Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference

December 22-24, 2013, Roorkee

KEY GEOTECHNICAL ASPECTS IN WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

PROJECTS UNDER INDIAN PERSPECTIVE IN RECENT DECADES

S. Basack, Assoc. Prof., Bengal Engineering and Science University, Howrah, India, basackdrs@hotmail.com
D. Kar, Former PhD Student, BESU, Howrah, India and Mentor, ASCE (India Section), debuk@vsnl.net

ABSTRACT: With more than 1.2 billion population, majority of the huge population in India is rural dominating
and agro-based. Owing to the appreciably steady growth of Indian economy, especially since last 2 decades, a clear
trend of rapid urbanization is evidenced. This necessitates the importance of infrastructure development, more so in
the water resources development sector. Planning, execution and management of such water resource development
projects inevitably demands adequate consideration of geotechnical aspects. This paper presents a comprehensive
study of the key geotechnical aspects in water resources development projects under Indian perspective in recent
decades. Selected case studies have also been conducted and important recommendations are made.

INTRODUCTION Each type of WRD projects involves adequate

India with its present population of 1.21 billion is
showing a sustained economic growth. It is
projected that by 2050 Indian economy may be the
second largest in the world. But by then, India is
expected to be the most populous country in the
world. The present economy is largely agro-based
with the major population living in rural areas. The
ongoing development pattern shows a clear trend
towards rapid urbanization. This situation will give
rise to many infrastructure problems, the most
important being providing adequate water resource
development to serve the domestic usage, irrigation
and industrial applications. Here exists the
importance of Water Resource Development
(WRD) projects in India.
Water Resource Management is the activity of
planning, developing, distributing and managing
the optimum use of water resources. It is a sub-set
of water cycle management. In an ideal world,
water resource management planning has regard to
all the competing demands for water and seeks to
allocate water on an equitable basis to satisfy all
uses and demands [1]. The WRD projects may
primarily be classified as: Surface Water projects,
Groundwater projects and Environment Protection
projects. Other infrastructure projects include
transportation (highways, railways, airport
runways), power generation, IT and
telecommunication, industrial projects, etc.
consideration of the Geotechnical Engineering
aspects. For example, the surface water projects
require critical analysis of certain complex
geotechnical phenomena like scouring and erosion,
river bank stability, soil-structure interaction for
hydraulic structures, etc. Similarly, the
groundwater projects involve detailed
understanding of well hydraulics, seepage analysis,
hydrogeological characterization, etc.
This paper presents a detailed description with
critical analysis of various key geotechnical aspects
in WRD projects under Indian perspective.
Selected case studies on few recently completed
WRD projects in India are made. Based on the
study and analysis, some recommendations have
been made.
GLOBAL WATER RESOURCES
Water, an essential resource for life on Earth,
comprises of about 97.5% of ocean and sea and
remaining 2.5% as freshwater. Out of the
freshwater resources (see Fig.1), about 70% forms
the glaciers and ice caps, hence inaccessible for
human consumption [2]. The major portion of the
usable freshwater resources is in the remote,
inaccessible areas and much seasonal rainfall in
monsoonal deluges and floods cannot easily be
used. At present only about 0.08% of all the
worlds fresh water is exploited by mankind [3].

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S. Basack & D. Kar

distribution network, river training, embankment

protection and dredging, wetland preservation and
improvement and sea water desalination projects.
Oceans
Sea Groundwater Projects
Freshwater It is the water beneath the surface of the Earth and
an important element of the water cycle. Water that
falls as precipitation and then is absorbed into the
ground generally makes its way to the water table
(a) or aquifer. It is this water from the aquifer that is
pumped out of the ground and utilized for human
purposes. Groundwater is a critical element of
water supply. The following are the various
Glaciers, ice caps groundwater projects: exploration and conservation
Groundwater of groundwater, rain water harvesting and
Surface water
recharging of groundwater, prevention of
groundwater contamination (e.g.: arsenic and
saline water intrusion), prevention of groundwater
lowering and minimising possibility of large scale
(b) land subsidence, etc.

Ice and snow Environmental Protection Projects

Lakes
Soil moisture
Swamps, marshes
Rivers
Atmosphere
Living things
(c)
Fig.1. The Earths water: (a) Total global water.
(b) Freshwater. (c) Surface water. (Data taken from
Shiklomanov [2])
CLASSIFICATION OF WRD PROJECTS
The water resources and related infrastructure
development projects may be classified broadly
into the various categories [4], as described below.
Surface Water Projects
Surface water is the water that travels or gathers on
the ground, like rivers, streams, lakes, sea, etc. The
primary objective of surface water projects is
directed at optimizing the use of water and in
minimizing its impact on natural environment [5].
Different types of surface water projects include
dams and hydroelectric projects, barrage, canal and
head-works, irrigation and flood control projects,
water intake, water treatment, water supply and
Half of the worlds people now live in towns and
cities, a figure expected to reach two-thirds by
2050 [6]. In the areas surrounding urban centres,
agriculture must compete with industry and
municipal users for safe water supplies, while
traditional water sources are becoming polluted
with urban wastewater. As cities offer the best
opportunities for selling produce, farmers often
have no alternative to using polluted water to
irrigate their crops. Here exists the significance of
the environmental protection projects. The types of
these projects may be diverse, including but not
necessarily limited to the following: sewage and
effluent treatment, disposal and/or recycling of
treated sewage and/or effluent, storm water
drainage with disposal and/or recycling, protection
of the overall environment, etc.
WRD PROJECTS: INDIAN SCENARIO
Water resource management is the activity of
planning, developing, distributing and managing
the optimal use of existing water resources, and is
therefore a sub-set of water cycle management.
About 70% of world's freshwater resources are
being consumed for agriculture [7]. Under the
inevitable demand from ever increasing global
population, industries and urban developments

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 Key geotechnical aspects in water resources development projects under Indian perspective in recent decades

expand, which also demands a share of freshwater
resources, water scarcity is becoming an important
issue. This problem is more alarming in developing
countries including India. Therefore, the objective
of the Indian National Water Policy is to propose a
framework, based on existing situation, for creation
of a system of laws and institutions and for a plan
of action with a unified national perspective [8].
The past, current and anticipated future average
water requirements are India is portrayed in Fig.2.
urban zone. The level of urbanization was 11-12%
during the first three decades of this century. The
urban population growth rate is significantly higher
(3.1%) than the overall population growth rate
(2%), and is projected to be about 658 million by
the year 2025 [10].
In India, out of the total precipitation of about
4,000 billion m3, about 1869 billion m3 post-
evapotranspiration water is available, although
about 1123 billion m3 is actually utilized. The
average annual precipitation is depicted in Fig.3.

Fig.2. Past, current and anticipated water

requirements in India (Data taken from [9]).

The water availability in this country is 1,000-

1,700 m3/person/year and according to UNICEF
(2008), 88% of the population had access to
drinking water sources. However, large
inefficiencies exist in many places of water
Fig.3. Distribution of annual rainfall in India
infrastructure where up to 40% of water leaks out.
(after [11]).
On the contrary, only 31% of the population had
access to improved sanitation facilities, e.g.: open
To meet the water demand of Indian cities, the
sewers in common place of urban areas. But such a
entire water supply can be met either from surface
situation, accumulated by industrial discharge,
water, or groundwater, or a combination. The first
initiate undesirable flow of untreated effluent down
option is gradually becoming impracticable in
the adjacent river or sea, which creates the surface
absence of adequate and consistent supplies. The
water significantly polluted with methane and was
option of own source (tapping groundwater) is
found to have a fecal coliform count 100,000 times
gaining popularity. Industries invariably have
the safe limit for bathing. Also, this process along
network of their own wells. This situation may
with groundwater contamination is being expedited
lower down the groundwater regime beneath.
by heavily subsidized energy costs for agriculture
Where there is a mixed supply, generally the city
practices.
may have surface water supply and the extension
areas depend on the groundwater supply, which
In India, rapid urban growth rate in recent years
obviously results in a groundwater mound in the
have been largely attributed to rural-urban
central part and a declining trend in the peripheries.
migration in search of livelihood and extension of

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S. Basack & D. Kar
Besides this, the ever increasing sewerage and
industrial waste are polluting the fresh ground
water. Various options for sustainable water supply
in urban India are augmentation of water supply
through rainwater harvesting, conservation and
groundwater recharge demonstrated by government
and NGOs to augment water supply.
The National priority is to [8] enhance the water
availability, upgrade the demand management and
water use efficiency, conservation of river
corridors, water bodies and infrastructure,
management of flood and draught, adequate water
supply and sanitation, inter-basin water transfer
and international agreements for trans-boundary
rivers, etc.
KEY GEOTECHNICAL ASPECTS
The key geotechnical aspects associated with the
planning and implementation of WRD projects
with particular reference to Indian condition have
been discussed in this section.
River Bank Protection
With the increasing population along the river
banks, the impact of erosion initiates disaster to
large number of township, cluster of villages and
human dwellings and important installations and
communication systems. Being unbearable and
non-recoverable inflicting permanent irreparable
loss, its recurrent event has become enormous
problem for the people and the Government. Thus,
scientific approach for erosion control has become
National priority in India. Apart from conventional
river training works (e.g., afflux bund, spurs,
cutoffs, etc.), several effective measures have been
undertaken, such as, construction of reinforced
earthen dams, boulder pitching, diversion canals,
etc. (see Fig.4). Design of these structures requires
adequate considerations of important geotechnical
aspects.
Reinforced earthen dam
Boulder pitching Diversion canal
River channel
Fig.4. A river protection scheme
For adequate design of reinforced earthen dams,
the geotechnical aspects which should be focused
on include stability analysis of the reinforced
structure considering slope stability, seepage,
hydrodynamic forces (specifically for a concave
bank in a meander bend), etc. The boulder pitching
should be capable of providing adequate safety
against river bank erosion, which is a hydraulic
process where individual soil particles are carried
away by the traction force of the flowing water.
Suggested protections also include stabilizing the
high risk banks by sand-filled geobags, cement
grout mattresses, concrete blocks with tongue-
grove type interlocking, etc. [12].
Dams and Reservoirs: Foundation Stability
So far as the stability and serviceability of dams
and reservoirs are concerned, the key geotechnical
aspects to be considered are: adequate safety factor
against ultimate failure, acceptable overall
settlement, seismic stability analysis with
liquefaction potential, seepage analysis, etc. The
Government of India have suggested [13] the
following correlations for foundation stability:
c tan
sD v (1)
F F
F c b m w
i D
(2)
i H w
where, sD is the available shear strength and c and
are the shear strength parameters of the
foundation soil, ic and i are the critical and design
hydraulic gradients, Db and H are the uplift head
and top impervious blanket thickness at the
downstream toe of the dam and m and w are the
unit weights of dam and water respectively.
Loadings to be considered in stability analyses
include the upstream face water load, self weight,
internal hydrostatic uplift pressures, earth and silt
loads, ice pressure, seismic and thermal loads.
Earthquake forces are induced by the inertial forces
by horizontal acceleration and the hydrodynamic
forces resulting from the reaction of the reservoir
water against the structure [14].
Protection against Tsunami
Tsunami is a series of waves with long wavelength
and period generated by any large, impulsive
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 Key geotechnical aspects in water resources development projects under Indian perspective in recent decades
vertical displacement of the sea bed level (see
Fig.5) by submarine fault movement, landslide or
volcanic activity. Earthquakes of M > 6.5 are
critical for Tsunami generation.
Fig.5. A typical Tsunami formation (after [15])
The devastating effects of a Tsunami generated
disaster may include serious damage to complete
overturning of structures caused by large
hydrodynamic impact forces, flooding of building
basements and floors with associated
contaminations, buoyancy causing uplifts of
structures, saturation of soil with slope instability
and loss of bearing capacity, significant scour and
erosion along shorelines, etc. The suggested
remedial measures from geotechnical view-point to
be undertaken [15] should be providing suitable
anchoring of foundation to prevent rotation,
upliftment and failure of foundations, incorporate
adequate design against tsunami thrust, evaluating
bearing capacity and shear strength of soil that
support foundations and slopes under the condition
of saturation, avoiding slopes or setbacks from
slope that may be destabilized when inundated, etc.
Lowering of Groundwater Table
The portion of precipitation to be drained off
depends on the nature of topography of the area
concerned, existing subsoil characteristics and
stratifications, density of the prevailing plant and
vegetation, nature of the catchment area relevant to
surface runoff, etc. In last several decades in India,
reduction of wetland and green cover by way of
expansion of urban and suburban areas are
accelerating the problem. Indiscriminate cutting of
trees in the name of development works such as
widening of roads, raising housing complex and
other infrastructure projects is harmful for
groundwater preservation and overall environment
view point.
The detrimental effects of groundwater lowering
may be numerous, but the most pressing ones are
land subsidence, saline water intrusion and arsenic
contamination. Due to lowering of water table, the
soil above the newly formed water table gets
unsaturated while that below it gets consolidated
under increased effective weight [16]. This initiates
the land subsidence which may be evaluated using
the correlation [17] below:
1 p p
s log e 0 mv p dz (3)
0
C p0 0
where, s is the land subsidence, C is a compression
index of the soil, p0 and p are the in-situ and
incremental stresses, mv is the coefficient of
volume compression of the soil and z is the depth
below ground surface.
The remedial measures that may be undertaken to
prevent the undesirable groundwater lowering is
site specific, but normally include [18] rainwater
harvesting and recharge with freshwater,
preservation of wetland and greenery, enacting
laws to control promoters, public awareness, etc.
Saltwater Intrusion
The complexity of hydrogeological set up in the
coastal areas demands special attention. An
uncontrolled groundwater development may lead
to reversal of fresh water gradient thereby resulting
in saline water intrusion into the coastal aquifers.
Excessive withdrawal of groundwater in coastal
zones will lead to depression of water table with
associated hazards like putting the well out of use,
rendering the abstraction uneconomic with
increased lift [19].
The conventional methods widely used around the
world [20] include the following: (i) Creation of
hydraulic barriers, (ii) Canal irrigation, (iii)
Desalination and reverse osmosis, (iv) Rainwater
harvesting, and (v) Artificial recharge methods.
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S. Basack & D. Kar
The first Author of this paper has developed an
innovative coastal groundwater management model
which is cost effective as well as easily
implementable. The technique involves withdrawal
of fresh groundwater by qanat-well structure
followed by subsequent rainwater harvesting by
recharge wells and recharge ponds. The details of
the model are described in the following section.
Arsenic and Industrial Contamination
Arsenic contamination of groundwater originates
from naturally occurring high concentrations of
arsenic in deeper levels of groundwater. Since
majority of the people in the towns and localities in
the Gangetic regions use deep tube wells, this is a
high-profile problem in India, creating serious
arsenic poisoning [21]. The suggested remedial
measures [22] include small-scale water treatment
known as the Sono Arsenic Filter which is
relatively simpler and less expensive and large-
scale water treatment such as,
coagulation/filtration, iron oxide adsorption,
activated alumina ion exchange reverse osmosis
and electro-dialysis, etc. Some large utilities with
multiple water supply wells could shut down those
wells with high arsenic concentrations, and
produce only from wells or surface water sources
that meet the arsenic standard. In many rural areas
of West Bengal, India, development and
installation of an innovative methodology known
as Amal Arsenic Filter have been highly successful
and socially accepted.
Manufacturing and service industries have high
demands for cooling water, processing water and
cleaning water; this initiates pollution when used
water is returned to the hydrological cycle. The
groundwater contamination also takes place from
industrial effluents emerging from inappropriate
disposal of waste materials from factories and
workshops, leaks from corrosion, defects, improper
installation, or mechanical failure of the pipes and
fittings. Industries like automobile service stations,
dry cleaners, electrical component or machine
manufacturers, photo processors, and metal platters
or fabricators are of particular concern because the
waste they generate is likely to contain toxic
chemicals. Septic systems cannot treat industrial
wastes which necessitates effective waste disposal.
Solid Waste Disposal
Solid Waste Disposal is the collection, transport,
processing or disposal, managing and monitoring
of waste materials produced by human activity,
aiming to reduce their effect on health,
environment or aesthetics. The waste management
strategies has been expressed [23] in terms of
hierarchy (see Fig. 6) which refers to the three
Rs, i.e., reduce, reuse and recycle.
Preference of
options
A. Prevention and minimization A
B. Reuse and recycling .
B
C. Energy recovery .
C
D. Disposal .
D
Fig.6. Waste disposal hierarchy (after [24])
Report of a Committee for Solid Waste
Management in Class 1 cities of India to the
Honble Supreme Court of India recommended
free waste collection in public areas, but
chargeable from commercial places like hotels,
eateries, marriage halls, hospitals & clinics,
wholesale markets, shops, office complexes, etc.
They also suggested all construction wastes to be
stored within premises, not on the road or footpath,
and disposed of at landfills by builders.
Erosion of Underground Pipelines and
Structures
Modern society relies on a hidden network like
tunnels, pipelines and underground structures to
transport people, cargo, liquids, and gases from
place to place, or to store materials, without
disrupting surface activities or intruding on our
views of the landscape. Tunnels and pipelines,
because of their long, linear configurations,
typically traverse areas of varying topographic,
hydrologic and geologic conditions. This impose
adverse circumstance such as soil creep, erosion,
landslides, earthquake shaking, earthquake-induced
permanent ground displacement, etc. The growing
need to maintain underground pipeline
infrastructures has made it clear that durability is
not simply a function of the long term performance
of the structural material, but failure can also be
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 Key geotechnical aspects in water resources development projects under Indian perspective in recent decades

initiated as a result of joint leakage, ingress of

groundwater and the accompanying erosion of the
soil envelope adjacent to the pipe [24]. For
example, the collapse of an underground drain at
Mumbai, India in February 2010 caused the road to
cave-in and the collapse caused the soil to be
washed away and left a cavity under the surface of
the road [25].
.
TYPICAL INDIAN CASE STUDIES

Project-1: Laying Water Pipeline

The water supply project for Vikram Ispat Sponge (a)
Iron plant, Maharashtra, India (1995- 1996)
involved supplying water from the river Kundalika
to the proposed project of Vikram Ispat Limited by
one 500 mm diameter, 40 km long pipeline. As
Technical Director of M.N. Dastur & Co. Ltd.,
Consulting Engineers, the second Author of this
paper was responsible for planning, close
coordination, monitoring and control of the
construction of the project.

The water for the plant was used for process

cooling and domestic purposes. The river
Kundalika leads to Revdanda Creek which
discharges into the Arabian Sea. The site was
located in Raigada district in the state of
Maharashtra close to Roha town. Maharashtra
Industrial Development Corporation (MIDC)
identified Roha as one of the focal points for
industrial development. Although the plant was
located close to river, the salinity of water at that
location was high. To get fresh water for the plant,
the intake (Jack well) had to be located on the river
bank about 40 km upstream of the plant site. Some
other local industries had also set up their water
intake in the vicinity of proposed water intake for
Vikram Ispat. The water pipeline trench were laid
in rocky area with manual excavation and the pipe
joints were of socket and spigot type with groove
at the ends jointed with special rubber rings to
ensure water tightness (Fig.7).
The pipes were of pre-stressed concrete (PSC) in
most sections and of Mild Steel (MS) mostly in the
over-ground sections. PSC pipes were chosen in
preference to metal pipes in the major section to
(b)
Fig.7. Layout of pipeline: (a) Manual excavation.
(b) Pipe joints.
safeguard against the possibility of local villagers
drilling and tapping water from the running
pipeline causing considerable loss due to water
theft en route along the pipeline. The area being
rocky, arid and water short, this was a common
malpractice prevailing amongst the villagers in the
area. PSC pipes were ordered to a company having
RCC pre-casting plant at Pen situated at a distance
of 25 km from the site, cured, tested and
transported to the site for laying in position.
Breakage and damage of the PSC pipes in transit
were nominal. For pumping water from the river,
one 370 kW motor and pump was installed over
the jack well. Power was supplied by Maharashtra
State Electricity Board. The completed pipelines
were tested under specified pressure of 1.5 times

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S. Basack & D. Kar
the design pressure, as specified. The project scope
included sinking an intake well (jack well) on the
river bank, a pump house and an electrical sub-
station complex with control room, metering room
and outdoor yard with four-pole structure.
For effective planning, scheduling and monitoring,
the total activity from the river intake to the plant
reservoir was broken down into the following
sections: (i) Jack-well, pump house and electrical
sub station, (ii) PSC pipe line in suitable sections,
(iii) MS pipeline underground, on ground, over
ground and at nallah (drainage channel) crossings
including valves and fittings, and (iv) Manholes
and junctions.
The project was planned in great details using the
activity networking technique and rigorous follow-
up and close interaction with all the agencies
concerned. Notwithstanding the difficulties
outlined above, the project was completed well
within schedule through detailed advance planning,
in-depth monitoring and close cooperation of all in
the project team.
Project 2: Coastal Groundwater Management
The environment prevalent in the coastal regions
necessitates effective groundwater management.
The Authors have developed a convenient and
easily-implementable analytical model for coastal
groundwater management aiming at control of
saltwater intrusion. The technique includes
withdrawal of fresh groundwater by qanat-well
structures and artificial recharge through rainwater
harvesting aided with percolation pond and
recharge well., The proposed methodology is
however suitable specifically for coastal regions
having significant annual precipitation, good
hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer, low depth of
fresh groundwater and not very urbanized area.
While the details of the model has been published
elsewhere [26], the salient features are described
herein.
Qanat-well structure comprises of a number of
horizontal wells connected together at their ends by
a vertical riser. The allowable discharge (Qa)
through it has been quantified as:
Qa Min.{Qmax,d , Qmax,s } (4)
where, Qmax,d and Qmax,s are the maximum discharge
considering the conventional theory of
groundwater hydraulics and upconing model of
saltwater intrusion [27] respectively, and the
relevant expressions are:
2 k h H (d 2rq )
Qmax,d
f H , Lq , rq , k h , kv
And (5)
Qmax,s g (k h , s , f )( H d )
where, H is the freshwater thickness in the aquifer,
d, Lq and rq are the depth, length and diameter of
qanat legs, kh and kh are the horizontal and vertical
permeabilities of the aquifer and f and s are the
mass densities of freshwater and saline water
respectively.
Since withdrawal of freshwater from coastal
aquifer always initiates advancement of the saline
interface, this should be always accompanied with
subsequent recharge. In this model, the factor of
safety for the rainwater recharge has been
formulated as:
Vr
F (6)
Vw
where, Vr and Vw are respectively the volume of
water for recharge and withdrawal in a specified
period.
In the model, the suggested methods of recharge
were through recharge ponds and recharge wells.
Adequate analytical expressions were derived for
the required dimensions (areas and volume) of
these recharge structures [26]. The technique was
successfully applied to a selected locality of the
district of Purba Medinipur in the state of West
Bengal, India.
Case Study 3: A Natural Disaster
In June 2013, a prolonged storm in North India
initiated devastating floods and landslides which
caused major human injuries and death casualties,
mostly in the state of Uttarkhand, the figure
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 Key geotechnical aspects in water resources development projects under Indian perspective in recent decades
exceeding 5700 including more than 900 local
residents [28]. Destruction of bridges and roads
made about 100,000 pilgrims and tourists trapped
in the valleys. Major damage occurred at
Kedarnath town inundated with water, mud and
boulders from the landslide, damaging its
perimeter.
As stated by experts [29], heavy rainfall has
initiated such disaster because of the fragile nature
of the Himalayan range and poor soil stability in its
steep slopes. However, several man-made factors
have compounded the scale of the disaster, like
raped expansion of hydro-power projects and
construction of roads to accommodate ever-
increasing tourism, especially religious tourism.
The Tehari dam having a water capacity up to
830 m height can perform till 810 m level is
attained. Whenever the water level reaches 825 m,
danger is started. As per experts suggestions, the
capacity should not be increased further and a
regular discharge of water is necessary to avoid
another disaster in the neighboring regions [30].
CONCLUSIONS
In the entire study, the global water resource
scenario has been portrayed and the different types
of Water Resource Development projects are
briefly discussed. The past, current and anticipated
future water requirements in India are presented.
The key geotechnical aspects of the water resource
projects have been identified as river bank
protection and scour control, foundation stability of
hydraulic structures, adequate precautions against
Tsunami, groundwater lowering and associated
hazards, coastal groundwater management,
groundwater contamination, solid waste disposal,
erosion of underground structures, etc. Few typical
Indian case studied have been described including
one water supply project, a saltwater intrusion
control model and a natural disaster. While
discussing the salient features, the geotechnical
aspects have been covered as well. It is expected
that the paper shall be beneficial to the
Geotechnical Engineers working in the field of
water resources management and allied areas.
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