Issues in Workstation Design

14 guidelines in S. Konz, Work Design (pp. 193-220)

1. Avoid static loads and fixed work postures

Workstation Design 2.
3.
4.
Reduce cumulative trauma disorders risks
Work height at ~50 mm below elbow
Give employee an adjustable chair

and 5.
6.
Use feet as well as hands
Use gravity, don't oppose it

Local Muscle Fatigue

7. Conserve momentum
8. Use two-handed motions rather than one-handed
9. Use parallel motions for eye control of two-handed motions
10. Use rowing motions for two-hand motions
11. Pivot motions about the elbow
12. Use the preferred hand
13. Keep arm motions in the normal work area
14. Let the small woman reach; let the large man fit

Seating Design Pros and Cons of Seated Work

A well-design seat
Advantages of seated postures:
should reduce
postural stress Greater stability for tasks requiring high visual
(fatigue), by: and motor control
distributing or Less energy consumption
supporting body Less stress on the lower extremities
segment weights
maintain lordotic
spinal curve Disadvantages of seated postures:
allow user mobility
Some evidence to indicate an increased
incidence of low-back pain for prolonged
From Chaffin, DB et al (1999) Occupational
Biomechanics. Fig. 9.1 seated work.

1
 Seated Work and Low Back Seat Design: Anthropometric Aspects
Pain (LBP) Provide function, comfort, and health
Static Anthropometry
LBP prevalence (%) vs. 20
shapes and clearances
duration of daily seated
work
10
accommodate population variances
From Magora (1972) 0
design for mean (sd) or design for extremes?
mostly some mostly
seated sitting standing
(>4hrs) (2-4hrs) (>4hrs) functional measures (e.g. reach analysis)
telephone VDT
operators
Psychophysical Methods
Lifetime prevalence (%) general user ratings
of symptoms 60 population
best method for user evaluation?
From Grieco (1986) 30

discomfort ratings (what is comfort?)

0
Cervical Thoracic Lumbar
questionable precision and repeatability

X Lumbar Support and Back Rest X

Effects on Muscle Activity
Inclination
FC

Interpretation?
Interpretation?

From Chaffin, DB et al
(1999) Occupational
Biomechanics. Figs. 9.10
and 9.11 From Hosea, TM et al
(1986) Spine 11:928-936

2
 Shoulder Muscle Activity vs.
Arm Rests Table Height
A: Optimal Height
B: Too Low: shoulder
elevation required
C: Too High: arm
abduction required

Interpretation?

Interpretation? From Chaffin, DB et al (1999) Occupational

From Chaffin, DB et al. (1999)
Biomechanics. Figs. 9.12 and 9.13
Occupational Biomechanics. Fig. 9.18

Other Considerations in Seat X

New Concepts?
Design
Height
adjustability
problems with
nerve compression
& circulation
restrictions
too high -> ?
too low -> ?

From Chaffin, DB and Andersson, GBJ (1991)

Occupational Biomechanics. Fig. 9.23

3
Goals of Workplace Design and
Fatigue
Layout
Whole-Body Fatigue
Maximize performance and minimize hazards: overload of metabolic (aerobic) capability
Minimize postural stress and fatigue (e.g. due to Local Fatigue
static loading) --- risk factor for work-related overload of specific (regional) muscular capability
injury
applications in workstation design and layout
Provide reach capability
Anthropometry
Both types of fatigue are associated with:
Minimize motion times and error rates discomfort, pain, cramping, soreness
Work measurement (e.g. 30% time increase when decreased productivity and efficiency
working overhead) increased error rates and decreased accuracy
Provide force capability increased injury rates
strength data and models

Localized Muscle Fatigue

X

Endurance vs. Fatigue

Strength is a maximum short-term effort (defined as a
joint moment or an external force)
Capacity (strength)
Endurance is longer-term: time to exhaustion (fatigue
occurs early) Force
objective measures: performance monitoringdecrease in or
force, consistency, or accuracy; EMGshifts in power and Moment Task
Demands
spectrum; tremor and loss of fine control
subjective measures: pain or discomfort ratings
Endurance time varies with exertion level (particularly %
of maximum capacity)
Endurance
Endurance is thus a function of the load and posture Time
Endurance Fatigue

4
 Endurance Time vs. Exertion
Symptoms and Signs of
Level 10
Localized Muscle Fatigue
significant decrease in endurance
Endurance time for static exertions >15-20%
Time
Localizedpain and cramps (min) 1.5

Decreased motion control and accuracy 0

0 15-20 40 100
Increased tremor Exertion Level (%MVC)

Changes in EMG z Endurance time for static exertions

z T = [1.2/(0.01f - 0.15)0.618] - 1.21 (T: minutes; f: % MVC)
Observable effects on productivity and z [Niebeland Freivalds, 1999]
z Note: only for f > 15%MVC (and not accurate ~100% MVC)
performance! z 50% MVC => 65s
z 70% MVC => 32s
z Endurance time is not indefinite for f < 15% MVC
z Large variability within and between individuals

Effects on Endurance Time

Muscle Fatigue and Rest Periods
X

z Shape and location of endurance curve can vary with:

z muscle group
z age (fitness maintenance)
z endurance training (low force, high reps) How? 2.5 sec static
contractions with
z strength training (high force, low reps) variable rest
periods
z static vs. dynamic work
10
Endurance Training

Endurance Age
Time Strength Training
(min) 1.5

0
0 15-20 40 100
Exertion Level (%MVC) Large inter-individual variability! From Chaffin, DB et al (1999) Occupational
Biomechanics. Figs. 10.2 and 10.26

5
 Avoid Static Loads and Fixed
Joint Moments and Posture
X

Working Postures
Static loads decrease blood flow to muscle Substantial
shoulder
(substantial decrease @>15-20% of MVC) moments
Loads as low as 4-6% MVC can cause result from
even small
fatigue arm abduction
More rapid onset of fatigue with static angles.
muscle exertions as compared to
equivalent dynamic exertions
Interpretation?
From Chaffin, DB et al (1999) Occupational
Biomechanics. Fig. 10.9

Static Posture Maintenance Work Performance and Posture

X X

The ability to maintain a fixed (posture) depends

on the orientation of the body segments.

Interpretation?
Inverse relationship between
performance and energy
expenditure (rate of fatigue).
From Chaffin, DB et al (1999) Occupational From Chaffin, DB et al (1999) Occupational
Biomechanics. Fig. 10.16 Biomechanics. Fig. 10.29

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 Controlling for Static Exertions Minimizing Muscle Fatigue
Interspersed rest periods can increase endurance
Work-rest cycles
times.
short and frequent is best
Minimize joint moments. Even small extremity
deviations will result in high moment loads. Decrease magnitudes of static or sustained loads
Minimize reach distances to minimize joint moments. decreased moments -> decreased muscle forces
Maximize strength by keeping objects close to the work upright and keep objects close
body. Support body segments
Minimize head tilt to decrease neck fatigue. arms rests
Maximize capacity by using larger muscle groups and lumbar support
postures that are near the middle of the range-of-
tool support
motion (length-tension!!)

Rest Allowances during Static Work

Guidelines for Hand-Arm
Positioning and Movement
Rest allowance For both standing and sitting work, optimal
needed
following
height is slightly (50mm) below the individual's
isometric work elbow height.
Allowance This position also keeps the hands below heart
given as a
function of the level (maximizing blood flow).
holding time
Solutions:
From W. Rohmert
(1973) Applied
Ergonomics, 4:91-
1) change the machine or task height;
95
See also Eqn. 10.2
2) make work height adjustable;
Example: 50%MVE, T=0.5 min -> 400% rest, or 2 min 3) adjust elbow height

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 Energy and Motion Efficiency
Use feet/legs effectively in addition to, or to
replace, hands/arms
2 legs can generate 3X power of 2 arms
Pedals can be effective for power and control during
seated work
Design must account for work precision
Use gravity
lowering may be easier than lifting (some evidence that
there is a higher biomechanical risk during lowering)
pushing is generally easier than pulling
Avoid unnecessary accelerations
accelerations increase energy cost and time and
increase muscle forces
VDT Workstation Guidelines
Seated posture and chair design
maintaining 'proper' posture through correct use of a good chair
Posture checkpoints to reduce stress of musculoskeletal
system
keep elbows close; 90 deg elbow angle; straight wrist
keyboard slope of 0-25 deg.
upright head posture; 18-25" from eyes to VDT
line-of-sight 0-60 deg below horizontal; 20 deg optimal
Vision and Lighting
screen clarity and ambient lighting
glare -> eyestrain
position VDT at 90 deg to strong light sources
place documents near screen
Use preferred hand for reach
and grasp motions
Dominant hand is 10% faster for reaching and more
accurate.
Dominant hand/arm is about 5-10% stronger
About 10% are left hand dominant.
Preferred hand should be used for dangerous or critical
work.
Allow for change-off to non-dominant hand for non-
critical work, thus proving rest and recovery.
SUMMARY
Workstation design should account for static loading,
anthropometric variability, energy efficiency, and
minimization of wasted motions.
Localized muscle fatigue can occur even during low
intensity static efforts. Endurance is a function of loads
and postures.
Fatigue resulting from static exertions can be controlled
using rest periods and decreasing joint moments and
reaches.
The organization of workstations, in order to
accommodate the human worker, must be concerned with
multiple variables, including the workers, their tools and
equipment, seating requirement, and tasks to be
accomplished.