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OCTOBER 2017

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Q Customer:
LNG producers throughout the world.

Q Challenge:
Select a compression partner to ensure years
of efficient, reliable production.

Q Result:
Elliott refrigeration compressors and unmatched experience
have been central to successful LNG projects for decades.

They turned to Elliott

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Middle East and Asia, LNG producers have chosen Elliott for efficient, reliable compressors
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supported by manufacturing centers in the US and Japan, and a global network of service
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October 2017

COMPRESSORtech2 is the premier resource for gas compression news and information.

Featured Articles
8 MGT Gas Turbine Ramps Up
12 NEA Goes Bigger Into Midstream
16 Beyond Basic
20 (Complete) Compression Service Technology
24 Trash Compactors And Old TVs
Cover Designed By 28 Vessels Are Not Piping: US$600 For A US$60 Part
Alyssa Loope
32 Seals Under Fire
COMPRESSORtech2 (ISSN 1085-2468)
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(January-February, March, April, May, June,
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Follow @COMPRESSORtech2 on: 6 Monitoring Government Court Orders More Focus
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To The Gas
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Industry

Providing all your compressor needs

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CONTRIBUTING EDITORS Ohio There were record wildfires in I live in Houston and have seen some
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Grande do Sul, Brazil the West. Mexico sustained an 8.1 no damage to COMPRESSORtech2
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UNITED Houston before drifting slowly toward tens of thousands of volunteers from
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Monitoring Government
Court Orders More Focus
On Global Warming In
Pipeline Permitting
Long-term impact of Sabal Trail decision unclear
BY PATRICK CROW
L
ocal opposition to gas pipelines and compressor sta-
tions seems to be the rule rather than the exception
these days (see story, p. 38), and a recent federal
court decision may have given naysayers another weapon.
The U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia
Circuit ruled in August that the Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission (FERC) failed to adequately estimate the
greenhouse gas emissions by the potential customers of
the Sabal Trail Pipeline project. It did not require pipeline
operations to cease.
The US$3.5 billion pipeline connects with the Transcontinental
Gas Pipeline in east central Alabama. It extends 515 mi.
(829 km) southeasterly through Georgia to central Florida.
The first 810 MMcfd (23 x 106 m3/d) of capacity for the 36
in. (0.91 m) pipeline was commissioned in July. Capacity
could grow to more than 1 Bcfd (28.3 x 106 m3/d) in 2020-21
with the addition of compression. Two compressor stations
have been built and three more are planned.
Sabal Trail gas mostly will be used to generate electric
power when existing coal- and oil-fired plants are retired. The
U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) said: Since the
beginning of 2016, Florida has added 3.4 GW of natural gas-
fired electricity generating capacity, which is more than any
other state. Another 3.9 GW of natural gas-fired capacity is
planned to come online in Florida over the next six years.
Sabal Trail has successfully navigated a rigorous envi-
ronmental permitting process over the past four years while
working with landowners and key stakeholders to construct
this new pipeline system, said Bill Yardley, president and
chairman Spectra Energy Partners.
The Sierra Club and some landowners disagreed. They
sued FERC and the Sabal Trail owners (Spectra, NextEra
Energy and Duke Energy) soon after FERC approved the
pipeline in 2016.
They raised a battery of objections, including the green-
house gas implications, environmental justice issues, pipeline
alternatives, safety considerations, and the initial rates and
Patrick Crow is an Austin, Texas, writer and a former COMPRESSORtech2
editor. He has reported for oil and gas publications since 1967
and has written extensively about energy issues before Congress,
federal agencies and the courts.
6 OCTOBER 2017
market need findings. The court sustained FERC on all points
except the greenhouse gas issue.
Judge Thomas Griffith said the agency should have ei-
ther given a quantitative estimate of the downstream green-
house emissions that will result from burning the natural
gas that the pipelines will transport or explained more spe-
cifically why it could not have done so.
Quantification would permit the agency to compare the
emissions from this project to emissions from other proj-
ects, to total emissions from the state or the region, or to
regional or national emissions-control goals. Without such
comparisons, it is difficult to see how FERC could engage
in informed decision making with respect to the green-
house-gas effects of this project, or how informed public
comment could be possible.
During arguments before the court, FERC explained that
the Sabal Trail obviously would lower, not raise, green-
house gas emissions because gas-fired power plants emit
half as much carbon dioxide as coal plants.
The long-term impact of the ruling is hard to assess.
Don Santa, president and chief executive officer of the
Interstate Natural Gas Association of America, noted that
the court did not require quantification of greenhouse-
gas emissions in every agency decision because some-
times its just not feasible.
The government could appeal the ruling and perhaps win
a reversal. Congress could void it with legislation. Most likely,
if it stands, the ruling will make pipeline permitting even more
cumbersome but perhaps would not be a major barrier.
Ironically, the courts (interpreting existing laws and reg-
ulations) and the Trump administration (establishing new
policies) are moving in opposite directions.
Soon after taking office, President Donald Trump ordered
the federal government to reconsider restrictions on power
plant emissions and to recalculate the costs of carbon pol-
lution. He has taken several other actions to reverse U.S.
global warming policy, including withdrawal from the inter-
national Paris Climate Accord.
And a few days before the appeals court ruling, Trump
ordered federal agencies to streamline their approvals for
large infrastructure projects, including faster decisions on
permits after environmental reviews are completed. CT2
COMPRESSORtech2
WE HAVE A COMPRESSION OBSESSION.

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Were ready to serve you anywhere, anytime.

Visit us at www.solarturbines.com, call +1-619-544-5263

or email infocorp@solarturbines.com for more information
about modular compression solutions.
2017 Solar Turbines Incorporated
MGT Gas Turbine Ramps Up
MAN gas turbine family expanding into new applications
BY ROBERTA PRANDI
T
he MGT gas turbine family by MAN Diesel & Turbo
(MAN) has been on the market for a while, with com-
missioned installations accumulating more than
35,000 operating hours.
This range of products is gaining popularity with com-
bined heat and power (CHP) installations, with China
ranking first among the geographical areas adopting
these options, MAN said.
The manufacturer explained that in addition to high ef-
ficiency fuel efficiency above 90% in CHP applications
one of the primary development aims for the MGT series
was that these turbines had to be equally economic and
environmentally friendly.
From its idle state, an MGT turbine needs less than 10
minutes to reach full-scale output, the company said. The
turbines parts are also easily accessible by service techni-
cians, with the exchange of a complete turbine possible in
fewer than 48 hours.
However, the turbine family is not limited to CHP or
power generation applications. For example, these units
have already been adopted as mechanical drivers in gas
compression applications in the oil and gas industry.
An MGT 6200 two-shaft gas turbine was installed at a
compressor station in Rehden, Germany, operated by Gas-
cade Gastransport GmbH, one of Germanys largest gas
transportation companies.
There, an MGT 6200 two-shaft turbine drives an MAN
RV 050 centrifugal compressor, increasing the stations
natural gas transportation capacity. According to Gas-
cade, the additional compressor train from MAN will en-
n The 8000 hp (6 MW) category in the MGT gas tur-
bine series by MAN has demonstrated its capability in
power generation applications and as a mechanical
driver in the oil and gas industry.
8 OCTOBER 2017
n During development of the MGT gas turbine series, MAN said it
gave special attention to the service side of the units. All parts are
designed to be easily accessible by service technicians, and the ex-
change of a complete turbine can be carried out in less than 48 hours.
able the operator to significantly raise the capacities of its
long-distance gas pipelines.
Gascade is a long-term customer for MAN and operates
numerous stations with MAN products, including the station
in Rehden, the largest hub in the companys supply network.
In Rehden, two electrically driven MAN motor pipeline
compressors (MOPICO) with magnetic bearings have been
in use for years.
MAN said one of its strengths in the gas compression ap-
plication field is train competence: the capability of designing
a precisely coordinated installation of turbine and compressor.
In Rehden, for example, the company said that the system
design allows it to capture the low volume of seal gas leakage
from the compressor and return it to the gas system, rather
than dispersing it into the atmosphere.
MAN also indicated that the MGT gas turbine
family has some new members in development.
So far, market introduction in the 8000 hp
(6 MW) power class has been successful with
projects in power generation and mechanical
drive applications using single and two-shaft
designs. This was followed by launching a dual-
fuel version and options for reduced emissions,
especially NOx. Recently, the company included 3-D
printing technology in the manufacturing process of
the MGT series. According to MAN, the next steps
will include additional power classes. CT2
COMPRESSORtech2
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Events & Meetings
Boldface indicates shows and conferences in which COMPRESSORtech2 is participating

OCTOBER Abu Dhabi, U.A.E. 2018

Oct. 1-4 +971 2 444 4909 JANUARY
Gas Machinery Conference www.adipec.com Jan. 25-26
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Myanmar Oil & Gas Summit
+1 (972) 620-4026 DECEMBER Yangon, Myanmar
www.gmrc.org Dec. 5-7 +44 207 127 4501
Power-Gen International 2017 www.myanmaroilsummit.com
Oct. 15-18 Las Vegas Convention Center
2017 Gasification and Syngas
+1 (918) 831-9160
FEBRUARY
Technologies Conference Feb. 12-14
www.power-gen.com
Colorado Springs, Colorado Egypt Petroleum Show
+1 (703) 276-0110 Cairo, Egypt
Dec. 5-7
www.gasification-syngas.org/ +971 4 445 3781
7th Iraq Oil & Gas Show Basra
events/2017-conference www.egyps.com
Basra, Iraq
+90 212 356 00 56
Oct. 24-26 Feb. 13
basraoilgas.com
Black Sea Oil and Gas North America Natural
Bucharest, Romania Gas and NGL Forum
+44 845 868 8234 Dec. 11-14 Houston, Texas
www.globuc.com/blackseaoilgas Turbomachinery +1 (281) 506-8234
Symposium adi-analytics.com
NOVEMBER Houston, Texas
Nov. 13-16 +1 (979) 845-7417 Feb. 25-28
ADIPEC http://turbolab.tamu.edu Laurance Reid Gas

Stop by Booth #518 at the GMC for more information

For a complete listing of upcoming events, please visit our website at www.compressortech2.com/events/

Conditioning Conference +1 (972) 952-9494 +1 (412) 372-4301

Norman, Oklahoma http://2018.otcnet.org www.egcr.org
Tel: +1 (405) 325-3136
www.ou.edu/outreach/engr/lrgcc_home.html SEPTEMBER
MAY
Sept. 1720
May 2224 Gastech Exhibition
Feb. 26-March 1
Nigeria Oil & Gas Conference Eastern Gas Compression & Conference
ICC, Abuja, Nigeria Roundtable +44 (0) 203 615 5914
+234 813 893 8564 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania www.gastechevent.com/
www.cwcnog.com

MARCH
March 14-16
Australasian Oil and Gas Conference
Perth, Australia
+61 3 9261 4500 to
Up
www.aogexpo.com.au
, 0 00
March 27-28
$ 1 F!
OF
PVPC Expo 2018
Abu Dhabi, U.A.E.
www.pvpcexpo.ae

March 2729
China International Offshore
Oil & Gas Exhibition
Beijing, China
+86 10 58236555/58236588
www.ciooe.com.cn/en/exhibitorsservices/
exhibitionrule/

APRIL
April 10-12
Global Oil & Gas Atyrau
Exhibition 2018
Atyrau, Kazakhstan
+44 (0) 207 596 5161
www.oil-gas.kz/en

April 15-18
2018 GPA Midstream
Convention
Austin, Texas
www.gpaconvention.org
Trade in your old Analyzer...
April 23-25 and get up to $1,000 off a new Testo
Gulf South Rotating
Machinery Symposium
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Working or not, get $1,000 off for a 6-gas,
+1 (225) 578-4853 or $500 off for a 4-gas with your trade in for a
gsrms.org
new Testo emissions analyzer.
April 30-May 3
Offshore Technology Contact your participating Authorized Emissions Distributor
Conference (OTC) or Testo at 800-227-0729 for full details
Houston, Texas

COMPRESSORtech2 OCTOBER 2017 11

n The one-piece frame is a distinct fea-
ture of the 560hs compressor model for the
midstream gas market, ensuring a robust design
that maintains alignment from factory to site.
NEA Goes Bigger Into Midstream
New distinctive, powerful compressor targets North America
BY ROBERTA PRANDI
N
euman & Esser Group (NEA) introduced a high-
speed compressor frame optimized for midstream
service: the 560hs.
The two-, four or six-throw 560hs has a 6.9 in. (175 mm)
stroke, 126,000 lb. (57,000 kg) rod load and runs at 600
to 1200 rpm. The compressor is rated up to 10,000 bhp
(7456 kw) and up to 15,000 psi (1034 bar) and has been
optimized for 600 to 1200 rpm large gas engines or elec-
tric motors.
Primary midstream applications for the 560hs high-
speed model are gas storage, gas gathering, pipeline, gas
boosting and all technical gases.
NEA said the development of the 560hs was driven by
12 OCTOBER 2017
customer feedback and requests. NEA began its foray into
high-speed frame compressors in 2000 with the 320hs.
The 320hs was for the natural gas storage market, but
the frame has been utilized in gas boosting, industrial
gas generation, gas pipelines and various residues and
hydrocarbon gas mixes. Since 2011, NEA has been pres-
ent in the North American midstream compression market
with major orders for various natural gas and CO2 for en-
hanced oil recovery applications. The company optimized
the compressor line to utilize the high-speed capability
available of its portfolio.
NEA frames were already available with a large range
of strokes, and the flexibility offered a good fit for engine
COMPRESSORtech2
 n The compact compressor design of the 560hs with high rod load capabilities pairs
easily with large gas engines or electric motors up to 10,000 bhp (7.45 MW).
drive applications, said Andreas Hirschter, head of Strate-
gic Marketing at NEA.
According to Joseph Lesak, key account manager, Neu-
man & Esser USA Inc. in Katy, Texas, customers recog-
nized the flexibility of NEAs compression portfolio and
started questioning why NEA didnt just go ahead and
make a new frame designed specifically for larger mid-
stream applications.
After studying the larger engine-drive applications and
gaining more feedback from customers, the NEAs Central
Division of Technology decided to design a new optimized
frame for the midstream service: the 560hs.
The team decided on the need for a compact compres-
sor but with high rod load capabilities to pair easily with
the larger engines of this industry, Lesak said. The deci-
sion was taken to utilize the crankshaft, main bearings,
crosshead and piston rod derived from an existing and
proven API 618 running gear to handle higher loads, but
with fewer throws. These features, along with the robust
nodular iron crankcase, enable the 560hs to handle higher
gas and inertial loads.
NEA utilized its team of engineers and designers in Ger-
many and collaborated with the NEA USA division to de-
velop the product specification.
The 560hs will have the typical NEA feature of a one-
piece frame casting including the crosshead. The original
intention of the one-piece frame construction is to ensure
COMPRESSORtech2
a perfect perpendicularity of the rod axis compared to the
crankshaft axis.
Since alignment of the frame is the most important step
in the packaging process, a one-piece design eliminates
wasted labor aligning bolted joints and ensures a true per-
pendicularity and flatness in reference to the feet and main
bearing journals, Lesak said. Such a robust casting pre-
vents frame twisting as well.
Stringent FEA studies by NEA in Germany have proven this
frame design to be the preferred option for both safety and
cost savings. The one-piece frame eliminates bolting and gas-
kets between the frame and crosshead distance piece.
Also, the main bearings feature a split design in the
90or vertical arrangement, Lesak said. NEA R&D stud-
ied bearing simulations and found this increased reliability
when compared to a conventional split in the 180 position.
This design, along with the tri-metal material, maximizes
strength of the bearing and its operational lifetime.
In addition, the new frame has an improved design of
the foot mounts for skid installation. To ease transportation,
width limits were also considered. The length of the four-
crank frame enables transportation without special road
permits with installed cylinders and distance pieces.
Lesak said NEAs philosophy has always been to guar-
antee a quick exchange of parts. Some of these parts have
constant wear, such as piston rings, packing rings or cyl-
inder bores and are known as routine spare parts. Other
continued on page 14
OCTOBER 2017 13
components are not usually viewed as routine spare
parts, but can be subject to wear under unintended
conditions. With that philosophy in mind, the 560hs
is made with a crosshead liner that is easily replace-
able. In the unlikely occurrence that a major damage
event happens to the crosshead, the liner ensures
the crankcase is protected.
NEAs cylinder lineup is customizable and able
to maximize the flow in the most efficient way. Power
losses are minimized by combining optimized compres-
sor valve selections, cylinder clearances and flow paths.
To minimize gas leakage or fugitive emissions under all op-
erating conditions, optimized pressure packing designs are
incorporated. Finally, the complete cylinder line can be sup-
plied in air-cooled or liquid-cooled design.
The company cooperates in component design with
Stasskol, a leading manufacturer of sealing elements for
oscillating and rotating systems with operations in Germany n A carryover feature of NEAs API 618 compressor lineup is the
and Texas and part of the NEA Group. hydraulic bolting of all dynamically stressed connections ensure
Hydraulic bolting has been a standard feature on the joint strength, ease of maintenance and safety.

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 long-stroke, large-horsepower NEA API 618 medium to high-speed compressor market, said Scott
compressors for many years, and the 560hs DeBaldo, president of Neuman & Esser USA Inc. We
is no different. look forward to serving our customers and gaining new
Hydraulic bolting improves joint strength, opportunities to prove that basic reliability starts with ro-
ease of maintenance and, most importantly, bust design. CT2
safety, Lesak said.
Accurate bolt loading
with speed and unifor-
mity is a cost savings
highlight of this compres-
sor. Easy-to-handle tooling
and the elimination of pinch
points increase the safety rating.
The 560hs has hydraulic bolting
on all dynamically loaded connec-
tions. The most critical connection
is the piston rod to crosshead, which
has the highest load concentration
under pure dynamic conditions, Le-
sak said. In addition, this connection
must be disconnected over the years
when maintenance on wear parts is
required. A reproducible, narrow tol-
erance connection is vital for the per-
formance of the machine.
The connecting rod bearing on
the big end and all crank bearings
will have their best performance and
reliability when they are equally sup-
ported on their circumference, which
is ensured by the bolting tension,
Lesak said. Finally and again for
safety reasons, the distance piece
to frame connection, the cylinder
to distance piece and anchor point
connections are all hydraulically
bolted up to 17,400 psi (1200 bar).
NEA will supply the 560hs as a
bare shaft compressor to select
packagers or as a packaged system
designed by NEA Sales and Appli-
cation Centers worldwide. Standard
packages compliant to ISO 13631
will be offered, but customized pack-
ages are NEAs core competence.
The development and introduction
of the 560hs demonstrates the com-
mitment of Neuman & Esser Group
to the needs of the North American

COMPRESSORtech2 OCTOBER 2017 15

Beyond Basic
Niche compressor packager packs a lot into consolidated campus
n Basic Compressions 37 acre (15 ha)
facility in eastern Houston, Texas, is
convenient to major roadways and the
Houston Ship Channel.
BY MARK THAYER
W
ith a name like Basic Compression Inc., you
might not expect this compressor packager to
offer much more than a few fundamental servic-
es. But Basic is a niche compression expert with a full array
of competencies, including engineering, procurement and
construction (EPC) capabilities.
Cradle to grave, is what we like to say, said James La-
Combe, vice president of Basic Compression. Were able to
control every element of the packages we build and refurbish.
We can take care of the fabrication of the compressor
package, including process vessels, piping, skid, instru-
mentation, painting, assembly and factory acceptance
testing. We maintain a fleet of heavy haul trucks and
trailers to deliver to location and perform the installation,
startup and commissioning.
LaCombe said Basic is a full channel partner of Baker
16 OCTOBER 2017
Hughes, a GE Company, giving them access to their high-
speed reciprocating compressors (Gemini and Superior),
slow-speed Ajax compressors, Waukesha and Superior
engines and GEs complete product line. GE Capital also
provides financing for their products.
Basic can also package or refurbish Cat-Ariel configura-
tions or equipment from just about any of the compressor
original equipment manufacturers (OEMs).
The company has found success refurbishing idle com-
pression packages. Theres quality used equipment out
there, LaCombe said. Its not real old and its in fairly good
shape. The downturn in the industry just kind of set every-
thing idle for a while.
Revamps are attractive to some customers. Its con-
venient for them not have to deal with finding a used ma-
chine, going and inspecting it, picking up all the pieces
continued on page 18
COMPRESSORtech2
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 and bringing it to a facility, taking care
of whatever is needed to get it ready
for the new process conditions. We
do all that. They can basically give us
their concept, and well go out and find
something, give them a few choices
and recommendations. They pick one,
we give them a price that is all-inclusive
freight, reconditioning, startup and
commissioning, even a maintenance
contract if required.
Packagers like Basic have seen a
sharp increase in demand this year.
I think people were planning through
2015 and 2016 and not willing to com-
mit, LaCombe said. All of a sudden,
n In addition to compressor package fabrication and refurbishing, Basic offers installa- the end of the year came, things seem
tion, startup and commissioning service. to have stabilized, the election passed
and there were no big financial upheav-
als. I think people feel like its worth
taking the risk now. All of these things
that they have been holding off doing
everybodys wanting to do these things
right now at the same time.
Basic Compression is a stand-alone
company sitting on a 37 acres (15 ha)
complex with their three other compa-
nies, Basic Equipment, Basic Logistics
and Xtreme High Performance Coatings.
Basic Equipment was founded in the late
1980s when Thomas Balke and James
Smith, who had been supplying bearings
and other essentials to refineries and
plants in Houston, Texas, and formed Ba-
sic Equipment & Supply.
n Basic produces new and refurbished compressor packages to meet API standards. Basic Equipment gradually expanded
its services to become a full-fledged
EPC firm specializing in modular refin-
eries, compressor packages and drill-
ing rigs. Basic Compression, like the
other companies in the group, began as
a service within Basic Equipment, de-
veloping expertise until it could function
successfully as separate companies.
LaCombe said Basic began working
with compression equipment around 27
years ago. He joined the company five
years ago and, drawing on his experi-
ence at some the largest packagers in
Houston, helped develop the compres-
sion business full time.
The idea all along was that when
we got things right, wed split the com-
pany off and have it stand on its own,
LaCombe said. That happened early
n Basic Compression partners with Basic Equipment, which has EPC capabilities. 2016. We started this new entity during

18 OCTOBER 2017 COMPRESSORtech2

a pretty bleak time in our industry. It was not real great at
first. We picked up enough work to sustain us, but due to
the economy, we werent doing well until about the end of
last year. We picked up a couple of good jobs that gave us
a good start.
Weve done some unique packages in the last year. We
tend to do jobs that are a bit out of the ordinary, not just the
standard cookie-cutter packages. We do those too, but the
ones we specialize in are the ones that are unique. Larger
packagers tend to not want do those because it interrupts
their product line flow. So well take these one-offs and build
them. Were quite happy doing that.
Basic Compression primarily packages reciprocating
compressors, but it has done other projects such as va-
por recovery units or jacket water and lube-oil consoles as
part of larger projects parts for larger systems. Size-wise,
weve done as small as 20 hp (15 kW) and as large as 5000
hp (3700 kW), though we could do larger, six-throw com-
pressor packages, LaCombe said. We could go up to the
OEMs maximum rating.
Basic Compression got a boost from the drilling in-
dustry as business has been slowly recovering. Theyre
knocking the dust off those old drilling rigs, said Eugene
Eddy, business development manager at Basic Equip-
ment. Rig counts are up in the U.S., with a high percent-
age right here in Texas. You get everything set up and
the production follows, which means a boost in the need
for compression.
Eddy said the relationship between the two companies
provides good opportunities for each other. One project
started out as a compressor sale, but the customer asked
us to also build a metering skid, piping, do the field installa-
tion, startup and commissioning, he said. Basic Compa-
nies work together. The compressor guys set the unit and
prepped for startup, and the equipment guys did the piping
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Packages prepared by the company can meet API stan- maintenance costs and improving efficiency. The ZVI piston-style
dards (e.g., 11P, 618, 14C) for use in pipelines, storage, gas unloader valve can be used in all brands of compressors, at any
gathering or gas lift applications, as well as CNG, CO2, acid
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reinjection. Certifications include ISO9001:2008, API QMS
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Div 1, U, R, and NB Registration.
LaCombe said that while the company is enjoying steady
growth, they are content to fill a small but important position
in the industry. Maybe well never be one of the biggest
packagers, but we are well known as a high-quality com-
pressor packager and a company that does high-quality
work on refurbishing that fits a niche, he said. CT2 WWW.ZAHROOFVALVES.COM
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COMPRESSORtech2 +1 713.554.2678
(Complete) Compression
Service Technology
CST grows from small service provider to full compression system
engineering company in 15-year span

BY ROBERTA PRANDI

C
ompression Service Technology (CST) was found-
ed in Florence, Italy, in 2002. The company, staffed
initially with four people, worked as a service-
engineering provider mainly to Nuovo Pignone (now Baker
Hughes, a GE Company) for reciprocating compressors.
The first turnaround for the company happened in
2004 when Allesandro Taversari, who had just retired as
the general manager for rotating machines at Nuovo
Pignone, joined CST. He then started the process of
transitioning the company into an independent service-
engineering provider.
One of Traversaris first endeavors was to set up a re-
mote monitoring and diagnostic service for reciprocating
compressors. Then, in 2005, CST started with its own de-
sign of machine components, mainly for reciprocating com-
pressors. A few years later, the company designed its first
compression package for storing natural gas underground.
At first, CST used existing simulation software for design-
ing components. In 2010, however, the company developed
its own proprietary software for performance simulation, fol-
lowed by software for pressure pulsation, vibration and ro-
tordynamic analyses (including torsional, lateral, modal and
stability analysis). Today, the companys software arsenal
includes finite element analysis (FEA), computational fluid n The operation of reciprocating compressor systems generates
dynamics (CFD), fluid-structure interaction (FSI), failure reciprocating forces and pressure pulsations. These can lead to
mode analysis, acoustic studies, bearing stress analysis vibration issues with potential failures.
and virtual prototyping.
Alessandro Traversari, now CSTs managing director, bill of material (BOM), balance of plant (BOP), testing and
said that another milestone came in 2011, when the com- supervision and total project management.
pany started its consultative services and troubleshooting Our company is divided into four main divisions: Ma-
for turbomachinery. chine Design, System Engineering and Construction,
This includes centrifugal compressors, steam and gas Service and Remote Diagnostic, and Research and De-
turbines and centrifugal pumps, which soon brought us also velopment, Traversari said. Thanks also to the integra-
to the design of machine components for centrifugal com- tion with highly qualified partners, technical universities,
pressors, he said. The latest step was to add to the com- high-performance computing centers and international
panys competences the design and execution of complete regulatory bodies, nowadays, CST is capable of offering
compressor system projects. full-scope customer support from the conceptual design to
CSTs complete compressor system projects is a com- the final project execution, and on to troubleshooting, re-
prehensive service including engineering, with piping mote monitoring and diagnostic, revamping, conversions,
acoustical and structural studies, instrumentation and con- upgrades, asset life-cycle management, site service and
trol, up to material requisition, procurement specification, field supervision.
continued on page 22

20 OCTOBER 2017 COMPRESSORtech2

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n To solve vibration issues at
an LDPE plant, CST carried out
an intervention to the cooler and
the piping system near it. Shown
here are the modifications in-
troduced to the cooler structure
after FEM analysis.

One recent example of the comprehensive industrial Nearly all of the vibration values on the piping system also
approach that CST adopted was solving a serious vibra- fell below the recommended correction values. Lastly, the
tion issue that occurred at a low-density polyethylene new measured values were very close to the predicted vi-
(LDPE) plant. bration values from the FEM analysis.
At the plant, high vibration issues were breaking pipes In the span of 15 years, CST has transformed from a lo-
and causing welding failures, actions that would occur ev- cal maintenance-engineering provider into an international
ery three to four months over several years. Vibrations oc- player for critical machine applications in oil & gas and oth-
curred on a high-pressure line that normally operated at er industrial sectors. At the start, CST saw about 90% of its
around 14,500 psi (100 Mpa), and reached values around sales occurried in Italy. This year, the 50-person company
3.9 ips (100 mm/s) root mean square (rms) on the piping expects 50% of sales to come from foreign markets. CT2
system and even more than 7.9 ips (200 mm/s) rms on the
cooler structure.
CST started with an on-site survey, analyzing the piping
system, collecting data and anaylzing the failure history.
The company discovered that the interstage cooler and
nearby piping were the most susceptible to vibration.
The proposed solution had to be implemented during the
next 10-day plant maintenance outage, which ruled out any
drastic changes in the plants layout. CSTs solution cov-
ered two main areas: the piping system near the cooler and
the cooler itself.
CST, using the results of a dynamic forced response fi-
nite element method (FEM) analysis, studied the feasibility
of new supports and soon determined their optimal posi-
tions. The company also used the vibration measurements
to find the areas where stiffer supports were necessary.
Many of the existing supports needed reinforcements. High
damping rubber pads were also added between the sup-
ports and piping. In order to achieve the highest damping
effect, CST applied the appropriate tightening torque on the
support bolts.
Additionally, CST also reinforced the cooler structure and
foundation. The FEM analysis encouraged CST to design a
new stiffening structure for the cooler and inject a flowable
fill concrete into the foundation.
At the end of this set of corrective actions, a frequency
vibration measurement campaign took place to verify the
effectiveness of the modifications. The study showed sig- n Italy-based CST expects to reach this year 50% of sales from
nificant positive outcomes. First, the overall vibration on the foreign markets. Its international team has the capability of inter-
cooler was reduced up to 90% in the most critical points. vening quickly for any project all around the world.

22 OCTOBER 2017 COMPRESSORtech2

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Trash Compactors And Old TVs
How Charlie Irwin made long-stroke, large-pulse,
gas-lift compression work

C
harlie Irwin is just your average American who loves
motorcycles, has filed five patents, developed paint
coatings that were used on the lunar lander and
rover, writes his own control software and is fortunate not
to have been arrested for building and launching his own
rockets from his backyard in Houston, Texas, during the
space-race era. He, with the help of packager Bob Clark,
owner of Clark Compression, is also the man trying to make
the use of hydraulic compressors the go-to for gas lift and
well-bore treatment.

The need
Though he had been in the gas compression industry
for decades, beginning as a field serviceman with no train-
ing and learning the trade through books, Irwins foray into
hydraulic compression didnt begin until the late 1990s. In
1998, he took his dream job to be a field operator in Orla,
Texas, as he took over as president of LenOp.
At the time, Orla had a population of three, and I made
it four, Irwin said.
The job turned out to be a nightmare, but not because
Orla is a modern-day ghost town. Irwin was doing gas lift-
ing, but wet gas was damaging compressors.
I decided I was going to solve the problem, Irwin said. I
started looking for compressor frames to work with, but I could
not buy anything new or used. CSI and especially Hanover,
were buying everything back then. Nothing was available.
Irwin had to search for something besides high-speed
compressors. He remembered seeing a Universal Com-
pression hydraulic compressor back in 1981 and tried to
buy one, but they had stopped making them, plus, they had
significant problems. Weatherford had also made hydrau-
lic compressors, but they didnt work for Irwins purposes,
though, some did work as intensifiers.
With nothing readily available, Irwin decided he would
just build his own compressor. He had experience packag-
ing and writing the sizing programs for natural gas compres-
sors when he worked for Energy Industries in the 1990s,
and had built separators for Surface Equipment. Irwin had
the necessary knowledge.
Designing really wasnt the issue; it was more about what
was available to work with, Irwin said. However, he didnt
instantly find success. Irwins first design was so obviously
going to fail, that he never even built it. If he was going to
succeed with a hydraulic compressor design, it was going
to have to be significantly different than its predecessors in
the industry. So Irwin began to think outside tradition.
n A first generation backwash production unit (BPU), appropri-
ately dubbed the green machine.
Curious inspiration
I used to work in the paint industry, and outside they had
a big trash compactor. I knew how it worked and decided to
try that technique, Irwin said.
The trash compactor technique was the first major dif-
ference from other compressors because it uses variable
stroke lengths. Previous hydraulic compressor designs
pushed the piston full-stroke every time, which became a
problem when any fluid got in the cylinder. The machine
would stall and shut down until someone came and fixed
it. Even without a fluid problem, if the gas pressure was too
high, the compressor would run out of power before it could
reach the end of the stroke.
But with a trash compactor, it didnt matter how much trash
was in the bin; or, in this case, how much gas, fluid or both
got into the cylinder. The stroke wasnt controlled by the gas
pressure in the cylinder or a set distance it was controlled
by the hydraulic pressure controlling the ram. That meant
that as pressure inside the cylinder increased, regardless
of the reason, it created more hydraulic pressure needed to
push the piston. Once that hydraulic pressure reached a set
point, the stroke would stop pushing forward and return with-
out the need to travel the full length of the cylinder.
In the high-speed compressor industry we always
dreamed of a rubber cylinder that could change size eas-
ily, Irwin said. And all of the sudden I had one that I could
change the stroke on. And it did it by itself.
continued on page 26

24 OCTOBER 2017 COMPRESSORtech2

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 Having the stroke controlled by hydraulic pressure and
not gas pressure or distance was a breakthrough in making
Irwins compressor idea work, but there was still another,
perhaps bigger, problem automated control.
When you have a liquid pushing a gas, the gas is nice
and spongy, but the liquid is very turbulent inside the hy-
draulic cylinder, Irwin said. The piston moves in tiny little
jerks all the time, and this wreaks havoc on any kind of
controls. All of the modern (sensors) are polling in many
microsecond intervals, and all of your current sensors avail-
able cannot stand all the millions of cycles of the piston
actually moving in tiny jerking motions. We tried PLCs and
every type of electronic and mechanical relay for control.
The best we could do was about three days of run time. And
a lot of times it was down to five minutes. That was the big
hurdle. We could get the mechanical function to work, but
the controls would get destroyed.
Once again, it would be outside-the-box thinking using
knowledge of a technology that has been obsolete for de-
cades to make his compressor controls work. According to
Irwin, the secret sauce to making hydraulic compression
has something to do with old TVs.
I grew up in the 50s and 60s. Radio and TV technology
was still tube-type back then, and was just starting to move
into the transistor era. I had a cousin who had a radio and
television repair shop. And for years I went over to his shop
and watched him work on stuff, and he taught me all about
it and let me have stuff to work on. And yes, I got zapped a
few times. He didnt tell me about those capacitor things; I
had to learn about that myself. I got to where I could fix
TVs. I was 13-years-old repairing televisions.
So after a long time of not finding anyone who could
solve my (control) problem, I started looking at a lot of the
chips that were available. And I realized I could use some
old (TV) technology techniques to lie to the chips. That al-
lowed me to develop a control board that works beautifully
with this technology and has no problems with the pulsing
action. Its a little bitty module and it controls a set of bigger
heavy-duty relays.
Exactly how the module works, Irwin and Clark will not
say. However, its not likely there are too many interested
parties who could figure it out.
There arent too many old people like me left alive out
there who understood the old technology, Irwin said.
With the control module in place, Irwin and company
were ready to get their compressors to work.
Surprise benefits
While the trash-compactor style of compression and Ir-
wins unique control module are the key components to
making hydraulic compression work, the compressors
themselves also comprise some novel features.
The first generation compressor, a backwash produc-
tion unit (BPU), lovingly dubbed the green machine,
 n Figure 2. Backwash production unit flow diagram.

was built in 2001 (Figure 1). This prototype, as well as all
of Irwins designs, are manufactured by Bowers Equip-
ment in Houston. Patents are held by BI-Comp LLC
(Bowers/Irwin Compression).
The two-stage design comprised two long compression
cylinders inside one large separator unit. The idea behind
the green machine is that the oil and water coming into the
separator from the well would act as a coolant for the internal
compression cylinders. The heat from compression would
also help stimulate the oil/water separation (Figure 2).
continued on page 28

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 A heater treater, separator and compressor were now all
in one machine on one fairly portable skid.
During the first field test of the green machine, a few
problems arose, but more benefits were discovered. To test
the compressor, Irwin and two partners bought an Expro
Americas oil well in Buffalo, Texas, that had been dormant
since 1996 with the plunger still left in the well. Before being
shut in, the well had produced one to two barrels per day,
but with the well fluid containing paraffin and low wellhead
pressure, the plunger would routinely become stuck. The
well was set to be plugged and abandoned.
In 2003, Irwins team took their prototype to the well, fired
it up, and it broke immediately.
I had forgot to anticipate thermal expansion inside the
hydraulic cylinders, Irwin said. I thought the fluids would
take care of the temperatures and everything would heat up
at the same rate. It didnt.
The problem was solved by making nearly all the compo-
nents free-floating. The cylinders, pistons and rods were all
loose inside the large cylinder. Nothing was rigidly attached
other than the flange for the hydraulic oil to enter and the
flange for the gas to discharge.
That was a really unique part (of the design), Irwin said.
It took the patent office a couple of years to understand it
Vessels Are Not Piping: US$600 For A US$60 Part
Irwin, Clark share story of compressor inspection gone wrong in Mexico
C
harlie Irwin: I build ASME code vessels. I do all kinds
of stuff and theyre all challenges and fun for me. And
usually, I run into PEs who dont know anything.
They have degrees, but they just dont have any experience.
But theyre very sharp people and learn very quickly.
We go to Mexico, and to get the machine in, they had to
certify the safety of it. So they send out this PE, and I thought,
Oh boy, another PE. But boy, this guy knew his stuff.
Bob Clark: The deal was they told (the PE), Youre here
to look at a gas compressor.
Irwin: So hes looking at the machine, and we walked
him through it and he understood it, no problem at all. But
he asked, What codes did you build it to? I was afraid he
was going to ask that question because there are no codes
that directly apply to it because its a hydraulic cylinder
but its also a gas compressor.
I told him I designed the cylinders per ASME code, Sec-
tion VIII and Division 1. I couldnt find any codes that apply
to the hydraulics, so I used the same thing.
We ran the machine a little for him and we get around
to the filter on the front of the trailer that was going to filter
the gas that P-Mex was going to give us to run the machine
28 OCTOBER 2017
and give me a patent on it. It took their engineering group a
long time to see how it could be functional, but by that time
we already had them out in the field and running.
With the new BPU prototype, a 36-hour test was con-
ducted in which the well was stimulated. The result was the
production of 42 barrels of oil.
Irwins idea, which was originally intended as a solution for
gas lifting, worked, but there were benefits associated with
the long stroke and large gas pulses he had not anticipated.
(The pulse into the bottom of the well) creates a wave
back into the formation and it moves stuff around, Irwin
said. So the permeability which is getting blocked by
the fines and the paraffin and asphaltines, as they are al-
ways moving toward the well-bore that stuff gets moved
around and cleared up. What we also didnt know was go-
ing on is that this wet gas is acting as a solvent to clean up
the well bore. It would be like using barsol or gasoline to
scrub the tubulars down. And with the gas being hot, it was
also holding water that was salt-free, even though salt-water
came up out of the well. So now you have hot water vapor
going into the well that is being absorbed by the salts.
Essentially, the BPU was stimulating and cleaning the well
and formation at the same time. It was complete well treat-
ment. But Irwins packager, Bob Clark, wasnt completely
continued on page 30
with. And he looks at the filter and says, I see a problem.
See the code stamp U on the side of this filter?
I said, Yeah, I did that. Im an ASME shop, I stamped it.
He said, Thats the problem. You called it a vessel. You
should have called it piping and then you wouldnt have a
problem. Wheres your relief valve?
I had a connection for a relief valve. I gave the filter to
Bob, but being a manufacturer of equipment like that youre
not required to supply the relief valve, only the connection.
And we had not screwed a dang relief valve on to that filter.
Everything else was protected because it was hydraulics.
But because I had a code stamp on that if it would have
been a pipe, it would have been fine it made it a vessel.
If I would have torn the stamp off and called it piping we
would have been fine!
The PE told me to get a relief valve on it and send a pic-
ture and he would approve it.
Clark: But we were in Southern Mexico. We could not
find a relief valve in any shop. I had to have my son Fred
go to Odessa, Texas, find one and FedEx it. We waited two
extra days for a $60 relief valve; it cost us $600 to get it
there. CT2
COMPRESSORtech2
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 satisfied. Although more than 20 BPUs have been built and sold, they are large,
heavy and not very portable. Clark asked for a portable compressor that could be
taken from well to well for treatment.

No mullets allowed
In 2006, Irwin designed his second-generation compressor, the Multistage Multi-
phase Unitized Linear Liquid Entrained-Gas Transfer compressor, or the MMULLET.
Not wanting the equipment to share its name with an outdated haircut or a fish, Clark
renamed the MMULLET as simply hydraulic gas compressor (HGC) (Figure 3).

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n Figure 3. The HGC or MMULLET compressor.

Increase reliability and life
of divider blocks, valve The HGC is a portable, two-stage machine with the compression cylinders
plates, seals and other facing back-to-back inside one long cylinder as opposed to adjacent positioning
compressor components inside a large separator cylinder. Stage one has a stroke of 80 in. (2032 mm) and
through real-time
Minimize precision monitoring stage two has a stroke length of 20 in. (508 mm); both stages use 10 in. (254
Repairs of oil quality mm) pistons, with stage one being pushed by a 3.25 in. (82.55 mm) ram and
and cleanliness stage two pushed by a 6 in. (152.4 mm) ram.
When gas pressures allow the machine to run full-stroke distances, the ma-
chine runs at about 10 rpm. When gas pressures inside the cylinder are high,
increasing the hydraulic pressure needed to push the piston, the machine will run
Reduce O&M costs and shorter, more frequent strokes. It is always self-adjusting for maximum efficiency.

$ increase revenue by
optimizing compressor
efficiency and minim-
izing losses due to
The HGC runs with an inlet pressure of around 50 psig (3.5 barg) maximum
operating gas discharge pressure of about 1100 psig (76 barg). According to Irwin,
such a jump in pressure in only two stages would not work in high-speed compres-
Reduce O&M excess oil lube rate sion. But the slow strokes, low rpm and Ryton rings allow the hydraulic compres-
Costs and valve plate stiction sors to operate with a consistent temperature of up to 450F (232C) trouble-free.
Irwins third-model compressor is called the heat-exchange compressor (HEC).
It was designed with gas flooding in mind and called for higher temperatures and
pressures, which meant longer strokes than the HGC could provide. While the
Tightly control force- HGC was very portable, its stroke was limited by having both hydraulic cylinders
feed lube rate to back-to-back. In order to get longer strokes, Irwin essentially took the adjacent
minimize the conse-
cylinders inside the BPU out of the separator (Figure 4). The HEC is available as a
quences of over
or under lubrication three-stage design with a discharge pressure of 3000 psig (207 barg).
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Its not quite as portable as the HGC, so we gave up something there, Irwin said.
But in return, we gained the ability to go to much higher ratios and higher capacities.
We also dont want to cycle this thing too fast, because then we lose the effect
of our pulse. Its like patting your hand in a bathtub full of water. You can pat your
hand a lot and get little waves, but thats not what we want. We want big waves.

COMPRESSORtech2
 The slower you go and bigger you go, the bigger wave you
have and the better it affects the formation.
To maximize the pulsing effect even more, Irwin reluc-
tantly designed yet another hydraulic compressor.
(The fourth-generation compressor) is something that I
did not want to build, Irwin said. I felt it was falling into
the same trap that other hydraulic compressors did. I really
thought it was going to have some issues that were going
to be safety concerns. But I was wrong. I put safeties inside
n Figure 5. A standard cylinder (top) and step cylinder (bottom) of
a single-stage, double acting compressor.
of it to protect myself, and they did exactly what they were
supposed to do and broke immediately. But then we real-
ized that there is no real problem.
The fourth-generation compressor is a single-stage,
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double-acting compressor that uses inlet gas pressure to
assist the hydraulics in moving the pistons. It is intended
for compressed natural gas, and is able to tolerate high
pressures and even phase-change in the cylinder.
The pistons are each at the end of a single rod (Figure 5).
The inlet gas coming into one cylinder helps to push the pis-
ton that is compressing on the opposite end. This allows the
compressor to do more work because the hydraulic pressure
is lower relative to the gas it is compressing due to the gas
assist, which means higher discharge pressures and very
high volumetric flow during a pulse.
For example, the average amount of total flow each day
might only be 700 MCFD (19,800 m3/d), but during a pulse,
it is the equivalent of a machine with a flow rate of 2.6
MMCFD (73,600 m3/d).
The message is our pressure pulsing effect, Clark said.
We call it the elastic wave. Oil companies want to keep
everything in the formation up and moving in solution; they
dont want it to screen out.
According to Irwin and Clark, this message is being
heard loud-and-clear in Colombia, Venezuela and Mexico,
and interest is growing in the United States as well. And,
as important as interest is, Irwin and Clark are in a viable
position to handle the growth.
We are able to work with distributors today who have the
financial backing to go out and support the equipment. CT2
All trademarks, logos and symbols are exclusive objects to the right of their owners and are used for reference purpose only.
Designed and manufactured in Europe
Seals Under Fire
Roxtec test lab will be operational in 2018
n By investing in a new fire test lab, Roxtec paves the way for
further growth.
n Roxtec can fire-test cable and pipe transits according to specific
requirements. Customers and certifying authorities can be invited
to witness tests with specific products for specific applications.
n Roxtecs Multidiameter pipe and cable seals prevent threats
from passing around the pipe or cable through a barrier. The size
can be adjusted thanks to removable layers.
32 OCTOBER 2017
BY BO SVENSSON
R
oxtec Group, a swedish provider of modular-based
cable and pipe seals, announced a new fire test lab-
oratory in Karlskrona, Sweden.
Roxtecs seals wrap securely around cables and pipes,
allowing them to pass through a barrier such as a wall, but
preventing threats such as fire, gas, water, pressure and
electromagnetic energy to pass.
The companys invention for adaptability to cables and pipes
of different sizes, Multidiameter, is based on sealing modules
with removable rubber layers and allows for a perfect sealing,
regardless of the outside dimension of the cable or pipe.
In order to meet the increasing demand for product test-
ing and pave the way for continuous growth, the company is
now building a new fire test laboratory in Karlskrona, Swe-
den. Roxtec said the test facility would be ready in 2018.
The Roxtec sealing system is used all over the world by
large companies such as Siemens and GE, to protect life
and secure operations, said Mikael Helmerson, CEO, Rox-
tec Group. Owners and contractors within everything from
shipbuilding and construction to renewable energy rely on
the seals, which are tested and certified to protect against
multiple risk factors, including fire.
We see a lot of opportunities for our cable and pipe tran-
sits and are growing in many sectors, Helmerson said. At
the same time, we keep adding safety solutions for use in
new applications. This intensive development makes us
perform more fire protection tests than ever before. With
our new fire laboratory we increase our capacity and pre-
pare ourselves for further growth.
The 5800 sq.ft. (540 m2) two-floor fire lab will reflect this
in all aspects. It will be built at the Roxtec global headquar-
ters, close to the material test lab and the product develop-
ment and production facilities. It will help ensure an efficient
workflow, a good working environment and a sustainable
testing procedure.
The lab will enable Roxtec to set up tests according to
most national and international standards. We perform fire
tests in order to develop our transits and ensure quality, but
also to be able to invite customers and certifying authorities
to witness tests with specific products for specific applica-
tions, said Ulf Hildingsson, manager, technical and com-
mercial support at Roxtec.
The Roxtec technology simplifies design, speeds up
installation and reduces the need for stock, material and
logistics, and provides spare capacity for upgrades, Helm-
erson said. We serve and support customers in more than
80 markets through subsidiaries and distributors. CT2
COMPRESSORtech2
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Outsourced Compressor
Bearing Maintenance
French sliding bearing specialist offers preventive
maintenance for gas compressors

BY ROBERTA PRANDI

T
he Socit dApplication du Mtal Rouge (SAMR),
a specialist in multimetal sliding bearings located
in Troyes en Champagne, France, has an interest-
ing company history. SAMR was founded in 1947 by Jules
Coste to cope with the demand of sliding bearings to repair
engines after World War II.
Coste succeeded in the production of sliding bearings
thanks to the creation of a homogeneous fusion of two im-
miscible materials and mastering the delicate procedure
of the application of anti-friction material by centrifugation.
The company strived and developed rapidly in the automo-
tive and truck markets.
Nowadays, the French manufacturer is a worldwide
supplier with international operations and has extended
its field of activities by adding the installation and main-
tenance of rotating machines, building on its expertise
in sliding bearings. SAMR also offers training courses in
sliding bearing technology.
One example of SAMR activity in the service and mainte-
nance field is the intervention for preventive maintenance of
the sliding bearings in five Dujardin gas-reciprocating com-
pressors at a coke plant in eastern France. During the plant
process, coke oven gas is generated, which is used also
as a source of energy; five compressors are used to supply
the gas directly to the thermal power plant located across
the coke facility.
SAMR reported that it was the first time the plant operator
outsourced maintenance to a compressor specialist. With n A specialist in multimetal sliding bearings, France-based SAMR
the intervention, aimed specifically at the compressors can manufacture bearings and all types of friction parts based on
sliding bearings, SAMR set up a complete program of pre- drawing designs or model prototypes.
ventive maintenance where each year a compressor was
stopped and serviced. All the machines in the plant have ponents, or to completely rebuild them. In both cases, the
been serviced in the span of five years. parts were machined by SAMR.
The maintenance operations carried out by SAMR con- A technical team from SAMR was present at the re-
sisted in checking the main bearings after the dismounting mounting of the bearings, and a number of checks were
of connecting rods, crossheads and crankshaft, specifically performed before putting the compressor back in operation.
carrying out a visual inspection, a metrological check of the SAMR said there were no failures in the first five years.
crankshaft and the bearings, a material check of the bear- In another example of outsourced preventive mainte-
ings, and a check of the bearings lift. nance, a research and development specialist company
If the bearings were found in order, they were cleaned, for aeronautic propulsion systems operated three Oerlikon
adjusted and placed back in their housing for a new opera- centrifugal compressors for specific tests. For a long time,
tional cycle of five years. If the bearings were damaged, the maintenance at this company was carried out by internal
parts were sent to the SAMR workshop. At that point, two specialized teams, until, gradually, maintenance started to
solutions were given to the customer: to repair the com- be outsourced.

34 OCTOBER 2017 COMPRESSORtech2

 When two of the compressors failed in the same period of
time, the company faced a standstill in its testing activities, and
SAMR technicians were contacted for an urgent intervention.
SAMR said bearings were dismantled and examined the
same day. The failure was found and the bearing was sent
to the SAMR workshop. After more checks and the neces-
sary repairs, SAMR technicians reassembled the bearings
and put the compressors back in operation.
According to SAMR, these compressors were manufac-
tured in 1954 and the owner still preferred to work with them
rather than adopting more recent machines.
To keep the compressors safely in service and avoid any
other shutdowns, it had been decided to set up a complete
program of preventive maintenance that includes service
for each unit every three years or after a defined number of
running hours. By servicing only one compressor at a time,
operation is not interrupted.
SAMR said some bearings suffer more than others, so
the company proposed to create a stock of semi-finished
raw bearings. At each maintenance intervention, this stock n SAMR offers its expertise in installation and maintenance of ro-
can be used and, in case of failure, a very quick reaction tating machines and training courses in sliding bearing technology.
is guaranteed.
SAMR can manufacture bearings and all types of fric- casting rooms for copper alloys (red metal) and babbitt
tion parts based on drawing designs or model prototypes alloys (white metal), high performing manufacturing ma-
by reverse engineering. The company said it could master chines, and an electrolytic deposit station.
all types of geometrical shapes: cylindrical, lemon, offset, The company is able to carry out nondestructive inspec-
multilobes, and pads and tilting pads, among others. tions with ultrasonic and penetrating tests. A metrological
SAMRs integrated production site is fully equipped with room is available for sizing and dimension controls. CT2

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Clash Of Compression Perspectives
Pipeline companies, public remain at odds on compressor stations
n Pipeline companies often modify compressor stations to mitigate environmental impacts and placate the public. The Hancock compres-
sor station, located in Delaware County, New York, will receive a booster pump upgrade to eliminate planned blowdowns and direct natural
gas back into the pipeline.
BY DJ SLATER
N
atural gas is expected to have a prominent pres-
ence in the future energy needs of the United
States. Despite a dip in production in 2016, the
U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) predicts natu-
ral gas production will average 73.3 Bcfd in 2017, which is 1
Bcfd higher than last years level. In 2018, that number will
jump 3.3 Bcfd higher than this years amount.
Demand isnt slowing down either. The EIA forecasts that
all monthly U.S. consumption levels in 2018 will be higher
than their 2017 counterparts. These trends have caught the
attention of pipeline companies, which continue to propose
and build pipelines within the shale plays, especially along
the East Coast.
It also has caught the publics attention, turning many
residents in affected communities into protesters with a ral-
lying cry: Not in my backyard! With the growing need for
pipelines and compressor stations and the swelling tide of
38 OCTOBER 2017
public opposition, education might be the unifying factor in
bringing about compromise between the sides.
Compressor stations play a critical role in the natural gas
pipeline network, helping move natural gas from producers
to end users, said Cathy Landry, vice president, communi-
cation for the Interstate Natural Gas Association of America
(INGAA). We believe that once the local community learns
about compressor stations and gets accurate information
about how they are built, how they work, what they do and
how they operate, concerns are generally alleviated.
Even though compressor stations have surfaced rapidly
in the United States over the past decade, the permitting
process is not designed for swift approval. Each compres-
sor station must adhere to the requirements of several fed-
eral and state agencies, along with state and local laws,
some of which surpass federal mandates.
The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), for
continued on page 40
COMPRESSORtech2
PRECISION
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example, determines the necessity of a compressor station
in a given area and also conducts an independent environ-
mental evaluation. For stations in noise-sensitive locations,
such as schools and homes, FERC requires sound levels
to measure at or below 55 dB(A). According to IAC Acous-
tics, a manufacturer of noise control products, 60 dB(A) is
equivalent to a conversation in a restaurant or hearing an
air conditioning unit at 100 ft. (30 m).
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) re-
quires any proposed compressor station to meet current
air quality standards. The EPA, along with local and state
agencies, also expects compressor stations to protect all
surface and groundwater, as well as wildlife and vegeta-
tion. A stations impact on the land it occupies must also
be minimal to gain favor from the EPA and similar agen-
cies. The Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Ad-
ministration (PHMSA) also has a say in the compressor
station approval process the station must be designed
and operated in a safe manner.
The permitting process is robust to protect the health
and safety of individuals living near a compressor station,
Landry said. Natural gas compressor stations must meet
all applicable federal regulations prior to and during con-
struction, and during the operation of the facilities.
Before the first shovel cracks the soil, the public has mul-
tiple opportunities and outlets to voice their opinions, said
([SHULHQFH5HOLDELOLW\,QWHJULW\
The AXH manufacturing complex consists of
six plants, totaling 559,100 SF on 67 acres.
Tamara Young-Allen of FERCs division of media relations.
Public meetings and environmental site reviews are two
ways for individuals to share their comments and concerns
in person.
Online, the public has even more avenues to send com-
ments to FERC regarding any proposed compressor station
or pipeline project. The e-Comment option allows individu-
als to provide brief remarks on a project in 6000 characters
or less. If they want to exceed that amount, FERCs e-Filing
option offers unlimited space, as well as the ability to attach
supporting files.
Individuals can also access all public documents on a com-
pressor station proposal by visiting FERCs e-Library. If some-
one wants to stay updated on a specific project, they can get
notifications from FERC through its e-Subscription option.
Getting actively involved in a projects proceedings is also
available to the public. To do this, an individual must file as
an intervenor through FERCs website. Intervenors are able
to participate in FERC hearings on a specific project, file
for a rehearing, file briefs and challenge the commissions
decision on a project.
All comments are treated with the same consideration
and weight, no matter the method provided, the source or
the number of times an issue or concern is raised by one
individual or many, Young-Allen said.
Though these outlets from FERC are available, they
havent stopped people from protesting
whenever a new compressor station
proposal surfaces. Millennium Pipeline
Co. knows this all too well. The com-
pany, whose natural gas pipeline runs
from Steuben to Rockland counties in
New York, dealt with its share of back-
lash when it brought its plans to FERC
in July 2011 to build a compressor sta-
tion in the Town of Minisink.
Public outcry soon followed, as did
the formation of the Stop the Minisink
Compressor Station (StopMCS) pro-
test group. Citing health concerns
and adverse effects on home values,
StopMCS wanted Millennium to build
its compressor station at an alterna-
tive site surrounded by 1289 acres
(522 ha) of hunting land.
Despite the suggestion, Millennium
built the US$50.9 million station, which
became operational in June 2013, on
the original site close to the Minisink
residents. Michelle Hook, director of
public relations for Millennium, said
her company heard the complaints, but
couldnt alter its plans because of the
complex nature of compressor stations
)D[ZZZD[KFRP and their locations.
When we choose a site, its the opti-

40 OCTOBER 2017 COMPRESSORtech2

mal location, Hook said. If you place the station too far away
(from other stations), you need more compression and larger
engines. If you place it too close, you put too much pressure
in one location.
Hook added that compressors stations are approved and
constructed based on need. Sometimes a compressor sta-
tion must be built near a residential area, and that usually
draws public criticism, she said. Pipeline companies have
to consider the collective needs of energy consumers in
these situations.
Four or five peoples opinions do not outweigh the de-
sires of those who need access to natural gas, Hook said.
If you always take the one or two nearby homeowners and
put their needs before those who need energy, you would
never get anything done.
Four years since the Minisink compressor station went
operational, the protests have decreased, but rumblings
from nearby residents havent stopped. The Southwest
Pennsylvania Environmental Health Project, a nonprofit en-
vironmental health organization, conducted a study on the
health effects of the compressor station on area residents.
Between Oct. 19 and Dec. 17, 2014, the organization
placed five consumer model particulate matter (PM 2.5)
monitors near area homes and collected health informa-
tion from eight families living within 0.9 miles (1.5 km)
of the station. Some residents also obtained volatile or-
ganic compound (VOC) samples using Summa canisters
on four occasions.
According to the study, 22 individuals reported respira-
tory problems, with six dealing with nosebleeds. Twelve
people reported headaches and 10 experienced skin rash-
es. The air quality monitors found that the hourly air quality
index ranged from 4 to 20 ug/m3. For perspective, the study
provided the hourly air quality index for the Newburgh, New
York, airport, which is about 32 mi. (51 km) from Minisink.
Those hourly levels were 6.4 ug/m3.
(The study) tells us that living near a compressor station
may harm your health in the short term and potentially in
the long term, said Celia Lewis, research and communica-
tions consultant with the environmental health organization.
More continuous monitoring and reporting of emissions is
needed at operating sites to determine the level of risk.
Even though FERC and other agencies ensure that com-
pressor stations follow environmental standards, Lewis
said that those regulations dont require the disclosure of
real-time emissions nor do the air quality standards take
into account the short-term emissions peaks from compres-
sor station blowdowns.
EHPs focus is on helping people protect the health of
their families when they find themselves in harms way,
Lewis said. It is apparent to us that their voices need to be
heard, and industry and regulatory agencies can be more
responsive and proactive in protecting peoples health.
Hook, however, said that the study used poor methods
to gather its conclusions, such as by using consumer air
quality monitors instead of EPA Federal Reference Method
continued on page 42

COMPRESSORtech2
 GAS COMPRESSION

High-Pressure
Gas End

In the Gas Compression Industry

n While the EPA requires any proposed compressor station to meet current air quality
Reliability is everything
standards, some people feel the standards arent strict enough or that companies that fail
to meet the standards arent held accountable.

(FRM) or Federal Equivalent Method (FEM) monitors. Consumer monitors, she

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said, are highly inaccurate compared with the EPA models.
While the protests didnt stop the Minisink compressor station, they can play
a role in halting a project. In the Township of Fenton, New York, a proposed
compressor and loading station is in flux following a lawsuit by the Chenango
Valley School District. In the lawsuit, the school district states the townships
planning board did not take the proper steps before approving the station, such
as conducting an environmental review of the project. NG Advantage is the com-
pany behind the proposal, which calls for a US$100 million facility that taps into
the Millennium pipeline and transports natural gas to customers via compressed
natural gas (CNG) trucks.
The lawsuit prompted a Broome County Supreme Court judge to halt the
stations construction, giving the school district and NG Advantage a chance to
present their cases before the court. As of early August, the judge has not made
a decision on whether to stop the project indefinitely or let construction resume.
While the waiting game continues, local residents are not sitting idle. They
have made appearances at township meetings and have expressed their con-
cerns to local media outlets. Those concerns range from increased traffic from
the CNG trucks to pollution. NG Advantage has stated that those claims are
inaccurate and that the spread of misinformation has put their project in jeopardy.
Misinformation appears to be the common enemy against any natural gas-
related project. While pipeline companies get a bad reputation in the public eye,
Hook said companies like Millennium do their best to be a good neighbor, even if
it doesnt convince everyone.
There will always be those who are anti-fossil fuel, Hook said. There are

2017 Sullair, LLC. All rights reserved. COMPRESSORtech2

 Those efforts havent swayed Walter Hang, who serves as president of the
environmental database firm known as Toxics Targeting. The firm collects envi-
ronmental data from local, state and federal government sources and shares it
with the public on its website.
Hang said the problem with natural gas operations is when an incident oc-
curs, such as a leak or spill, the resulting mess is usually not cleaned up to the
standards of the New York State Dept. of Environmental Conservation. The
firms website provides several examples of these incidents, such as a petro-
leum spill at the Borger compressor station in Ithaca, New York, in 1998. The
documentation reveals that the spill does not meet the departments current
cleanup standards.
continued on page 44

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Hook said her methods of thwarting
misinformation include being trans-
parent with the public, such as by pro-
viding tours of their facilities and shar-
ing scientist-backed health studies on
natural gas facilities. Millennium has
also been using radio and Facebook
advertisements to share information
on its projects.
While these efforts are helpful,
Millennium is taking them further. In
September, the company planned to
install a booster pump at the Minisink
compressor station. This technology Avoid Unplanned Downtime
prevents blowdowns by holding and
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emissions free, Hook said.
We work with gas compressor OEMs, packagers,
We do this to be environmentally operators and end users around the world to solve
compressor lubrication-related issues. And were ready to
conscious, she said. We also try to solve yours.
be a good neighbor. If we cut down
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COMPRESSORtech2 OCTOBER 2017 43

 After these incidents occur, the state authorities dont
handle it or clean it up properly, Hang said. That raises
profound concerns over the use of compressed gas.
Hang said there are better energy alternatives to natural
gas, which he hopes will gain more mainstream traction,
especially with government officials. While he doesnt think
natural gas operations will disappear anytime soon, Hang
said the proper safeguards must be in place to prevent fu-
ture incidents.
Until we achieve some kind of new standard of behavior
that is fully protective of environmental health, this industry
is going to get more scrutiny, he said.
The opposition to compressor stations doesnt seem to
be alleviating. In Franklin Township, New Jersey, Assembly-
man Joe Danielsen has crafted a resolution that opposes a
plan to build a compressor station within the area as part of
the Northeast Supply Enhancement Project.
Prime Movers
Baker Hughes, a GE company
Baker Hughes, a GE company, designs and provides a
wide portfolio of Customer Training solutions on the inte-
grated scope of supply (all rotating equipment, control and
auxiliary systems) to global customer basis. Classroom,
practical and on-the-job delivery methods are blended
with online, distance and 3-D virtual interactive training
sessions, injecting OEM expertise to excel in evolving
digital industry. Tailor-made learning pathways combine
technical, functional and leadership courses to achieve
operational excellence.
Imes
Imes, a Germany-based specialist in cylinder pressure
sensors for large-bore engines and
reciprocating compressors, has
opened a U.S.-based subsidiary,
Imes USA, in Abingdon, Virginia.
Dave Morris has been named
president of Imes USA. He has
represented the company in North
America since 2009.
Besides offering the companys
range of pressure sensors directly D. Morris
to the North American market,
Imes USA also hosts new facilities, such as an electronic
engine balancer for large-bore gas engines and an elec-
tronic pressure indicator for diesel engines.
Oxsensis
U.K.-based Oxensis, a manufacturer of optical sensors
used in compression, combustion and turbine applications,
has signed an agreement with Parker Aerospace to develop
aerospace engine sensor technology.
Together, the two companies will develop harsh-environment
44 OCTOBER 2017
In Weymouth, Massachusetts, a proposed compres-
sor station has drawn the ire of the community. An activ-
ist group, known as the Fore River Residents Against the
Compressor Station, warns the community through its web-
site, www.nocompressor.com, about the potential environ-
mental impacts of the station. The Weymouth Conservation
Commission has already denied a permit to Algonquin Gas
Transmission, a Spectra Energy subsidiary, to build the sta-
tion, and the Massachusetts governor has called on several
state agencies to evaluate the companys proposal.
Despite the backlash, Hook feels confident in the future of
compressor station proposals, especially with all the require-
ments and laws that ensure the safety of each building.
There are so many checks and balances in place, Hook
said. You dont hear about the planes that land. You hear
about the planes that crash. Thats the same with compres-
sor stations. CT2
instrumentation, including static and dynamic pressure and
temperature sensors for aerospace engine applications,
based on innovative fiber optic sensor technologies. These
include direct-mount sensors operating up to 1800F (982C)
that are already successfully deployed in land-based gas tur-
bine systems.
Oxsensis optical instrumentation addresses compres-
sor, combustion and turbine applications operating at
higher temperatures, nonelectrically, and often in new loca-
tions, extending engine capability and performance.
By combining our capabilities, together we will provide
dynamic pressure and temperature data that hasnt been
available previously, said Manuel Bajaksouzian, vice
president and general manager for Parkers Fluid Systems
Division. The challenge in providing reliable data from
engine environments can be significant; however, this is a
problem we are solving together.
McDermott
McDermott International Inc.,
an engineering, procurement and
construction firm, has appointed
John Freeman as senior vice
president, general counsel and
corporate secretary. He succeeds
Liane Hinrichs, who will retire from
the company at the end of the year.
Freeman has more than 30 J. Freeman
years of legal experience in both
the private and public sectors. His most recent position was
special advisor to the integration of Technip and FMC. Prior
to the merger of Technip and FMC, Freeman was group (cor-
porate) general counsel for Technip. Prior to joining Technip
in 2009, Freeman was with Baker Hughes, where he held a
number of different legal and compliance positions.
continued on page 55
COMPRESSORtech2
 Media
Baker Hughes, Condition Advanced Screw
GMRC a GE company Monitoring Compressors

The Gas Machinery
Research Council has
redesigned its website. True
to its name, gas machinery
research projects and
a resource library are
prominent features on the
site, along with event and
membership information
and training programs.
gmrc.org.
The newly formed com- Prftechniks Vibguard
pany, comprised of Baker condition monitoring system
Hughes and GE Oil & Gas, features 20 synchronous
the worlds first and only measurement channels
fullstream company, has and comes in a variety of
launched a new website. housing options. The unit
The site includes news, features Ethernet, Modbus
BHGE careers, investor and and TCP networking and
product information as well requires no active cooling.
a supplier portal. Its software performs
bhge.com continuous data recording
on every channel.
pruftechnik.com
Color-coded 3-D diagrams
in this Kobelco brochure
facilitate a quick under-
standing of its Advanced
Dry Screw Compressor
and Advanced Wet Screw
Compressor system
layouts. Skids are designed
to provide smaller footprints
than conventional screw
compressors.
kobelcocompressors.com

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Panacea Pursues Ideal Pistons
Dutch company aspires to take EFRC compressor research to market
BY ROBERTA PRANDI
C
yril Wentzel, founder of Panacea Piston Co., saw
an opportunity for the commercial application of a
new lightweight compressor piston design.
The concept for the new piston was the groundwork of a
pre-competitive research study by the European Forum For
Reciprocating Compressors (EFRC) R&D Working Group.
Results of this research were presented in a technical pa-
per at the 9th EFRC Conference in Vienna, Austria, in 2014.
Wentzel also co-authored a paper titled Closing The In-
novation Cycle In Lightweighting Compressor Piston Tech-
nology presented in 2016 at the 10th EFRC Conference.
The research around a new concept for lightweight pis-
tons in reciprocating compressors started as an exercise
in exploring the weight reduction potential of very heavy
crossheads by the EFRC R&D Working Group. Mass re-
duction of reciprocating components in general would of-
fer benefits in less vibration, higher machine capacity and
increased efficiency.
As it turned out, the crosshead proved not to be the
component on which to focus weight reduction efforts. The
crossheads structural complexity limits the potential for
mass reduction. The pistons, on the other hand, are signifi-
cantly heavier than the crosshead and piston rod, making
the weight reduction potential higher. The results of early
research evolved into the validation of a new hybrid mate-
rial concept to be used in lightweight pistons.
The initial results were presented in 2014, describing the
definition of the solid polymer piston (SPP) concept as a pos-
sible solution for lightweight piston construction, as well as the
characterization of polymer composite materials in fatigue.
SPP is a hybrid combination of metal parts and a compos-
ite polymer: controlled cavity polymer compound (CCPC).
Its potential for significant weight reduction in the study from
EFRC was identified with three key characteristics: a low
density core material that allows the efficient transfer of gas
pressure loads to the piston rod using a solid or pseudo-solid
core; the relative ease of consistent manufacture from one-
off pieces to series production; and affordable engineering
development sufficient to guarantee infinite fatigue life.
The SPP basically consists of three elements (Figure 1):
sleeve, shaft/hub, and core. The solid, low-density core of-
fers a simple load path from pressurized faces to the piston
rod. One design possibility that has been explored for larger
pistons (from 16 in. [0.4 m] diameter upward) is to design
a core with cavities cavity SPP (CSPP) to maintain
weight reduction despite the square cube law.
Shear stresses in this design are relatively low because the
46 OCTOBER 2017
n Figure 1. In this cutaway the Solid Polymer Piston concept is
shown with its three basic elements: sleeve, shaft/hub, and core.
load transfer area (via the shaft or hub) is large. The sleeve,
being well-supported by the core, can be shaped as desired
according to considerations of weight and manufacturing. A
choice for metal such as stainless steel or aluminum would
be obvious for several reasons, but not required in itself.
For lower values in the piston length-to-diameter ratio, a
fourth element may be introduced: a piston pressure face liner,
which could be metal and could be integrated with the sleeve.
The hybrid structure of SPP allows for the best materials
to be applied locally and thus achieves the best compro-
mise for performance and cost. In particular, metal is ini-
tially retained in the inner and outer zones so that the best
of both worlds may be combined and transition would be
easier, reducing potential risks.
Those investigations, however, were pre-competitive in
form, as is customary with any project within the EFRC
working groups. The next step was the challenge of turning
a good idea into a readily available technology under the
restrictions of pre-competitive research.
For that purpose, the concept of SPP material used to
manufacture lightweight pistons has been experimented in
a full-scale validation process which included a 1:10 scale
piston fatigue test and a full scale test that demonstrated a
residual strength after accelerated fatigue of 400 kN.
Compared to common piston designs based on steel and
aluminum, a 30 to 70% mass reduction was reported by
utilizing the SPP concept with CCPC material.
With the demonstration of the technology readiness for
this concept, industrial applications can follow, and for that
reason a spin-off company was created. The Panacea Pis-
COMPRESSORtech2
ton Co. was founded with the intent of finding partners in
major compressor manufacturers to design and launch ma-
chines utilizing this new piston design.
Wentzel said launching a still unknown plastic material
into a self-declared conservative industry poses some chal-
lenges. Nevertheless, the transfer of the idea of using a
hybrid polymer concept toward actual application was built
into the original EFRC project using concepts of disruptive
innovation theory, Wentzel said.
In the three years since the initial feasibility study, the
structural concept has been investigated and technology
has been developed, which is where Wentzels spin-off
company comes into play.
Wentzel set up the independent company and worked
with some partners in the Netherlands. The company
produced parts and tested them in cooperation with the
Aerospace Structures and Materials Laboratory at Delft
University of Technology.
With regards to the validation process carried out so far,
Wentzel said the pre-competitive study addressed ques-
tions that involved the feasibility evaluation as such. A n The manufacturing demonstrator prepared in the EFRC proj-
minimum level of demonstration was necessary for fatigue ect embodies all the essentials of the SPP concept. Since it is not
performance as well as for finding a way to test it in an bonded, it can be disassembled showing the internal structure.
economical way. Other aspects of the material have been
evaluated, such as the potential mechanical capabilities at level of a mock-up) was also essential in illustrating the
elevated temperatures and the resistance to lubrication oils. feasibility of the SPP concept. And finally, the scaled and
The manufacture of the demonstrator hardware (at the the full scale (room temperature) fatigue test at the level
continued on page 48
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of high cycle fatigue (HCF) confirmed the ability to resist
enhanced fatigue loading up to 1 million cycles. Impor-
tantly, for the very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) a billion
cycles the materials database is being expanded on a
9/14/17 materials level, which is a significant effort and investment
10:34 AM

on our side, Wentzel said.

Its clear that any application needs to be preceded by a
test of the actual piston in a testbed compressor. This would
involve the manufacture of the full piston, complete with the re-
quired manufacturing tolerances for its installation. The testing
itself could take weeks or longer. Among the variables to be
monitored are temperature distribution and the specimen stiff-
ness. Also, since on-piston temperature measurement is not
trivial, a periodic inspection may be labor intensive and costly.
This process could turn into an expensive exercise, and
this is the reason why Wentzel decided for an application into
a smaller compressor as a reasonable intermediate step.
Thus the SPP piston has been produced as a low-pressure
trunk type and successfully tested in a 15 hp (11 kW), two-
stage, 500 psi (35 bar) air compressor. Wentzel is confident
that other applications will be able to benefit significantly from
the insights that will result from such an exercise.
Members of the EFRCs R&D Working Group obviously
have an interest in this development, and we carried out
studies with some of them, Wentzel said. We also did
studies for companies outside the EFRCs R&D Working
Group members, namely companies in the USA.
A preliminary study, which is being finished mid-2017,
gives us good hopes to have an actual product launch close
to that time. CT2

48 OCTOBER 2017 COMPRESSORtech2

COMPRESSORTECH2.COM/ADVERTISE
Torsional Analysis Of
Reciprocating Machinery:
Damping And Forced Response
Early analysis and treatment help prevent
catastrophic failure
BY JUSTIN HOLLINGSWORTH
T
orsional problems with machinery trains have been
compared to high blood pressure in humans both
issues often go undetected using common observation
methods, and can eventually be catastrophic if left untreated.
Once finally detected, the extra measures necessary to diag-
nose and remedy the situation are usually more dramatic than
methods that could have been used at an earlier stage. In the
case of reciprocating machinery, the best cure involves a thor-
ough torsional analysis undertaken early in the design stage,
to avoid failures such as the example shown in Figure 1. This
approach can help eliminate the need for retrofit solutions or
repairs in the field, which can be costly and time consuming.
n Figure 1. Torsional
failure of a crank
web in a reciprocat-
ing machine.
Unfortunately, conducting a torsional analysis does re-
quire that some judgment calls be made in order to pro-
vide an effective outcome while avoiding excessive cost.
Consumers of this information also need to ensure that they
understand and agree with the assumptions made to per-
form the analysis in order to minimize the risks involved.
A torsional analysis fundamentally seeks to minimize
interaction between the torsional critical speeds of a ma-
chinery train and excitation energy produced by the driver
and load. This is normally accomplished by preparing a
mass-elastic model, determining the torsional frequencies
and mode shapes, comparing them with potential excitation
sources and determining the forced response stress and/
Justin Hollingsworth is a principal engineer in the Machinery
Services Section, Fluids and Machinery Engineering Department
and Mechanical Engineering Division at Southwest Research
Institute. Contact him at: jhollingsworth@swri.org.
50 OCTOBER 2017
techc
orner
or torque levels expected in the rotating components for
the anticipated operating conditions. Such an analysis may
also need to include additional work to ensure that the train
can accommodate transients or off-design conditions, such
as startup or engine misfire events.
The intent of this article is not to provide a listing of require-
ments for a complete torsional analysis, as several notable
resources are available that outline such information (for ex-
ample, see the Gas Machinery Research Council publica-
tion Guideline and Recommended Practice for Control of
Torsional Vibrations in Direct-Driven Separable Reciprocating
Compressors, and API 684, among others). Rather, this ar-
ticle is intended to review two common issues requiring de-
cisions that can significantly impact the results of a torsional
analysis involving reciprocating machinery: damping assump-
tions, and the scope of forced response calculations.
Damping assumptions
Damping occurs when the amplitude of an oscillation de-
creases as energy is removed from a system to overcome
resistive forces. Torsional damping is normally accounted
for during an analysis as either an inherent system dynamic
amplification factor (Q), or discrete component damping. For
reciprocating machines, inherent system damping can be pro-
vided by a number of sources, including friction, material hys-
teresis and bearing oil films. The assumed Q value can have a
profound impact on the analysis results, as the dynamic torque
and stress levels developed in the shafting are proportional to
this parameter. Assumptions for Q are normally guided by tor-
sional testing experience with similar configurations and can
vary greatly depending on the systems involved. Some trains
(such as reciprocating compressors directly driven by electric
motors through rigid couplings) have been known to exhibit Q
values of 80 or more, while other types of reciprocating ma-
chinery might be subject to values of 35 or lower, depending
on the specific equipment involved.
One method of experimentally determining an appropriate
Q value involves capturing a waterfall plot of torsional oscil-
lation during a startup event (Figure 2), and calculating Q by
utilizing the half-power point method (described in API 684
and elsewhere) to examine the response peaks that occur as
various orders of running speed traverse the torsional modes.
continued on page 52
COMPRESSORtech2
n Figure 2. Excitation of a torsional critical speed and representative amplification factor (Q) calculation.
Discrete damping is generated in specific components,
such as viscous dampers attached to engines. These de-
vices produce torsional damping by shearing a viscous
fluid between an external housing and internal flywheel.
This shearing action also produces heat, which can be-
come elevated while the machine operates on a torsional
critical speed. Over time, the heat can break down the vis-
cous fluid, resulting in a loss of the damping mechanism.
Manufacturers of these devices normally provide a damp-
ing value for the torsional analyst to utilize. However, it is
important to realize that this damping can degrade (or com-
pletely disappear) if the device is not maintained. Therefore,
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52 OCTOBER 2017
it is prudent for the analyst to consider how the stress lev-
els in the machine can be influenced if the viscous damper
fails. Failure of the viscous fluid can also cause the internal
flywheel and housing of the damper to seize, inducing a
shift in the torsional critical speeds. These factors have the
potential to result in shaft or coupling failures if not properly
accounted for in the torsional analysis.
Another common source of discrete damping is an elasto-
meric coupling. The torsional stiffness from these devices is
nonlinear and can vary over a wide range, depending on the
durometer of the elastomer utilized, and operating param-
eters such as mean torque and temperature. These factors
must also be taken into account during
the torsional analysis. Parameter stud-
ies or other special techniques may be
necessary to properly characterize the
behavior over the range of anticipated
operating conditions.
Forced response scope
Many modern reciprocating ma-
chines run over wide speed range,
and produce several significant orders
of excitation energy. These factors
combine to make avoiding all possi-
ble critical speed excitation scenarios
problematic. As a result, the scope of
the forced response evaluation plays
a very important role in the ultimate
usefulness of a torsional analysis,
because it examines whether the ma-
chine can tolerate the anticipated criti-
cal speed behavior.
One very important activity to con-
sider is that all appropriate compres-
sor load steps are evaluated. Loading
schedules, which are normally provided
by reciprocating compressor manufac-
turers for their products, specify individ-
ual cylinder pocket or unloader settings
for the various configurations available.
COMPRESSORtech2
 Tensile to Shear Factor (TSF) = 0.577
Endurance Ratio (ER) = 0.5
Size Factor (SZF) = 0.65
Surface Finish Factor (SFN) = 0.7 n Figure 3. Representa-
tive allowable stress and
Uncertainty (SU) = 0.8
strength reduction factors
Stress Safety Factor (SSF) = 0.5 (ASME B106M method).
Mean Stress Factor (MSF) = 1-(mean stress/[TSF*UTS])
Allowable Stress = UTS*TSF*ER*SZF*SFN*SU*SSF*MSF

In some cases, many load steps are possible with a given design, and fully evalu-
ating all of these during a torsional analysis could potentially be cost prohibitive.
General guidelines are available for determining which load steps to analyze, but
at a minimum the analyst should ensure that fully loaded and unloaded operation,
along with representative single-acting (head end or crank end deactivation) and
double-acting (both ends active) cases, are included. This is important because the
single-acting cases tend to elevate odd excitation orders, while the double-acting
cases similarly influence even excitation orders.
One might be tempted to consider only the most loaded (highest power) case
provided, presuming that this would cause the highest shaft stress. However, the
composite stress level in a shaft is a combination of mean stress (which generally
increases with the power level) and dynamic stress (which can be significantly
influenced by excitation of the torsional critical speeds). Operating conditions re-
sulting in significant load asymmetry (some cylinders unloaded, and some fully
loaded) should also be included in the analysis, as these have the potential to re-
sult in the highest dynamic shaft stress. It is not unusual for the highest composite
stress level to occur at a load step that produces less power than the full load case.
Determining the acceptance criteria for torsional oscillation is another topic that
requires careful consideration. The torsional analysis results should be compared to
any provided manufacturer limit for allowable shaft stress, torque, torsional velocity
or viscous damper heat dissipation. In addition, two industry-accepted approaches
for evaluating shaft stress include Military Standard 167 (Mil Std 167) and ASME
B106M. The Mil Std 167 approach involves simply dividing the ultimate tensile
strength (UTS) of the shaft material by 25. This approach, although straightforward,
tends to be quite conservative. The less conservative approach outlined in ASME
B106M is known as a strength reduction method, and involves multiplying the UTS
by a series of factors which reduce the allowable stress. The Mil Std 167 approach
results in an allowable stress of 4% of the UTS, where the ASME B106M approach
results in an allowable stress of about 5.3% utilizing the representative factors shown
in Figure 3, and neglecting the mean stress factor. The allowable stress is very sen-
sitive to the multiplicative effects of the various factors assumed. To illustrate this
sensitivity, arbitrarily increasing each of the size, surface, and uncertainty factors in
the example below to 0.9 (not recommended for an actual analysis), would cause
the allowable stress to increase to about 10.5% of the UTS. Therefore, the strength
reduction factors actually utilized during an analysis require careful consideration,
guided by experience and reasonable conservatism to manage the risks involved.
Many torsional forced response analyses evaluate acceptability at fixed speed
steady state conditions. However, similar calculations conducted over a hypotheti-
cal speed range can provide valuable insight into the separation margins between
the planned operating speeds and critical speeds, as illustrated in Figure 4. In this
example, the stress levels might be considered acceptable at the planned running
speed, but could potentially be unacceptable at the critical speed located just above
running speed. These types of speed sweep calculations can be valuable tools that
continued on page 54

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n Figure 4. Torsional
stress calculation wa-
terfall plot for a hypo-
thetical speed range.
n Figure 5. Repre-
sentative single engine
cylinder misfire effects.
allow the analyst to produce waterfall plots for direct comparison with those captured
in the field, such as the one shown in Figure 2.
The effects of misfire events should be taken into account during a torsional
analysis involving engine drivers. In the example shown in Figure 5, the fre-
quency content below the fourth order is null for normal operation. However, the
figure also shows that during a single cylinder misfire event, the orders below
the lowest primary order can increase substantially, exciting critical speeds that
are not typically a factor during normal operation. Another judgment to consider
is which cylinders to include while simulating such an event. One recommend-
ed practice involves conducting separate single-cylinder misfire calculations
for all cylinders, in order to establish which one causes the highest shaft stress
levels for a given machine operating at the anticipated conditions.
The cylinder phasing relationship between engine drivers and reciprocating com-
pressors should also be considered, especially when simultaneous engine and com-
pressor excitations are applied, as this parameter can have a significant effect on
the predicted stress behavior. In such cases, the analyst should clearly state the
assumed phasing relationship (such as engine cylinder one and compressor cylinder
one at top dead center simultaneously) so that the machine can be configured in the
field during initial installation and maintenance events to minimize the potential for
excessive shaft stress. In some cases, it may be necessary for the analyst to con-
sider several potential phasing relationships to ensure acceptability.
Summary
Humans and machines can both benefit greatly from experience, applied at
an optimal time, to mitigate frequently overlooked problems before they become
catastrophic. In the case of reciprocating machinery torsional rotordynamics, at-
tention to detail with regard to damping and forced response evaluations can play
a key role in improving long-term reliability. CT2
COMPRESSORtech2
Prime Movers
Thermamax as power generation plants and oil and gas processing
Capvis Equity Partners AG (Capvis) has acquired the plants to various heavy industrial sites.
majority of Thermamax Hochtemperaturdmmungen GmbH, Electric Machinery, based in Minneapolis, Minnesota, is a
a manufacturer of thermal and acoustic insulation systems manufacturer and service provider for large electric motors
for engine compartments and exhaust lines for diesel and and generators. The company is also a member of the global
gasoline engines, fuel cells, and electric drive systems. industrial group WEG. Based in Clearwater, Minnesota, S.T.
Thermamaxs high-temperature insulation systems range Cotter Turbine Services Inc. services, maintains and repairs
from insulation fabrics and integral insulation solutions to com- industrial turbines and rotating equipment. Axis Mechanical
plex insulation claddings. They are installed in light vehicles, Group Inc., based in Houston, Texas, installs, maintains,
on- and off-highway vehicles and in applications in power gen- repairs, overhauls and upgrades industrial equipment.
eration, marine, and on- and offshore platform markets. continued on page 69
Thermamax is based in Mannheim,
Germany. Its subsidiary, Thermamax Inc.,
is located in Aurora, Illinois. The group
has other sites in Frankenthal, Germany,
Taicang, China, and eleznika, Serbia.
COMPRESSOR LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

Archrock
Archrock has appointed Stephanie
C. Hildebrandt as senior vice presi-
dent, general counsel and secretary.
Hildebrandt most recently served as
a partner with global business law firm
Norton Rose Fulbright, with a prac-
tice focused on corporate governance,
WHEN
energy transactions and mergers and
acquisitions. MACHINES
Hildebrandt was senior vice president,
general counsel and secretary of Enter-
prise Products Partners LP, a publicly
STOP,
traded pipeline partnership and provider
of midstream energy services from 2010 PROBLEMS
to 2014, and held various other roles
at Enterprise, including vice president,
deputy general counsel and assistant
START.
secretary from 2004.
Currently, Hildebrandt serves as a B[jekhY[hj_[ZbkXh_YWj_edj[Y^d_Y_Wdil_i_j
director for Rice Midstream Management
LLC, the general partner of Rice Mid-
oekhbeYWj_edWdZYedZkYjWikhl[oe\Wbboekh
stream Partners LP, and as a member bkXh_YWj_edioij[ci$?jiWi_cfb["j_c[#iWl_d]
of the conflicts committee; as a member [lWbkWj_edj^Wjm_bb]_l[oekf[WY[#e\#c_dZ"
of the advisory council of the Kay Bai- WdZWm[bb#hkdd_d]Yecfh[iieh$
ley Hutchison Center for Energy, Law
& Business at the University of Texas;
and as a member of the University of St.
Thomas Presidents Advisory Board.
Sloans Service is the key to
WEG Group Wmb[iiYecfh[iiehef[hWj_ed$
Electric Machinery (WEG Group),
S.T. Cotter Turbine Services and Axis
Mechanical Group have formed a busi-
ness alliance to provide aftermarket 1.800.722.0250
Sales@SloanLubrication.com
service for rotating equipment. Each
company has a presence in several SloanLubrication.com
markets that covers applications such

COMPRESSORtech2 OCTOBER 2017 55

Energy Savings Through Electromechanical
Stepless Capacity Control
A case study on an acid gas compressor at the Ordos
petrochemical plant in China
BY A. RAGGI, A. COSTANZELLI, WANG YONG
T
he optimization of energy consumption in reciprocat-
ing compressors has recently been improved by new
technologies that enable the diffusion of advanced
capacity control devices.
The stepless control has been achieved by using vari-
able speed drives. Reverse flow acting on the suction valve
opening time has also found more applications, including
heavy-duty usages.
Cozzani has developed an electric system FluxtoFlow
which allows capacity adjustment through the reverse
flow method. It is the first method operated solely by an
electric current to control the closure of suction valves at
each compression cycle. This allows the compressor to
handle the exact capacity required by the process.
Many compressors worldwide have this system, and a
n Figure 1. Compressor installation.
recent application occurred on a reciprocating compressor
at a petrochemical plant (Figure 1).
Project evolution
Tuke Town is a district in Ordos City, a small town that
rose up from the barren deserts of Chinas Inner Mongolia
in less than a decade. Its located 500 mi. (800 km) west of
Beijing and is home to about 1 million people. The region
is rich with natural resources, such as gas, coal and rare
earth metals.
56 OCTOBER 2017
In 2014, 40 Yuanda reciprocating compressors were in-
stalled at a newly constructed petrochemical plant. Some
of the machines involved in the acid gas removal process
required accurate control, which lead to the consideration
of Cozzanis FluxtoFlow.
Cozzani examined the operating conditions with Yuanda,
the Design Institute of Ningbo and the end user, ZHTC.
Aside from removing acid gas, Cozzani also wanted clar-
ity on the battery limits and the interfaces of the FluxtoFlow
and the plants control system.
The components were designed to fulfill the operating
requirements and also to face the severe ambient con-
ditions. During winter, the temperature can drop below
-4F (-20C), so the actuators have been equipped with
a heating system.
n Figure 2. Actuators on first stage.
Compressor and process conditions
Among the installed fleet, special requirements were
needed on four reciprocating compressors where, in order
to save energy, stepless capacity control was needed along
with strict control on process parameters (Figure 2).
The horizontal-type compressors run at 333 rpm, with a
capacity of 680,000 ncfm (19,260 Nm3/h) and a total power
of 1900 hp (1400 kW). Each machine has a first- and second-
stage cylinder, is dry and double acting.
COMPRESSORtech2
 The cylinders diameters are 18.5 and 13 in. (470 and
330 mm) in the first and second stage, respectively.
The stroke is 12.6 in (320 mm) with a piston rod diameter
of 4.3 in. (110 mm).
The gas has a molecular weight of 35 kg/kmol with the
following composition CO2=66%, CO=18%, H2=14%,
N2=0.2 %, H2S=0.33. The gas is compressed from 145 psi
(10 bar) up to 856 psi (59 bar) with an interstage pressure
of 406 psi (28 bar).
The suction temperature is -36.4F (-38C). The dis-
charge of the first stage is about 100F (38C).
The gas is directly flowing without an intercooler into the
second-stage cylinder.
The final expected temperature is 223F (106C).
Valve features
The cylinders are provided with four suction and four
discharge valves in the first stage; the second stage is
equipped with two suction and two discharge valves.
The design was made considering the gas involved
and the low operating temperatures, particularly on the
first stage.
The valve materials were selected according to their abil-
ity to withstand low temperatures, corrosion risks and fa-
tigue stresses:
n Figure 3. Valve and actuator.
COMPRESSORtech2
stainless steel (low Carbon and 13% Chromium) for
seats and guards
springs in Inconel X-750, a common material for reli-
ability and corrosion resistance
plates in PEEK material
The capacity of the compressor is reduced proportionally
to the amount of gas flowing back into the suction plenum.
To perform its duty, the valve finger is actuated (Figure 3)
in order to keep the sealing element in the open position
starting from the first instant of the suction phase up to the
instant defined by the control system. Two internal electro-
magnets are used to produce a magnetic flux that moves
and controls the finger position of the suction valve and,
subsequently, regulates the flow rate of the compressor.
A key benefit of having such a control system is the seal-
ing element is open during the suction phase, making flut-
tering impossible. This results in reducing the wear of the
springs and the sealing element (plate or rings), ensuring
better reliability and longer valve life.
Experience on the new compressors
The required precision and repeatability of the control
during the compressor cycle is guaranteed by an advanced
electronic system that dialogues with the DCS control room.
The FluxtoFlow control system exchanges compressor sig-
nals for management and monitoring with the control room
and receives the reference signal to control the capacity.
The compressor is controlled from the DCS control room
by implementing a logic in DCS that generates the refer-
ence signal for the reverse flow capacity control system.
By setting a point manually through a PID controller, the
suction pressure is kept constant.
If the suction pressure drops under (or goes over) the
reference value, the system reacts by increasing (or de-
creasing) the delay in suction valve closing and reducing
(or increasing) the capacity.
The system continuously performs diagnostic functions
on each actuator. If a fault is detected, the actuator is dis-
abled and the system keeps operating with the other actua-
tors. The end user can also disable an actuator by acting on
the software. If in a system, for whatever reason, there are
disabled actuators, the system adopts the strategies stud-
ied for that specific compressor and makes it possible to
control the capacity through the available actuators.
Performance check
In 2016, Dott. Ing Mario Cozzani completed the installa-
tion and put the control systems in operation.
During installation, an accurate test was carried out by
making suitable measurements to verify the proper behav-
ior of the FluxtoFlow at the different capacities required by
the production plant.
Significant parameters pressure trends, PV diagrams,
control range, repetitiveness of the actuator positions
have been kept under control.
In particular, the cylinders of the compressors have been
continued on page 58
OCTOBER 2017 57
n Figure 4. PV Diagram at 40% and 100% (first phase).
n Figure 5. P versus angle (first phase).
equipped with taps for pressure acquisition to allow the in-
stallation of a data acquisition system, which would be used
to analyze and to optimize the behavior of the system and
to evaluate the global behavior of the compressors.
Pressure sensors have been installed on both cylinder ends
to measure the internal cylinder and discharge pressures.
n Figure 6. Trend of power versus the capacity control.
58 OCTOBER 2017
n Figure 7. Full load PV cycle (first stage).
The suction pressure has been assumed around 145
psia (10 bara) for the first stage and 384 psia (26.5 bara)
for the second stage.
Also, measurements at the partial load of about 40% until
full load have been carried out.
The power has been measured on the head end and
crank end sides for the first and second stage.
The diagram in Figure 6 puts the trend of power at different
control steps in the range from 40% to full-load operation.
The FluxtoFlow system is properly operating, allowing
considerable energy savings between full load and the par-
tial load of 40%.
Conclusions
The system has been properly controlling the compres-
sor capacity required by the plant. The four compressors
are identical, making it easy to verify deviations that could
be a sign of possible anomalies. This is essential to antici-
pate any arising problems and make corrections during the
operation if needed.
Since the four compressors have been running, their be-
havior has been remotely monitored and analyzed.
The reverse flow system has shown a higher capability in
capacity control as requested by the process. CT2
COMPRESSORtech2
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The NW models have a wider plate gap than those in the NT series, which
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In addition, the extremely wide herringbone plate corrugation, with a gap width
of 0.39 in. (10 mm), assures highly turbulent flow at all points of the plate, which
CPM
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The NW150L is compatible with the frames of the extensively used NT150L
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COMPRESSORtech2 (510) 614-6340
A Tutorial On Hydrodynamic Bearings For
Reciprocating Engines And Compressors
Part 5: Guidelines For Hydrodynamic Bearing Replacement

Editors Note: This is the final part of a five-part tutorial on hydrodynamic bearings that is based on training materials de-
veloped by Miba Bearings US LLC with significant contributions of knowledge, time and resource material from Greg Bone,
application engineering manager and key account manager for the bearing group in McConnelsville, Ohio. All specific bear-
ing designs and materials referenced in this tutorial, as well as included charts and figures, were provided by Miba Bearings
US LLC. The Miba Bearing Group retains the rights and ownership of all technical data and intellectual property contributed
for this tutorial.

General guidelines for bearing replacement ings and thrust washers in many engines and some com-
This section provides a number of examples intended to pressors, especially where better corrosion resistance is
help in evaluating the condition of used hydrodynamic bear- required. The appearance of two new bimetal bearings is
ing shells. In all cases for the pictured bearings, the crank- shown in Figure 1. The running surface of the upper alu-
shafts were free of damage. The running times leading up minum bimetal bearing, which has no flash, has a bright,
to the removal of the bearings varied. The development of silver color. This may become dull silver, however, after only
the manifestations shown in the pictures was influenced by
the running time, operating conditions, maintenance (e.g.,
lubrication) and correctness of assembly/installation.
Depending on the intended application, performance lim-
its are prescribed, and the engines and compressors are
accordingly adapted by the manufacturer. Exceeding these
limits (e.g., overloading, excessive speed of rotation, ex-
cessive compressor rod load, excessive oil temperature,
etc.) decreases bearing life and, in extreme cases, causes
bearing damage.
For faultless operation and attainment of the prescribed
life expectancy, the engine and compressor manufacturers
prescribe exact maintenance instructions. However, opening
the bearing shell without a specific reason is not advisable. Without flash
An undisturbed bearing (absent any external indications of The running surface has a silvery, bright color.
problems) will generally continue to provide good service.
Once disturbed and reinstalled, the bearing potentially
has to go through another break-in process, and any prior
wear or minor damage may become problematic. It is es-
sential that engine or compressor manufacturer oil (quality
and viscosity class) is used. The oil should also be inspect-
ed, analyzed and changed at prescribed intervals. Regular
oil filter changes and maintenance of oil cleaning equip-
ment, when used, are important. Appropriate cleanliness
of the environment is necessary when changing oil or per-
forming maintenance to the system or within the engine or
compressor crankcase. Oil filters should not be bypassed
for any reason. Control of water, coolant and fuel content With flash
in the oil must be constant and ongoing through analyses. Dull, light gray running layer.
Lines along side faces are traces caused by wall thick-
Replacement criteria for bimetal bearings ness checking and do not have any influence on bearing
Bimetal bearings are used for main bearings and the performance.
large end of connecting rods, as well as camshaft bear- n Figure 1. Appearance of new bimetal bearings.

60 OCTOBER 2017 COMPRESSORtech2

Reusable Reusable Reusable

Without flash With flash Minor edge loading and usual

Usual running pattern. Slightly polished Usual running pattern. In the highest load- running pattern
zones and symmetrical running pattern in ed zone of the bearing, slightly polished Slightly polished stripes along the side
the most loaded zone of the bearing. Minor area, partly removed flash and asymetrical faces. Minor edge loading is tolerable if it
scoring. running pattern are visible. Minor scoring. is not too pronounced. It is typically caused
by deflections of housing or shaft.
n Figure 2. Appearance of bimetal bearings after run-in.
a short period of time. The lower bronze bimetal bearing, bearings based on the calculated bearing load, minimum
with a flash on the running surface, has a dull, light gray oil film thickness and load profile. The useful service life of
appearance. Bimetal bearings may have a tin flash for cor- a bearing is also determined by the fatigue strength of the
rosion resistance or as an aid for running-in. Lead bronze lining material under the respective load profile.
bearings without flash show the typical orange color of the Figure 2 shows typical bimetal bearing running pat-
bronze material. terns after completing a running-in operating period. The
Unlike the trimetal bearings discussed in the next section, upper bearing, without flash, has slightly polished zones,
visual evaluation of wear is not possible for bimetal bearings. minor scoring, and a symmetrical running pattern in the
Actual wear can be determined by measuring wall thickness most loaded zone of the bearing. The middle bearing, with
or via clearance measurements in comparison to the speci- flash, has slightly polished areas, partly removed flash,
fication for a bearing in new condition. A bearing should be minor scoring and an asymmetrical running pattern in the
replaced if the wear limit, as specified by the engine or com- highest loading zone. The lower bearing has minor edge
pressor manufacturer, is reached or can be expected to be loading and a typical running pattern, with slightly polished
reached during the next period of operation. stripes along the side faces. Minor edge loading is toler-
Another method is to specify a certain time limit for the able if it is not too pronounced. All of the bearings in Figure
useful service life of the bearing. For example, engine 2 are reusable.
manufacturers often specify a maximum operating time for Figure 3 shows three bimetal bearings with damage that

Replace Replace Replace

Localized heavy smearing of lining Extensive area of damage with Bimetal aluminum bearing with
material due to local disturbance of seizure localized separation of AISn20 and
the oil film Locally smeared lining material caused by AIZn4,5 lining materials
Localized heavy smearing of lining material a severe disturbance of the oil film. An ex- Due to overstressing (thermal influences
is evidence of a heavy disturbance in bear- tensive area of damage with seizure is an combined with excessive shear forces.)
ing operation in the past (most probably in evidence of a heavy disturbance in bearing This effect occurs due to overheating of the
a single occurrence). operation in the past. lining material.
n Figure 3. Appearance of damaged bimetal bearings.
continued on page 62

COMPRESSORtech2 OCTOBER 2017 61

Reusable Replace Replace

Damage due to foreign particles Damage due to foreign particles Damage due to foreign particles
Shallow scoring and/or a few imprints in Many scores or multiple deep grooves and/ Many deep imprints.
unloaded area. The bearing can be reused or imprints in loaded area. Lining material
if there are only a few shallow imprints and locally smeared.
the imprints are not in the main loaded area.
n Figure 4. Bimetal bearings with foreign particle damage.

requires replacement. The upper bearing has localized
heavy smearing of the lining material. The middle bearing
has a more extensive area of damage with seizure and lo-
cally smeared lining material. Both of these are evidence of
a heavy disturbance in bearing operation in the past, most
probably in a single occurrence, such as a short period of
low oil pressure or small foreign particles floating into the
bearing. The lower bearing has localized separation of the
lining materials due to overstressing and overheating of the
lining material. The cause could be the same as the other
two bearings, although this type of damage is also typical of
an overspeed operating condition which creates excessive
thermal and shear forces.
Figure 4 shows three bimetal bearings with damage due
to foreign particles. The upper bearing has shallow scoring
and/or a few imprints in an unloaded area. The bearing can
be reused if there are only a few imprints, they are shal-
low and they are not in the main loaded area. The other
two bearings require replacement. The middle bearing has
many scores and multiple deep grooves and/or imprints in
the loaded area, with local smearing of the lining. The lower
bearing has many deep imprints.
Figure 5 shows three bimetal bearings with cavitation
damage. The upper bearing has only minor cavitation after
a long time of operation. There is minor, shallow material
removal outside of the loaded zone, and the bearing is re-
usable. The other two bearings are not reusable. The one
in the middle has deep punctual cavitation that extends to
the steel shell, spreading along the interface with the lin-
ing and undermining it. There may be some cases where
cavitation at the interface is larger than the visible damage,
which increases the risk of substantial amounts of material
breaking away. The lower bearing has cavitation at the end
of the oil groove. In severe cases, not only the lining mate-
rial, but also the steel shell, may be attacked by cavitation.
The bearing in Figure 6 shows fatigue rupture of the lin-
ing material. This starts with the development of fine cracks
in the lining material that become a network of cracks, often
called micro-crazes, which eventually cause small pieces of
the lining to break away.

Reusable Replace Replace

Minor cavitation after long time in Deep punctual cavitation Deep cavitation
operation In severe cases, the cavitation extends to In severe cases, not only the lining material
Minor and shallow removal outside the the steel shell, spreads along the interface may be attacked by cavitation, but also the
most loaded zone. beteen steel shell and lining material, and steel shell. For example, cavitation at the
undermines the AlSn20 lining. end of the oil groove.
n Figure 5. Bimetal bearings with cavitation damage.
continued on page 64

62 OCTOBER 2017 COMPRESSORtech2

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Replace
Fatigue rupture of the lining material
Fatigue starts with the development of fine cracks in the
lining material. These develop into a network of cracks
(micro-crazes) and parts of the lining material break out.
n Figure 6. Fatigue rupture of bimetal bearing lining material.
Replacement criteria for trimetal bearings
Trimetal bearings are used for main bearings and the large
end of connecting rods, as well as camshaft, thrust and gear
bearings in engines and compressors. The appearance of
two new trimetal bearings is shown in Figure 7. The surface
of the upper bearing, with a tin flash, has a bright color from
silvery to slightly grayish. The surface of the lower bearing,
with a lead flash, has a dull, gray color.
With tin flash
The bearing surface has a bright color from silvery to
slightly grayish.
With lead flash
Dull, light gray running layer.
The bearing surface has a dull gray appearance.
n Figure 7. Appearance of new trimetal bearings.
64 OCTOBER 2017
Trimetal bearing shells should only be removed when
prescribed by the engine or compressor manufacturer or
when conclusively necessary (i.e., bearing damage is evi-
dent). Opening the bearing without a specific reason is not
advisable, because whenever the bearing is removed, new
running-in procedures must follow. When bearing shells are
removed, they generally reveal one of the wear conditions
shown in figures 8-12. The condition of wear is judged es-
sentially according to the visible portions of the overlay, the
nickel (Ni) intermediate layer (where appropriate) and the
bearing alloy layer.
Wear of the running surface results from several different
reasons, for example due to mixed friction during operation,
during every start procedure, from too little lubricating oil
present, from the introduction of foreign particles (abrasion)
and from corrosion. Actual operation has shown that, after
running in, the bearing functions without any problem on
the running surface and, after wear, on the nickel intermedi-
ate layer and the bearing alloy. However, the risk of failure
Reusable
Bearing with tin flash
Flash just worn through into overlay. The dark colored
overlay shines through the bright tin flash starting at most
loaded areas.
Reusable
Bearing with lead flash
The dark colored overlay shines through the dull gray lead
flash starting at most loaded areas.
n Figure 8. Appearance of trimetal bearings after run-in.
COMPRESSORtech2
 Reusable Reusable Reusable

Usual runing pattern. Beaing shell has light Bearing shell has worn running surface on Running layer is worn on one side. Dark
running traces. Tin flash is not worn through. one side. Tin flash is worn through this area. surface caused by corrosion or embedding
of soot particles. Light running traces in the
n Figure 9. Appearance of trimetal bearings after run-in. running layer.

(e.g., due to the introduction of dirt, a lack of oil, overload-
ing, etc.) increases when the pin runs on the bearing alloy
and/or the nickel intermediate layer. When evaluating bear-
ing shells, it is important to remember that in case of doubt,
replacing a bearing costs considerably less than possible
damage to the crankshaft.
For lead/tin based trimetal bearings, it is relatively easy to
distinguish between the tin flash (a bright silvery layer) and
the running surface (light to dark gray with possible black
spots). The nickel intermediate layer appears with a light
yellowish color, the aluminum layer is flat silver, and the
copper-lead layer is bronze colored. If there is any doubt
whether the running surface is worn through to the nickel
intermediate layer (due to coloration from oil coke, etc.), a
light scrape test is recommended. This should be carried
out with light pressure from a dull triangular scraper or a
pocket knife. It is easy to distinguish between the much
softer running surface and the harder nickel intermediate
layer without damaging the bearing.
The two photos in Figure 8 and the three photos in Fig-
ure 9 show typical trimetal bearing running patterns after
completing running-in. The upper bearing in Figure 8, with
tin flash, shows the flash just worn through into the over-
lay. The dark colored overlay shines through the bright tin
flash starting at the most loaded area. The lower bearing
in Figure 8, with lead flash, shows the dark colored overlay
continued on page 66

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Reusable if undisturbed. Reusable if undisturbed. Reusable if undisturbed.
Replace, once disturbed. Replace, once disturbed. Replace, once disturbed.

The running surface is worn through to the Bering shell shows dirt scratches and black Running surface worn through to Ni inter-
Ni intermediate layer in the indicated region spots in the running surface, but the overlay mediate layer on both sides of shell. Black
and has black spots on the running surfacde is still in good condition. The bearing can spots and light dirt scratches on running
and dirt scratches in the running surface. be reused if it remains in the housing and surface. If worn zone is narrower than
The bearing is operational if not disturbed, the scratches are not too deep (i.e., do not one-third running surface width, the bearing
but once removed from the housing, it must extend into the bearing alloy and not too is reusable, provided the bearing is not
not be reinstalled. numerous). removed from the housing.
n Figure 10. Trimetal bearings in risky/borderline condition.

shining through the dull grey lead flash at the most loaded
area. Both of these bearings are reusable.
The upper trimetal bearing in Figure 9, with tin flash, has
light running traces, but the tin flash is not worn through at
all. The middle bearing shell has a worn running surface on
one side and the tin flash is worn through in this area. The
lower bearing is also worn on one side. The dark surface
is corrosion and/or embedding of soot particles. There are
light running traces in the surface layer. All of these bear-
ings are reusable as well.
The three trimetal bearings shown in Figure 10 are in a
risky condition, and, although the bearings would still have
been reusable if left undisturbed, replacement is neces-
sary due to the removal for inspection. The upper bearing
shows dirt scratches in and black spots on the running
surface. Possible causes of black spots on the running
surface include wear through the tin flash, tin depletion
due to diffusion, running surface corrosion or oil coke em-
bedding. This bearing can be reused if the scratches are
not too deep, i.e., they do not cut into the bearing alloy,
and are not too numerous. The surface in the middle bear-
ing is worn through to the nickel intermediate layer in the
indicated region and has black spots and dirt scratches
on the running surface. In the lower bearing, the situation
is more borderline. The running surface is worn through
to the nickel intermediate layer on both sides. There are
black spots on the running surface and running traces with
light dirt scratches. Generally, if the worn zone is narrower
than one-third of the running surface width, the bearing is
reusable, provided that it has not been removed from the
housing. If the worn zone is wider than one-third of the
running surface width, the bearing must be replaced, even
if not disturbed in the bearing housing.
The trimetal bearing shells shown in Figure 11 are not
reusable. The running surface in the upper shell is worn
through to the nickel intermediate layer over a large area.

Replace Replace

Running surface is worn through to the Ni intermediate layer over
a large area. Corrosion of the overlay is evident in dark places.
Large foreign particles are embedded in the running surface.
n Figure 11. Trimetal bearings requiring replacement.
Black spots appear on running surface. Causes include wear
through the tin flash, tin depletion due to diffusion, surface cor-
rosion or oil coke embedment. The light yellowish zone is the Ni
intermediate layer. Aluminum bearings should be replaced if, in
the gray zone, the Ni layer is worn through and the Al alloy is vis-
ible; and for lead-bronze bearings, if the bronze colored bearing
material is visible in the worn area.

66 OCTOBER 2017 COMPRESSORtech2

Replace Reusable Reusable if undisturbed.
Replace, once disturbed.

Small amount of cavitation erosion damage
Grooves by foreign particles with heavy is very light for a compressor bearing and
edge wear. can commonly be seen after only a few
hundred hours of operation. Condition is
risky, but reusable.
n Figure 12. Trimetal bearings requiring replacement.
Cavitation damage has spread to the ma-
jority of the surface, however the overlay
has no signs of polishing due to contact
with the mating shaft. This bearing can be
reused if undisturbed in the housing, but
must be replaced if disturbed.

Corrosion of the overlay is evident in the dark places, and
large foreign particles are embedded in the running sur-
face. In the lower shell, black spots appear on the running
surface. The light yellowish zone is the nickel intermediate
layer. In the gray zone, the nickel intermediate layer is worn
through and the aluminum alloy is visible.
The upper trimetal bearing in Figure 12 has grooving
from foreign particles and heavy wear on one side, and
it requires replacement. The middle and lower bearings
are in a risky condition, but would be reusable if left un-
disturbed in their housings. In the middle bearing, there
is a small amount of cavitation erosion damage, which is
typical of what can be seen in reciprocating compressor
bearings after only a few hundred hours of operation. In
the lower bearing, cavitation damage has spread to the
majority of the bearing. However, the overlay has no signs
of polishing due to contact with the mating shaft journal.
All of the trimetal bearings shown in Figure 13 require re-
placement. In the upper bearing, cavitation has left a large
portion of exposed nickel barrier in the bottom left quadrant.
Once enough of the overlay has been worn away due to
cavitation erosion, accelerated wear of the remaining over-
lay will occur. This much-exposed nickel will decrease the
bearings emergency running ability. When a compressor
bearing experiences cavitation erosion, oil will rapidly flow
to fill the low-pressure area created by a cavitation event.
This rapid flow of oil leads to flow erosion along the oil
groove, as shown in the middle bearing where cavitation
erosion has started to remove the bronze lining material.
The lower bearing is a further example of heavy cavitation
damage affecting extensive sections of the running surface.
The appearance of various other types of trimetal bear-
ings, such as sputtered overlay or Mibas Synthec over-
lay, are somewhat different than reviewed in the foregoing
discussion of bearings with electroplated overlays. Since
bimetal and trimetal bearings with electroplated overlays
are the most prevalent type used in the gas compression
industry, the other types are beyond the scope of this tuto-
rial. Engine, compressor or bearing manufacturers should
be consulted for guidelines for those types. CT2

Replace Replace Replace

Cavitation damage has spread to the
majority of the lower portion. Once enough
of the overlay has been worn away due to
cavitation erosion, accelerated wear of the
remaining overlay will occur. This bearing
has a large portion of exposed Ni barrier in
the bottom left quadrant. This reduces the
emergency running ability and mandates
replacement.
n Figure 13. Trimetal bearings requiring replacement.
When a compressor bearing experiences This bearing has heavy cavitation damage
cavitation erosion, oil will rapidly flow from and must be replaced.
the oil grooved to fill the low-pressure area
created during a cavitation event. This
leads to flow erosion along the groove. This
bearing must be replaced because the flow
erosion has started to remove the bronze
lining material.

COMPRESSORtech2 OCTOBER 2017 67

 2
3 Scheduled Downtime DJ SLATER, PUZZLEMASTER

4 Visit www.compressortech2.com/scheduled-downtime/ for answers

7 5
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Location, Location, Location
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Prime Movers
Kistler
Kistler Group, a Swiss specialist in dynamic pressure,
force, torque and acceleration measurement technology,
announced the acquisition of Vester Elektronik GmbH
(Vester), based in Straubenhardt, near Karlsruhe, Germany.
Burckhardt
Burckhardt Compressions Laby labyrinth piston
compressor will be a part of the United States largest
monoethylene glycol (MEG) plant.
The company said it would deliver the compressor as part
of a reclaim compressor system, which includes an electric
motor drive, skid-mounted oil system and skid-mounted
water console with a standalone air-cooled heat exchanger.

Vester is a family-owned company, specializing in opto-

electronic sensors for controls and process monitoring in
the field of punching and forming technology, as well as in
turned parts and fastening sectors. The company also has
testing and sorting facilities for the full examination of metal
and hybrid parts.
Vesters managing director, Frank Oppenlnder, will
continue to lead the company from the Straubenhardt
facility. In the medium term, the site itself and its skilled
workforce will be expanded, the company said.
Rolf Sonderegger, CEO of the Kistler Group, said that
by taking over Vester, the company is not only acquiring
decades of knowledge in the field of test automation and
sensor technology, it also facilitates the establishment of a
center of excellence for optical measurement in Germany.
The Kistler Group has 1800 employees and 58 branches
in more than 30 countries. The company operates primarily
in Germany.Burckhardt
The MEG plant, located in Lake Charles, Louisiana, is
part of a larger project that calls for an ethane cracker
facility. The Laby compressor, which can provide 17,747
lb./hr (8050 kg/h) of process gas at 305 psi (21 bar), is
designed to compress gases that are dry, dirty or abra-
sive. It also features the labyrinth sealing system on its
piston and piston rod gland, which enables oil-free and
contact-free compression.
Monoethylene glycol is a key ingredient for industrial and
consumer goods such as textile, fibers, paper, adhesives
and antifreeze. The MEG plant, which is to be operational
in 2019, will have an annual capacity of 700,000 tons
(635,029 tonnes).

COMPRESSORtech2 OCTOBER 2017 69

Advertisers Index
*Further information on this companys products can be found in the 2017 Edition of the Diesel & Gas Turbine Sourcing Guide
(at www.Dieselandgasturbineguide.net) and/or 2017 Compression Technology Sourcing Supplement (at www.CTSSnet.net).
ACI Services Inc. ......................................................... 10
Advanced Engine Technology Corp. ................... 54, 59
Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers ...................................... 40
*ARIEL Corporation ........................................................ 1
The BG Service Co. Inc. .............................................. 15
Boll & Kirch Filterbau GmbH ...................................... 41
*Burckhardt Compression AG ..................................... 23
Centa ............................................................................ 52
Compression Elements ................................................ 3
Compressor Products International .......................... 35
Cook Compression ..................................................... 33
E Instruments International ........................................ 48
*Elliott Group ............................................Second Cover
Exline Inc. ..................................................................... 47
Federal-Mogul Powertrain .......................................... 17
FW Murphy Production Controls ............ Fourth Cover
GE Power & Water - Distributed Energy ...Third Cover
Global Compressor Parts/Potemkin .......................... 29
Harsco Industrial AIr-X-Changers / Hammco ........... 21
*HOERBIGER ................................................................ 53
HOTSTART ................................................................... 27
IMES GmbH .................................................................. 26
KB Delta Compressor Valve Parts, Mfg. ..............36-37
Kiene Diesel Accessories ........................................... 48
Kraft Power Corp. ........................................................ 69
LogiLube LLC .............................................................. 30
Modulift ........................................................................ 14
MOTORTECH GmbH ................................................... 31
*Neuman & Esser Group .............................................. 39
Philadelphia Gear .......................................................... 9
PROGNOST Systems GmbH ...................................... 25
Sloan Lubrication Systems ........................................ 55
*Solar Turbines Incorporated ........................................ 7
STASSKOL GmbH ........................................................ 5
Sullair ........................................................................... 42
Summit Brand - Kluber Lubrication NA LP ............... 43
Testo Inc. ...................................................................... 11
Turbomachinery/Pump Symposia ............................. 51
United States Energy Corporation ............................. 69
Zahroof Valves Inc. ..................................................... 19
Articles published by COMPRESSORtech2
can be reprinted for trade shows,
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Contact Mary Graesing for a custom quote
+1 (262) 754-4147
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Cornerstones Of Compression story continued from page 72

Knight K-Line Compressor Models And Ratings

Model Throws Stroke Speed Max. Power Rated Rod Piston Rod Dia.
Numbers in. (mm) Range rpm hp (kW) Load lb. (kg) in. (mm)
KHB 1 5.0 (127) 400 to 550 150 (112) 10,000 (4535) 1.375 (35)
KOA 2/4 4.5 (114) 800 to 1200 450* / 900* (149 / 224) 14,000 (6349) 1.375 (35)
KOB 2/4 5.0 (127) 700 to 1200 500 / 1000 (373 / 746) 20,000 (9070) 1.75 (44)
KOC 2/4 6.0 (152) 800 to 1000 750 / 1500 (559 / 1119) 22,000 (9977) 1.875 (48)
KOCA 2/4 6.0 (152) 600 to 1000 750 / 1500 (559 / 1119) 22,000 (9977) 1.875 (48)
KOCE 2/4 5.0 (127) 800 to 1200 750 / 1500 (559 / 1119) 22,000 (9977) 1.875 (48)
KOD** 2/4/6 6.0 (152) 600 to 1000 1200 / 2400 / 3600 (895 / 1790 / 2685) 35,000 (15,873) 2.25 (57)
*With forged steel crankshafts.
**Designed, but never produced.

Buchwalds team, despite disagreements with Knight over
design features, produced the KOC design. The KOC,
which featured a 6 in. (152 mm) stroke, 1000 rpm frame in
two- and four-throw configurations, went on to become the
champion of the K-Line. KOCA and KOCE versions were
developed later.
In the 1940s, Evans experimented with shutting the cyl-
inder cooling water off on some of Sinclairs compressors.
In a 1955 ASME paper, he reported that he had been able
to shut off the cylinder water permanently in a number of
the companys plants. Evans carried that experience into
the design of Knights compressor cylinders, which were
noncooled. Buchwald indicated that this experience was
also the basis for developing Ariel cylinders without water-
cooling jackets.
Knight cylinders were available for a wide range of pres-
sure ratings and diameters, including steeple (tandem)
cylinders that allowed three- or four-stage compression
on two-throw frames. The cylinders used Hoerbiger plate
valves and cast-iron or aluminum pistons, depending on
size. K-Line crankshafts were ductile iron or forged steel,
depending on the model. Connecting rods and cross-
heads were ductile iron. All of the compressors where
manufactured in a Tulsa, Oklahoma, machine shop,
owned by Dean Knight.
Hundreds of Knight compressors were produced in pack-
ages with Caterpillar and Waukesha gas engines. In ad-
dition to manufacturing Knight compressors for smaller
applications than those normally considered for Superior
compressors, Knight Industries was one of the largest
packagers of field gas compressors at that time. It as-
sembled more Superior compressor packages than any
other packager in the world. A 1977 brochure described the
Knight packaging plants in Broken Arrow, Oklahoma, as hav-
ing 52,000 sq.ft. (4831 m2) with 16 compressor assembly
bays and an ASME-coded vessel shop with hydrostatic test
facilities to 15,000 psig (1034 bar).
Knight was the largest packager of White Superior
engines and compressors, but the 22,000 lb. (9977 kg) rod
load KOC frame encroached on the Superior range and
touched some nerves at White. Dean Knight, often in the
midst of conflict, continued to push ahead with his K-Line.
Buchwald then designed a KOD frame, which application
data suggest had a 6.0 in. (152 mm) stroke, but it may have
actually been 6.5 in. (165 mm). With designs completed for
two-, four- and six-throw frames, the KOD would compete
directly with Superior. Although the KOD never went into
production, the conflict intensified after Cooper Industries
purchased the Superior business from White in 1976.
In 1977, Cooper canceled the exclusive packaging ar-
rangement with Knight. Losing its biggest customer,
among other conflicts, forced Dean Knight out of his own
company. But he didnt leave quietly, and the president,
Neal Cartwright, had the local sheriff escort Dean off the
premises. Dean promptly started the Dean B. Knight
Company in 1978. When answering the phone, they an-
swered as Knight Industries. Cartwright had to get a court
order to force Deans new company from using that name.
Nevertheless, Dean Knights new company became a suc-
cessful packager and rental fleet company.
In 1980, Knight Industries sold the K-Line, packaging
and manufacturing facilities, and its small rental fleet to
Ingersoll Rand (IR). IR maintained the K-Line for several
more years until it was discontinued after the formation of
Dresser-Rand.
With a lousy business environment in 1988, Dean B.
Knight Co. sold its 85 rental units to Dresser-Rand and
merged the rest of the company with Crawford Enterprises
to form KCI. Neal Cartwright became KCIs president, and
not long after the merger, Dean Knight was again forced
out by stockholders. Cartwright again had to have Dean es-
corted off the premises by the county sheriff. It was reported
that Dean looked Cartwright in the eye and said, Youre
making a habit out of this. This time Knight retired, claiming
that he had packaged about 2500 compressors during his
long career. CT2

COMPRESSORtech2 OCTOBER 2017 71

 Cornerstones Of Compression
n A Knight Industries package with a two-throw Knight KOC three-stage compressor driven by a Caterpillar G379 gas engine.
The Knight K-Line
Packager Knight Industries developed its own
high-speed reciprocating compressor line
BY NORM SHADE
Dean B. Knight started his first business a general
oil-field supply company in 1946, storing inventory in an
office warehouse and using a bathtub for a filing cabinet.
After less than a year in business, a large supply company
asked him to design and assemble a 30 hp (22 kW) natural
gas compressor unit for use at the wellhead and in pipeline
operations. So began Knights lifelong specialty.
Organized as Knight Mfg. and Supply Co. in 1947, his
business grew and flourished, selling and leasing gas
compressor packages that he assembled. Early field gas
compressors were single-throw, belt-driven, slow-speed
units. Seeing an opportunity, Knight hired Harry Evans,
a mechanical engineer who spent 27 years at Sinclair
Oil & Gas, to design the KHB, a 5 in. (127 mm) stroke,
550 rpm, 10,000 lb. (4535 kg) rod load single-throw re-
ciprocating compressor to compete with the popular
Worthington HBGG.
Knight became the principal packager for White
Superiors new line of gas engines and reciprocating
72 OCTOBER 2017
compressors in 1960. By the late 1960s, the arrange-
ment had become exclusive, with White selling the White
Knight engine compressor packages built by Knight.
Around the same time, Evans, then operating as a con-
sultant in Tulsa, Oklahoma, began designing a series of
high-speed horizontal balanced opposed reciprocating
compressors for Knight. Known as the K-Line, these
compressors were smaller than White Superiors mod-
els. The first model, the KOA introduced in 1970, was a
4.5 in. (114 mm) stroke, 1200 rpm machine, built in two-
and four-throw configurations initially covering a range
of 60 to 300 hp (45 to 224 kW). Next, Evans designed
the 5 in. (127 mm) stroke, 1000 rpm KOB, whose power
reached up to 600 hp (447 kW). It was later uprated to
250 hp (186 kW) per throw at 1200 rpm, but the model
was not successful.
Knight continued to develop the line, enlisting Jim
Buchwald, a former White Superior employee who became
a consultant while developing Ariels first small compressor.
continued on page 71
COMPRESSORtech2
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