January 2017

IS THIS THE
END OF THE
SPARK PLUG AS
WE KNOW IT?
Having been a constant since the
formation of the IC engine, the
humble plug is set to be replaced
by new technologies and concepts

ENGINEERING INFINITY HAPPY LARRY TECH SPECIAL

The clever powertrain gurus at Infiniti GM’s director of propulsion systems, Leading technical papers and
have cracked the impossible: variable Larry Nitz, is a man who loves his job. engineering case studies written
compression. Exclusive details inside He talks all things future powertrain for the industry, by the industry

www.enginetechnologyinternational.com
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 CONTENTS

January 2017

IS THIS THE
END OF THE
SPAR K PLUG
AS
WE KNOW IT?

JANUARY 2017 Having been

formation of
humble plug
a constant since
the IC engine
is set
the
, the
new technologiesto be replaced by
and concepts

ENGINE ERING
INFINIT Y

WHAT’S NEW?
The clever powertra HAPPY LARRY
have cracked in gurus at Infiniti
the impossib GM’s director TECH SPECIA
compression le: variable of propulsion L
tech. Exclusive Larry Nitz, is systems,
details inside a man Leading technical
He talks all things who loves his job. papers and
future engines engineering
case
for the industry, studies written
by the industry
www.enginetechn
ologyinte rnational
.com

04. Independent
variable
The inside story of how
Infiniti became the first

26
OEM to introduce a
variable compression
ratio powertrain

10. The power of 4

BMW’s latest diesel
powerplant is the first
mass-produced quad-
turbo diesel engine

12. Shooting brake

Ferrari’s IEOTYA-
winning 3.9-liter V8
twin-turbo engine
finds a new home
in the GTC4Lusso T

14. Phase two

Hyundai’s next-
generation 1.4 T-GDI
engine summarizes
the brand’s ambitious
plans for the future
04 COVER STORY
18. Personality FEATURES
profile 26. Sparked out
With advancing and 32. Bright future
Keno Kato, Nissan’s
novel combustion Larry Nitz, director
corporate vice
technologies and new of global propulsion
president, global
ways of igniting petrol, systems at GM,
product strategy and
is the architecture outlines future plans
EV product planning
division, is the latest of the trusty internal
combustion engine 40. Testing times
industry figure to be
about to change One year on from the
profiled by ETi
forever? Or is the spark emissions scandal, how
plug here to stay? are engineers dealing
with new regulations?
40 46. Motorsport tech
An exclusive look inside
Ilmor Engineering’s HQ
32 50. CV special
The latest innovations
reducing emissions for
commercial vehicles

REGULARS 57. Material world

How is the next-gen of
16. Engines on test
lightweight materials
20. Taylor influencing future
22. Johnson engine designs?
100. Last word

Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 01

 CONTENTS

The word wizards

Editor in chief: Dean Slavnich
Editor: John O’Brien
Production editor: Alex Bradley
Chief sub editor: Andrew Pickering
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76
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EDITOR’S NOTE
Published by
UKIP Media & Events Ltd
There’s been an odd trend with a number of cars we’ve had versions of cars designed for families and young drivers are
in on test of late: in so much as I’ve been left significantly going to emit a naturally aspirated V-engine noise. It’s also
underwhelmed by the noise a great deal of them produce. And fact that, as mentioned, increasing regulation is forcing a lot
as we continue to move through a heavily regulated period of manufacturers’ hands when it comes to what can actually
Member of the
toward the eventual electrification of road cars, I can’t help but be achieved while remaining legal, but there has to be a Audit Bureau of
feel it’s a situation that is only going to continue. happy middle ground somewhere, as the problem in chasing Circulations
As dual-clutch transmissions and turbocharged engines perfection (in terms of emissions, consumption levels and Average net circulation per issue
have become de rigueur among small cars, the once eclectic noise regulations) is that once we’ve all achieved it, where for the period January 1, 2015, to
December 31, 2015: 10,332.
hot-hatch segment is, in my mind, the hardest hit and it’s is the differentiator?
The views expressed in the articles and
perhaps why my biggest gripe at the moment is with what a This similarity in noise among hot hatches is perhaps why technical papers are those of the authors
lot of OEMs consider to be a ‘sporting’ tone. A monotonous I found myself in agreement with Graham Johnson’s column and are not endorsed by the publisher.
While every care has been taken during
drone through the revs combined with a manufactured dump on page 18 in the September issue about the increased use of production, the publisher does not accept
of fuel in the exhaust between gearshifts doesn’t exactly synthesized sounds being played through a car’s speakers. any liability for errors that may have
occurred. This publication is protected by
inspire. Rather, it becomes monotonous after 10 minutes of While their increased use has split opinion among consumers, copyright ©2017. ISSN 1460-9509 (print)

hard driving, and when you’ve heard it once…
With four-cylinder, forced-induction engines largely firing
in the same 1-3-4-2 order fitted to every current hot hatch,
it’s hardly a surprising fact. While the exhaust note this
arrangement emits does appeal to some, it really doesn’t do
anything for me. I was even surprised that one test car, which
was delivered complete with a rather expensive aftermarket
exhaust, sounded much like the standard car – only duller,
the benefit in this era is that a differentiator can be built into
cars that still meet worldwide legislation standards.
After all, the likelihood of a highly-strung, naturally
aspirated, individual throttle-bodied, twin-cam unit appearing
in any of the next-gen of hot hatches is slim, at best, no matter
how loudly I or other people shout about it. If people enjoy
watching pixelated YouTube videos of old touring car races
and road tests for the noise alone, then what is so wrong having
ISSN 2397-6330 (online)
Engine Technology International .
Printed by William Gibbons & Sons Ltd,
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Airfreight and mailing in the USA by agent
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and rather diesel-esque at idle.
It’s easy to cite other cars we’ve had in, such as the Lexus
RC F and Lamborghini’s Huracán, as examples of making
the right noises, but I’m not naive enough to think that hot
the same twin-cam noise in your car on a spirited summer’s
drive? At least you know you’ll be able to make it home,
without your Euro-6 compliant engine letting you down. Shipping USA Inc, 155-11 146 th Street,
John O’Brien
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02 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

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 TECH INSIDER INFINITI VC-TURBO

After decades of hard work, the impossible has been made

possible: variable compression technology has finally been
cracked and it’s coming to Infiniti dealerships very soon

Infinite
04 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
 TECH INSIDER INFINITI VC-TURBO

possibilities
Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 05
 TECH INSIDER INFINITI VC-TURBO

WORDS BY
DEAN SLAVNICH
If there’s one certainty in powertrain engineering,
it’s that eventually, no matter how troublesome
the development project or end goals might be,
the impossible will be achieved. And so welcome,
then, the world’s first production-ready variable
compression engine, a technology that many said
for so long was simply ‘no can do’.
A raft of car makers have publicly – GM, Saab,
Lotus – and privately worked very hard to crack
the VC-T code and while most gave up, it’s Infiniti
that has claimed this all-important IC engine
milestone, a point in time that will be remembered
along with when turbocharging became actually
good, the first application of direct injection, the
use of liquid-cooling, the widespread adoption
of catalytic converters, and even the addition
of particulate filters to diesel designs. No matter
which way one looks at it, VC-T really is one of
those ‘wow’ automotive moments.
And so onto the tech. Presented to the world
at the Paris Motor Show in September, Infiniti’s
gasoline VC-Turbo creation, as it’s branded,
comes in the form of an all-new 2.0 four-cylinder
base that effectively combines the power of a
high-performance 2-liter gasoline motor – think
something along the lines of VW’s 2.0 TFSI in the
Golf GTi – with the torque and efficiency (but not
all the other associated baggage) of an advanced
diesel, such as BMW’s wonderful twin-turbo
pusher in the Mini Cooper SD. Although these are
not official benchmarks, it is in these types of realms
that VC-Turbo has the potential to mix things up in,
and perhaps even surpass in the future.
In fact, Nissan’s luxury brand even says its new
four-pot can be compared with certain six-cylinder
offerings when it comes to performance, while
beating them on the environmental front to the tune
of 27% better efficiency in certain circumstances.

Expansion on demand
At present, Infiniti is being coy on exact details of
how it managed to break through several concrete
pillars of problems, issues and challenges to get
ready variable compression technology for mass
production with an on-sale date of 2018 (see
Q&A sidebar on p8). However, that said, ETi has
learned of some seriously clever engineering
solutions that have helped turn the VC-T dream
into a reality.
Any compression ratio between 8:1 and
14:1 can be offered by VC-Turbo – this engine
literally grows or shrinks on demand. Much of
this is down to a clever multilink system that
seamlessly raises or lowers the stroke of the
pistons, detecting driver input and the car’s driving
conditions, and instantly selecting the most
suitable compression ratio. So when under hard
acceleration or heavier loads, the engine heads
toward 8:1; at highway speeds, or slower driving
conditions, the ratio goes high.

06 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

 TECH INSIDER INFINITI VC-TURBO

The Infiniti MR20 DDT,

armed with variable
compression technology, TECH SPEC
will be launched in 2018.
VC-Turbo has been two Construction: Aluminum block with
decades in the making arc-sprayed mirror coating to cylinder bores;
aluminum cylinder head with integrated exhaust
manifold, single-scroll turbo with intercooler
Compression ratio: 8.0:1 to 14.0:1
Capacity: 2.0 liters; 1,997-1,970cc
Bore x Stroke: 84.0 x 90.1
Cylinders: 4
Valves: 16 (four per cylinder)
UNDERSTANDING VC-TURBO TECHNOLOGY Valve control: Intake – Electronic
1. When a change in compression ratio is needed, the Variable Valve Timing Control
Harmonic Drive turns and moves the actuator arm Exhaust: Hydraulic Variable
2. The actuator arm rotates the control shaft Valve Timing Control
3. As the control shaft rotates, it acts upon the lower- Turbo: Single-scroll turbocharger with
link, which changes the angle of the multilink electronic wastegate actuator
4. The multilink adjusts the height the piston can Turbo cooling: Intercooler
INFINITI
reach within the cylinder, seamlessly INFINITI
changingVC-TURBO
VC-TURBO ENGINE
Max power: 272psENGINE
COMPARISON
COMPARISON
the OFratio
compression VC-TURBO
OF
and VC-TURBO
capacity ofTECHNOLOGYTECHNOLOGY
the engine IN
MaxHIGH INAND
torque:HIGH
390NmLOWANDCOMPRESSION
LOW COMPRESSION RATIOSRATIOS

Ratio 14:1 Ratio 14:1 Difference in piston Ratio 8:1 Ratio 8:1
Difference Difference
in piston height
in piston height
HIGH HIGH height between
between compression ratios
between compression ratios
compression ratios LOW LOW
Piston
Piston Piston
44 4

Upper link Upper-link

Upper-link

Multilink
Multi-link Multi-link
33 3

Crank
Crank shaftCrank Shaft
Shaft

1
1 1

Harmonic
Harmonic Drivedrive
Harmonic Drive

Control
Control shaft
Shaft Control Shaft
Actuator
Actuator armarm
Actuator arm

22 2

Understanding
Understanding
VC-Turbo technology
VC-Turbo
1 When a change
1 Whenin compression
a change in ratio
comp
EFFICIENCY
EFFICIENCY
EFFICIENCY POWER
POWER POWER is needed, theisHarmonic
needed, the
Drive
Harmoni
turns
and moves theandactuator
moves arm
the actuato
2 The actuator
2 The
arm actuator
rotates the
arm rotat
That multilink system dates back to 1998, could increase substantially. The engine control shaft control shaft
when Infiniti made a first breakthrough with the currently runs a single-scroll turbo from an 3 As the control
3 Asshaft
the rotates,
control shaft
it actsrot
upon the lower-link,
upon thewhich
lower-link,
changes wh
technology, meaning that variable compression as-yet-unnamed supplier that’s integrated into the angle of the
themulti-link
angle of the multi-l
has been on the car maker’s engineering agenda an exhaust manifold, which is built into the 4 The multi-link
4 The
adjusts
multi-link
the height
adjusts
thet
piston can reach
piston
within
canthe
reach
cylinder,
within
for at least two decades. engine’s aluminum cylinder head, thus improving thus changingthus
the compression
changing the ratio
comp
Naturally enough, the multilink tech has packaging, performance and efficiency.
been evolved and refined over time to make VC- As a result of the compact packaging of the
Turbo work, to the point where more than 300 cylinder head, engineers have been able to
technologies overall have been patented for the position the catalytic converter next to the turbo,
program. This includes the world’s first multilink in the process reducing the flow path for hot
arrangement and an electric motor actuator exhaust gases and allowing the converter to heat
with Harmonic Drive reduction gear along with up quickly and start the overall emissions control
a connecting control arm. process sooner.
The Harmonic Drive rotates according to the VC-Turbo also employs direct and multipoint
compression ratio requested, which then rotates injection, further aiding the unit’s ability to balance
the control shaft at the base of the engine and, efficiency and power in all driving conditions.
in turn, moves the multilink system. Changing It can switch instantly between GDI and MPI at
the multilink angle adjusts the height of the TDC of regular engine speeds, while both sets of injectors
the pistons, varying the ratio. An eccentric control work in tandem under a combination of high
shaft varies the piston stroke position for all four engine speeds and loads.
cylinders simultaneously. Along with the implementation of DI, and by
The power band target is said to be around being flexible in its compression ratio, VC-Turbo
the 270ps, 390Nm levels, although with future also overcomes the negatives associated with
iterations of the technology, these numbers fixed compression designs, such as knocking.

Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 07

 TECH INSIDER INFINITI VC-TURBO

And the innovation showcase doesn’t end there. Mirror bore

coating technology, which most recently for Infiniti was used on
the car maker’s VR30 DDT V6, further reduces cylinder friction
by 44% on the MR20 DDT, the four-pot’s internal code-name.
There’s also an electronically controlled wastegate actuator
that maintains boost pressure, and a two-stage variable
1
displacement oil pump that meets the demands of the VC-
Turbo’s need for greater lubrication and cooling requirements
compared with other four-cylinder designs.
Finally, a multiway flow control valve provides additional
thermal management, optimizing the distribution of coolant to
the radiator, cabin heater and oil cooler, depending on current
conditions and the compression ratio.

Smooth operator
If all of that isn’t impressive enough, Infiniti says the four-cylinder
VC-Turbo has far better NVH levels than other IC engines – by 1. A sophisticated multilink
up to a third, in fact – and crucially requires no balancer shafts. system seamlessly raises
or lowers the stroke of the
Part of this enhanced smoothness comes from the layout
pistons based on driver
of the multilink mechanism, realizing low noise and vibrations input and the car’s driving
that are similar to V6 designs. Testing has shown that engine condition, thus altering
vibration levels have been cut from 30dB to an outstanding the compression ratio
10dB, with Infiniti’s 3.5 V6 VQ being used as a key benchmark. 2. Amazingly, VC-Turbo
What’s crucial here is that the system essentially allows offers any compression
the piston connecting rods to be almost vertical during the ratio between 8:1 and 14:1.
Displacement also changes
combustion cycle – VC-Turbo switches between Atkinson and
from 1,997cc to 1,970cc
regular combustion cycles – rather than moving wider laterally,
3. The QX Sport Inspiration
as with traditional crankshaft rotations.
concept. VC-Turbo, when
In addition, the multilink design also operates the ideal launched in 2018, will likely
reciprocating motion when compared with traditional make a first appearance
connecting rod and crankshaft systems, further aiding NVH. in a crossover/SUV model 2

It is during higher compression ratios that the VC-Turbo

Q&A WITH
ALAIN RAPOSO
director of engineering,
Renault-Nissan Alliance
Why opt for an 8:1 – 14:1
compression range?
It’s common sense, really. If you look at
sporty engines, such as those by AMG,
the compression rate is 8:1. With highly
efficient engines it’s between 13:1 and
14:1. So, having a range of 8:1 to 14:1
means we get the best of both worlds.
What was the hardest development
challenge to crack?
Tuning was probably the most complex
area. With one engine, you might have
a compression rate of 10:1 or 12:1 and
3 One such example centered on the engine’s bearings.
one map. But with VC-T, and the 8:1
to 14:1 range, you have plenty of tuning
possibilities, meaning you’re effectively
mapping 10 engines.
Will you license this technology
out to other OEMs?
I think we should enjoy the benefits of
this technology first. So, we’ll keep this
in-house for the first one or two years.
After that? Sure, it could be open for
license. Why not?
Is VC-T the savior of the IC engine?
VC-T is just one example of what can
be expected from future IC engines.
The future is bright, but we need to
be mindful of electrification because
it can better support conventional IC
engine efficiency.
employs the Atkinson Cycle, where the stroke of the pistons
is much longer. As the compression lowers – and to enable
greater engine performance – the Infiniti powertrain operates
a regular combustion mode.
Given MR20 DDT’s compact design, Infiniti estimates that
weight-saving measures contribute to a 25kg reduction over
V6 engines, including its very own VQ. Official weight, though,
is as yet unknown.
Some of these gains come from the fact that the engine’s
block and cylinders are made from aluminum alloys, while
the multilink components are manufactured in a high-carbon
steel alloy. The same goes for the cylinder head and manifold
paring, which is cast in aluminum.
To make sure the engine works in the real world, and is
reliable under all conditions, much testing has been done in
prep for SOP and market launch in 2018. Some 100 prototype
units have been perfecting the tech, covering three million
kilometers of equivalent road testing and spending the best
part of 30,000 hours on dynos, the latter of which is equal
to an additional five million kilometers of on-road testing.
In addition, Infiniti says it used its partnership with the
RenaultSport F1 team to further accelerate prototype testing
– and it was here where component material development
and durability came under the microscope.
Thanks to that advanced multilink setup, VC-Turbo features
around three times as many bearings as a conventional IC
design. As such, Infiniti engineers identified a small bearing
vibration that manifested at the highest engine speeds under
certain conditions.
Here, the Infiniti team worked with RenaultSport to identify
and isolate the vibration, using the F1 team’s expertise in
dynamic motion analysis in conditions of up to 20,000rpm
– far higher than any production engine. RenaultSport’s
experience in movement behavior, and the use of bearing tech
in F1, provided valuable insight into developing the engine and
overcoming this particular engineering problem.

08 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

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 TECH INSIDER BMW QUAD TURBO DIESEL
Just when you thought three turbochargers were
enough for one all-encompassing performance
diesel powertrain package, BMW has gone and
developed an entirely new straight-six engine
boasting no fewer than four blowers. Yes, that’s
right – four!
The 3-liter unit, a derivative of the B57 base,
will debut in the 750d xDrive model, and has
been created primarily to ensure an early onset
of pulling power that continues right up into the
higher rev range. That translates to an astonishing
405ps and 760Nm torque outputs, meaning
on the road, the exec sedan hits 100km/h from
standstill in just 4.6 seconds.
The multistage turbo arrangement – ETi can
reveal all four chargers come from the same
supplier, BorgWarner – effectively sees two
low-pressure blowers and two high-pressure
units working in combination to eliminate lag and
realize that impressive sporting performance. And
this means peak torque arrives from 3,000rpm,
whereas max ps is generated at 4,400rpm, hence
the earlier ‘pulling power’ development goal.
The new forced induction arrangement is
a slight departure from the tri-turbo diesel
BMW is sticking by diesel and its latest creation – a quad
turbo powerhouse – is proof of that steadfast support
Four square
10 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
layout, which used one huge high-pressure
and two lower-pressure devices. That, along
with other powertrain upgrades, has meant fuel
consumption is bettered by 5% while performance
is up by around 10%, amazing real-world gains
on the outgoing performance diesel product.
Package right
Yet despite such impressive engineering innovation,
BMW’s actually remaining tight-lipped about
much of the quad turbo diesel’s inner-system
workings. What has been revealed is that the
engine gets a new fuel-injection system that
operates at around 2,400 bar, a hike of over 200
bar compared with the outgoing motor. Cylinder
pressure has increased to around 210 bar. Other
new elements that set this derivative apart from
the B57 base include a new crankcase to handle
that higher cylinder pressure, as well as new
cylinder head and gasket.
Contrary to popular belief, Fritz Steinparzer,
head of development for diesel engines at BMW,
says packaging wasn’t that much of an issue for
this development project, despite having to cram
four blowers into one layout: “It was a challenge,
but the in-line six layout is the best concept for
advanced turbocharging technology. In a V6
configuration, you can’t do this – it’s hard to use
two-stage turbocharging, let alone four! So being
a ‘long’ engine, the in-line six is a good concept
for this design.
“On the other hand, we also looked for an
engine base configuration that allows for a lot
of free space on the exhaust side.”
Essentially, adds Steinparzer, wholesale
design changes have allowed his team to place
all auxiliaries at the front left side of the engine.
“So the right side of the engine is 100% free
for turbocharging and exhaust aftertreatment –
that’s the important point,” he says.
Despite those huge power outputs, the new
diesel engine has some impressive green
credits: fuel consumption is around 5.7 l/100km
(49.5mpg) and emissions between 154 and 149g/
km CO2. Some of that added greenness is down to
the adoption of a particulate filter, NOx catalytic
converter and an SCR with urea injection.
No matter which way one looks at this
development, this quad turbo monster is basically
a statement of intent from BMW – sticking by
diesel technology in the face of VW’s cheat
software scandal.
“Last year was a difficult year for diesel
technology and diesel cars because there
were some issues in this area from one of our
competitors. Following that, there have been a
lot of discussions as to how clean and how dirty
diesels are,” states Steinparzer.
“But in the last year we’ve had a lot of tests
from authorities all over the world and we’ve
passed all these tests. We came out positive in
a lot of the tests – in fact in most of the tests we
came out on top.”
Four BorgWarner turbochargers
work together in combination
on BMW’s latest top-end diesel
engine (left) which features in
the new 750d xDrive (below)
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 TECH INSIDER FERRARI F151M
VITAL
STATISTICS
Displacement: 3,855cc
Bore: 86.5mm
Stroke: 82mm
Compression ratio: 9.4:1
Power: 609ps
Torque: 760Nm
Stable mate
The latest iteration of Ferrari’s multi-IEOTY-award-winning
3.9-liter, twin-turbo V8 engine opens up its flagship GTC4Lusso
‘shooting brake’ to a wider number of new global customers
Ferrari’s F151M family of 90° V8 turbocharged
engines has grown by another member, thanks
to the introduction of the GTC4Lusso T. Previously
only available with a V12, Ferrari is hoping to
expand the consumer appeal of its flagship
four-seat GT car with the introduction of the
‘downsized’ variant. The new GTC4Lusso T
features a revised version of the International
Engine of the Year-winning 3.9-liter engine that
can currently be found in both the California and
488 GTB, albeit in different configurations
“We identified a customer base that was looking
for a more agile version of the GTC4Lusso,
without the four-wheel drive, which was more
usable on a daily basis,” explains Michael
Leiters, CTO. “At the same time that we started
to develop the 12-cylinder GTC4Lusso, we
started to also develop the V8 version and thanks
to the turbocharger technology that we have
implemented, we’ve been able to develop a very
different model, which has all the performance
you would expect from that type of car.”
The F151M variant fitted to GTC4Lusso T has
some commonality with the California and 488
powertrains, but also has a number of key revisions
that render this iteration bespoke to the GT car.
“The pistons are a completely new design, as
are the connecting rods,” states Leiters. “We have
also optimized the exhaust system to reduce the
pressure losses, and we’ve also introduced a new
intercooler to increase efficiency.”
Early analyses showed the original piston design
was facing increased inner-pressure during the
combustion process, resulting in Ferrari modifying
the piston design. “The piston has to deal with
12 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
more heat as well as the pressure, because of the
increased output,” continues Leiters. “Therefore
we developed a new alloy for the piston, which
has more copper in it to make it more resistant to the
heat. We’ve also applied a new smooth coating to
the piston’s ring groove, to reduce resistance.”
Turbo troubles
The introduction of forced induction to the
GTC4Lusso posed two potential headaches
to Ferrari. Firstly, the lower compression
ratio associated with turbocharged units,
and secondly the lag time taken to
spin the compressor wheel, could
both compromise driveability,
power output and efficiency.
“Our ethos when
developing the car was
to ensure that the engine
delivered the performance of
a turbocharged engine, with
the emotion of a naturally
aspirated one,” comments
Leiters. “Therefore, we couldn’t
afford turbo lag. But when
increasing the specific output of an
engine, it’s then difficult not to introduce
some form of lag. Nevertheless, the response
time of our engine is less than one second;
it’s our secret, but the timing is based on the
packaging, and how we developed and installed
the turbo in the car. With the high level of torque
produced by the 3.9-liter you can drive the car
very differently to the V12, which leads to a 30%
increase in fuel efficiency.”
The GTC4Lusso T
(above) gets a V8
(below) based on the
488’s wonderful
F154CB heart. The
new turbo engine
means Ferrari’s
four-seater GT emits
up to 15% fewer
emissions than when
it’s fitted with the V12
powertrain
As turbochargers can act as an additional
muffler in an exhaust system, another key area
that engineers focused on was ensuring the sound
was befitting of a Ferrari heart. “Inside the engine,
we have used a flat-plane crankshaft, which is
always good for sound,” says Leiters.
“We have a complex design for the exhaust
manifold where the tubes are all the same length,
otherwise you get different sound waves out
of the cylinders. This lead to a very complex
manifold design, which is created in three pieces,
before being welded together to form
the manifold.
“The rest of the exhaust system
has a number of features such
as the H-design, which is just
a bridge between the two
exhaust routings (from either
cylinder bank) so the waves
can amplify themselves
before exiting the car. It’s
something we’ve used before
on the GTC4Lusso, and is
electronically controlled from
within the cabin of the car, so the
driver can control it depending on
the specific driving mode.”
Leiters is also keen to highlight that the
move to V8 power has created several other
unseen benefits. “We saved over 50kg by
removing the AWD system, which was largely
over the front axle,” he concludes. “So, we now
have better weight distribution than we do on the
V12 version by some 2%, which was originally
a 46/54 split.”
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 TECH INSIDER HYUNDAI 1.4 KAPPA
watcher
1. Testing continues of the
high-performance i30N,
the architecture of which
is based on the i30
2 and 3. The base weight
of the new 1,353cc
four-cylinder turbo-
charged gasoline engine
is 14kg lighter than its
predecessor, the Gamma
1.4-liter unit
The latest addition to the Hyundai ‘Kappa’ powertrain portfolio is
an all-new, Atkinson-cycle 1.4-liter, turbo GDI engine, which sheds
weight and adds power compared with its ‘Gamma’ predecessor
Hyundai’s all-new 1.4-liter engine is the latest
engine to emerge from the Kappa family of units,
which were announced in 2014 under the brand’s
‘2020 fuel efficiency road map’. Built around
the concept of improved operational efficiency,
the engine features concepts proved in other
Kappa-family engines.
“The 1.4-liter was the logical next step, after
the three-cylinder, 1-liter engine,” says Dr
Michael Winkler, head of powertrain at Hyundai
Motor’s European Technical Center. “That’s a
Kappa engine too, and the lessons learned in
terms of injection strategy, calibrations and so
on were all translatable to the 1.4-liter.”
The injectors Winkler refers to are Hyundai’s
laser-drilled units, which form part of its GDI fuel
system, which operates at 200-bar pressure.
That, and a number of other characteristics and
components, such as the integrated exhaust
manifold cylinder head, have made their way
into the new 1.4-liter from other Kappa engines,
to help reduce thermal losses.
“If you develop good items it makes sense to
carry them over, and it’s a growing trend among
OEMs as they start to think about the future,”
continues Winkler. “With the direct injection,
the side-injector position of the 1.0-liter is the
same configuration as the 1.4-liter.”
14 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
Weight
Providing most of the 1.4-liter engine’s
power is a high-pressure single-scroll turbo.
Winkler says the turbine and compressor
are ‘optimized’ through the application of
a sophisticated electronic actuator, which
bolsters low-end torque and throttle response.
By controlling the turbo’s wastegate, the unit
can lower back pressure, improving
both part-load fuel consumption
and low rpm performance.
Kappa crossover
“Other key Kappa family
characteristics have been
carried over too,” continues
Winkler. “The 1.4-liter T-GDI
unit has a standardized
piston-crank offset, which
is now a standard part of our
Kappa engine family. It was also
used on the Gamma engines and is
proved to reduce frictional losses.”
The 1.4-liter T-GDI uses the Atkinson
combustion cycle, so pumping losses as a
result of the late closing of intake valves
are dramatically reduced. Hyundai has
implemented the combustion cycle by using a
BorgWarner CV VT system with integrated oil-
VITAL
STATISTICS
Displacement: 1,355cc
Bore: 72mm
Stroke: 84mm
Power: 120ps
Torque: 196Nm
flow control valve lock, which in turn enables
the engine to use an extended phasing angle
and deliver a faster response time.
“All aspects of the engine’s efficiency were
key items during development, particularly in
regard to the warm-up and cool-down phases,”
adds Winkler. “Another feature of this engine is
the split cooling of the cylinder block and head,
greatly improving thermal management.”
Set to replace the Gamma range of engines
between 1.6- and 2.0 liters in capacity, the
all-new 1.4-liter four-cylinder is much lighter
than its predecessors. Despite boasting greater
efficiency and improvements in power,
the unit’s base weight has been
3 reduced, making it 14kg lighter
than the Gamma 1.4-liter.
“The advantages of our
new small gasoline engines
are clear – they are compact
and light in weight, fuel
efficient and still provide the
flexibility to offer different
power outputs,” says Winkler.
“We have achieved a reduction
in fuel consumption and CO 2
emissions without compromising
on driving pleasure.”
While still regarded as a conceptual unit, the
T-GDI will debut in Hyundai’s i30, but Winkler
won’t elaborate on where else the new engine
may end up. “I couldn’t possibly say,” he
teases. “But, as with all of our powertrains,
it’s designed to fit Hyundai and Kia brands.”
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 ENGINES ON TEST
Hot-hatch heavy hitters
BMW M2 N55B30T0
Aficionados are an odd bunch, particularly automotive ones. Since its
launch, BMW’s latest M car, the M2, has been berated for not being a
‘proper M car’, an argument that largely hinges on the car using a non-
M-specific engine. And to an extent, you can see the naysayers’ point
of view; at the heart of the M2 is in fact a six-year-old engine that can
be traced back to its predecessor, the 1 Series M Coupe – the first car
to drift away from ‘S’ designation engines in M cars.
However, while the move from an oversquare
stroke engine to a turbocharged undersquare
ratio does deliver a different driving
experience, it is one that does fit with
modern times. The N55B30T0 engine
as found in the M2 is an all-aluminum,
3-liter straight-six unit that has been
comprehensively reworked by M’s
engineers, borrowing a number of high-
performance parts from its larger M3/M4
brethren. The car features a new Honeywell-
supplied, twin-scroll turbocharger that ensures
a linear dyno graph for the M2, with a peak torque
figure of 500Nm, developed for 15-second bursts during ‘overboost’,
arriving at under 2,500rpm and only really tailing off to below 400Nm
above 6,500rpm, meaning in the real world that in-gear acceleration
is effortlessly simple, making light work of overtaking and B-road
motoring. Other revisions to the N55 engine by M-division include the
pistons, crankshaft bearings, valvetronic variable valve timing system
and a number of other components lifted straight from the S55 unit,
while the new exhaust system has a similar larger-bore to the larger
M cars for improved gas flow. Our test car was fitted with the optional
DCT, which on paper enables the M2 to accelerate to 100km/h in
4.2 seconds and in reality seems wholly believable too. In a sector
that has seemingly had the Teutonic power-war forced upon it –
it wasn’t all that long ago that the 233ps Alfa Romeo 147GTA was
considered by some as too powerful – the M2’s 370ps may be seen
by some as overkill, but its smooth delivery and effortless speed elevate
the car above its more frantic, junior, rivals to a more mature, rounded
individual that can pretty much tick all the boxes you’d ever need to
tick for a daily commuter – and then some.
Cylinders: Six Cubic capacity: 2,979cc
Bore/stroke (mm): 84 x 89.6 Compression ratio: 10.2:1
Power output: 370ps Torque output: 465Nm
16 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
Ford Focus RS 2.3 Ecoboost
The RS badge has adorned some of the finest cars ever developed by
Ford’s performance division, from the Group-B exile RS200 to the
extremely collectable and valuable Sierra RS500. In modern times,
it has been the sole reserve of the Focus model, which in its latest
iteration is the first ‘globally developed’ RS. Powering this generation
RS is a variant of the 2.3-liter Ecoboost four-cylinder fitted to the 2016
Mustang. However, a number of key revisions and new components
see the Mustang’s 314ps and 433Nm swell to 350ps and 470Nm for
application in the RS. This has been achieved through the use of a
new, larger diameter, twin-scroll turbocharger, revised intake routing
design, a larger bore exhaust system, as well as a larger intercooler.
The latter worked so well, it had to be partly covered off using a
blanking plate from a diesel Transit van. However, while the majority
of the mainstream consumer media is enamored with the RS, we at
ETi can’t help but feel slightly underwhelmed by the whole experience.
Yes, it is powerful, and up to fourth gear it does feel exceptionally fast,
but a dull, uninspired exhaust note – complete with mandatory fuel
dumps between gearshifts – sums up the entire driving experience.
As we said, the car is fast – its claimed 0-100km/h dash
of 4.7 seconds feels entirely believable in the real
world – but the end product is all a bit sterile and
disconnected. Our biggest concerns with the
RS aren’t wholly engine related, but do impact
how the engine’s vast reserves of power are
exploited. Our test car was equipped with
optional (US$1,395) hard-shell seats, which
do not height-adjust, meaning you never
sit comfortably in the car. In addition, any
sizeable stab of the accelerator while the steering
wheel is anything other than dead center resulted
in noticeable torque steer, perhaps the downside
of cramming 470Nm through unequal length driveshafts.
Previous RS models were bespoke, finely honed machines built with
a singular purpose of being truly fast versions of the standard car. The
Mk3 RS is very much a fast version of the standard car, but in ensuring
that the car is as at home on a Californian highway as it is thundering
down a British B-road means a series of compromises and no matter
which way you spin it, it does mean that unique appeal has been lost.
Cylinders: Four Cubic capacity: 2,261cc
Bore/stroke (mm): 87.5 x 94 Compression ratio: 9.4:1
Power output: 350ps Torque output: 470Nm
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 PERSONALITY PROFILE

PROFILE: KENO K ATO
Job title: Corporate vice president,
global product strategy and
EV product planning division
Company: Nissan
What career did you want when you were
growing up, and what was your first job?
I decided to join Nissan when I was eight
or nine years old, which I know sounds very
strange. My father was a salesperson for
Nissan, and when I was that age, it was
struggling to fight against Toyota. It’s a bit like
being a football fan – you support Manchester
United or Liverpool. It’s very similar, actually.
What was your career path to the position
you currently hold?
I joined Nissan as a HVAC engineer. I spent
five or six years in that position, and then
I moved to product planning, where I have
spent most of my career. However, I also
spent two years in a Nissan dealership as a
salesperson, two years with Nissan Europe
and two years as a program director looking
after several projects. Aside from those six
years, I have always been in product planning.
What are the best and worst elements
of your job?
Through the business I make a lot of friends
in different countries due to the nature of my
current role. This makes for unlimited learning
about cars, people, cultures – as well as
business management skills. That’s the best
part of my current job. As for the element I like
the least? I like sleeping, and I wish I could get
more sleep.
What would be your dream engine
specification for today’s eco-friendly world?
A pure EV with a very nice engine sound.
In terms of the engine’s characteristics,
the torque delivery should be more or less
similar to a diesel engine. And the top end
of a Formula 1 car. But it must be an EV.
With a range of hundreds of kilometers.
In your opinion, what is the greatest engine
that has ever been produced?
If I had driven a lot of racing cars, or a lot
of exotic cars from the 1950s, 1960s or
1970s, then I think it would be one of those
products. But I do have a favorite engine.
The RB26DETT, the GT-R engine, straight
six. That was a sensational engine at that
time. The sound and the character made it an
amazing engine, as well as the performance.

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18 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

 PERSONALITY PROFILE

Homologation can be painful, and CO2 output brings a lot

of pressure. But without these, it’s impossible for us to improve
our performance significantly. These really are the sources
of our technological and engineering improvements
What car do you currently drive? those working in the car industry respect our technological and engineering
A Nissan Cube. I would love to say the GT-R, them even more than Mercedes customers improvements. So I’m not so negative about
the current model, but I drive a Cube. In Japan do. People tend to recognize BMW for its these restrictions – they’re very tough, but
there is no company car scheme. Giving a car, engineering expertise in terms of driving also very necessary. The car industry is very
rather than salary, is a good solution for the performance, but my view is different. To much like a sports activity. To beat a great
company and its employees in the UK and deliver the recognition, engineering plays a team, you need training, exercise, teamwork
many other European countries. But it doesn’t key role, as does dynamic styling. On top of and improvements – every day.
happen in Japan. So I bought myself a Cube actual driving performance, BMW has made
– that might be slightly shocking to hear. some big gains in terms of dynamic styling – In your opinion, what will be powering a
and that’s really important. These days, I also typical family sedan in the year 2030?
Which OEMs do you have an engineering have a lot of respect for Mazda. But of course, Electrified powertrains will be really
respect for? and perhaps unsurprisingly, I respect Nissan developed by then and we will see more
Toyota shows a passion for quality at engineering the most. and more of these products on the roads in
corporate level and strives to improve every years to come. The IC engine will still have
single detail – every component – within What could legislators do to make your its place, but I think electrified powertrains
its product range, which will result in quality working life easier? will be sold in much, much bigger volumes
improvement across the board and ultimately Homologation can be painful, and CO2 output by then. Electrified powertrains undoubtedly
the end product. I have a lot of respect for brings a lot of pressure. But without these, it’s offer greater comfort than IC-powered cars
Mercedes-Benz – no description is required impossible for us to improve our performance and are easy to use, offering drivers a unique
here for them in terms of engineering. In fact, significantly. These really are the sources of experience that’s also very eco-friendly.

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Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 19

 OPINION
Something at the Paris Motor Show left me confused.
Not an unusual state of affairs in and of itself, but this
was a new kind of confused.
Infiniti, as you’ll read on page 4, insists it has cracked the
Fermat’s Last Theorem (FLC) of IC engineering. It swears it
is taking a variable compression engine into production.
But I smell something odd here, not least because the car
industry can be a depressingly evolutionary, process-driven
beast that is shockingly harsh on the truly creative.
Firstly, which companies would you think about if you had
to bet on one, or even three, car makers to do this? I’d set
myself some parameters before I went about my educated
guesswork, and even knowing the answer before it started,
Infiniti’s announcement makes no sense.
See, I figured I’d need to consider
a company’s track record of wistful
It would have to be
ingenuity, because tilting at this sort of
windmill demands eccentricity. You’d
a company with not
have to look for a company so bored
silly with the tedium of engineering and
just engineering
building cars profitably that they send muscle, but with
their people off on giggle projects and
are then foolish enough to take them access to excess
seriously when they come back. That’s
how it made sense for Saab to have a engineering muscle
big chop at it last time.
You’d have to think, too, about the company’s
resources, because chasing this down would drain
the engineering pool away from today’s money
makers and from tomorrow’s e-architectures.
It would have to be a company with not just
engineering muscle, but with access to excess
engineering muscle that far outweighed
its profit-and-loss limits.
Porsche jumps out, but it’s
evolutionary, preferring to
stubbornly refine ideas it
thought of decades ago and
besides, it’s a bit obsessed
with the Mission E. Toyota
would be a chance. After all,
20 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
Which OEM ha
production
s cracked va
riable comp
? Why, that ression tech
would be In for
finiti, of
course!
it did the Prius when nobody else
thought to, yet somehow forgot to allocate the thing a
designer. That worked so well that they still don’t. And the
days of Honda being Japan’s BMW and the bubbly princeling
of engineering have sadly gone.
Then, with the IC engine’s dusk on the horizon, you’d
have to ask yourself who had a desperate need for variable-
compression and you’d have to
conclude it was an OEM whose
engines emitted too much everything.
That’s not VW anymore, as
independent studies prove.
The final consideration is the
inevitable intrusion of sales/marketing
into adult car industry conversations.
Which brand desperately needs
a point of difference?
So, does Infiniti gel with any of
those assumptions, or are they
wrong? Does Infiniti tilt at windmills?
Its very existence was a tilt, you could argue, but that was
long ago, and if you missed the interim, who can blame you?
It might not have abundant engineering resources of its
own, but it does have access to both Renault and Nissan.
Still, none of that indicates an enthusiasm for engineering
revolution. After all, Infiniti partnered Red Bull multiple F1 titles
and its flagship tech contribution was a new purple paint.
And that leaves its emissions, which seem no better or
worse than the rest of the segment players, and marketing…
and there it is.
Too many years of climbing a treadmill and not gaining on
BMW, Audi, Mercedes, Jaguar or even Lexus and it’s finally
realized it needs to sell something else – not just more of the
same. But I still struggle to credit that it has done this engine
tech all in-house. Nothing about that would make any sense.
 GA RT, GE R MANY
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 OPINION
I knew Diesel well. When I started my career as a
motoring journalist in 1994, Diesel was going through
a renaissance in the UK and Europe. Performance- and
refinement-enhancing common-rail technology wasn’t
far from being introduced, plus governments throughout
Europe offered favorable tax concessions for Diesel. Car
buyers loved the fact that Diesel wasn’t as thirsty as the
gasoline-fueled equivalents. Sales of heavy-oil burners
soared and continued to do so until last year, when sadly
Diesel caught a terminal Bug. And not just a terminal Bug,
but also a Golf, a Polo, a Passat, a Tiguan... Sadly, the 2015
Volkswagen ‘Dieselgate’ scandal – and the new, successful
partnership between gasoline and electric – meant that
poor Diesel wasn’t long for this world.
But an obituary shouldn’t focus
on negatives; I want to talk about
the good times – and Diesel and I, Diesel wasn’t long
well, we had some fun together.
It’s ironic that I owe many of my for this world as
good times to VW Group, with one
fine memory with Diesel coming from
a result of the
when I first drove on an autobahn
in the 1990s. Audi had produced
VW ‘Dieselgate’
its charismatic five-pot and it was
rather wonderful. Fast, frugal and
scandal. I’ll miss you,
it sounded interesting. Not beautiful, my friend
but it didn’t make a woeful racket like
Diesels that came before it. Together,
we drove at over 230km/h (143mph) – I’d never been so fast
(officer!). You always have a soft spot for your first time.
Then came the greats – great engines that happened
to be Diesel as opposed to great
Diesels. A recent triumph was
Porsche’s V8. It’s probably
the most harmonious Diesel
ever produced and it
revved unlike any other.
It behaved much like
a gasoline engine
and I mean that as a
22 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
compliment. Indeed, Diesel would have loved to be compared
to a gasoline unit because he aspired to be gasoline. Diesel
craved its sibling’s refinement, its vibration-free idle, and its
ability to reach for the highest of tachometer figures.
VW’s V10 Diesel was another beaut, with ridiculous
low-end torque and power. The whole concept was
over-the-top, but it was loved all the more for its eccentricity.
It even almost helped Diesel break into the USA. Almost.
But my friends across the Atlantic
never really took to Diesel.
Diesel never made friends in
Japan, either. I remember talking
to the president of a large Japanese
car manufacturer at the launch of his
company’s first Diesel. In a relaxed
mood and with no PRs to shield him,
he confessed to me that he hated
Diesel. Pah! He barely knew him.
Sadly, while I’ve had many fleeting
dates with Diesel, we had only one
long-term relationship. I bought a
Mercedes-Benz CLS in 2013 with
the 2.1-liter Diesel. I did so because the lazy low-end torque
characteristics matched the relaxed nature of the CLS’s
dynamics. It was the most comfortable car I’d owned until
that pesky electric Tesla Model S came along.
Perhaps Diesel’s biggest achievement will always be his
success on the track. An unlikely partner for a race car due
to his unwillingness to rev, Diesel played on his strengths
when competing: low-end torque to pull out of corners fast
and, in endurance racing at least, his ability to sip fuel. Diesel
took Audi to numerous Le Mans victories and he did so by
absolutely stuffing gasoline-electrics. My only regret is that
I never got to race with Diesel. I’ll miss you, my friend.
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 END OF THE SPARK PLUG

spark
One last

The phrase ‘spark ignition’ has become

synonymous with gasoline combustion,
but there’s more than one way to start a fire

WORDS BY
CHRIS PICKERING

I
n the 130 years or so since the gasoline
engine was invented, one thing has remained
constant. All production designs, from
Karl Benz’s Patent Motorwagen to the latest
downsized turbocharged motors, use spark
ignition (SI). The fundamental design of the
spark plug has changed remarkably little in
that time too – but could it be ready for a
radical technology overhaul?
There are various concepts in development
that promise greater ignition energy,
distributed across a larger volume of the
combustion chamber. And in theory, these
present a range of benefits that would be
highly applicable to the challenges facing
modern IC units.
For a start, they raise the possibility
of stable combustion at extremely lean
equivalence ratios. This has obvious
benefits for fuel economy, but perhaps even
more importantly, it also results in lower
combustion temperatures, which could
significantly reduce NOX production. Another
advantage – particularly for highly boosted
downsized designs – is increased knock
resistance. You’d be forgiven for thinking
this all sounds like a win-win situation.

26 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

 END OF THE SPARK PLUG

Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 27

 END OF THE SPARK PLUG
Corona discharge
Federal Mogul has perhaps the most radical
solution. The company’s Advanced Corona
Ignition System (ACIS) works by concentrating
a high-frequency, high-voltage electric field
at the tips of an electrode. This ionizes the
surrounding air, forming streams of conductive
plasma, which reach out across the cylinder.
Conventional spark plugs actually go
through the same process very briefly before
the spark is established. The key difference
with a corona system is that the voltage is
pulsed, which prevents the field strength
from ever growing strong enough to arc.
Consequently, there is no ground electrode
as you’d find in a spark plug; the charged
particles that form the corona simply drift
off to neutralize their charge elsewhere.
Theoretically, the only constraint on the
size of the corona is how far it can extend
before it encounters an electrically grounded
surface (such as the top of the piston) and
then breaks down. This is partly dependent
on the conditions within the cylinder – at lower
pressures, for instance, breakdown will occur
at lower voltages, thus limiting corona size.
In reality, the piston only comes close
to the igniter around TDC when the pressures
are very high, so preventing breakdown is
rarely a problem, explains Kristapher Mixell,
director of research and development for ACIS
and ignition coils at Federal Mogul Powertrain.
1. Corona is said to achieve
up to 10% fuel efficiency
improvements (or up to 30%
when used as an enabler for a
more comprehensive package
of multiple engine optimization
elements) over spark ignition
28 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
“The software in our system helps to
manage and mitigate any risk of breakdown,
so we can generate corona very well, even
in quite small areas,” he states.
Even if the arcing were to continue, it
wouldn’t do any damage, he explains: “The
interesting thing about our system is that
it uses what’s called a cold plasma, so
there’s very little actual current there. For
a demonstration event a few years ago I put
my hand in one of the corona streamers. You
wouldn’t want to do that with a conventional
spark plug!”
Federal Mogul claims ACIS can offer small
improvements in terms of fuel economy and
CO2 even when run at comparable air-to-fuel
ratios to a conventional SI engine. However,
it really comes into its own when run at very
high lambda values or with large amounts
of EGR. Equivalence ratios of up to λ=2 are
said to be achievable, with corresponding
improvements to emissions and efficiency,
while the engine is also able to run closer
to the knock limit at high loads.
One of the benefits of this system is that
it’s potentially a straight swap for a traditional
spark plug, as Mixell explains: “A number of
OEMs are currently trialling this system and
we’ve not had one yet that’s needed to make
any significant changes to the engine. The
biggest difference [to conventional SI] is that
we have an electronic drive system with its
2
2. Federal-Mogul’s
Advanced Corona Ignition
System (ACIS), or Corona
for short, creates a large,
high-intensity plasma
ignition source that’s
spread throughout the
combustion chamber.
Unlike laser ignition, the
system is close to being
a plug-and-play fitment
requiring little in the way
of specialist control
technologies
“The interesting thing about our system
is that it uses a cold plasma, so there’s
very little actual current there. For a
demonstration a few years ago I put
my hand in one of the corona streamers.
You wouldn’t want to do that with a
conventional spark plug!”
Kristapher Mixell, director of research and development for ACIS and ignition coils, Federal Mogul Powertrain

own power supply and regulation, but that
essentially operates as a ‘black box’ once it’s
been calibrated.”
Jet ignition
Mahle is aiming to create a similar effect, albeit
with a very different tech solution. The Mahle
Jet Ignition (MJI) system uses a pre-ignition
chamber, fed by its own fuel injector and
spark plug. Only a small amount of the
overall fuel delivery (less than 5%) is injected
via the MJI system, while the remainder of
the charge is supplied by a conventional DI or
PFI system. Once the spark plug fires, it sends
streams of partially burned mixture outward
from a series of nozzles in the pre-chamber.
These ignite the main charge almost
simultaneously across the whole volume.
This concept made headlines earlier this
year when it emerged that several engine
manufacturers were using a similar idea in
Formula 1 (including Ferrari, whose system
was reportedly engineered by Mahle). Where
these differ from the road-going MJI system,
however, is that they syphon fuel passively
from the main fuel injector into a pre-chamber
through a collection of orifices, instead of
using a dedicated injector unit. ETi has been
told this is largely done for the sake of the
Formula 1 technical regulations, which
prohibit the use of additional injectors.
Sources close to the project suggest that
the technology is showing promise. ETi
understands it allows the engine to operate
stably at very lean equivalence ratios (circa
λ=2), with multiple high-energy ignition
points. These can extend right to the
extremities of the chamber, speeding up
the combustion and specifically targeting
END OF THE SPARK PLUG
the areas where knock tends to occur. This 3
allows increased compression ratios – up
to a four-point increase in some applications,
according to the company’s website –
combined with reduced pumping losses.
Almost diesel-like fuel consumption is said
to be possible as a result. Tests have reportedly
shown specific consumption below 200g/kWh,
with considerable reductions in CO2 as a
consequence. NOx emissions on the PFI test
engine are also understood to have been cut
by more than 99% in the ultra-lean area,
with HC emissions comparable to standard
SI operation. Particulate emissions are
said to have been somewhat increased 3 and 4. Mahle continues
4 to undertake pioneering
compared with regular PFI, but they work in this powertrain
remain significantly less than the area. Shown here are
equivalent DI engine. detailed simulation studies
of optical jets and spray
It’s also understood that
the system has now been
miniaturized to the point
where it can usually be
packaged in a similar manner
to a conventional spark plug.
Casting and machining changes
are still likely to be required, but
the fundamental design of the
cylinder head – at least on PFI
applications – is thought to be unchanged.
Engine
Engine
Technology
Technology
International.com
International.com
// January 2011 // 02
// March 2017 29
 END OF THE SPARK PLUG

1 1. Bosch Iridium Spark

Plugs are designed and
Mahle is said to be working with several engineered to deliver both
major OEMs, although the concept is still high performance and long
very much in the research phase. Work is life. The ultra-fine wire
iridium center electrode pin
understood to be ongoing on things like cold plays a key role in realizing
operation and transient response. There’s both these vital promises
also the wider question of how turbochargers
and aftertreatment systems will fare with low
temperature combustion. Nonetheless, MJI
raises some very promising engine options.

Spark plug revision

Aside from Federal Mogul and Mahle, a
number of other companies are working on
alternative ignition concepts, including Ilmor
Engineering, which intends to develop a road 3
car system based on a recent motorsport project.
Details are sketchy, although it is known to
involve revisions to the geometry and electrical
design of what is essentially a spark plug.
“Pre-chamber ignition looks good if you
want to run the engine ultra-lean, because
it allows a locally rich mixture at the point
of ignition, but it also seems like a very
complicated solution. Our system is a lot
simpler than that,” hints Ian Whiteside, chief
engineer of advanced projects at Ilmor.
“We’re aiming to generate a bigger, more But we are going to see changes, he
consistent spark that penetrates further into admits. Higher cylinder pressures will
the chamber. But it’s a direct replacement for require higher voltages to achieve a good
the spark plug, with less machining required spark in heavily downsized turbo engines,
to the head than a pre-chamber system.” while the Bosch director also expects spark
Beyond that, Whiteside is keeping his cards plugs to shrink yet further from M12 threads
close to his chest, and that suggests there is a
growing interest in advanced ignition concepts.
to M10. He also predicts increasing use of
onboard intelligence within the ignition coils.
“I’ve no doubt that
Yet not everyone is convinced of the benefits. Bosch already produces a system that allows benefits can be found
“We have looked at this several times over the closed-loop control of the spark energy, but
years and there have been numerous studies it is working on a device that would allow for on a test bench or in
at several institutes,” comments Dr Tobias
Ruf, director of spark plug R&D at Bosch.
greater flexibility to tailor the current/voltage
signal over time. It is hoped that this can some specific driving
“I’ve no doubt that benefits can be found
on a test bench or in some specific driving
both increase performance levels and reduce
overall electrode wear. conditions, but I don’t
conditions, but I don’t think there has
been enough evidence to show that these
Ruf continues, “Anyone who’s ever made
a fire with the sun using a magnifying glass think there has been
alternative concepts would have a practical
benefit in day-to-day driving on the road.”
will know how easy it can be to ignite
something. That in itself is trivial. The challenge
enough evidence
2. Key features of Bosch’s
with these more exotic concepts is to make
them reliable and commercially viable in a
to show that these
technology include original
equipment design, materials
and production processes
practical automotive environment. For me,
the key question is, what is the benefit? Is
alternative concepts
2
there a compulsive need for a new solution?
Personally, I don’t see it within the next five
would have a practical
to eight years.” benefit in day-to-day
driving on the road”
History might just be on the side of the
spark plug, then. After all, it has endured
for 130 years already. But the automotive Dr Tobias Ruf, director of spark plug R&D, Bosch
industry is going through a time of
unprecedented change, with mounting
pressures to improve both economy and
emissions. Manufacturers will be sure to
take a keen interest in anything that might
offer a solution.

01 //// March
30 January
2011 // Engine
2017 // Engine
Technology
Technology
International.com
International.com
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 OEM INTERVIEW // GM

32 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

 OEM INTERVIEW // GM

Being director of global propulsion systems

at the USA’s largest car maker certainly has its
moments, but Larry Nitz can’t help but love his job
WORDS BY
MIKE MAGDA
ILLUSTR ATION BY
MITCH GEE

Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 33

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 OEM INTERVIEW // GM

1. Chevrolet’s 2017 Bolt 1

introduces an all-new
architecture for GM
2. Because of the use of
batteries within the Bolt’s
powertrain, its underfloor
is completely flat
3. 2017-spec Bolt EV
powertrain offers users
an EPA-estimated range
of 238 miles per charge

W
ith his combined role as
executive director of global
propulsion systems at
General Motors, Larry
T Nitz leads the auto
maker’s worldwide transmission and vehicle
electrification research and development
projects. He won’t say just how he divides
his time between the two disciplines, but
there are plenty of gear-related chores to
address as he directs GM engineering
operations in the Americas, Europe and Asia.
“My work… I love it all,” says Nitz, a
40-year veteran at GM who, on a powertrain,
drivetrain and transmission engineering
front, has seen it all.
with Navistar. Nitz wouldn’t comment
on those future plans, and he also brushed
aside a chance to talk about one of the more
exciting transmissions that could come out
of a GM plant: a transaxle for the rumored
next-generation, mid-engine Corvette racer.
However, he was eager to discuss a new
manual 6-speed that has just been launched
in Brazil.
“It’s a very cost-effective 6-speed design,”
he explains. “A so-called two-and-a-half
shaft design, fixed-loose type bearing system
that provides great efficiency.” The new unit

“We’re developing a new

Coming from a long background in
transmission design – his work in clutch-to-
clutch controls help set the stage for new
automatic platforms at GM – Nitz now
looks forward to the challenges of customer
generation of very cost-effective,
satisfaction and the regulatory needs of global
high-volume automotive development.
“Yet, having the opportunity to look
emerging market manual
at low-volume, emerging electrification
technology is interesting, too,” counters
transmissions right now”
Nitz, an electrical engineering graduate
of Michigan’s Kettering University (formerly
General Motors Institute) with a master’s is an important development, especially as
from Stanford University in California. GM officials estimate that more than 40% 3
GM is set to reap the benefits of a of the company’s global transmission
collaboration with cross-town Detroit rival production is for manuals.
Ford in the development of 10-speed RWD “We’re developing a new generation of
and 9-speed FWD transmissions that will very cost-effective, emerging market manual
debut on 2017 vehicles. There’s also the transmissions right now,” says Nitz, adding
possibility of new or upgraded heavy-duty that work is based in the company’s China
transmissions to go along with GM engines engineering facilities and the transmissions
that will power a line of new medium-duty will also feature “drive quality for the
commercial trucks through a partnership premium areas of those markets.”

Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 35

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1. Opel’s Astra makes extensive use Opel DNA
of lightweighting techniques to weigh
in over 200kg less than its predecessor
While automatics are gaining a foothold in
Europe, there will be continued development
of manuals for that market where improved
damper technology, such as dual-mass
flywheels and centrifugal pendulum clutch
discs, are gaining favor.
“We’re excited about the Opel DNA we’re
putting into these manuals in Europe,” adds
Nitz. “It’s all focused on great NVH, low
inertia and lower costs.”
The General attempted to build its own
CVT more than a decade ago, installing the
unit in the Saturn Vue for the US market and
1
in the Opel Vectra for European customers.
The transmission was killed off in 2004
following numerous problems that included
driveability issues, according to various
news stories at the time. Last year there
was a report in WardsAuto that GM was again
developing an in-house CVT that could be
ready for 2019 models. A GM spokesperson
at the time did not confirm the project but
did say the company has the capability to
produce CVTs, if needed.
“We’re excited about the
Opel DNA we’re putting into
these manuals in Europe.
It’s all focused on great NVH,
low inertia and lower costs”
2. Opel’s city car, Adam,
could potentially see
the application of a
CVT transmission
Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 37
OEM INTERVIEW // GM
“We think there is a place for CVTs at GM,”
confirms Nitz, noting that the decisions are
tied to customer expectations. “As we look at
engine technology and where it’s going, that
has a great impact on what transmission we
design and build, or purchase. The step-gear
automatic is our expertise.” At present, GM
buys a CVT from Japanese supplier Jatco for
use in the Spark.
“We’ll continue to look at CVT going
forward,” adds Nitz, who holds 44 US patents
and four GM Boss Kettering Awards for
engineering innovation. “It has a place in
small cars. As we look at larger vehicles such
as FWD crossovers that occasionally tow or
carry heavy loads, then an efficient planetary
step-gear automatic makes a lot of sense too.”
Hitting targets
There is continued pressure on transmission
engineers to make more contributions to the
pending fuel economy requirements – and
here Nitz says there are holistic and practical
approaches his group takes.
“We tend to look at it pragmatically
in dollars per gram of CO2,” he outlines.
“We can look at many technologies. Engines
will continue to become more efficient.
We changed our name because it is a
vehicle-integrated system approach.”
Nitz offers an example of the powertrain
team designing a highly efficient three-
cylinder engine, but there’s an undesirable
pulsation frequency that can be minimized
in the transmission.
3. Opel’s 1.4-liter Eco-Tec
utilizes an integrated
turbocharger and
manifold for greater
efficiency and power
 OEM INTERVIEW // GM

“We can bring efficient engine technology 1 1. The 2016 Chevrolet

Camaro uses GM’s new
that has to have a transmission solution,” multi-material 10-speed
he says. RWD transmission (2)
Future developments will likely focus
on incremental improvements to existing
platforms that are scaled for torque capacity
and vehicle size. For example, the current
FWD 6-speed has benefited from two
updates in only 10 years that addressed
numerous issues, from bearings and bushings
to adding an off-axis fluid pump.
“In the FWD 9-speed we brought in a
new technology with the selectable one-
way clutch,” says Nitz. “I think we’ve
done a really good job in creating
families of transmissions rather
than one transmission that 2
we shoehorn into everything.
We look at it not only in the
context of a specific product,
but of a manufacturing
system, a control system, and
a family of products that allows
us to deliver the best for the 3
specific vehicle within the family.”
Yet the continued expansion of
BEVs within GM will not necessarily
spur additional transmission development.
“We’ll see more application of
electrification, not only to all-electric
powertrains such as a BEV or even a plug-
in hybrid, but to conventional vehicles, as
well,” he says, noting that the next generation
BEV at GM will go from 0-60mph in under
seven seconds – but not with a multispeed
transmission. “We believe that a simple,
efficient 1-speed makes a lot of sense in
battery electric cars. We have electric 3. Opel’s Astra K uses
a variety of engine sizes,
machines that push 16,000rpm or more. in conjunction with four
transmission options

“We’ll continue to look at

CVT going forward. It has
a place in small cars”
The need for multi-speed with that has a
very limited return.”
The possibility of an e-axle is also being
studied at GM: “The natural place is where
you could execute some level of all-wheel
drive. That’s a natural way of putting more
power to ground. It’s not cheap, but it does
provide good value for the customer.”
Nitz’s experience with electrification and
transmissions certainly gives him far-reaching
insight into making business and customer-
related decisions as he travels between
four continents to meet with the regional
engineering teams.
“We have a make and buy strategy,”
Nitz concludes, referring to a product range
that includes a number of transmissions,
batteries, electric-drive units and much,
much more. “We make most of the
transmissions and buy some. We tend
to make the core products and buy the
niche products.”

38 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

 EMISSIONS TESTING

Re c
As new emissions
regulations come into
force, lab-based testing
results will have to match
the end engine product
even more closely in
terms of its real-world
road emissions

40 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com


e covery
mode
One year on from the Dieselgate scandal,
powertrain engineers the world over continue
to grapple with the changing and turbulent
landscape that is emissions testing
WORDS BY
CHRIS PICKERING
T
he automotive landscape is
changing. In Europe especially,
car makers are facing the greatest
shake-up in emissions testing since
the 1970s. It comes at a time when
environmental attitudes are shifting, technology
is evolving and the industry is still reeling
from a scandal that made front-page news
across the world. Admittedly, the impact
of Dieselgate has been greatly exaggerated
in some circles; tighter emissions legislation
and the introduction of so-called Real Driving
Emissions (RDE) tests had been on the cards
for years. However, it does seem to have had
a genuine effect on the details.
“Dieselgate illustrated why real-world testing
is so important and I think it has had an effect
on RDE,” says Nick Molden, CEO, Emissions
Analytics, which has been carrying out
independent testing using PEMS since 2011.
The whole concept of the RDE test is to
ensure that real-world emissions conform to
within a certain factor of official lab results
determined using the new Worldwide
harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedure
(WLTP). In theory it should be simple, but
Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 41
EMISSIONS TESTING
exact details – including the conformity factor
itself – have proved to be a moving target.
“It’s very difficult to say what would have
happened were it not for Dieselgate,” says
Molden. “The trend seemed to be heading
toward a conformity factor of about 3 for RDE
originally. Immediately after the crisis, there
were leaks suggesting it would drop to as low
as 1.6, whereas we’ve now ended up with 2.1
tightening to 1.5. We’ve seen some toughening
of the ancillary protocols as well – things such
as cold-start and the definition of ‘normal
driving’; lots of little things that make it
harder as an overall proposition.”
The inference is that there was some fairly
frantic lobbying in the background, resulting
in the figure of 2.1 being reached as a ‘fair’
compromise between the EU commission and
the manufacturers. Whether or not that was
the case, a good deal of unease remains.
“We’re now told that the cold-start
procedure could come into effect at the same
time as the conformity factor, but the drafting
hasn’t even been completed yet, so there’s
zero lead time and the regulatory text is not
ready,” says Dr Rainer Vogt, technical expert
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for environment and health at Ford Research
& Advanced Engineering. “Another aspect
is particulate number measurement, which
has only appeared in the last few months. The
procedure is still being drafted and this may
also have to be fulfilled in 2017, but there’s no
legal certainty that it will be the final draft.”
While Vogt welcomes the idea of RDE, he
says the timing of its introduction is proving
something of a challenge. Key to a real-world
conformity check is laboratory data, but the
WLTP procedure has only just been finalized
and its implementation into RDE regulations
is still not complete.
Size matters
Even ignoring the uncertainty that surrounds
the legislation, there are key practical challenges
to setting up a PEMS testing program. The
hardware is essentially a miniaturized version
of static gas analyzers found in labs. Downsizing
these multimillion-dollar facilities into portable
and comparatively affordable testing systems
is far from straightforward, however.
Suppliers such as AVL, Sensors and Horiba
Mira have pulled off an impressive feat,
shrinking this tech into a package that now
fits into a compact hatchback. The systems
have become steadily more accurate and
reliable over the past few years, but there’s
1 and lubricant testing at Millbrook, echoes
2
1 and 2. Millbrook recently
took delivery of a third
new PEMS unit. The
organization can now
support authorities and
legislators to conduct
testing to the new
European Vehicle
Emissions regulations,
due to come into use
from September 2017
EMISSIONS TESTING
still a good deal of work involved in setting
up and conducting a successful program.
“Different types of installation present
different challenges, so creativity is definitely
a requirement,” says Anthony Beck, director
of operations at SGS Aurora. The Colorado-
based facility, part of a global operation
employing more than 85,000 staff
worldwide, has recently added PEMS
testing to its portfolio. “It’s been a learning
experience. For light-duty vehicles the places
you can mount the equipment are fairly
“Once we have the full implementation
of RDE, including cold start and
in-use compliance procedure, the
topic of emissions should be over”
Dr Rainer Vogt, technical expert, environment and health, Ford Research & Advanced Engineering
straightforward, but off-road applications
present more of a challenge. It’s definitely a
different beast to conventional emissions testing.”
So far, the USA has no regulatory requirement
3. Ford PEMS in action
for PEMS, but the EPA has announced that during a recent emissions
it will be including real-world emissions in test. Where possible, the
its audit tests. This has increased the level car maker prefers to mount
the technology internally
of interest in portable emissions testing in the
USA and some believe it will go on to become
part of the certification procedure.
“I think a lot of people are watching RDE
and how it plays out in Europe,” says Beck.
“Some OEMs are further ahead on that
than others, but I think we’ll see a lot
more on-road testing in the future.”
Liam Kennedy, principal engineer for fuel
Beck’s comments on the challenges of
accommodating PEMS: “With some vehicles
the equipment fits easily inside the boot, with
the necessary gas collection kit fitted on a
luggage rack at the back. In other instances –
such as with very compact cars – there simply
isn’t enough room, so the whole system has
to be mounted externally.”
Ford prefers to mount the systems internally
where possible. PEMS tech is a substantial
investment and the prospect of mounting
it outside, exposed to the elements and the
risk of a fender bender, doesn’t appeal. The
downside, however, is extra complexity.
“If the instrumentation is inside, you also
need to bring the exhaust gases inside, which
has safety implications,” says Vogt. “We have
a sniffer system to alert the driver and initiate
an automatic shutdown if it detects fumes
within the cabin.”
The next issues are the choice of route and
the numerous boundary conditions surrounding 3
Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 43
 EMISSIONS TESTING
“I think a lot of people are watching
RDE and how it plays out in Europe.
Some OEMs are further ahead on that
than others, but I think we’ll see a lot
more on-road testing in the future”
1 and 2. SGS Aurora
1
provides PEMS testing
for all manner of vehicles,
including traditional
off-roaders as well as
off-highway applications
3. Established in 2011,
Emissions Analytics
helps provide accurate
fuel economy data for
passenger cars. It has
grown to include the
measurement of tailpipe
emissions of CO, CO 2,
NO, NO 2, THCs and PM
2 the test. These include a number of windows
for average speed, idling time, distance
covered, test duration and driving style.
“It can be difficult to satisfy all the boundary
conditions on public roads,” says Kennedy.
“There are two main tools for validating the
tests. You have EMROAD from the European
Research Centre’s Joint Research Commission,
which is based on a moving average of speed
and CO2; and CLEAR from TU Graz, which
is based on a power output. To satisfy both
at the same time you need a lot of work on
3 route development. We use several routes
to improve the chances of getting a valid
test, but you can still run into issues.”
Traffic can be a major factor if it incurs too
much idling time or prevents the vehicle from
being driven hard enough to remain in the
CO2 window. “Over time, the drivers get to
know the roads and the traffic. First of all you
try to design the right route. The criteria is
pretty broad, but it’s still possible to get the
drive cycle wrong – for instance, too much
urban driving,” adds Vogt.
In theory, even a head wind could mean
the difference between a pass and a fail.
According to one provider, who asked not
44 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
Anthony Beck, director of operations, SGS Aurora
to be named, only 10-20% of its initial tests
actually fulfilled the complete list of RDE
requirements. But while there’s a very real
danger of invalidating the test by straying
outside of such windows, manufacturers
need to be mindful of exploring the full range
of conditions within them. RDE, for instance,
covers speeds of up to 145km/h (90mph),
meaning vehicles tested elsewhere in Europe
– where lower speed limits apply – could
conceivably fail a retest that includes a
stretch of de-restricted autobahn. Likewise,
a vehicle has to comply across the full range
of temperature, pressure and humidity laid
down in the regulations. In practice, this
means the manufacturer’s sign-off is likely
to include PEMS tests in a number of different
territories. That could mean trips to Germany
for the autobahns, Spain for altitude, Finland
for low temperatures, and so on.
Opinion seems to be divided as to whether
or not the WLTP and RDE will go far enough.
“This is going to be a significant improvement,
but I don’t believe it will solve the problem,”
says Molden. “RDE is not that much more
taxing than NEDC, so consumers are still
going to find big gaps between the laboratory
figures and their own fuel consumption.”
Vogt, on the other hand, is optimistic:
“Once we have the full implementation
of RDE, including cold start and in-use
compliance procedure, the topic of emissions
should be over. We did air-quality simulations
where we could see emissions were reduced
by about 70%. By that point, 96-99% of NO2
monitoring stations should be in compliance.”
But what they seem to agree on is that it
won’t end with Europe. Asia is a key market,
where some areas suffer issues with air
pollution due to lack of regulation in the
past. Now, however, the China VI and Beijing
VI regulations look set to take the toughest
elements of US and European legislation,
combine the two together, and tighten the
restrictions even further. It will set a new
benchmark that no manufacturer can afford
to ignore. For the time being, however, most
seem to have their work cut out dealing with
the changes in Europe. It’s certainly going
to be an interesting few years.
 GRINDING QUALITY CONTROL
BY BARKHAUSEN NOISE

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 MOTORSPORT POWERTRAIN TESTING

Ilmor’s scope of race engineering

projects is wide ranging. Here
a Chevrolet IndyCar engine is
put through its paces on a dyno

46 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

 MOTORSPORT POWERTRAIN TESTING

merchants
Deep inside Ilmor Engineering HQ are some very
clever engineers quietly embracing the latest physical
and virtual test tools to further the development of
some of the world’s leading motorsport engines
WORDS BY
CHRIS PICKERING

T
he UK’s Ilmor Engineering is one
of those companies that largely
chooses to fly under the radar.
Its customers include some of
the biggest names in motorsport
and beyond, ranging from NASCAR teams
to aircraft manufacturers. And yet you
could quite easily drive past the company’s
headquarters in Northamptonshire, in
England’s East Midlands, without even
noticing it.
Across the road sits the factory where
Mercedes makes its all-conquering Formula
1 engines. That too was part of the Ilmor
empire until the German brand completed
its purchase of the group in 2005. The
rights to the name and the non-F1 side
of the business were promptly sold back
to its original owners, and since then the
two have gone on as separate entities.
Ilmor has diversified over the years into
OEM automotive, marine and defense, but
motorsport remains the backbone of the
business. These days it’s perhaps best
known for developing and manufacturing
the Chevrolet IndyCar engines, but the
company also works with Roush Yates
Racing Engines on the Ford NASCAR
program, not to mention Renault on its
F1 units. Add to that a number of GT
and World Rally Championship projects
and it’s obvious Ilmor is doing a lot of
engineering behind the scenes.
The unremarkable-looking industrial
unit that forms its UK base is home to 85
staff and an array of test facilities. There’s
a bank of seven dynamometers, including
an in-house designed F1 dyno capable of
more than 20,000rpm – due to be retired
shortly for a new Apicom FR500BRV eddy
current unit. Alongside it sit three Schenck
D700 water brakes, two Apicom FR1000S
eddy current dynos and an AVL Elin EBG
P22 transient AC dyno run in tandem
with an Apicom FR 500 BRVS eddy
current brake.
Each cell is fed with its own stream
of inlet air, with independent control of
temperature, pressure and humidity. This
is largely to provide fixed environmental
conditions, rather than full climatic testing,
but one of the cells does have a neat trick
in the form of a large compressor that mimics
the effect of a turbocharger or supercharger.
This provides up to 8 bar of boost, allowing
engines to run in a forced induction mode
without the associated hardware.
“At any one time we’re typically using
four of those dynos for internal use
and hiring out the remainder,” says Ian
Whiteside, chief engineer of advanced
projects at Ilmor. “They’re fed by a
42,000-liter tank above ground or one of
five 9,000-liter subterranean tanks, which
can be loaded with anything from aviation
fuel to methanol.”

Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 47

 MOTORSPORT POWERTRAIN TESTING
The company is currently in the process
of switching over its dynamometer control
systems to the REO-dEC platform. There’s
also a Horiba MEXA 7170D emissions
measurement system and a total of four AVL
IndiSet analysis machines for high-speed
data acquisition.
At the high-performance end of the
spectrum, the biggest challenge is actually
getting cylinder pressure transducers to
survive, explains Whiteside: “On our F1
and IndyCar work we’re really pushing
the capability of the sensors. Even using the
highest quality 300 bar sensors from AVL
and Kistler, their lifespan ranges from a few
hours down to a single knock event. They
tend to have a bit of concussion after that!”
Less brutal, but no less important, is
Ilmor’s off-engine rig. This is another
in-house designed device developed for
testing engines or parts in a motored state.
It is powered by a 46kW e-motor, which
“We saved six to eight weeks in
terms of development time – a
reduction of around 50% – and
arguably got to a better solution
as a result of using simulation”
Ian Whiteside, chief engineer of advanced projects, Ilmor Engineering
provides enough torque for large-capacity
road engines and even the big NASCAR V8s. of this valve motion. One option is to bounce
Some of the most interesting work carried a laser beam off the face of the valve, explains
out on this rig revolves around valvetrain
development, Whiteside explains. Just down of serrations onto the valve to be picked up
the corridor, the company has a single-valve
rig, which enables valve and spring motion
to be examined in even greater detail –
48 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
1. Pierre Gasly of Red Bull
Racing drives the Red
Bull-TAG Heuer RB12
during extensive F1 testing
at Silverstone in July
2. Ilmor engineers review
a data trace from a dyno.
The test site, which is
located in Northampton,
UK, is home to 85 experts
1
something that is critical in NASCAR engines, 2
which rev to higher than 9,000rpm with
pushrod actuation and mechanical springs.
“It’s interesting, because the valve doesn’t
always move in the way you think it’s
going to move,” says Whiteside. “NASCAR
valvetrains are designed to allow lofting
– where the follower parts company with
the camshaft to achieve
higher lift. Getting it to
come off is quite simple,
but getting it to go back
down is a bit trickier!
On the single-valve rig, Further down the facility lies the
it’s also quite difficult to
get the right lubrication
injector flow rig, which is routinely used
for characterizing the injectors on the firm’s
on the rockers and the IndyCar engines. Quite unusually, it features
push rods during the a rate tube, which can capture the injector
test, so we could only flow on a crank angle basis, as opposed to
run that for a few averaging it out over a longer time period.
seconds at a time.” “With this rig, we can look at how the
A number of other mass flow changes as the injector opens and
techniques are used for capturing the details closes. That’s really useful for comparing the
repeatability of injectors, but it’s also good
for looking at performance as the injector ages.”
Whiteside, while another is to cut a series Although the airflow rig is still used for
correlation purposes, most of the work has
by an eddy current sensor embedded in the been carried out in CFD since the company
valve guide. High-speed video technology underwent a major overhaul of its simulation
is another method. capabilities in 2015. It now has a new 32-core
computing cluster, running the Converge
3 CFD code from Convergent Science.
Developed with in-cylinder combustion
modeling in mind, this package contains
a variety of different features designed to
improve the speed-to-accuracy balance of
CFD simulations. It’s Ilmor’s first foray into
the world of in-cylinder simulation and the
results have been impressive: “One of the
first major projects we did using Converge
was the revised IndyCar cylinder head for
the start of this season,” he reveals.
“We saved six to eight weeks in terms
of development time – a reduction of around
3. Coupled with its
extensive design and 50% – and arguably got to a better solution
development experience, as a result of using simulation. By screening
Ilmor’s worked hard at the designs in the virtual world, we also saw
ensuring it has some of
the most accurate engine a 75% reduction in our prototype build
test facilities in the world costs, which is quite something.”
 We reduce emissions.
We minimize fuel consumption.
We enable the drive of tomorrow.

www.rheinmetall-automotive.com
 COMMERCIAL VEHICLE POWERTRAIN SPECIAL

In it for the
WORDS: RICHARD N WILLIAMS

Commercial vehicle engine manufacturers are

focusing on more bang for their customer’s buck,
creating cleaner and more efficient powertrains in the
process. ETi looks at some of the latest innovations and
technologies reducing fuel consumption in this sphere
and the factors that are driving current developments

50 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

COMMERCIAL VEHICLE POWERTRAIN SPECIAL

Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 51

 COMMERCIAL VEHICLE POWERTRAIN SPECIAL

I
n the heavy-duty sector, cost per mile He says a big problem for manufacturers
is everything. However, when it comes is that legislation in different territories
to developing fuel-efficient engines, the focuses on different aspects of emissions.
driving force is not just customer desire “There are three quite distinct areas: the
to save on diesel, but also the legislations EU, which is fairly uniform; then there is
and regulations that have been introduced Southeast Asia and Japan, which have different
over the years to reduce emissions. standards; and then you have regulations in
“Legislation drives everything we do,” North America, which are more focused on
states Bob Walling, planning manager for NOX. In contrast, Europe is more about CO2.”
Northern Europe at Eaton, a company that Tim Proctor, director of Cummins
among other things produces superchargers Engines’ on-highway development team,
and turbochargers for diesel powertrains. fully agrees: “Legislation still drives engine
“Everything in our product development development. However, customers are always
is centered on meeting the legislation.” looking for the most value from their engines
and powertrains. That
translates into a need
“The trend is for downsizing, and for a highly fuel-
efficient engine and
more importantly, downspeeding, low purchase price.”
The Holy Grail here
where a vehicle’s RPM range is is to not only reduce
fuel consumption
reduced to meet fuel consumption” but also increase
performance, something
Bob Walling, planning manager for Northern Europe, Eaton
Cummins has achieved
with the new X Series,
which manages to provide a 3% base engine
fuel consumption reduction, as well as better
power output than previous engines.
However, Proctor believes the biggest gains 1
in fuel economy will come not through radical
engine development, but instead through 1. An Eaton supercharger
evolutionary optimization. testbench in action. For the
commercial vehicle sector,
“Powertrain optimization is a very powerful the company says its
area of technology development, ensuring product development is
that the engine is used at its most efficient driven by legislation
for more of the time. The opportunities in 3
2. Cummins has developed
this space are much larger than incremental the next-generation X15
engine efficiency improvements.” heavy-duty engine, ready
to exceed US EPA 2017
This growing area has resulted in a trend greenhouse gas regs and
for smaller engines, and as Walling explains, fuel-efficiency standards
IC units that are running at vastly different
3. The Volvo FM features
speeds than before. engine components that
“The trend is for downsizing, and more improve gas flow and
importantly, downspeeding, where the ensure the exhausts reach
the aftertreatment system
vehicle RPM range is reduced to meet the at optimum temperature

52 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

 COMMERCIAL VEHICLE POWERTRAIN SPECIAL

4 and 5. For next-gen most efficient fuel consumption figures, from

heavy-duty applications,
Eaton says it’s seeing more
demand for dual induction
tech, pairing turbocharger
with supercharger in one
powertrain package
4 oxygen for combustion, rather than fuel saving.
2
5 improve breathing and optimizing combustion.”
say 1,800rpm to maybe 1,000-1,100rpm.”
But Walling adds this is causing problems
for traditional technologies such as turbos.
“Turbochargers rely on high speed and this
sort of lower power band hampers them,”
he explains. “There will always be a place for
using exhaust gas for induction, but we are
seeing more manufacturers adopting dual
induction systems with turbochargers and
superchargers working together.”
And dual induction is something OEMs
are already exploring, as Mats Franzén,
manager for engine strategy at Volvo Trucks,
outlines: “We are doing it a lot, but for
us, dual-stage induction is more about
performance, ensuring we can get enough
“However, I don’t agree downsizing is the
future. For us, it is about right-sizing, making
sure our customers have the right-sized
engine for what they are transporting.”
Franzén continues, “What we have
seen over the last few years – and what we
will continue to see – is refinement. Many,
many small things that add up to make a big
difference, whether it is with hardware, friction
coatings, aerodynamics, rolling resistance or
the engine management, as well as optimizing
flow of gases through the engine.”
Proctor at Cummins agrees with his OEM
counterpart: “In an already well-optimized
engine system, there are no easy improvements
or low-hanging fruit. Delivering 3% fuel
economy in our X Series involved a lot
of interrelated changes to reduce friction,

Feeling the heat

Getting an engine up to temperature as
quickly as possible is one area that engineers
are exploring because cold engines are far
less efficient.
“This is why superchargers are important,”
states Walling. “Turbochargers are large pieces
of metal and act as heat sinks, preventing
the truck getting up to temperature.
If you replace one turbocharger with a
supercharger, you are reducing the amount
of overall iron in the system that needs
to be warmed up.”

“Customers are always looking for

the most value from their engines
and powertrains. That translates
into a need for a highly fuel-efficient
engine and low purchase price”
Tim Proctor, director, on-highway development team, Cummins Engines

Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 53

 COMMERCIAL VEHICLE POWERTRAIN SPECIAL
“We will see more electrical
mobility. We’ve seen it in
cars and buses, so we’ll see
it in heavy haulage too”
Mats Franzén, manager, engine strategy, Volvo Trucks
But maintaining optimum temperature
requires other technical innovations: “If
you go downhill and the engine goes into
idle mode, you may be in this state for
several miles,” says Volvo’s Franzén. “What
we are doing now is forcing air through the
system just to keep up the temperature of
the engine and EGR to make sure it does
not have to restart in a cold state. This is
good for fuel economy.”
As Proctor notes, “There are no quantum
leaps – but there are still challenges and areas
where R&D continue to deliver improvements
year-on-year, particularly in reducing friction
and managing parasitic losses.”
One area where loss has been reduced
is on the crankshaft, where traditional seals
often result in a reduction of engine torque.
Andreas Paulisch, senior manager for
engineering and program management,
EMEA, at Federal-Mogul Powertrain,
explains more: “From a concept point of
view, we are going away from the traditional
type of seal, the PTFE wafer,” he says.
“These are expanded over the crankshaft,
creating a high pressure profile underneath
the lip-contacting region, resulting in a lot of
torque loss when the crankshaft is rotating.”
He explains that the company’s MicroTorq
system is a rubber tube with a unique spring/
hinge design that maintains constant shaft
contact, eliminating torque loss and therefore
improving efficiency and reducing emissions.
“When we are talking about a 90mm
shaft, we’ve calculated 0.3g of CO2 savings,
and the bigger the crankshaft – and larger
engines tend to have bigger crankshafts –
the larger the savings,” he adds.
54 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
STOPPING POWER
The industry drive for efficiency may mean engines
use less fuel, but it also makes them more difficult to
slow down, as Paul Paré, director at Jacobs Vehicle
Systems, which has produced a revolutionary new
engine braking system, explains.
“Trucks have become more aerodynamic,
which means they require more retarding
performance. Engines are also getting
smaller, going from 15 liters to 11 liters,
but they are doing the same work,
so carrying the same load,” he says.
“If you are going downhill on a
40° slope, you need to slow the
vehicle down without touching
the foundation brakes,” adds Paré.
He says Jacobs’ High Power
Density two-stroke system
deactivates the main intake and
exhaust valve events during a four-
stroke cycle by means of collapsing
bridges, enabling the build-up of
air pressure in the cylinder.
“When a driver removes his foot from
the accelerator, there is no fuel in the piston
chambers, only air,” explains Paré. “We use this
to slow the engine down. When the air is getting
compressed, we open up the exhaust and, in short,
turn the engine into an air compressor, and use this
positive pressure to slow the engine down.”
The Jacobs director says the system is able to
generate two compression events during every
four-stroke cycle, making it more effective for
smaller engines.
In addition, Paulisch says that with “We will see more electrical mobility.
MicroTorq you don’t need the traditional We’ve seen it in cars and buses, so we’ll
cassette seal to keep out dust, and this see it in heavy haulage too,” he predicts.
reduction in cost and packaging appeals However, he believes the diesel engine
greatly to truck manufacturers. will always have a place but it needs to
continue to reduce emissions, particularly
A greener tomorrow CO2. “In the past the focus was on NOX
Of course, burning a fossil fuel such as diesel and particulates, but we have got that down
means there will always be a limit as to how to a very low level now,” states Franzén.
clean you can make an engine and in this “Diesel is very clean but we expect more CO2
regard Volvo’s Franzén believes the heavy legislation. However, reducing CO2 meets
haulage segment will follow other various our goals of producing more fuel-efficient
automotive sectors in reducing overall engines because the more fuel-efficient the
emissions and improving efficiency. engine, the less CO2 you emit.”
Franzén goes on to say that he believes
biofuels may become one of the biggest game
changers in the heavy-haulage engine market
and stricter CO2 regulations may see the
technology become more widespread.
“Hydrotreated vegetable oils (HVO) work
excellently. If you make an extremely good
engine, you can reduce CO2 by maybe a
couple of percent, but if you use renewable
fuels such as HVO you can make really big
steps. There is not the capacity yet to meet
The acclaimed Volvo D13 K
Euro 6 engine with EGR demand, but I think it will become a lot
and aftertreatment muffler more popular.”
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 NEXT-GEN MATERIALS

Th
str e qu
fiv uctu est
e y ra for
W ea l co lo
OR rs, m w
DS
BY an po er C
GR d b sit O
AH y t e p 2 em
AM h a
e f rts iss

T
HE ur i
he advanced EP th that ons
Multi Material S e r r cou wil
efi l
Lightweight Vehicle ne ld b be b
m e
(MMLV) is a Ford Fusion
en on oos
like no other. This research t o pr ted
f e od
xis uc by w
collaboration between the Blue Oval,
Magna and the US Department of Energy tin tio
(DOE) yielded a concept machine that g m n e eigh
shaves an impressive 23% (363kg) from eta ngi t-sa
the regular Fusion’s 1,559kg mass. ls nes vin
tec g
hn with
Given that the car in question is powered
by Ford’s notably light and compact, olo in
multiple International Engine of the Year gie
Award-winning ‘Fox’ EcoBoost 1-liter, it’s s
remarkable that 73kg of the MMLV’s mass
savings stem from the powertrain. The
Ford engineers involved with the program
looked at the engine from top to bottom
in order to shave weight. And where better
to start than with lightening the cast-iron
cylinder block by 40%?
“We used powdered-metal forged steel
– usually used for connecting rods – to
create an insert that connects the load
path from the cylinder head to the [main
bearing] caps,” explains Kevin Byrd,
powertrain research engineer at the
Ford Research and Innovation Center
in Dearborn, Michigan. .
Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 57
 NEXT-GEN MATERIALS
“That insert carries 90% of the load, so
now the rest of the block can be of lightweight
aluminum. In addition, the caps are part of
the original forging; a fracture split gives you
a fractured 3D surface [for a strong join], that
can be reassembled just like a rod.”
A mold-over was used to ensure the insert
didn’t vibrate loose and pull out when faced
with the high cyclical loads. “We’ve done
engine tests and a lot of bench fatigue tests.
Because it’s completely enclosed, the insert
has held in fantastically,” Byrd reports.
A second notable application of existing
metals technology in the MMLV lies in the
aluminum conrod. Fatigue problems associated
with aluminum in this application were
overcome with thermally stable alloys that
maintain their properties for the life of the
engine. The heat-treating and forging processes
were combined to get the required molecular
structure. These rods, too, save 40% mass
(270g versus 421g) – this time over the usual
powdered-metal, forged-steel item.
“We have counterweights on the crankshaft
trying to offset the shaking forces, but if I can
save weight on the piston and rod assembly,
I can also save weight down on the crank
counterweight,” adds Byrd. This so-called
‘mass-compounding’ – weight reduction in
one area enabling reduction in another – was
a guiding principle of the MMLV program.
In the future, Ford expects further weight
savings to come from refinements to well-
proven materials – or in the words of Matt
Zaluzec, senior technical leader for materials
and manufacturing at Ford global research:
“We take an old material and teach it new
tricks.” Integrated computational materials
3 BASF Performance Materials
58 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
engineering (ICME) is key to this work,
digitally manipulating the material properties,
the manufacturing process and the design. 1
“You can tighten up the composition of an
aluminum-silicon alloy, which we use for engine
blocks,” offers Zaluzec by way of example.
“We’re not changing the casting process,
but by better controlling the composition we
might get 10-15% improvement in strength.
With that I can make the block thinner
because it’s stronger. It’s also lighter and I’m
using less aluminum, so it’s less costly. We’ve
been doing that for aluminum, we’re now
doing it for steel and cast iron too.”
Looking past metals
Metals have been used for structural parts
since the dawn of the IC engine, but MMLV
and other projects are bringing the prospect
2
of polymer-matrix composite alternatives closer
to reality, amid rising interest from OEMs.
“The powertrain segment has a metal mindset
and we have to overcome that,” notes Scott
Schlicker, engine and powertrain market
segment manager for BASF Performance
Materials, which worked with Ford on MMLV.
BASF contributed to the structural oil pan
and the front cover, both of which replaced
diecast aluminum originals. “The original
filler and resin combination chosen was
50% long carbon fiber and PA66 nylon.”
BASF has short carbon-fiber parts in
production, but the long carbon-fiber
grades are trickier to process and are not
yet commercialized in automotive injection-
molding applications.
“We had to do quite a bit of development
on this project because the carbon fiber is
1 and 2. Ford, BASF
and Montaplast worked
together to ensure the
1.0 three-cylinder engine
benefited from key weight
savings, including a per-
component mass savings
of 23% for front cover and
33% for structural oil pan
3. The MMLV front cover
designed using BASF’s
Ultrasim package.
During the project, BASF
made several composite
formulations before finding
the right balance of flow
and mechanical properties
– eventually providing a
30% weight savings in the
oil pan and engine cover
“The powertrain segment
has a metal mindset and
we have to overcome that”
Scott Schlicker, engine and powertrain market segment manager,
 NEXT-GEN MATERIALS

“Polyamides have a high service temperature so

they show promise. But they do have some problems.
They are hydrophilic, so when they’re in contact with
moisture they absorb water and as they do so, their
properties degrade, making them less stiff”
Dr Jeff Wood, academic director, International Composites Research Centre

a conductor and cools rather quickly in the

mold – unlike the glass fibers we traditionally
use,” he adds. “We did about 17 iterations of
the resin to get the right balance of physical
properties and processing capability. But if
this project develops and becomes commercial,
it could be sold. There are no manufacturing
hurdles left to overcome.”
Thermoplastics like nylon are not noted
for their stability at high temperatures, which
hardly makes them natural candidates for use
in engine parts. However, with regulations
like the EU’s End of Life Vehicles (ELV) directive
in mind, their recyclability makes them more
attractive to auto makers than thermosets like
the phenolic resin
used in the MMLV
motor’s cylinder head.
“In the engine compartment, the
materials have to be able to handle
temperature extremes from around -40°C
to 150°C,” notes Dr Jeff Wood, academic
director of the International Composites
Research Centre (ICRC) based in Ontario,
Canada. “Many thermoplastics will go soft
by this point and you run into problems
like creep – time-dependent deformation –

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Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 59

 NEXT-GEN MATERIALS
HEADS DOWN
The original Fox engine cylinder head
is made of aluminum, but for the MMLV
concept, Ford split it into two parts. An
aluminum lower half still pulls heat out
of the combustion chamber and retains
the necessary complexity in the water
jackets, to keep spark plugs and injectors
cool. Above it is a lightweight, injection-
molded, phenolic-based carbon-fiber
composite cam carrier.
“The thermal expansion is similar to
aluminum, so everything grows nicely
together,” says Ford’s Byrd. “Brand-new
CAE tools for injection molding, filling
and solidification enable us to do these
types of projects and immediately put
them on an engine and start running. In a
complex mold we have aluminum inserts
and bronze inserts for the wear surfaces,
to give us the same long-term durability
from the sliding and friction, while saving
15% mass in the upper cylinder head.”
4. The Ford Multi Material
Lightweight Vehicle weighs
1,195kg, some 363kg less
than a regular Fusion. The
powertrain alone came in
for mass savings of 73kg
5. A comparison between
a traditional metal oil pan
and an oil pan made with
carbon-fiber composites
4 5
60 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
“That insert carries 90%
of the load, so now the
rest of the block can be
of lightweight aluminum”
Kevin Byrd, powertrain research engineer, Ford
because the matrix isn’t strong enough at As for the composite’s filler, long fibers
those temperatures.” are desirable for reasons of stiffness, strength
Wood is involved in two research projects and toughness. Byrd and Schlicker say that
with partners including OEMs, suppliers retaining as much of the carbon fibers’ length as
and the Fraunhofer Project Centre in Ontario, possible through the injection-molding process
aimed at making long-fiber thermoplastic was a key aspect of the MMLV composite
structural components. They’re due to program; Wood echoes those sentiments.
finish in two years’ time. The thermoplastics “As the fibers get longer, the first property
involved have longer chain molecules and that increases is the stiffness, then strength,
are more stable at elevated temperatures. then toughness,” he explains. “For composite
That, however, makes them harder to process. parts in a structural application, toughness is
“There’s the added problem that the the most important property. If we’re going to
parts are in contact with engine fluids – come anywhere near to what metals can do,
oils, coolant, gasoline – some of which we will need long fibers, which limits us to
will dissolve the polymer,” says Wood. a certain set of [production] processes. That
“That limits your choice of polymers. Our means that we have technological issues to
research is examining grades of polyamide. solve just in figuring out the process to reliably
Polyamides have a high service temperature make hundreds of thousands of identical parts
so they show promise. But they do have some – and at the same time, getting these long fibers
problems. They are hydrophilic, so when to fill the fine details of the part, like ribs.”
they’re in contact with moisture, they absorb Wood says that flow simulations can help
water and as they do so, their properties with this work, but that the tools are more
degrade, making them less stiff, less strong proven for short fibers than long fibers, which
and more deformable.” Another problem with cannot be modeled as rigid sticks. BASF
that is that the components swell, as happened believes its in-house Ultrasim software is
with Toyota’s sticking throttle pedal issue. already providing answers, as Schlicker further
explains: “It’s a pretty comprehensive tool and
we used it on the MMLV project, although we
didn’t have the carbon fiber characterized.
“Instead we used a glass-filled grade as
a surrogate and mapped the carbon fiber’s
 NEXT-GEN MATERIALS

properties onto that. Once we had prototype
parts, we did some bench testing in our own
applications lab and were able to show very
good correlation to the Ultrasim predictions.”
The MMLV’s composite oil pan and front
cover brought mass savings of 33% and 23%
respectively, so the benefits are clear for
CO2-conscious OEMs, if the cost can be kept
competitive. “You have to show that you can
meet the performance of the aluminum and
you have to provide a compelling business
case for the weight saving,” cautions Schlicker.
“There’s still not a great deal of appetite to
incur additional costs just for weight savings.”
Both he and Wood expect the price of
structural composite alternatives to be
close to that of a regular cast-aluminum part;
additional materials cost could be counteracted
by the removal of secondary machining steps.
And in future, the cost of carbon fibers could
come down as a result of research programs
like Ford’s partnership with DowAksa.
Ford has yet to confirm where the concepts
developed for the MMLV engine might first
appear in production. “From here it’s about
figuring out the value equation,” states
Byrd. “We’re going to keep developing the
technologies, and then we’ll have all of the
pieces on the shelf so that we can decide
where to apply them.”
At BASF, there is still work to be done to
prove the composite parts’ long-term durability
before production can commence, but the
signs are good. “Within five years, we could
have our first structural oil pans on the
market,” predicts Schlicker. “The programs
we’re working on with other OEMs are all
looking very positive too; they could conclude
within the year so a 3 to 5-year timescale to
production is realistic.”

“We’re not changing the casting process, but by better controlling

the composition, we might get 10-15% improvement in strength.
With that I can make the block thinner because it’s stronger”
Matt Zaluzec, senior technical leader for materials and manufacturing, Ford

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Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 61

 // CASE STUDY // AVL

Conceptual hybrid
THE INDUSTRY HAS BEEN WORKING HARD TO PROVIDE THE PERFECTLY OPTIMIZED IC ENGINE,
READY TO ACCEPT A 48V MILD-HYBRID SYSTEM FOR INCREASED EFFICIENCY AND DRIVEABILITY

To achieve legislated fleet fuel consumption

of 95g/km CO 2 by 2020, various electrification
measures will have to be introduced, in addition
to engine measures, to reduce the overall
energy demand of a vehicle. 48V architecture
represents an appealing compromise between
the standard 12V system and high-voltage
hybrid systems.
A 48V system offers attractive performance
potential for moderate hybridization, in
addition to opening up opportunities for further
electrification of the ICE and its auxiliaries,
as well as other vehicle components with
high power demand.
With increasing power levels required for
‘e-machines’, it is important to assess the
optimum configuration for a 48V system.
Traditionally 12V and 48V systems have been
part of the front-end accessory drive (FEAD),
as it is a straightforward upgrade to an existing
engine architecture with the lowest impact
on vehicle package, costs and production.
Current belt starter-generator systems
already realize direct recuperation and torque
boost functions. They can also support a highly
effective electrical supercharging system that
offers superior transient response times over
current multistage turbocharging concepts.
Electrified turbochargers, with additional
recuperation functionality, are in early
advanced development as a promising next
step. However, future applications that use
clean-sheet designs will give more flexibility
in terms of configuration to determine the ideal
position of the 48V electric motor.
The combination of substantial fuel savings,
the potential for temporary deactivation of
the ICE to allow electric driving in coasting
mode, city driving and at low speed for parking
and pulling away, as well as using the gear
ratio of the transmission and eliminating the
conventional alternator, indicates that the
flywheel-side P2 configuration is ideal to
reduce base engine complexity. To avoid an
increase in powertrain length and enable use
No front cover needed
of a high-speed electric motor, the parallel P2
configuration is the ideal solution for transverse
design powertrains.
On a base engine, electrification of auxiliaries
enables its simplification and progress toward
being a beltless engine (above). Demand
controlled, electrical auxiliaries are already
partially in volume production for cooling
systems, vacuum systems and air conditioning.
Additional options such as electric oil pumps
have also been evaluated.
AVL has compared the options on the base
engine and evaluated them in terms of function,
added value and system cost, with the aim
of minimizing overall complexity through the
(application dependent) balanced distribution
of electrical and mechanical functions.
The optimum balance of electrical and
mechanical functions on a base engine and its
peripherals requires an application-dependent
evaluation with the aim of minimizing overall
system complexity and adding customer value.
The
TheAVL 48V is
IC engine concept
primed
hasfor
demonstrated a
48V mid-hybrid
considerable WLTC
implementation
CO2 reduction
Damping element
instead of TVD
No front sealing required
Extending this approach further would see
the integration of the ideal 48V powertrain with
an optimized engine. Additional opportunities
are opened up in regard to functionality and
packaging through increased flexibility in
the position of auxiliaries, as well as function
integration. Optimized vehicle thermal
management, including partial encapsulation
and controlled cooling air shutters, will give
further efficiency improvement.
In comparison with the baseline powertrain,
the simulation shows that the AVL 48V concept
has a major WLTC CO2 reduction potential of up to
20.5%. This is achieved by a 13% CO 2 reduction
for the 48V hybridization and a further 7.5% CO 2
reduction from the additional measures.
The overall approach of 48V integration
is key when considering energy demands,
costs, thermal management, aerodynamics
and acoustics. AVL engineering has evaluated
these processes to assess the balance between
technology options and vehicle attributes.

62 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

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 // CASE STUDY // RICARDO

CFD analysis
A NEW SIMULATION TOOL HAS BEEN DEVELOPED THAT CAN HELP ENGINEERS EVALUATE
AND BETTER UNDERSTAND THERMAL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS IN MODERN ENGINE DESIGN

The components of an internal combustion Ricardo’s Vulcan CFD

engine must be able to withstand the high
thermal loads placed on them due to the
heat transferred from the combustion gases.
Minimizing the heat loss to coolant helps raise
the engine thermal efficiency; however, the
peak temperatures of the components must be
controlled to ensure sufficient material strength
is maintained. The ability to reliably predict
the temperatures of ever-higher-rated engine
components is therefore critical, to ensure more
efficient and reliable engine design. Engine
design and development experts at Ricardo
have developed a new tool that helps designers
take a big step forward in the understanding of
thermal loads in the design of new engines.
Database methods rely on measured
temperature data correlated to basic
engine operating parameters such as specific
power and engine bore, offering the ability to
quickly estimate the heat transfer loads on the
components during the design and development
of an engine. These methods, however, suffer
from not capturing the physical mechanisms
or properties behind the heat transfer and so
are not predictive, and can deviate significantly
from reality, especially when considering
engines or parameters outside the core sample
of the database. A change in oil viscosity, for
example, will affect piston cooling, which these
simplified methods would not capture.
CFD analysis methods may offer the ability
to predict the heat transfer from sources such
as the combustion gas and piston cooling jets
in high detail but at the expense of significant
computational effort. The long run times
make the use of such methods cumbersome,
and the latter can instil limited confidence.
Furthermore, CFD alone does not take into
consideration other heat transfer mechanisms,
such as the piston-ring-to-liner and valve-to-
seat contacts. Furthermore, the validity of the
results for more complex mechanisms such
as piston gallery cooling would still rely on
significant correlating test data.
software enables the
accurate calculation of
engine thermal boundaries
To overcome the shortcomings of these
methods, Ricardo has developed Vulcan, a
new tool for the calculation of engine thermal
boundary conditions. This tool provides a
combination of fundamental empirical heat
transfer formula and physical models to capture
all component heat transfer mechanisms other
than the engine coolant flow. Vulcan offers
improved accuracy over the database methods,
by ensuring the effects of fundamental
properties are captured, such as oil viscosity each component surface. This allows the heat
and piston gallery supply flow, while avoiding transfer mechanisms to be understood in more
the long run times and complexity of CFD. detail, and provides an improved knowledge of
Its basis of physical models makes the tool the heat paths within the component network
highly predictive in that it provides feedback and how these differ across various engine
regarding the effects of engine design changes architectures. Vulcan becomes an integrated
such as ring tension, spark plug location, part of the component temperature prediction,
valve seat area and piston cooling jet flow, running directly alongside the finite element
on component temperatures. Vulcan provides temperature calculations, to ensure the effects
a simple user interface to enter the minimal of the predicted temperatures on the boundary
input requirements, and maps the heat conditions are captured by iterative means.
transfer boundary conditions directly to the Vulcan will offer a greater ability to routinely
finite element models for thermal analysis. understand an engine’s thermal loading in
Outputs are generated illustrating the variation sufficient detail, thereby enabling the next
in boundary conditions over an engine cycle generation of engines to push the boundaries
and the resulting integrated heat flux from of thermal efficiency.

64 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

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 // CASE STUDY // VALCON DESIGN

Refined methodology
VALCON DESIGN, A DANISH ENGINEERING CONSULTANCY, IS HELPING IMPROVE BOTH PRODUCT
QUALITY AND PRODUCTION METHODS THROUGH ITS ALL-NEW ‘SIX THETA DESIGN’ PROCESSES

Danish Engineering consultancy Valcon Design

is exporting its product design method to the
German automotive industry, a method that
can optimize the quality of mechanical design
processes considerably, thus reducing long and
costly R&D processes and guaranteeing a more
stable end product. Valcon Design has called
the method Six Theta design.
Denmark has a long tradition of excelling
in mechanical solutions. The nation has
utilized resources and materials smartly, and
has consequently thrived in the development of
products that meet high performance demands
when in production.
It is this tradition and philosophy that Valcon
Design is building on with its Six Theta design
method, which is an operational and scalable
tool set that helps companies achieve a more
robust design of their products.
By implementing the method, engineers
can organize their processes much more
effectively in regard to both time and costs,
giving them a greater freedom to innovate
on new solutions.
Valcon Design’s design
“Product development is in our DNA,” says the possibility of comparing design quality
and manufacture ethos
founder and CEO of Valcon Design, Janus Juul of the different solution concepts using fully is being used globally to
Rasmussen. “We believe that creativity and objective and quantifiable criteria. This opens change OEM approaches
innovation comes from having the right tools up a number of possibilities, for example to
available. Six Theta design gives you compare solutions on design quality
concrete tools and methods that at a product and component level,
help improve the mechanical valuate product portfolios and The customer’s ambition was to cut half of
design both with a focus on set measurable criteria for their development time costs and reduce their
overall conceptual design development processes. production and quality assurance costs by
architecture, right down The customer 15%, under the project headline: ‘Right First
to the smallest component portfolio includes a Time’. Valcon Design has completed more
detail. The thinking behind broad spectrum of both than 10 pilot projects and has documented
the method is that in national and international that Six Theta design-compliant solutions
the very first steps of the customers within the were considerably cheaper due to, among
development process we automotive, aeronautical, other factors, much reduced tolerance
should be capable of predicting defense, energy, medical, demands and simplified sketching. To secure
how a given solution will react in consumer products and machine full scalability, the customer has decided to
tests and in the market before going components industries. train all its engineers in the method and there
into detailed design.” Valcon Design is now implementing its is much enthusiasm among all engineers
Besides teaching engineers how to make training and certification program in a large and management representatives who have
better design solutions, Six Theta design offers Tier 1 subcontractor in the German car industry. participated in the program.

66 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

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 // CASE STUDY // SIMUQUEST

Model engine control

STARTING WITH AN OFF-THE-SHELF, WORKING BASELINE MODEL-BASED ENGINE CONTROL
SYSTEM ENABLES OEMS MORE INNOVATION AND REDUCES THE TIME AND EFFORT REQUIRED

Many automotive OEMs have traditionally

bought entire engine control systems from
dedicated Tier 1 suppliers. While these
standard systems fit most engine applications,
it is quite normal for OEMs to include custom
modifications in the overall system purchase.
These are often required to accommodate non-
standard engine features, satisfy legislative
constraints, or support components added
in future engine generations. However,
these custom changes are expensive. In a
very cost-conscious market segment, some
OEMs are now starting to look for expedient
ways to develop engine control systems in-
house. The question is how to do it without
breaking the bank, not compromising
existing product development efforts, and
simultaneously minimizing the cost for new
development resources and infrastructure.
The answer lies in the application of model-
based system development. This implies
the use of modeling tools such as Matlab/
Simulink, sufficiently accurate powertrain and
vehicle models, integrated driver block-sets
and automated code generation. The practice that sustains engine operation across the entire integrity during the development process, and
facilitates the development of an entire engine operating envelope, i.e., calculating a base simultaneously supports debugging by way of
control strategy in a largely virtual setting, spark angle and a base fuel pulse for any given visualizing data dependencies.
which hinges on four critical prerequisites. operating condition. The architecture separates The fourth and final prerequisite is an
The first is the use of engine models target-dependent (hardware abstraction layer, intelligent tool that supports the configuration
that accurately emulate relevant engine (HAL)) and target independent (application of the target microcontroller and the auto-
performance characteristics, e.g., the filling layer) functionality. During algorithm generation of I/O drivers directly from the
of fuel puddles during engine start, the development, the HAL portion is furnished with modeling environment. This facilitates the
oscillating torque signature that may lead data from the engine model so that the entire full integration of the entire controller within
to engine stalling during idle operation, etc. strategy can be simulated in real time. As code a single model artifact and thus simplifies
In other words, physics-based engine models is being generated, appropriate driver blocks automated code generation and code
that properly emulate the cyclic nature of the are included in the model so that data transfer integration for the target microcontroller.
combustion process for each cylinder. However, via the hardware peripherals is facilitated. Combined, these four elements form an
to support efficient algorithm development the The third prerequisite is an intelligent agile model-based development platform.
engine model also needs to execute in real time. centralized data and system architecture Since each of the elements represents an
The second prerequisite is the availability management tool that plugs into the model- off-the-shelf tool component, the creation of
of a modular, model-based control architecture based development environment. The this platform reduces the amount of effort and
that includes a base engine control strategy purpose of such a tool is to facilitate the rapid resources required. Essentially, the traditional
and affords plug-and-play engine control deployment of innovative control strategies. three years with tens of developers can be
implementation. The base engine control The tool alleviates the necessity to constantly reduced to several months with a handful of
strategy implements the base functionality cross-check data and system architecture developers.

68 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com


Optimized calibrations
MODEL-BASED ENGINE CALIBRATIONS ARE SHORTENING DEVELOPMENT
TIMES AND IMPROVING QUALITY AT TOYOTA MOTOR CORPORATION
Toyota has virtualized a major portion of its
calibration and testing process, dramatically
reducing the development time dedicated to
it. Mr Go (project manager, TMC Laboratory
Automation System, Toyota TD) and Mr Goto
(group manager, Powertrain Company, Engine
Management System Development) talk
about the benefits of using automated design
exploration techniques to verify actuator
responses and identify the best control values.
“It’s easy to find the optimal control value
for a single actuator,” says Go. “However,
when looking to improve EGR, supercharging,
VTT, direct injection, etc, with the number of
actuators and consequently the number of
output variables and constraints, manually
identifying the optimal control values would
require a massive amount of time due to the
large number of measurement tasks.”
To test the engine, temperature and pressure
sensors, a torque and fuel consumption (gauge)
meter and an exhaust gas analyzer are installed
and the control systems are implemented
accordingly. The combined software iTest
and Orion – the automated control and
measurement system for engine bench test
implemented at Toyota – manages the control
equipment and collects the output from each
instrument. These values are validated by
checking the reference maps. The complexity
of the calibration procedure is streamlined by
including ModeFrontier for Calibration (mFC)
in the process, directly integrated with Orion,
which is used for automatic measurements.
This replaces all the manual measurement
tasks conducted at the engine test bench and
relieves the team of the burden of repeated
iterations between the design and testing
phases of the project.
“To understand the output trend and find
the optimal solution with experimental points,
we used mFC to create a design of experiment
(DOE), measure data and compare metamodels
within our response surface methods [RSMs]
wizard,” adds Go. “The next step in the process
1 1. Engine manufacturing
consists of determining the optimal engine
control unit maps and finally testing again on
the real engine. “mFC succeeds in reducing
the difficulties experienced by calibration
engineers when using tools for model-based
calibration by providing a dedicated graphic
interface to directly set parameters. The mFC
automatically generates designs and RSMs,
then iteratively evaluates the accuracy and
stops the evaluation when the target accuracy
is reached.”
Since real engine testing is influenced
by the variability of control variables and
by measurement errors, sometimes the
combination of temperature, pressure and
torque causes the test to be stopped for safety
reasons. By using a visual filter in mFC, this
problem is easily identified and the DOE is
2 accuracy improvement.
Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 69
CASE STUDY: ESTECO
at one of Toyota’s global
engine production plants.
Image copyright: Nataliya
Hora, Shutterstock
2. Toyota experts, Go (l)
and Goto (r), note the clear
benefits of using Esteco’s
technology in engine test,
development and analysis
automatically substituted with a more suitable
data set.
“In any case, during the evaluation it is
easy to stop mFC and change the DOE,” Go
continues. “Given certain scenarios, with
this technique we can reduce the number of
evaluations by 50%.” This method empowers
the system engineering process by adding the
capabilities of simulation and automation in
the right side of the V-cycle, the experimental
evaluation phase of the verification and
validation model, where traditionally, it
is hardly used.
Esteco technology has been widely used
in the engine modeling phase, in combination
with GT-Suite. Goto says that by reciprocally
using optimization results as continuous
feedback between the design and testing
phases, there is great potential for further
“By performing optimization with real engine
data, we can leverage the efficiency and
accuracy gained during the testing back into
the model design. Thanks to the industry-
wide use of data and models, designers and
calibration experts can work together and
further improve our operations,” concludes
Go, stressing collaboration among experts
as a major benefit of this technology.
 // CASE STUDY // STRESSTECH
Improving camshafts
AS ENGINE TECHNOLOGY CONTINUES TO ADVANCE, THE DEMANDS PLACED ON CAMSHAFTS ARE INCREASING
For more than 100 years, one of the most
important components of the IC engine has
been the camshaft. As OEMs seek increasingly
sophisticated engine technology in the never
ending quest for better fuel economy and lower
emissions, camshaft manufacturing technology
has become more sensitive and vulnerable.
High-quality camshafts can of course be
manufactured if there is no time limit. However,
it’s important to strike a balance between high-
output production and overall quality.
Stresstech Group has been active in grinding
quality control for over 30 years, using a variety
of methods for measuring and optimizing
machining processes.
One such technique is the Barkhausen noise
method. This is a micro-magnetic measuring
method that uses the differences in magnetic
properties in steel to detect differences in the
material’s microstructure as well as residual
stresses in the surface of the component.
Short and simple, grinding burns can easily be
detected, and the operator can quickly optimize
the settings of the grinding machine.
Grinding burns are temperature induced
thermal defects on the surface of a component
that result in lower hardness and residual
tensile stress. These burns are caused by the
grinding process putting too much heat into the
component, destroying the hardened surface.
Severe burns caused by very high temperatures
can also result in grinding cracks and greatly
shortened fatigue life. The overall aim of the
hardening and grinding manufacturing process
2 exact location of damage. However, most
70 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
is to deliver a component that has optimal
hardness and high compressive residual
stresses in the surface. This will result in
longer fatigue life in the engine.
Camshaft inspection by Barkhausen noise
can be automated in different levels. The
systems are based on the CamScan inspection
stand and the Rollscan instrument with a set
of sensors. Data acquisition and rejection limits
are controlled using ViewScan software.
On automatic CamScan stands, the sensors
are moved to measure the cam lobes or bearing
surfaces, using programmable logic control.
A measuring cycle takes only a few minutes,
and can be performed by the grinding machine
operator. The operator will get instant data
about pass or fail conditions, indicating the
important is that the operator will get immediate
feedback to assist in controlling the grinding
machine performance.
Stresstech Group has recently introduced
its CamScan 500C system for the grinding
quality control of camshafts, including types
using the cam profile switching concept. Used
with the EasyScan software, it can find and
1
1. CamScan 500C
adapts easily to check
the grinding quality of
different types of
camshafts including
those using cam profile
switching concept
2. The compact design of
CamScan 500C combines
the required components
in a single unit
solve issues in the control of grinding quality.
The Barkhausen noise method is very sensitive
to changes in the grinding process, easily
finding grinding burns with lower hardness
and residual tensile stress. The method is
fast, non-destructive and provides immediate
feedback. Measurement of the critical surfaces
on camshafts is automatic – only loading
the camshaft into the machine is manual.
An overall compact design combines all the
required hardware in one unit.
Measurement programs are created using
EasyScan software, providing a convenient
virtual environment for programming of
measurement paths on camshafts by adapting
easily to various types of shafts.
Stresstech Group has created solutions for
inspecting all types of camshafts, from light-
duty models for motorcycles, private cars
and sewing machines, to heavy-duty camshafts
for trucks and marine engines.
 CASE STUDY: SFC KOENIG

Turbocharger solutions
SFC KOENIG’S CAREFUL ANALYSIS OF REPEATED TURBOCHARGER FAILURES ON AN OEM ENGINE
MANUFACTURER’S PRODUCTS ENABLED IT TO FIND A SOLUTION THAT ENSURED RELIABILIT Y

An engine manufacturer was receiving a high

rate of warranty claims due to turbocharger
failures. After extensive analysis of failed
units, problems rooted in design, product
selection and installation were discovered. An
engineered sealing solution came to the rescue.
Working together, the OEM engine
manufacturer and Tier 1 supplier reviewed failed
systems and noted that malfunctions were
concentrated where the actuator mounted to
the turbo housing. It was discovered that cup
plugs were leaking, allowing coolant to enter
the assembly and accelerate corrosion. This
was resulting in premature actuator failure.
Cup plugs, or freeze plugs, are often selected
for their low cost, and are stamped from a
single piece of metal to create a cup shape.
Most cup plugs use a press/ interference fit and Koenig Expander plugs
often require sealant to achieve and maintain ensure a more reliable
seal than conventional
the seal. Cup plugs have little tolerance for port fastening methods
imperfections, and holes must be machined
with a high level of precision.
The installation of cup plugs can also be which tend to be large in diameter but also An engineered expander seal was identified
difficult. The stamped cups are susceptible low in height. as the ideal solution. The metal-to-metal seal
to deformation due to pressure points created Engineers realized that it was relatively featured a unique serrated sleeve and mandrel.
by installation tooling. Any deformation can easy for production personnel to misalign During installation, the mandrel was pulled
reduce seal effectiveness. It is imperative the cup plug in the hole during assembly of the into the sleeve to expand the plug into the base
that the installation system applies controlled turbocharger system. Once the installation tool material. This formed a tight seal, even with
and even pressure with proper tool alignment was applied, the plug was angled in the port, so a liberal hole diameter tolerance of 0.10mm.
and precise stroke. Another installation a tight seal was not achieved. Failed units also Engineers at SFC Koenig worked directly with
challenge is the aspect ratio of the cup plugs, showed evidence of damaged cup rings, which the Tier 1 supplier to integrate its product into
was likely caused during installation. the design and production environment.
Cup plug Additionally, the turbocharger systems Production costs were also reduced, as the
Sealant operated at high temperatures. High heat hole required less precise machining and epoxy
is always a risk when relying on chemical was eliminated (which also eliminated the risk
sealants in a mechanical system. A combination of sealant contamination). Most importantly, the
of alignment, physical damage to the cup plugs Koenig Expander plug provided a safer, more
and compromised sealant integrity resulted in reliable and more secure seal.
paths for coolant to leak through. While the cup plug was originally selected for
After careful review, the engineering teams its low cost, the engineered Koenig Expander
realized that the accuracy required in the actually lowered total costs and provided
Unlike traditional cup
plugs, SFC Koenig’s cup seal installation was not feasible in the greater seal reliability. The company reported
are less susceptible production line. While low in cost, the plugs that warranty claims caused by leaking in the
to pressure related
were resulting in an extremely high total cost turbocharger system were virtually eliminated
deformation
when warranty costs were included. with the new components in place.

Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 71

 // CASE STUDY // FEDERAL-MOGUL
Latest piston technology
CLOSE COOPERATION BETWEEN VEHICLE MANUFACTURERS AND POWERTRAIN SUPPLIERS DURING
DEVELOPMENT AIDS THE APPLICATION OF NEW MATERIALS, PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES FOR OEMs
Federal-Mogul Powertrain recently announced
that it was supplying the pistons, pins and ring
packs for the new 3.0 liter quad-turbo diesel
engine that powers the 2017 BMW 750d and
750Ld xDrive models. The project is notable
not only for the components themselves, but
also because of the high level of cooperation
between the companies that enabled the engine
– the world’s most powerful six-cylinder diesel,
with 400hp and peak torque of 760Nm – to
incorporate a number of advanced piston and
ring technologies.
This method of working is increasingly
becoming the way in which Federal-Mogul
Powertrain engages with vehicle manufacturers
to deliver premium engineering solutions,
especially for engines with exceptionally high
performance. “By working closely with our
customers from the earliest stages of a new
engine program, we can ensure they take full
advantage of the latest technologies available,”
explained Marcus Freidhager, piston application
engineer and project manager, BMW diesel,
Federal-Mogul Powertrain. “This makes it
Pistons, pins and ring packs
as supplied by Federal-Mogul
Powertrain for BMW’s 750d
72 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
possible to produce more efficient engines
while ensuring robust performance and a
long life from our components, even in the
most highly rated applications.”
The component technologies developed by
Federal-Mogul Powertrain enable improved
engine efficiency, greater performance and
increased durability by withstanding higher
temperatures, greater loads and increased
numbers of fatigue cycles. To unlock these
benefits, the engine must be designed from
the outset around the capabilities of key
components, such as the pistons and ring packs.
Recent developments from Federal-Mogul
Powertrain that have supported the introduction
of ultra-highly rated automotive diesel engines,
such as the new 3.0-liter quad-turbo unit,
include new material and coating formulations,
advanced analytical techniques, manufacturing
process improvements, and unprecedented
levels of quality control, among them individual
component traceability.
The combustion bowl strength of any diesel
piston limits the maximum temperatures and
pressures that can be safely used before
fatigue cracking of the bowl rim and bowl base
occurs, originating from free silicon particles
in the aluminum. Federal-Mogul Powertrain’s
DuraBowl remelting technology for aluminum
diesel pistons delivers up to four times the
fatigue life in the most challenging applications,
by using controlled selective remelting of
the combustion bowl rim to enhance the
mechanical properties.
In the DuraBowl process, Federal-Mogul
Powertrain first premachines the cast pistons,
then a welding robot applies a precisely
defined energy input around the rim of the
bowl in a single pass. The remelted alloy
cools a thousand times faster than when it
was originally cast, producing silicon particles
that are one tenth of their previous size. This
refinement of the microstructure increases
the alloy’s strength and durability.
In a diesel engine it is primarily high peak
cylinder pressures that lead to increased
friction and wear at the piston skirt. In
comparison with the design of a gasoline piston,
high-performance diesel pistons have much
higher structural rigidity, which enables the
development of bespoke coatings, containing
a different mix of solid lubricants, to facilitate
lower friction levels.
The EcoTough-D coating is a diesel-specific
development of Federal-Mogul Powertrain’s
EcoTough gasoline piston skirt coating, which
provides improved wear resistance at the higher
mechanical load levels of the latest passenger
car diesel engines. It is a polymer-based coating
reinforced with short carbon fibers, containing
graphite embedded in the coating as a solid
lubricant. Compared with conventional coatings
it reduces friction by up to 35% and improves
wear resistance by up to 30%.
Federal-Mogul Powertrain has many years
of experience with wear resistant tribological
coatings for piston rings, including galvanic
coatings, thermal coatings and PVD coatings.
For top ring applications, the company

1 1. The patented LKZ edge
developed the Goetze Diamond Coating (GDC)
to provide good wear resistance and low friction
throughout the life of the piston rings.
The patented coating system creates a
network of microcracks through the thickness
of the coating, reinforced with embedded hard
particles. In the case of GDC, the coating is
hard chromium with microdiamond particles
that turn into carbon at high local temperature
peaks, producing a self-lubricating effect that
gives the coating higher scuff resistance. The
distribution of the diamond particles through
the entire thickness of the coating ensures
// CASE STUDY // FEDERAL-MOGUL
profile developed by
Federal-Mogul Powertrain
combines a stepped
surface and taper on
its contacting edge.
2. Federal-Mogul
Powertrain uses a
dynamic simulation tool
in its development
programs, PRiME 3DTM
(Piston Ring Motion and
Emission 3D) which uses
three-dimensional ring
pack analysis
2
consistently low levels of friction and wear
throughout the life of the rings.
To reduce oil control ring friction without
increasing oil consumption, Federal-Mogul
Powertrain developed its patented LKZ edge
profile, which combines a stepped surface
and taper on its contacting edge. This permits
the tangential ring force to be reduced, cutting
friction by up to 20% compared with the best
conventional two-piece oil rings.
“Typical piston rings apply equal pressure
to the cylinder bore on the downstroke, toward
the crankcase, and on the upstroke, toward the
Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 73
combustion chamber,” said Dr Steffen Hoppe,
director of technology, rings and liners,
Federal-Mogul Powertrain. “Our LKZ ring
provides a greater effect during the downstroke,
when it is needed to return oil to the oil pan,
than it does on the upstroke, and is so effective
in pulling oil away from the combustion
chamber, reducing oil consumption, that
we are able to reduce ring tension and friction.”
Federal-Mogul Powertrain has developed a
sophisticated dynamic simulation tool, PRiME
3D (Piston Ring in Motion and Emission 3D),
which enables rapid optimization of piston ring
motion, sealing effects, friction and emissions
values even before physical parts exist, such
is its accuracy of correlation. The software
calculates the effects of both boundary and
hydrodynamic lubrication to predict friction
data at each crank angle. The methodology
of mixed friction calculation now integrates
the knowledge of more than 800 measurement
results from research.
The difference between boundary and
hydrodynamic friction is highly important and
the transition can be influenced by geometric
parameters such as liner distortion, as well as
lubricant viscosity, local temperatures, rubbing
speeds and load conditions. Using measured
load conditions from specific test cycles such
as NEDC and WLTP, a clear indication can be
given of how big the friction reduction is likely
to be across the cycle, which is much more
useful than an estimated reduction at a single
load point.
To provide the highest standard of quality
control, the traceability of every individual
compression ring is achieved by using DMC
(data matrix codes) to record function-related
features. This involves the inspection of
every ring Federal-Mogul produce, rather
than just each batch, and ensures complete
control of the entire production – a level of
monitoring that is increasingly in demand from
 // CASE STUDY // DANA
Improved economy
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A RANGE OF CUSTOMIZABLE PROTECTIVE SHIELDS, FOR UNDER-
HOOD APPLICATIONS, IS ENABLING SUBSTANTIAL REDUCTIONS IN FUEL CONSUMPTION
It gets extremely hot under a vehicle’s hood –
especially with today’s turbocharged engines
and high-efficiency and high-output engines.
To ensure that critical vehicle systems don’t
overheat and break down, savvy OEMs rely
on Victor Reinz thermal-acoustical solutions.
OEMs require advanced thermal technologies
that protect vehicle systems from engine
exhaust heat to deliver improved efficiency,
fuel economy and durability. They can
find all this in Dana’s Victor Reinz thermal-
acoustical protective shielding (TAPS), which
offers numerous solutions to meet thermal
and acoustic management needs in light,
commercial and off-highway vehicles.
Through superior insulating properties,
TAPS can help achieve ideal engine operating
conditions by retaining thermal energy during
engine warm-up and start/stop cycles, which
can help achieve lower fuel consumption
and emissions. Dana precisely engineers
and analyzes new heat shields using finite
element analysis to ensure heat shields offer
outstanding thermal protection with good
durability and acoustic properties.
Around the globe, trends suggest that
the need for thermal protection is growing.
Treatment devices such as particulate traps
add to heat shielding requirements during
regeneration. Previous ‘cold’ areas of the
exhaust system now require shielding to
1 works with customers to ensure that the key
74 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
protect other vehicle systems. Dana’s world-
class thermal technologies are meeting this
challenge head on.
“Dana is committed to consistently
evaluating its powertrain products to ensure
they meet the demands of today’s high-
performing vehicles,” said Dwayne Matthews,
president, Dana Power Technologies. “Dana
is proud to partner with OEMs and Tier 1
suppliers to enhance component design and
performance. We are building on the success
of our gaskets and heat shields to develop
additional innovations that will deliver both
efficiency and reliability.”
Versatile Victor Reinz thermal-management
technologies reduce fuel consumption and
emissions while improving vehicle durability
and performance. By anticipating industry
trends, Dana engineers bring greater value to
every technology. In an effort to continually
move forward, the team identifies ways to
reinvent industry-leading designs to build in
even more functionality. This results in durable
shielding systems that offer optimum thermal
and acoustic protection, able to be flexibly
adapted to any installation location.
With various styles, each coordinated
shielding system can be customized to precise
requirements to meet specific customer goals.
To solve OEM challenges, Victor Reinz offers
an industry-leading variety of shield styles for
a wide variety of applications. The Dana team
features needed from a particular shielding
system are provided.
Dana’s three-layer shields feature an insulating
center layer for exceptional thermal protection
that also acts as a damping layer to control
vibrations and noise levels for improved durability.
Direct insulation shields offer high heat
retention capabilities, keeping catalysts and
particulate traps operating at peak efficiency for
improved fuel economy and reduced emissions.
Designed with additional sound reduction
barrier layers to lower noise and vibration
levels, five-layer shields increase thermal
performance, while sound-absorbing shields
feature micro perforations and inner fiber mats,
which absorb and capture noise.
To address lightweighting targets, Dana offers
low-mass aluminum shields, which offer up to
80% reduction in mass. They are available with
special thermal insulating mounts, enabling
attachment to hot exhaust components.
With integrated exhaust gaskets, Dana is able
to offer shielding and sealing in one component.
To meet changing customer needs, engineers
combine exhaust gaskets with heat shields,
along with the industry’s most advanced
exhaust gasket coating, ThermoGlide 1000. It
improves sealability and allows the exhaust
parts to glide across the gasket, reducing
cool-down noise and improving durability.
In addition, Victor Reinz shielding
systems can be configured with an
assortment of high-grade attachment
parts, which provide added
functionality and long-term
durability. This line of brackets,
clips and damping elements is
engineered to complement
advanced shielding
technologies, adding
function, durability
1. Micro-perforated
sound absorbing
shields can be
tuned to absorb
a specific range
of frequencies
to meet
precise noise
reduction
needs

2. Five-layer thermal shielding is
constructed with two insulating layers
that feature an exclusive dimpled
acoustical core, to provide a sound
barrier for all engine noises
3. A TAPS design that utilizes three-
layer shields, direct insulation
and integrated exhaust gaskets
and NVH
improvements
to the heat shield.
“You can get
thermal-acoustical
solutions from another
company, but you’ll be
compromising the value
you receive,” said Ernest
Oxenknecht, engineer, Dana
Power Technologies. “Victor
Reinz alone gives customers
the expertise, analysis and service
that technologies like TAPS demand,
along with the ability to quickly make
changes as needed. We take a look at a
vehicle’s architecture and create solutions
that fit. To deliver customized solutions
from concept to deliverable that really
make a difference, OEMs need to rely on the
most experienced and sophisticated team.”
Prior to a part going into production, a
robust design and analysis is provided. Dana’s
Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 75
// CASE STUDY // DANA
3
expertise in CAD, forming analysis, modal
analysis and thermal modeling ensures that
designs are engineered to high-performing and
exact specifications. Then Dana’s own internal
prototype labs take over to deliver a production-
intended prototype part. The knowledge gained in
internal prototyping is transferred to production
manufacturing, resulting in a refined part
delivered at a cost-competitive price by virtue
of Dana’s highly automated production line.
Vehicles on roads worldwide that benefit from
TAPS include the Chevrolet Volt, Chrysler Pacifica
and Nissan Infiniti QX30, among others.
To provide the exact shielding solution that
an OEM needs, the Dana team works hand-
in-hand with customers, from initial concept
to final product. The Dana team becomes
part of the customer’s team to supply close
to series production prototype parts, virtual
and real testing methods, intelligent quality
management and the most efficient logistics.
With integrated system competence across
the entire development and production process,
a higher level of performance is ensured.
With technology centers strategically located
in countries including the USA, Canada, Brazil,
Germany, India and China, Dana is poised to
quickly deliver TAPS.
With higher temperatures, NVH concerns
and lightweighting, modern shielding systems
face growing demands. Dana keeps increasing
its investment in the category to deliver
the solutions OEMs need, first time through.
Each day the Victor Reinz team is challenging
previous limitations to forge new breakthroughs
in the heat-shield category.
 // CASE STUDY // CONTITECH

Relaxed driving
HIGH-QUALITY ACOUSTIC SOLUTIONS FOR UNDER-HOOD APPLICATIONS ARE HELPING TO
INCREASE COMFORT LEVELS IN THE PASSENGER COMPARTMENT OF MODERN VEHICLES

Anyone who spends a lot of time in their car 1. The modular turbocharger
appreciates having a quiet interior. Annoying hose assembly can be used
for both diesel and gasoline
noise not only eventually spoils every journey, engine applications
but also represents an additional stress factor 2. Other acoustic solutions
and therefore a safety hazard. ContiTech from ContiTech: the fabric
suspension hose absorbs
develops solutions that eliminate noise
pressure peaks thanks to its
nuisance wherever it occurs. marked increase in volume
Although almost all cars are much quieter
than their preceding generation, the number
of possible sources of noise nuisance has
increased, so acoustic solutions face a
demanding task. Air-conditioning systems,
1
turbochargers, power steering – many things
that make driving pleasanter and are now
standard equipment also constitute a potential
noise source. In addition there are higher power
outputs, and tighter package spaces that leave
little room for insulation materials, and more
demanding standards from customers who
are less prepared to simply accept noise that
is perceived as a nuisance.
The routes for fluid-carrying lines,
determined by package space restrictions in
the engine compartment, mean that any design
freedom is often now found only inside the
line. As a result of suitable internal routing of
flows and the creation of resonance spaces,
ContiTech is able to apply the physical laws

familiar from silencer technology to fluid-

carrying lines, too. Using special measurement
and evaluation processes, engineers can
identify vehicle-specific problem areas and
eliminate them by means of appropriate design
of the inside of the line. As a result, unavoidable
noise disappears in the overall noise level or
at least does not occur to an unpleasant extent,
whatever the car’s operational mode.
A good example of ContiTech’s innovative
product solutions is the modular, noise-
optimized turbocharger hose assembly
developed for the diesel engines in several
vehicles of a major customer. This adapts to the
2 tight contours in the engine compartment and

76 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com


withstands temperatures up to 220°C
and pressures up to 2.6 bar. Its modular
design enables cost-optimized, flexible
use in modern modular engines with
vehicle-specific connections.
The hose assembly is made up of an
extremely flexible hose and a plastic pipe.
Although short, the hose permits a high level
of flexibility. The use of a high-performance
plastic allowed a weight saving of up to 15%
over a steel pipe to be achieved.
It includes a resonator on the hot side
between the turbocharger and the charge-air
cooler to optimize noise levels. This damps
the noise from the turbocharger, which is
generated during compression of the charge
air, to a level that can no longer be heard
in the passenger compartment. In addition
to these active components, ContiTech
has also developed passive noise-reduction
components. The customer can therefore be
offered the best possible assistance, depending
on the particular application. ContiTech can
determine the optimal solution for the individual
circumstances using acoustic simulations.
Pressures in fuel systems have greatly
increased to achieve improved injection
performance. However, this also contributes
to higher noise levels. Whereas pressures of
120 bar were perfectly normal in high-pressure
systems just a few years ago, the pressure
peaks in gasoline engines can now reach 200-
300 bar, and in diesel units even as high as
2,000-3,000 bar. In the low-pressure system
upstream of the high-pressure system, pressure
peaks generate considerable noise levels. The
4 4. ContiTech’s acoustic
3. The high-volume
molded hoses optimize
noise damping even
for the tightest package
spaces and reduce
pressure peaks
pipelines act as resonating bodies and transmit
the sound waves to other components. Auto
makers are seeking to counteract this with
targeted damping systems.
These involve high-volume hoses. The
fundamental idea behind their development
was to integrate the damping system in the
hose. At peak pressures the hose stretches,
which draws energy from the sound waves,
thereby damping the generation of noise.
This stretchability is achieved via the
strength member, which is both flexible and
capable of withstanding the pressure. “We
use different strength members, depending
on requirements, developed specifically for a
particular application,” declares Harald Koch,
hose damps noise build-up
in modern automotive air-
conditioning systems and
makes complex technical
solutions such as mufflers
and damping masses
superfluous
Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 77
// CASE STUDY // CONTITECH
3
head of product development at ContiTech
Schlauch GmbH in Korbach. “The various
yarns enable us to design the appropriate,
cost-effective solution for each model in
close consultation with the auto maker.”
It is not always absolutely necessary to
select the most complete solution. In many
cases it is enough to use a strength member
appropriate to the relevant application.
ContiTech achieves particularly good damping
results with specially developed, patent-
pending hybrid yarns.
In addition, ContiTech offers hoses for
damping noise at low pressures. They are
produced flat or oval and become round at
pressures of as little as 2 bar or even less.
The associated increase in volume by around
one-third means that a noise-damping effect
is achieved even at the lowest pressures
before the yarns start to stretch. Irregularities
in the flow of the medium, which would result
in noise nuisance, are also eliminated as a
result. One of the particular challenges during
development was to optimize the material for
high loads, especially in boundary areas. The
manufacturing process, in which high forces act
on the hose, is demanding. “We had to develop
special processes to ensure that the hose isn’t
destroyed during the manufacturing process
itself,” reports Koch.
The high-volume hoses can be used for fuel
lines and for cooling engine oil and gearbox oil.
These hoses are manufactured for sale by the
meter and also as technically more demanding
bends.
 // CASE STUDY // BORGWARNER

Cold-start efficiency
A RANGE OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES IS BEING DEVELOPED TO BOOST COLD-START
PERFORMANCE AND IMPROVE THE OVERALL REFINEMENT OF MODERN DIESEL ENGINES

As stringent current and future emissions

regulations drive the development of various
new technologies for gasoline, diesel, hybrid
and battery electric vehicles, BorgWarner has
developed an advanced solution that reduces
emissions while improving driver comfort and
the reliability of diesel engine cold starts. The
company’s patented ceramic diesel cold-start
1
system, with closed-loop temperature control,
has already entered series production and is to,
for instance, be featured in the 6.6-liter diesel
engine of a major US auto maker.
Diesel engines are generally reluctant
to start when temperatures fall below 5°C.
Conventionally, a metal glow plug in an open-
loop control system is used to counteract this
issue. However, this is not an ideal solution as
metal glow plugs need to be replaced several
times over the vehicle’s life if it is frequently
driven in cold weather. Moreover, an open-
loop system lacks some of the controls desired
by OEMs to help reduce fuel consumption
and cut the emissions of diesel vehicles while
maintaining optimum responsiveness in cold
conditions and high service performance.
As a global leader in clean and efficient
technology solutions for combustion, hybrid
Figure 1: BorgWarner’s
and electric vehicles, BorgWarner is one of two ceramic glow plug and
suppliers who are able to offer a complete cold- glow plug control module
start system on the global market, that is, both
glow plugs and glow plug control modules. With
innovative solutions such as the Instant Start
System (ISS), the Pressure Sensor Glow Plug
(PSG) and the glow plug with ceramic heating
element, BorgWarner’s broad product portfolio
includes numerous technologies that cover
a wide range of diesel-powered applications. cold-start system with closed-loop temperature Conventional open-loop systems require
Building on the trend in the industry toward control (Figure 1). separate calibration and setup for each
a shift from metal to ceramic glow plugs for By measuring the temperature at the surface individual engine and vehicle model. In
prolonged component life and reduced fuel of the glow plug and using a proprietary algorithm, comparison, BorgWarner’s leading-edge
consumption and emissions, BorgWarner has the closed-loop system is able to respond quickly closed-loop system offers plug-and-play
drawn on its more than 100 years of experience and precisely to dynamic engine conditions. functionality, which means that it requires
in the development of ignition systems and In this way, the system reduces emissions and calibration only for the engine, independent of
diesel cold-start solutions to design and improves fuel consumption during glowing by the application. Moreover, the system can be
manufacture its pioneering ceramic diesel 2-3% compared with traditional glow plugs. operated with virtually any ECU. As a result

78 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com


Figure 2: In contrast
to comparable models
currently on the market,
the tip of BorgWarner’s
ceramic glow plug glows
actively at its outer surface
of such extensive compatibility, it substantially
simplifies the calibration process, leading to
time and cost benefits for auto makers.
The control modules used in BorgWarner’s
innovative diesel cold-start system with
closed-loop temperature control feature
advanced high-side switches for very reliable
operation and additional temperature sensors
on the circuit board for more precise current
measurements and more accurate glow plug
response. Even under transient operating
conditions, BorgWarner’s innovative ceramic
technology offers stable and robust control of
the surface temperature and the ability to react
more quickly to dynamic shifts. In addition, the
closed-loop system uses less power during
glowing, resulting in improved fuel efficiency,
and its long life reduces the cost of ownership.
As the most sophisticated cold-start system on
the market today, BorgWarner’s ceramic diesel
cold-start solution features proven components
used in large-scale production, therefore offering
international OEMs high durability, reliability
and manufacturing consistency.
The new ceramic diesel cold-start system
with closed-loop temperature control features
BorgWarner’s Ceramic Glow Plug (CGP),
which is specifically designed to heat up
more rapidly than comparable ceramic glow
plugs. It provides a heat-up time of less than
two seconds and achieves a maximum glow
temperature of up to 1,250°C. By starting the
engine quickly and efficiently, BorgWarner’s
cold-start technology helps to optimize the
combustion process, resulting in the reduction
of unburned hydrocarbons and reduced emissions.
Furthermore, the glow plug’s advanced heating
element is rotationally symmetric and made
of electrically conductive solid ceramics. It
also features a surface with a higher specific
resistance than the material of the supply
and return conductors.
Unlike comparable models featuring a
metallic or semi-metallic heating element inside
the ceramic glow pin which must be heated
up completely to be fully functional, the CGP’s
tip glows actively at its outer surface (Figure
2). By precisely matching the heating power to
Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 79
// CASE STUDY // BORGWARNER
2
the requirements of the engine, the closed-loop
glow plug control modules always supply the
glow plug with the optimum effective voltage
for the operating point in question. This enables
the glow plug temperature to be controlled
according to the operating state, contributing
to enhanced fuel economy and reduced
emissions. In combination with the optimized
control modes for pre-heating, intermediate
heating and post-heating that are implemented
in BorgWarner’s innovative closed-loop system,
the CGP technology offers superior durability
with an extended life, thus optimizing costs
even further.
In line with recent trends, BorgWarner’s
ceramic diesel cold-start system with closed-
loop temperature control meets market
demands by providing rapid, convenient
and efficient diesel engine starts. With its
sophisticated and highly efficient diesel cold-
start technology, the system supplier helps
OEMs around the globe meet increasingly
stringent emissions regulations, especially
in Europe and the USA.
 // CASE STUDY // EMAG
Joined-up thinking
AS ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS CONTINUE TO INCREASE RESTRICTIONS ON THE AUTOMOTIVE
INDUSTRY, EMAG’S LASER WELDING OF COMPONENTS IS HELPING ACHIEVE EMISSIONS TARGETS
Restrictions on the environmental impact
of vehicles have been tightening all over
the world for many years, with enormous
pressure on OEMs to reduce the consumption
and emissions of their products. Numerous
measures have already been taken, including
downsizing, turbocharging, hybridization,
cylinder deactivation, transmissions with more
gear stages, and moving from torque converter
automatic transmissions to more efficient dual-
clutch systems.
Unfortunately, in order to reduce fuel
consumption – and thereby the CO 2 emissions
– of a vehicle, you must first install additional
components, which means adding weight. For
instance, a 9-speed transmission will contain
more parts than a 6-speed and will therefore
be heavier. To prevent the advantages of the
9-speed being nullified by the extra weight,
advances in lightweight construction are
imperative. Another aspect to consider is
the additional space required for components
such as batteries for hybrid drives, which must
not reduce interior space and therefore require
an extremely compact design.
The joining technique – in this case primarily
welding – becomes an enabling technology that
is often essential for achieving lighter and more
compact vehicle components. Laser welding
plays an important role.
2
80 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
1. Laser cleaning station
2. Typical laser-welded
powertrain components
1
CO 2 lasers for welding powertrain
components began the mid-1980s. Their
excellent focusability and the maturity
of the technology led to them being used
exclusively for the laser welding of powertrain
components by 2010. Since then, however,
there has been a remarkably rapid movement
toward shorter wavelengths.
High-brightness solid-state lasers (SSL)
offer several advantages over CO 2 lasers.
Their greatly improved efficiency reduces the
energy they consume and the power required
to cool them. In most cases there is no need
for shielding gases such as argon or helium,
and laser gases were eliminated. This can often
cut operating costs in half when compared with
welding using CO 2 lasers.
The use of fiber-optic cables in SSLs instead
of rigid mirror systems doesn’t just improve
their resistance to environmental influences. It
also enables the use of new, improved system
layouts. These layouts allow for decentralized
positioning of the welding stations in assembly
lines, improving the flow of parts.
There are also many technical advantages.
High-brightness SSLs permit higher welding
speeds and consequently less application of
heat per unit length to the weld seam. This is
important to be able to manufacture delicate
components with no significant distortion.
Powertrain components are welded using
continuous wave lasers with nominal output
between 2kW and 6kW. The focal diameter
is normally chosen in the range 150-600µm.
The use of fiber-optic cables in various
diameters, together with the high flexibility of
modern SSLs, enables the use of relatively long
focal lengths. They are also a very simple and
robust way of optimizing the optical conditions
for the welding process (such as focal diameter
and Rayleigh length).
 // CASE STUDY // EMAG

3. Laser welding a An undeniable disadvantage of SSLs is the

synchronizer to a gear.
issue of welding spatter. The leading makers
Operational costs are cut
in half due to the new of welding systems combat the comparatively
fiber laser in the ELC 160 high amount of spatter with an optimized jig and
4. EMAG’s ELC 160 is suction technology. Other, more adventurous
a modern production
laser-welding system techniques such as vacuum welding require
that delivers deep yet more expensive equipment, which prevents
narrow and precise welds
it from becoming mainstream. However, the
requirements of the peripheral laser equipment
should not be underestimated. Potential
benefits such as extremely narrow, deep
welds free of distortion can only be achieved
if the beam guidance system and the clamping
of the workpiece are precise. Consequently
modern production laser-welding systems
such as the EMAG ELC 160, which satisfy
the above requirements, have a lot more in
common with machine tools than with typical
welding installations.
Painstaking preparation of the workpieces
is still required to produce flawless welds.
Cleanliness requirements are high and
residues, such as those left by coolants,
need to be removed by reliable processes
before welding so as not to lead to faults such
as pores and cavities in the weld. But after
many years of washing workpieces in a tunnel
washer being standard practice, laser cleaning
now offers an alternative. This is an ablation
process in which brief but powerful (>10kW)
laser pulses are applied to the workpiece
surface. With proper control of the process,
the result is a polished metal surface with no
change in geometric or thermal characteristics.
The very low amount of laser power used,
about 100W, makes this a very environmentally
friendly, energy-efficient alternative to the
washing method. Integration of the cleaning,
joining and laser welding processes enables
the production of very efficient modern
3 manufacturing systems.

Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 81

 // CASE STUDY // BRP-ROTAX

Debut turbocharger
EXPERIENCE IN DIVERSE INDUSTRIES IS HELPING IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ALL-NEW
TURBOCHARGER, WHICH AIMS TO ADDRESS THE SHORTFALLS OF EXISTING UNITS

Charging technology has been growing in optimized from the engine outlet valve to the 1
importance in the automotive industry for turbine. The realized design of a manifold with
years, leveraging the benefits of reduced integrated turbine housing supports response,
capacity and cylinders. In the recreational performance, packaging and rigidity.
industry (side-by-side vehicles, jet boats, Turbocharger housings reach up to 1,050°C
snowmobiles, etc) charging systems are (1,920°F) and cool down quickly when the
increasingly used to boost the power of engine is in drag mode. To simulate this stress,
small engines. virtual hot-cold cycle stress simulation was
BRP-Rotax’s target is the ultimate ride, applied to the turbine housing to show potential
on sea, snow, road, off-road and in the air. crack areas before going into hardware. Several
Powerful, responsive, lightweight, robust and virtual loops were performed until all areas
small powertrain packages are essential. Due to were uncritical.
the ambitious technical and cost requirements A water-cooled bearing housing protects 1. Bench testing of the
required by the design, no appropriate unit the bearing system from excessive oil coking turbine shows how hot
the housings can get.
existed on the market. This awareness was caused by the high exhaust gas temperatures. Images courtesy of
the starting point for the first turbocharger to Most of the oil coking happens after stalling BRP-Rotax
be developed and manufactured in-house by the engine because the water pump ceases
Rotax in its 96-year history. operation. The Rotax water cooling system is
The first Rotax turbocharger is on the 900cc engineered for ‘reverse siphoning’, whereby the
triple cylinder ACE engine for the all-new coolant in the hot turbo boils and fresh coolant
Maverick X3 – the next generation of high-
performance side-by-side vehicles. The new
2. The Can-Am Maverick
industry-leading turbocharged and intercooled X3 Turbo R utilizes the
Rotax ACE engine offers 154hp at 7,500rpm. BRP-Rotax turbocharger
to deliver off-road thrills
Acceleration is at the sports-car level, with
0-60mph at 4.9 seconds.
The first step in the development of the
turbocharger was the matching phase. Required
engine power at sea level and at high altitude,
torque curve shape and dynamic response were
transformed into turbocharger target maps as
a base for the turbine and compressor wheel
design. Initial design was iteratively optimized
in simulation and measurement loops. Several
software tools (e.g. 1D and 3D simulation) and
validation measurements were used to support
this process.
The small low-inertia turbine, in comparison
with the 13% larger compressor wheel,
guarantees maximum turbocharger response.
The exhaust gas is the energy source for
the turbocharger, so it is essential to bring
this energy as quickly as possible and with
minimized losses to the turbine. Using 3D
CFD methods, the exhaust gas flow was 2

82 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

 // CASE STUDY // BRP-ROTAX

floods in behind it. This process continues until 3

the temperatures reach an uncritical level for
the turbo bearings.
After intensive simulation work, the
turbocharger quickly became reality using
rapid prototyping technology. A 40-point
validation plan checked the turbocharger under
the toughest conditions. Hundreds of thermal-
shock test cycles were performed, cooling down
the turbocharger in milliseconds. For safety
reasons a containment test was conducted in
each development phase. During this test the
turbocharger wheel bursts and all fractured
rotating parts must be contained inside the
turbocharger housings. The first attempt to burst
the wheel was by over speeding – 270,000rpm
was reached without any problem. In the next
attempt, a bullet shot into the compressor wheel
did not burst it. Finally a massive weakening 4
of the wheel led to destruction but without
any impact on the turbocharger structure as
intended.
For long-term reliability the turbocharger was
tortured for hundreds of hours under far more
severe conditions than customers are expected
to impart. After hot-gas dyno and engine dyno
validation, the turbocharger was validated in the
vehicle by qualified test riders. After passing all
the validation tests, the turbocharger was finally
released for serial production.
High-performance powertrains are in Rotax’s
genes. The engineers are used to extending
technical limits to provide the ultimate ride for
customers. With Rotax’s engineering knowledge, Parallel to the development activities, the
the infrastructure and a passionate project industrial engineering paid attention to the
team, the conditions for the first turbocharger machining and assembly process setup in
development at BRP-Rotax were perfect. Rotax’s Austrian facility. Specific production
To ensure the focus on charging technology, machines had to be ordered for use. The
a dedicated charging systems business unit was assembly line integrates a high-end quality-
3. Intensive CFD analysis
established. The unit is a team of turbocharger has led to an ‘unburstable’ control system. This system consists of
enthusiasts, working 100% on charging compressor wheel being individual turbocharger data tracing, assembly
developed by BRP-Rotax
solutions together with their internal and failure protection and an end-of-line test bench.
external partners. Flat hierarchy, fast decisions, 4. Compact dimensions of Each turbocharger’s key quality parameters
the turbocharger unit can
focus and innovation are enabled by this be seen when in situ with
are validated on this test bench to fulfill Rotax’s
new form of organization at BRP-Rotax. actuator and manifold stringent quality requirements.

Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 83

 // CASE STUDY // SIEMENS

Exhaust simulation
IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW EXHAUST AFTERTREATMENT SYSTEMS, REAL DRIVE
SCENARIOS CAN BE ACCURATELY SIMULATED BY MEANS OF A MODEL-BASED METHOD

Real-drive emissions (RDE) assessment 1

is a key part of future legislation for diesel
passenger cars, bringing up a broad variety of
possible driving situations under aggravating
environmental conditions such as road slope,
altitude and cold as well as warm weather.
At the same time, public awareness toward
air pollution is growing constantly, creating
not only a legal, but also a moral need to comply
with pollutant limits under all operating conditions.
This requires detailed coordination of
the combustion engine and the exhaust
aftertreatment (EAT) system – a time and
effort consuming task throughout the whole
powertrain development process. A model-
based development approach can help reduce
costs and testbench resources, but requires
a system simulation environment that offers
great flexibility regarding vehicle operating and
boundary conditions, insight into the interaction
between engine operation and exhaust components,
as well as the opportunity to be coupled with
sophisticated control software – a package that
is delivered by LMS Imagine.Lab Amesim.
As an example, in the early phase of an EAT the system of interest. A 12-gas engine map In the simulated RDE test cycle, the LNT
system development, work on different layouts enables exhaust emissions evaluation of EAT system shows its superior NO x conversion
and component sizes defines the initial system systems put together from chemico-physical capabilities over the DOC system, especially
specifications. To address this task by model- library models for all relevant state-of-the- in the cold-start phase of the cycle. Further
based development requires modeling of the art components. The Simulink S-function more, being able to store NO x emissions, even
driver behavior, vehicle longitudinal dynamics, support enables the use of existing function at low temperatures, will help reduce overall
gearset, engine operation and emissions, as control software, e.g. the dosing control unit, NO x tailpipe emissions, since the SCR catalyst
well as of the EAT components themselves. without the need to rebuild the necessary logic temperature is too low for significant SCR
A typical example for such a task would be structures in LMS Amesim itself. activity. If not regenerated by operating the
a concept study of the potential for cold start LMS Amesim offers several European and engine in rich combustion mode and generating
NO x reduction performance enhancement, by US certification cycles from which to choose CO, HC and H 2 to reduce the stored NO x, the
replacing the diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) the mission, and also enables loading a LNT runs full until the end of the cycle, where
in a system consisting of DOC, cDPF and SCR, user-defined velocity profile or using the new the high LNT temperature level causes thermal
with a lean NO x trap (LNT). With only passive GPS data-driven mission-profile generator, release of some of the stored NO x, all of which
operation of the LNT, no further changes in which creates an RDE driving cycle from the is a rather unnecessary process because the
the vehicle system are necessary and the maximum velocity over displacement and SCR catalyst temperature is at a good level
minimum increase in DeNO x performance calculates the road slope if information on for high SCR efficiency.
can be assessed. In LMS Imagine.Lab Amesim, the altitude is provided. Limiting positive and Such an improvement in NO x reduction
the vehicle model (Figure 1) is built up rapidly, negative acceleration and jerk helps respect efficiency can be enhanced further by operating
using library models for the vehicle itself, drive, RDE driving parameter boundaries and ensure the engine in rich combustion mode. For that
gearset and engine, and calibrating them to fit realistic driving behavior. purpose, LMS Amesim provides a function to

84 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

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 // CASE STUDY // PHILIPS SCREW

Critical contact
IT’S VITALLY IMPORTANT TO ENSURE THAT THE SOCKET TO BOLT HEAD CONTACT
AREA HAS AN OPTIMAL RELATIONSHIP WHEN USING HIGH STRENGTH MATERIALS

Ensuring proper joint clamp load is critical 1

in high-performance engines. If the bolts that
hold the engine together loosen, the resulting
coolant/lubricant loss results in failure that
can be catastrophic. As more engineers
strive to balance reduced overall weight with
performance, one option is to use fewer bolts of
higher strength to achieve the same clamp load.
The whole principle behind a threaded fastener
is that it achieves clamp load by acting much
like a spring or elastic band. The tighter you
make the bolt the more you stretch it, imparting
the clamping force that keeps the mated
members securely joined. As the strength of
the bolt rises it takes more torque to achieve
the required clamp load because the stronger
material takes greater force to stretch it.
The socket to bolt-head interface has always
been one of the weakest links in the bolting
system. Failure in this area often took the
form of rounding of the bolt head or splitting
of the socket. Both modes of failure are due to
excessive point loading, where the edge of the
hex or bi-hex (12 point) head meets the inside
edge of the socket. A bi-hex bolt head is merely
an attempt to increase the contact area of a
standard hex bolt by adding an additional six
contact areas to increase the overall socket 1. The varying contact areas
to head contact. between the socket and bolt
There have been many other attempts to head components. The spiral
curve bolt head provides much
spread the load by creating special sockets larger engagement surface
that mate on the flanks, have ridges to grip than bi-hex or hex head designs
more area, and finally by redesigning the bolt 2. Unique geometry
head and socket to something better than the of the spiral curve bolt
head allows emergency
traditional hex or bi-hex. If the engineer is going
servicing with a standard
to make the effort to go to a bolt made of high- hex socket component
performance material they should also make
the effort to go to a high-performance design
that complements the increased material strength.
Advances in bolt design in recent years have
included the introduction of higher strength
martensitic materials that are capable of
reaching higher levels of strength than those
of traditional steels, as well as specialty alloys
previously only used in aerospace applications.
2

86 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

 // CASE STUDY // PHILIPS SCREW

hex at all six corners) is only 0.0075738in 2 .

Additionally, because the design is symmetrical,
the contact area for removal of the bolt is
identical. A similar set of figures apply for a
bi-hex design, where the standard head height
is slightly reduced to 0.469in, with a resulting
contact area of 0.0062736in 2 .
If the approach is taken to optimize the bolt
head through the application of asymmetric
curved surfaces for the installation and removal
of the bolt, a unique design emerges that
provides greater contact area on the installation
surfaces and much greater contact on the
removal surfaces. This asymmetric approach
is critical because the force required to remove
a bolt that has been in service is often much
3. The contact on the higher than the torque that was used to install
surfaces of the bolt head it. This is primarily due to seizing of the bolt
is fully optimized during
the removal process threads due to loss of lubricant, variation in
temperature or corrosion. The symmetrical
design of the hex and bi-hex often result in
failure when removal is required, necessitating
grinding off the heads and drilling out the
remaining threaded portion. This results
in a time consuming and costly repair.
The unique geometry of the
external Mortorq Super spiral
curve bolt head results in a
It is not uncommon for bolt strengths now well much larger contact area
above the typical 1,100MPa (160,000psi) between the mating socket
strength level to be used to clamp critical and the bolt head. The
assemblies. As the strength of the bolt asymmetric shape of the
increases, the torque transmitting curves on the driving and
capability of the head design removal walls provides much
must also grow, to achieve the greater contact on the removal
necessary clamping force. wall, where it is most needed when
If we look at the engagement the bolts need to be removed for engine
of a standard hex socket to service or repair. Initially developed for
the periphery of a hex bolt in a highly demanding aerospace applications
standard 0.5in diameter design where weight savings are critical, the design
with a 0.499in head height, provides higher wrenching capability in a
we see that the total area smaller volume, thus saving weight. When
of contact (the narrow this is combined with a high-performance,
edge where the socket high-strength material, the result is a consistent
hits the edge of the clamp load in a lighter assembly.
3

Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 87

 // CASE STUDY // NEMAK

Design flexibility
THIS CPS CASTING PROCESS IS DRIVING ALUMINUM LIGHT WEIGHTING SOLUTIONS,
PARTICULARLY IN REGARD TO THE LATEST GENERATION OF HIGHLY LOADED ENGINES

With government-mandated fuel economy
and CO 2 emissions targets becoming more
stringent across the world’s largest economies,
auto makers are keen to capitalize on new
technologies to produce vehicles that weigh
less – and are therefore more fuel efficient –
without sacrificing power and performance.
To achieve these aims they are increasingly
turning to engine components that require
more advanced mechanical properties and
more complex castings.
Nemak’s CPS casting method is a leading
process for highly loaded aluminum engine
blocks. Key benefits of this casting solution
include high productivity, design flexibility,
functional integration and advanced
After assembly, the core packages are
transferred to the casting area, consisting
of a continuous melting system with melting,
holding and casting furnaces. The whole
melt transport is realized via a covered launder
system, which prevents turbulence in decanting
operations. To ensure the highest possible melt
cleanliness, a continuously operating rotary
degassing station is installed between the
holding and casting furnaces. Here, hydrogen
and impurities from the raw material, such as
oxides and inclusions, are efficiently removed
1. Nemak’s sand and 1
binder-based CPS casting
process allows for lighter
aluminium products
from the melt before the mold is filled. Finally,
the filling of the mold cavity is optimized to
induce as little turbulence as possible, thereby
preventing the formation of new oxides.
With CPS, automated gluing operations are
used in small inner cores to maximize freedom
of design and facilitate the integration of
a wide range of add-on parts, such as the
oil-pump housing and the balancing shaft
bearing, into the aluminum engine block
casting. This in turn makes it possible to
make further weight savings.

mechanical properties. 2. The process is a highly

automated one using
On a CPS production line a mixture of sand a variety of robots
and binder is shot into steel core boxes housed
inside core shooters, while the assembly is
done simultaneously by robots directly in front
of these machines. On production lines with
eight to 10 core shooters, cycle times typically
run as low as 21-42 seconds. Moreover, the
process is nearly fully automated and enables
the production of core packages consisting of
up to 40 cores.

88 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com


3 4
3. The automated CPS
In terms of functional integration, a key
process has been used to
produce millions of parts advantage of CPS is its use of cast-in-place
4. The end product boasts interbore bridge cooling channels. The
a fine microstructure with cooling channels can be placed at the exact
low porosity
hot spot positions where they are needed by
casting, and fewer machining operations need
to be performed at the engine plant. Moreover,
quality control measures such as leakage
testing can be performed earlier in the chain of
economic value-added. Nemak first introduced
cast-in-place interbore bridge cooling channels
in 2009 for the Ford 2.0-liter GTDI motors,
and to date it has used the casting solution
to produce more than three million parts.
The latest generation of cast-in-place
interbore bridge cooling channels will soon
be introduced for the new Audi 3.0-liter V6
TFSI and Porsche 4.0-liter V8 turbo, with new
features to include two channels per interbore
bridge with flow-optimized shapes. Audi
reports that this implementation has made it
possible to decrease the maximum interbore
bridge temperature by 20°C compared with the
predecessor motor. And in the new Porsche
V8 the use of CPS has ensured a sound casting
microstructure, enabling the customer to
achieve a high activation and coating process
performance for the thermal spray coating of
the cylinder bores.
The key to delivering best-in-class
mechanical properties with CPS is the use
of passive cooling chills in the engineering
Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 89
// CASE STUDY // NEMAK
of solidification conditions. These chills,
commonly used at the highly loaded main
bearing and cylinder bores of the engine block,
lead to fast local solidification that results in a
very fine microstructure with low porosity. The
block for the new Daimler OM654 all-aluminum
2.0-liter diesel engine produced at Nemak
Dillingen, which debuted in the spring 2016
E220d, sheds light on the benefits of the CPS
process for mechanical properties. According
to Daimler it was possible to reduce the
engine’s DIN weight by 34.4kg to 168.4kg
compared with the predecessor engine, which
had a cast-iron block and an aluminum head.
Nemak is currently conducting research into
the use of alternative aluminum alloy systems,
with a focus on their potential to further
enhance mechanical properties.
It is noteworthy that the core benefits of CPS
– including the high level of design freedom
and advanced mechanical properties – also
make the process well-suited to the large-scale
production of complex electric motor housings
with a high degree of functional integration.
These include electric motor, transmission
and power electronics housings merged into
a single casting as well as the required internal
cooling channels. One of the main focuses
of Nemak’s current research and development
activities is to partner with customers
to generate feasible production concepts
for such new components.
 // CASE STUDY // CTS
Particulate filters
INNOVATIVE SENSORS PROVIDE DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF FILTER LOADING STATE FOR
OPTIMIZED AFTERTREATMENT SYSTEM CONTROL AND ADVANCED ONBOARD DIAGNOSTICS
Strict emissions regulations have resulted
in the widespread use of diesel particulate
filters (DPF) to reduce soot emissions from
diesel engines. Similar regulations are now
motivating the use of gasoline particulate
filters (GPF) to reduce soot emissions from
gasoline engines. Although extremely effective
at reducing soot emissions, particulate filters
(Figure 2) require additional sensors and control
systems to monitor filter loading levels, control
regeneration processes and diagnose failures.
Conventional approaches typically rely on
differential pressure sensors to monitor the
pressure drop across the filter and, combined
with predictive models, deduce the filter’s
loading state. A number of operating conditions
present challenges for these approaches,
including idle and low exhaust-flow conditions,
where the pressure drop across the filter is
minimal, as well as transient operation and
filter regeneration events. Detection of filter
failures, resulting in a reduction in filter trapping
efficiency, generally also rely on a dedicated
tailpipe soot sensor to detect soot levels in the
exhaust downstream from the filter, above a
threshold value.
Further complicating accurate filter soot
load measurements, diagnostics and control
is the build-up of ash in the filter over its useful
life. Primarily derived from lubricant additives,
metallic ash compounds accumulate in the
filter and further contribute to an increase
in exhaust flow restriction and pressure drop,
which complicates pressure-based controls.
Ultimately the accumulation of soot and ash
in the filter results in a decrease in engine
efficiency due to both increased exhaust flow
restriction and additional fuel consumption
required for filter regeneration.
The challenges with conventional
approaches may be exacerbated for newer
gasoline applications where the pressure drop
across the filter is low, limiting the utility of the
measurement. In addition, low filter soot levels
and proportionally higher ash levels further
90 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com
1. RF sensor control
unit and antenna, which
is of similar size to a
conventional exhaust
temperature sensor
complicate measurement. Recent studies have
also shown challenges for detection of GPF
failures with conventional soot sensors.
Figure 1 shows a radio frequency (RF) sensor
that provides an alternative to conventional
particulate filter measurements by directly
measuring the loading state of the filter. The
sensor uses electronics similar to those found
in cell phones and wireless devices to transmit
and receive RF signals through the ceramic
filter element. The signal is transmitted and
received within the metal filter housing through
a small antenna, which is similar in size to
a conventional exhaust temperature sensor
2
1
(Figure 3). Unlike conventional exhaust sensors,
the antenna is simply a stainless steel rod, with
no active internal electronics, making it ideally
suited to harsh environment applications.
By coupling the RF signal to the metallic
filter housing, the housing itself serves as a
resonant cavity. Analysis of the resonance
signal across a broad frequency range enables
the direct measurement of soot and ash
levels on the filter. Broadband measurements
over multiple resonances also enable the
determination of local variations in filter
loading, such as between the front and back of
the filter or between the center and outer radial
edges, for example.
Measurements of a clean filter, when the
system is first installed, provide a unique
reference resonance signature, almost like a
fingerprint, against which future changes are
compared. Normal filter operation results in a
well-characterized shift in the amplitude and
frequency of the resonances, corresponding
to soot and ash loading of the filter. Failures or
malfunctions, resulting in an abnormal change
to the resonance signature, can be uniquely
identified to diagnose the filter’s state of health.
 // CASE STUDY // CTS

2. A ceramic particulate 4. RF sensor transient

filter. Accurate knowledge
of filter loading states is
important for efficient
engine control and the
detection of filter failures
is needed to meet OBD
requirements
3. RF antenna detail
showing the possible
configurations which will
accommodate system
installation and packaging
envelope requirements
response comparison
to AVL Microsoot Sensor
for varying pedal tip-
in events. RF sensor
derivative (differential)
response shown
3
5. A detailed RF
sensor derivative
response showing direct
measurements of reduced
filter trapping efficiency
due to various filter
defects, such as failures

4 5

The RF measurements may be conducted
over all engine operating conditions, even
while the engine is off, as well as during
high-temperature filter regeneration events.
Measurements during regeneration provide
a direct measure of soot oxidation rates and
can be used to control the regeneration process
more precisely. Unlike pressure measurements,
which are directly affected by changes in
exhaust flow rate, RF measurements are
completely insensitive to exhaust flow and
provide continuous measurement of the filter
state over the entire drive cycle. Temperature
compensation is, however, required as the
dielectric properties of the soot do vary
with temperature.
Recently several applications of the RF
sensor were demonstrated through a multi-
year program supported by the US Department
of Energy (DOE) together with a broad range
of industry and national laboratory partners,
including Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Corning Incorporated, Daimler Trucks North
America and FEV, plus fleet testing on heavy-
duty vehicles operated by the New York City
Department of Sanitation (DSNY). A three-year
fleet durability test with several Mack MP-7
engine-equipped trucks at DSNY showed the
potential for extending the interval between
regenerations and decreasing the regeneration
duration using RF sensing relative to the
stock controls. Laboratory testing at FEV
on an MY2013 DD-13 diesel engine showed
similar results using a closed-loop RF DPF
management system.
RF sensor response was evaluated over
several transient conditions on a 1.9-liter
GM turbo-diesel engine at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory as part of the DOE program.
Results of sensor benchmarking with the
AVL microsoot sensor (MSS) are summarized
in Figure 4 and show the derivative of the
RF filter soot load measurements to be well-
correlated with the AVL MSS measurements
of engine-out soot entering the filter. For
these measurements the RF sensor was
set to sample at 2.5Hz and the AVL system
at 1Hz. Fast response RF measurements
enable improved controls as well as advanced
diagnostics of the DPF, essentially providing
laboratory-like measurement capabilities in
an on-vehicle sensor.
Additional evaluations confirmed the
application of RF sensing for DPF failure
detection. Figure 5 presents the RF sensor
derivative response for the same test conditions
with filters containing successively greater
failures. The failures, characterized by
the removal of channel end plugs, result
in a reduction in trapping efficiency and
an increase in soot slip through the filter.
The measurements clearly show a high degree
of sensitivity to directly monitor this reduction
in trapping efficiency.
Results to date have demonstrated fast
response, direct measurements of filter loading
state as well as detection of filter failures using
RF sensing. The approach provides engine
and vehicle designers with additional flexibility
for improved system controls and diagnostics,
in contrast to conventional approaches using
differential pressure measurements and models
that provide only indirect estimates of the filter
loading state. The continuous measurement
capabilities of the sensor, even with the
engine off, provide additional opportunities
for expanding in-use performance monitoring
and advanced diagnostics.

Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 91

 // CASE STUDY // RHEINMETALL

Quiet range extender

AS PART OF A JOINT COLLABORATION, A NUMBER OF LOW-NOISE RANGE EXTENDERS, FOR USE IN
DOWNSIZED, FORCED-INDUCTION IC ENGINES HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED TO HELP BOOST MILEAGE

Together with FEV GmbH, Rheinmetall

Automotive (formerly KSPG) has successfully
tested a range extender developed for electric
vehicles. The test vehicle, based on the Fiat
500, has already undergone comprehensive
tests. Customer response to tests conducted at
various OEMs underscores the targets achieved
in the development of this extender, where
emphasis was on barely perceptible noise and
vibration from the two-cylinder V-type engine
fitted with FEV’s vibration compensation. The
company has also come up with a heater/cooler
module that, by using a heat-pump function,
substantially reduces energy consumption
when heating and cooling electric vehicles.
Thanks to its dedicated design features,
including active vibration compensation and
convenient mounting location, the system
performs excellently in regard to NVH. As
a consequence, the impression of low-noise
electric propulsion hardly suffers whenever
the extender goes about its work.
The range extender allows vast flexibility
in the configuration of its operating strategy.
The extender enables a reduction in battery
size, cost and weight. Also, the car can
maintain its customary travel range without
having to stop for lengthy recharging. It
dispels range anxiety, a phenomenon not
to be underestimated in electric mobility. engines will arise to make them a reality. This are mounted on a ready-to-install support
Experts and legislators generally see range presents attractive possibilities for suppliers, frame. The vertical crankshaft requires only
extenders as paving the way for widespread given that these extenders are largely unsuited a short construction height, so that the module
acceptance of electric vehicles and assume that for assembly on current production lines and can be integrated beneath the floor of a small
an entirely new category of very small gasoline initial unit quantities will possibly not be very passenger vehicle or tucked neatly in a spare
high. KSPG has both a diversified product wheel recess. This installation option offers
1
portfolio and the necessary development the easiest and least-expensive modification
competencies. The largely universally procedure relative to conventional vehicle
mountable module furthermore delivers construction and leaves room for attractive
economies of scale and lowers development compact-vehicle packaging and styling.
and application costs. The power unit is conceived in such a way
The new KSPG power unit consists of a that the vehicle interfaces are reduced to a
two-cylinder, V-type gasoline engine with minimum. Vehicle integration thus proves
a vertically positioned crankshaft and two comparatively unproblematic and installation
generators with gear wheel drive. Except for or disassembly can be performed easily and
the fuel tank and the radiator, all components efficiently. This enables the range extender

92 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com


2 1. The V-type, two-cylinder
engine has been developed
with low NVH in mind
2. Rheinmetall’s latest
demonstration vehicle
is based on the Fiat 500
3. Rheinmetall’s heater
cooler module drastically
reduces energy usage
to be reduced to an additional accessory
equipment option. The automobile can thus
be delivered with or without a range extender,
allowing a strategy of modularity.
The current market situation for electric
vehicles indicated that many consumers are
afraid that battery range will be insufficient.
They also appear to shy away from the high
added costs. A bridge technology, such as a
range extender, could expedite market entry for
a generation of battery-powered vehicles and
support legislators in their efforts to reduce CO 2 .
The range extender is also an elegant
solution to further constraints. At temperatures
at which the battery tends to work inefficiently,
the range extender can generate extra heat or
cold, which in turn helps reduce CO 2 . The range
extender enables normal use of heating and
air-conditioning without the fear of excessive
battery discharge.
Rheinmetall Automotive recently also
presented a new heater/cooler module that
uses a heat-pump function to reduce energy
consumption when heating and cooling
electrically operated vehicles. Current road
trials take into account all the heat generated
during driving to enable the components to be
set to the best possible operating temperature.
The heater/cooler module is intended to
be a key component of the air-conditioning
system. Existing assemblies such as the drive
motor and generator are integrated as heat
sources into the vehicle’s heat-management
system. The reproducible measurements
obtained from tests on an electrically powered
small-car prototype under defined drive and
ambient conditions, complement previous test
results. TÜV Süd e.V. was involved in the tests
as a recognized and independent party and
also provided a wind tunnel for comparative
measurements. The range-extending impact
of the heater/cooler module has already been
demonstrated in previous tests conducted by
Fraunhofer Gesellschaft on other vehicles at
normal temperature as well as in testbench
measurements on the module itself.
Proof of performance was documented by
directly comparing the range of the pre- and
Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 93
// CASE STUDY // RHEINMETALL
post-integration vehicles. The necessary
measurements were carried out at a variety
of ambient temperatures and according to the
New European Driving Cycle (NEDC).
When combined with smart controls for the
heat-management system, the heater/cooler
module helps extend the vehicle’s mileage
range without any compromise in driver or
passenger comfort. Previously the vehicles
used electric heaters, which shortened the
range and operating cycles.
The heater/cooler module offers other
advantages as well as maximum energy
efficiency. The compact module is designed
ready to operate and can be installed where
most convenient in the vehicle. To integrate
it with the vehicle’s HVAC, the customer simply
connects the four supply lines of the secondary
circuit and power supply. Installation times
are accordingly short. With this plug-and-play
heater/cooler module it is also possible to
carry out the necessary leakage tests on the
refrigerant lines, add the refrigerant and start
up the system outside the vehicle.
As the almost completely hermetic
refrigerant circuit works with a minimum of
connecting elements and the compact design
reduces the required refrigerant volume, the
module also achieves a substantial decrease
in refrigerant losses and hence plays an
important part in curbing overall harmful
greenhouse emissions.
 // CASE STUDY // GOMECSYS

Variable compression
THE USE OF VARIABLE COMPRESSION RATIOS IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES IS BEING
CHAMPIONED AS THE ESSENTIAL FUTURE TECHNOLOGY TO MEET TIGHTENING TARGETS

Split Eccentric bearing

shells when away from
Gomecsys’s VCR crank

Stringent CO 2 regulations are pushing the
old combustion engine into an accelerated
evolution phase. Never have changes been
so dramatic as those we will see over the
next decade. One of these changes is the
introduction of variable compression ratio
(VCR) technology. Several car manufacturers
have already announced work on a production
version of a VCR system and one presented
its production engine to the public at the
2016 Paris Motor Show in September.
Gomecsys has been developing its VCR
technology for 18 years, the last five in
strong cooperation with Groupe PSA. This
has accelerated the development and the
technology is now getting close to a serial
application project.
Julien Berger, VCR project manager at
Groupe PSA, says, “The Gomecsys VCR system
is a smart solution as it can be integrated in
already existing engine blocks with only very
small modifications. We can upgrade any
existing engine just by replacing the original
crankshaft with a VCR crankshaft.”
The Gomecsys VCR crankshaft is a one-piece
crankshaft, quite like the original it is replacing.
In the past Gomecsys struggled with developing
an assembled crankshaft that was workable for
mass production. The one-part VCR crankshaft
is now equipped with split eccentrics that are
assembled on the VCR crankshaft and held
together with special clamps that have the
same function as a stretch bolt.
The eccentric bearing shells (which run
directly on the crankpins of the crankshaft)
have an oil groove in the middle to achieve a
constant oil feed to the big end bearing of the
conrod. A study together with Mahle Engine
Systems UK has been carried out to find the
best place to feed the conrod big end bearings.
This isn’t as straightforward as it appears
because the eccentric is not in the same

94 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com


position at each crankshaft revolution. With full
CR adjustment it rotates 150° on the crankpin,
and the conrod oil feed holes rotate with it.
The eccentric runs on the crankpin at half
the crankshaft speed and as a consequence
there is a difference between TDC firing and
TDC gas exchange within one cycle.
When running at a high CR the piston is
at its highest position in TDC firing, but one
crankshaft revolution later, it is at its lowest
TDC position in TDC gas exchange (being about
4mm lower) and as such creates freedom for
the valves to use extreme overlap without the
need for deep valve pockets.
Regarding the actuation of the full VCR
crankshaft, different types are possible
depending on engine configuration and engine
type. The most common is the use of a simple
worm drive, driven by an electric motor. The
full CR sweep is achieved in only 0.2 seconds,
which is fast enough to follow pressure buildup
in the inlet manifold.
Bert de Gooijer, CEO at Gomecsys, says,
“It’s important to have continuously variable
CR, otherwise you have to compromise the max
CR point. With a two-stage system you want to
be at your high CR point about 80% of the time,
so you have to use a lower CR point, then when
you are free to use the optimum CR anywhere
in the cycle.”
From a CO 2 reduction point of view, the
Gomecsys VCR technology offers some
additional features, such as overexpansion
and internal EGR, which add valuable grams
to the total CO 2 reduction potential. The actual
Elevated side-view of
the VCR crankshaft
Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 95
// CASE STUDY // GOMECSYS
CO 2 reduction from this VCR application is
highly dependent on combustion chamber
development. Going from the standard CR
to an increased CR of 14:1 or even 16:1, a
new optimized piston crown design is needed
to keep combustion efficiency at the highest
possible level. In most engine applications
this full variable VCR crankshaft will achieve
a CO 2 reduction of 5-8% in the WLTC.
Gear forces of the system are relatively low
at full load because the eccentricity is in line
with the conrod at peak combustion pressure.
It’s more in the mid-level torque range that the
gears are used at their max, but there is always
the possibility to go to the minimum CR point
to minimize the gear load.
Gomecsys is working on VCR projects with
several OEMs and has partnered with MITEC
Automotive AG as gear supplier for prototype
and mass production.
 // CASE STUDY // FRUGAL ENGINES

Novel engine cycle

IN A NEW ENGINE DESIGN, THE SHAPE OF THE CAMS CONTROL THE EX ACT PISTON MOTION, THUS
ENABLING OPTIMIZED UPSTROKE, DOWNSTROKE AND PISTON DWELL AT TDC OR BDC OF THE PISTON

The cheap price of gas has distracted a large 1

portion of the consumer automotive segment.
Not very long ago, when the price of fuel
approached twice the cost of fuel today, these
same consumers were very focused on the
operating efficiency of the engines in their
vehicles. At the dealership, sales were won or
lost based on the mpg of a particular vehicle.
Today, creature comfort, interior space and
electronic gizmos seem to drive the decision-
making process on the showroom floor.
Automotive manufacturers know that
inexpensive gas is not a forever perk, and that
their customers will be demanding high mpg
vehicles without sacrificing size or amenities.
Additionally, hybrid vehicles, which utilize a
combustion engine, further secure the future need
for high-efficiency engines. This is why research
has continued at a rapid pace behind the scenes
to increase the efficiency of the next generation
of internal combustion engines.
For an insight into the nuts and bolts of engine
efficiency, Jeff Bonner (pictured opposite) of Frugal
Engines in Naples, Florida, explains, “Minimizing
fuel consumption, increasing power output and
decreasing emission levels, without compromising
driveability or reliability, has been an obtainable
goal for automotive companies in terms of engine
efficiency. Additionally, the induction, ignition and
fuel delivery systems of current-day engines are
1. Figure 1 and 2: The layout of the crankshaft-
truly state of the art.” engine efficiency issue, we need to look at how driven IC engine. The pressure generated from
In retrospect, the question is: how can an power is produced and measured.” the combustion process pushes against the
piston crown and creates a force ‘F’ along the
automotive engine be ‘state of the art’ but yet only Bonner provides more details by analysis of
connecting rod. This force acts on the crankshaft
be 30% efficient? Realizing that a heat engine can the heart of the IC engine, specifically the piston, and creates a spinning motion, the magnitude
never be 100% efficient, surely the industry can connecting rod and crankshaft arrangement. of which is determined by the moment arm ‘D’
strive for better percentages? Figure 1 shows the basic layout of today’s
Bonner continues, “Getting the optimum air/ crankshaft-driven internal combustion engine. the piston is at maximum value would occur
fuel mixture into the engine and igniting it at The pressure generated from the combustion simultaneously, allowing the maximum torque
the correct time is just part of the equation. The process pushes against the piston crown and to be generated because the force of the piston is
resulting pressure from this expansion pushing creates a force ‘F’ along the connecting rod. pushing on the crank throw at the optimum time.
against the piston must be converted to rotary This force acts on the crankshaft and creates Unfortunately, just the opposite occurs. The
motion to create useful work. This is where the a spinning motion, the magnitude of which is chart shown in Figure 2 displays the combustion
dysfunctional relationship between the combustion determined by the moment arm, ‘D’. chamber pressure from a running test engine and
chamber pressure and available work at the In an ideal world, the maximum crank arm the corresponding ‘D’ value at several crankshaft
crankshaft appears. To better understand this length and the point where the pressure above rotational positions. The details within this chart

96 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

 // CASE STUDY // FRUGAL ENGINES

2. The combustion 3
chamber pressure from a
running test engine and the
corresponding ‘D’ value at
several crankshaft
rotational positions

3. Frugal 5 Cycle engine

uses a pair of conjugate
cams and a rocking
follower to replace
the crankshaft

2 Data from a crankshaft-based engine

show the ‘high pressure/small D value’ early in

the cycle and the ‘low pressure/large D value’ later
in the cycle. Today’s internal combustion engines
suffer from low efficiency because the combustion
pressure above the piston and the corresponding
moment arm are out of sync. It’s basically a
mechanical energy conversion problem, the
result of which is very compromised power output
and thus low overall operating efficiency.
Laws of physics dictate the nature of the
pressure change above the piston so that
the only variable there is to work
with is the moment arm ‘D’. For a
given stroke, the moment arm in
a traditional crankshaft-based
engine can only be changed
by altering the length of the
connecting rod. A shortened
connecting rod will increase,
to a small degree, the D
value in the area of TDC, but
also increase the side load
between the piston and cylinder
wall – an undesirable result. Aside
from this increased friction at the
cylinder wall, any gains made on the power stroke
by shortening the connecting rod are offset by
losses on the compression stroke. The bottom line
is that the crankshaft, which is employed in every
piston-driven engine in the world, is an outdated
piece of hardware that cannot meet the efficiency
demands of today’s engines.
Bonner offers his solution to the efficiency
problem by describing the workings of his new
Frugal 5 Cycle engine.
The Frugal 5 Cycle engine design shown in
Figure 3 employs a pair of conjugate cams and
a rocking follower to replace the crankshaft. The
D value in a cam-style engine is not
controlled by the length of the
connecting rod but rather by the
pressure angle between the
cam and follower. This fact
allows for a large value of
D in the early part of the
power stroke where cylinder
pressure is the highest. The
combination of high cylinder
pressure and a large D value
produces more engine torque.
Conversely, a small pressure angle
in the final 60º of the compression
stroke reduces the amount of energy required to
complete this cycle. The energy that is conserved
on the compression stroke further increases
the efficiency of the engine. This asymmetrical
capability is unique to cam-style engines as
compared with the symmetrical capability of
crankshaft-based engines.
The five cycles of the Frugal 5 Cycle engine
are: intake, compression, combustion, power and
exhaust. The third cycle, combustion, is designated
as a separate event because of the engine’s
unique ability to stop the piston at the end of the
compression stroke and dwell the piston long
enough for the mixture to completely burn.
Technically, this action is called true constant
volume combustion and it’s the first time in
history that a piston-driven IC engine has this
ability as well as the direct results of higher
cylinder pressure and lower emissions. The net
result of the Frugal 5 Cycle, cam-style engine is
an increase in operating efficiency via increased
torque output due to higher cylinder pressure
and increased moment arm on the power stroke.
Additionally, a reduction in parasitic losses
on the compression stroke, along with lower
emissions from true constant volume combustion,
contribute to making this the most fuel-efficient
engine design known to date.
According to Frugal Engines, it’s time to take a
leap from 19th to 21st century technology and develop
systems that meet all consumer needs including
increased performance alongside efficiency.

Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 97

 // CASE STUDY // NEXCEL

Oil management
A NEXT-GENERATION ACTIVE OIL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM SUITABLE FOR USE WITH WET SUMP ENGINES
PROVIDES FASTER WARM-UP, A REDUCTION IN CO 2 EMISSIONS AND CONSISTENT OIL SPECIFICATION

A new, Phase 2 version of the Nexcel active

oil management system has been developed
by Castrol, a BP subsidiary. Integrating a
wet sump capability alongside developments
in performance, materials and packaging,
the Phase 2 system is ready to help vehicle
manufacturers accelerate warm-up times,
reduce CO 2 emissions, simplify servicing
and improve sustainability.
Nexcel is a self-contained, sealed cell filled
with the correct grade of oil and integrating
the correct specification of filter. Designed for
flexible installation anywhere in the engine
bay via a docking station, it is managed
by a dedicated electronic control unit that
communicates with the vehicle via the standard
databus. An electric pump controls the flow
of oil between the engine sump and the remote
cell, and an oil analysis capability can be For engineering
integrated in the system. development, Nexcel
The system was initially validated with Aston has integrated the
system with a variety
Martin in a dry sump application. The Phase of vehicle types
2 system can also be incorporated into a wet
sump system, with two integration options.
For optimum results, a new sump of smaller cars, around 20% of the fuel energy is lost in additional engine downsizing and friction
capacity is used, with the oil concentrated warming up the metal parts, coolant and oil. reduction. Highly downsized engines place
around the oil pump’s pick-up tube. The system Every liter of oil removed has a heat capacity considerable stress on the lubricant, yet oil
may also be integrated where the vehicle equivalent to around 2kg of aluminum or 4kg is the only major engineering component
manufacturer elects to carry over an existing of cast iron, so the ability to remove more than over which the engine designer has no
sump, for example via the drain plug tap. 2.0 liters of oil from a modern, highly boosted control after the vehicle leaves the factory.
Service access is entirely from above, engine will, during most operating conditions, The sealed nature of the Nexcel system –
releasing packaging volume protected for bring substantial improvements in emissions which requires an electronic ‘handshake’ when
a traditional filter and the space required reduction and fuel consumption, not just for a new cell is fitted – ensures the engine always
to remove it during servicing. “Space around the WLTP, but also for the majority of real- receives the correct oil, allowing the engine
the block and under the engine is in increasing world journeys. designer to accept more demanding loads and
demand,” says Steve Goodier, program director. Accelerating engine warm-up will reduce temperatures to further increase efficiency.
“With Nexcel, that volume is now available for friction more quickly and increase combustion Containing the oil within a sealed cell also
other components or can be managed to reduce efficiency. Faster warm-up also provides makes recycling of used oil much more practical
overall engine height, allowing improvements in cabin warmth more quickly, helping to solve because it eliminates contamination by other
aerodynamics, styling flexibility and pedestrian one of the growing challenges of some modern fluids during the drain and recovery operation at
impact protection.” vehicle powertrains. garages. Nexcel units can remain sealed up to the
The Nexcel system reduces warm-up time Another advantage for modern, point of re-refining, enabling the majority of the
by managing the oil volume in the sump. In highly boosted engines is that the Nexcel oil to be returned to its original specification. For
the new WLTP (Worldwide harmonized Light system enables further optimization of oil garages, the benefits also include the elimination
Vehicles Test Procedure) cycle for passenger specifications, releasing opportunities for of spills and greatly simplified oil recovery.

98 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

 PRODUCTS & SERVICES

Soot prediction in CFD

Tracking soot evolution in reactions, for both diesel and ANSYS Forte
diesel and GDI engines using GDI engine simulation. allows for the
tracking and
CFD simulations can help to These simulation methods
prediction of
provide valuable insights for were used for the IFPEN engine soot within
engine design. (originally described by Naik an IC engine
ANSYS Forte, a specialized et al, SAE Technical Paper
CFD solver for IC engines, includes 2014-01-1135, 2014 and Lacour
a particle tracking capability et al Congrès Francophone
based on the method of moments, de Techniques Laser, CFTL,
which enables the calculation Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, France,
of spatially resolved soot volume 2010). In the accompanying figure,
fraction, number density and soot number density isosurface
particle diameter. ANSYS tools of 1,011 particles/cm 3 is plotted for
also model multicomponent various crank angles, showing that
surrogates for gasoline and diesel soot is mainly formed in the engine
fuels to capture fuel effects. For bowl, and the effect of swirl is seen
the gas-phase chemistry of the in the soot structure.
surrogates, chemistry mechanisms In conclusion, by including
with several hundred species that fundamental aspects such as as pyrene, soot-surface chemistry
include soot precursors as large as multicomponent fuel surrogates, mechanisms and particle-tracking
pyrene are included. Soot-surface chemistry mechanisms with models, simulations predict soot
chemistry mechanisms are used several hundred species that trends well over the wide range
to model gas-particle surface include soot precursors as large of conditions.

INDEX TO ADVERTISERS
Ansys Inc........................................................................... 15
Autocraft Drivetrain Solutions Ltd...................................17
AVL List GmbH...................................... Inside Front Cover
Borgwarner GmbH............................................................ 9
BP Nexcel...................................................................59, 61
BRP-Powertrain GmbH & Co KG.................................. 55
Busch Clean Air SA.......................................................... 19
Contitech GmbH.................................................................3
CTS Corporation............................................................... 13
Electric & Hybrid Vehicle
Technology Expo North America 2017........................65
EMAG GmbH & Co KG ................... Inside Back Cover
Engine Expo 2017................................................21, 23, 24
Engine Technology International
Reader Inquiry Service................................................... 55
ESTECO Spa..................................................................... 18
Federal Mogul................................... Outside Back Cover
Kirpart AS.....................................................................
Phillips Screw Co.............................................................36
Ricardo UK......................................................................... 11
Rotor Clip Company Inc.................................................. 42
SAE International............................................................63
SFC Koenig.......................................................................36
Siemens Industry Software NV..................................... 34
SimuQuest, Inc................................................................ 56
45 Sonceboz SA ................................................................ 56

Dana Corporation.............................................................. 31 KSPG AG....................................................................... 49 Stresstech Oy ............................................................... 45

Electric & Hybrid Vehicle Technology Mahindra Powerol........................................................... 39 Valcon Design A/S..........................................................63
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Engine Technology International.com // January 2017 // 99

 LAST WORD
BY DEAN SLAVNICH

Infiniti’s VC-Turbo offers any

compression ratio between 8:1
and 14:1 while displacement
changes from 1,997cc to 1,970cc

This really was supposed to be ‘just-can’t-be-done-

technology’. Just ask Lotus Engineering, Saab and the
many other not-so-public engineering projects and teams that
tried to crack variable compression design. But, to the credit
of Infiniti, well Nissan (but it’s the halo brand that gets the
shiny gold star here) the holy grail of IC engine development
has been achieved.
There are many things to say about Infiniti’s VC-T engine,
and all your techy itches should have been scratched at the
start of this issue, but here’s the thing: powertrain engineering
never ceases to amaze me. Saying something can’t be done
seems to drive on these wonderfully clever people even more.
“It can’t be done just means it can’t be done for now,” said Alain
Raposo, director of engineering at Renault-Nissan Alliance,
in an exclusive interview with ETi at the Paris Motor Show.

“Here’s the thing: aside from getting

a big advantage over rival brands,
Infiniti/Nissan just might have saved
the gasoline engine as we know it”
And it just so happens that after years of painstaking
research and development – sometimes an approach that
meant it was one step forward, two back – Infiniti/Nissan
has got there first. My oh my, what the fertile soils of this
promised land could now reap.
VC-T has a variable compression ratio of 8:1 to 14:1.
Yes, you read that right: 8:1 to 14:1! How bloody amazing
is that? I mean, seriously, I thought I’d never see the day
this technology would jump out from some engineer’s
head, off a prototype mounted on a dyno, and be production
ready. Because that’s exactly what Infiniti/Nissan has
done. This technology, this engine, this brilliant engineering
breakthrough is hitting showrooms in 2018!
By cracking the code, the 2.0 VC-T has an arsenal that
should get Infiniti’s rivals really worried. Standout claims
include power that’s equivalent to much larger six-cylinder
designs, even up to 3 liters in capacity; torque outputs that
are more commonly seen on performance diesel offerings;
benchmark gasoline four-cylinder efficiency; and a smooth,
quiet, refined operating mode. There’s much, much more,
but that’s just the start.
I have serious respect for Infiniti/Nissan for doing this
and not just delivering this breakthrough but persevering
with what could have simply been a pipe dream; keeping
with it when, perhaps, it would have been easier to step
away from the study.
This actually takes me back to what I said earlier. There are
many things to say about project VC-T, much of which you’ve
probably heard or read, but here’s the thing: aside from getting
a big advantage over rival brands, Infiniti/Nissan just might
have saved the gasoline engine as we know it. And all this
during a time when, we’re told, car makers’ main powertrain
efforts should be wholly concentrated on electrification, be that
battery, e-motor, fuel cell, or all three. Why waste time, effort
and resources cracking variable compression tech when the
IC engine is dead?
But the IC engine isn’t dead, of course, and Infiniti/Nissan
now has a huge ace card in its engineering portfolio. This
is one of those key moments – like when the industry got
turbocharging right, applied direct injection, added particulate
filters, and even refined cylinder on demand. This really is a
historic, watershed moment for the IC engine. And for all its
efforts and courage, I really hope Infiniti/Nissan gets the rest
right, to use the technology to its fullest and enjoy the fruits
of its hard labor.

100 // January 2017 // Engine Technology International.com

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