Megha Majumder!

Statistics 131A!
HW 1. P 22: 8, 9a!
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8. Some studies find an association between liver cancer and smoking. However, alcohol
consumption is a confounding variable. This means!
(ii) Drinking is associated with smoking, and alcohol causes liver cancer.!
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A confounding variable is a source of bias due to the fact that it is a factor by which two groups
(a treatment group and a control group) differ due to some factor other than the treatment itself.
It is a third variable that is associated with exposure and with disease. (Freeman, Statistics) In
this particular case, alcohol is a confounding variable, meaning it got mixed up with smokers,
smokers are generally known to consume more alcohol as opposed to non-smokers, and
greater alcohol consumption can lead to liver cancer. Thus, drinking is associated with smoking
because those who smoke are likely to drink greater quantities of alcohol as opposed to non-
smokers, and that heavier consumption of alcohol is what causes liver cancer. !
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9a. Does screening save lives? Which numbers in the table prove your point? !
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Yes, screening does save lives. Out of the 31,000 people in the total treatment group, 39 deaths
occurred from only breast cancer, giving a rate of 1.3. Out of the 31,000 people in the control
group, 63 people died from breast cancer only, giving a much higher rate of 2.0 compared to the
1.3 rate in the treatment group (the women who had undergone the HIP screening trial).