50 5,2 22 58
60 4,7 20 53
70 4,3 19 49
80 4,0 18 46
100 3,6 16 41
120 3,2 14 36
140 2,9 12 31
160 2,6 10 25
180 2,3 7
200 1,9 5
Flow measurement 8.33
10 References
1. Department of Agriculture and Fisheries. Besproeiing watermeting. Bladskrif nr. 109.
2. Department of Environmental Affairs. 1984. Handleiding vir die beplanning, ontwerp en bedryf van
riviervloeimeetstasies.
4. Department of Agriculture ARS-57. 1987. Flume: A computer Model for estimating flow through
long-throated measuring flumes. United States.
5. FAO irrigation and drainage paper 26/2. 1975. Small structures. Rome.
6. Jensen, M. E. 1983. Design and operation of farm irrigation systems. The American Society of
Agricultural Engineers.