PREFACE

Praise is to Allah SWT, Lord of the

worlds. Only by the grace and blessing could
the authors finish this book. This book is about
a module of Research in Language Teaching
that is intended to fulfill the final assignment
of Research in Language Teaching lesson that
taught by Mrs. Episiasi, M.Pd. This book will
provide the readers of basic information
needed to understand the research process,
from idea formulation through data analysis
and interpretation. Enable the readers to use
this knowledge to design their own research
investigation on a topic of personal interest,
and also to increase the readers
understanding about the literature of
educational research. The writers expect this
book will be useful and give a good
contribution in education especially for the
readers who want to conduct the research,
and also for the readers who need more
references sources. TABEL OF CONTENT
Lubuklinggau, June , 2016
Authors
PREFACE ......................................................... i
TABLE OF CONTENT ..................................... iii
A LIST OF TABELS ..........................................vi
SYLLABUS ......................................................vii

CHAPTER I VARIABLE
1. Definition of Variable ............................... 1

ii
 2. Types of Variables .................................... 3
3. Hypothesis................................................ 7
4. Advantage and Disadvantage of
Hypothesis.............................................. 11
CHAPTER II SAMPLING
1. Sampling ................................................ 14
2. Population and Samples ......................... 15
3. Random Sampling .................................. 17
4. Cluster Random Sampling ...................... 22
5. Purposive Sample ................................... 25
CHAPTER III EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
1. Definition of Experimental Research ........ 28
2. The Purpose of Experimental Research .... 29
3. The Types of Experimental Research ........ 30
4. Factorial Designs .................................... 36

CHAPTER IV CORELATIONAL RESEARCH

1. Correlational Research ........................... 40
2. The Purpose of Correlational Research .... 41
3. Basic Steps in Correlational Research ...... 47
CHAPTER V SURRVEY RESEARCH
1. Describe the Meaning of Survey Research 53
2. Describe Three Types of Survey ............... 54
3. Describe the Purpose of Survey Research 56
4. Explain the Steps in Survey Research ....... 58
CHAPTER VI QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. The Meaning of Qualitative ................... 68
2. General Characteristics of Qualitative
Research ................................................ 69
3. The Major Characteristics of Qualitative
Research ................................................ 74

iii
 4. Steps in Qualitative Research .................. 80
CHAPTER VII ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
1. Definition of Ethnographic Research ....... 86
2. The Characteristic of Ethnographic
Research ................................................ 87
3. Sampling in Qualitative Research ........... 90
4. Types of Purposive Sampling ................... 90

CHAPTER VIII HISTORICAL RESEARCH

1. Definition of Historical Research ............. 97
2. The Purpose of Historical Research.......... 99
3. The Kinds of Questions Are Pursued
Through ................................................. 99
CHAPTER IX ACTION RESEARCH
1. The Definition of Action Research ......... 104
2. The Purpose of Action Research ............ 105
3. The Steps Involved in Action Research ... 106
4. The Advantages of Action Research....... 120
CHAPTER X THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT (R&D)
1. Definition of Educational Research and
Development ........................................ 118
2. The Purpose of Educational Research and
Development ........................................ 119
3. The Process of Research and
Development ....120

REFERENCES ............................................... 123

ABOUT THE AUTHORS ............................... 124

iv
 LIST OF TABEL

Table 1 The Major Characteristics of

Qualitative Research ....................... 74

v
 THE SYLLABUS OF RESEARCH IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

Base Classroom
Week indicators Materials Assessment
Competences Strategy
1 Variables Describe what is Variable is a key Discussion The score
meant by the term term in research. Presentati or grade
variable Variable is a on for the
Explain types of concept-a noun that Question subject will
variables stands for variation and determined
Hypothesis within a class of answer on the
Advantages and objects, such as bases of
disadvantages of chair, gender, eye scores
stating research color, achievement, achieved
questions as motivation, or by the
hypotheses running speed. Even students:
spunk, style, and lust In the
for life are variable. presentati
Types of variables on
(continuous In the
variables, discrete precipitati
on of
vi
 variables. discussion
Independent and
dependent variables,
confounding
variables,
comprehension
questions).
Independent and
dependent variables
are used in causal
designs which
measure the effect of
independent
variables to the
dependent variables,
like the effect of sex
(independent
variable) to students
language
achievement at
school (dependent
vii
 variable).
Explain what a
hypothesis is and
formulate two
hypotheses that
might be
investigated in
education.
Name two research
questions as
hypotheses.
2 Sampling Describe the A sample in a Discussion The score
meaning of sampling research study is the Presentati or grade
Distinguish between group on which on for the
a sample and a information Question subject will
population The larger group to and determined
Explain what us which one hopes to answer on the
meant by random apply the results is bases of
sampling, and called the population scores
describe briefly three A simple random achieved

viii
 ways of obtaining a sample is one which by the
random sample each and every students:
Describe random member of the In the
sampling population has an present
Describe stratified equal and ation
random sampling independent chance In the
Describe clustered of being selected particip
random sampling Stratified random ation of
Describe purposive sampling is a process discussi
sampling in which certain on
subgroups, or strata,
are selected for the
sample in the same
proportion as they
exist in the
population
Cluster sampling
technique involves
the random selection
of groups that
already exists
ix
 Purposive sampling
is different from
convenience
sampling in that
researchers do not
simply study whoever
is available but
rather use their
judgment to select a
sample that they
believe, based on
prior information,
will provide the data
they need.

3 Experimental Describe Experimental Discussion The score

Research Experimental research manipulates Presentati or grade
Research in and controls the on for the
Language Learning cause variable and Question subject will
Describe the purpose proceeds to observe and determined
the change in the on the
x
 of experimental effect variable answer bases of
research Types of scores
Describe types of experimental achieved
experimental research (true by the
research experimental, quasi- students :
experimental, and In the
pre-experimental) present
Factorial designs ation
Students
participat
ion in
class
4 Correlational Describe the Correlational Discusssio The score
research meaning of research is one of n ot grade
correlational the descriptive Presentati for the
research reserach designs on subject will
Describe the purpose used to measure the Question determined
of correlation correlation between and on the
research two or more answer bases of
Basic Steps in continous variables. scores
Correlationals achieved
xi
 Correlational research designs are by the
Research used to measure the students :
relationship between In the
two or more presentati
continous variables, on
like IQ scores and In the
their academic participati
achievement, on of
students reading discussion
skill, sell esteem,
academic
achievement, and
language skill.
Basic steps:
1. Determination of
the Problem
2. Determination of
Subjects
3. Data Collection
4. Data Analysis
5 Survey Describe the Researchers are Discussion The score
xii
Research meaning of survey often interested in Presentati or grade
research the opinions of a on for the
Describe three type large group of Question subject will
of survey research people about a and determined
conducted in particular topic or answer on the
educational research issue. They ask a base of
Describe the purpose number of questions, scores
of survey research all related to the achieved
Explain the steps in issue, to find answer. by the
survey research Three type of survey students:
research are In the
conducted in present
educational research ation
(cross-sectional lass
surveys, longitudinal particip
survey) ation
The steps in survey
research (defining
the problem,
identifying the target
population, choosing
xiii
 the mood of data
collection, selecting
the sample,
preparing the
instrument, training
interviewers, using
interviewer to
measure ability)

6 Qualitative Explain the meaning Qualitative research Discussion The score

Research of qualitative is a process of s of grade
Describe general inquiry aimed at Presentati for the
characteristics of understanding on subject will
qualitative research human behavior by Question determined
Describe the Major building complex. and on the
Characteristics of Holistic picture of the answer bases of
Qualitative social and cultural scores
Research setting in which such achieved
Explain the steps in behavior occurs. by the
Qualitative It does so by students :
analyzing words In the
xiv
Research rather than numbers. present
And by reporting the ation
detailed views of the Class
people who have particip
been studied. ation
Five general
characteristics that
most qualitative
studies have in
common :
1. The natural
setting is the
direct source
data, and the
research is the
key instrument in
qualitative
research
2. Qualitative data
are collected in
the form of words
xv
 or picture rather
than numbers.
3. qualitative
researcher are
concerned with
process as well as
product
4. Qualitative
researchers tend
to analyze their
data inductively.
5. How people make
sense out of their
lives is a major
concern to
qualitative
researchers.
7 Ethnographic Explain what is Ethnographic Discussion The score
Research meant by the term of research focuses on Presentati or grade
ethnographic the study of culture on for the
research Researcher use subject will
xvi
 Describe the purposive sample- Question determined
characteristic of they select a sample and on the
ethnographic the feel will yield answer bases of
research the best scores
Describe some understanding of achieved
guidelines of what they are by the
ethnographic studying students:
research and Nine types of In the
interview purposive sampling present
Describe sampling in (a typical sample, a ation
qualitative research critical sample, a Chapter
Describe types of homogeneous Report
purposive sampling sample, an extreme Class
case sample, a Participa
theoretical sample, tion
an opportunistic
sample, a
confirming
sampling, a
maximal variation
sample, a snowball
xvii
 sample)
8 Historical Describe the Historical research Discussion The score
Research meaning of historical concentrates Presentati or grade
research exclusively on the on for the
Describe the purpose past Question subject will
of historical research The purposes of and determined
Explain kinds of historical research: answer on the
questions are 1. To make people bases of
pursued through aware of what scores
historical research has happened in achieved
the past so they by the
may learn from students:
past failures and In the
successes. present
2. To learn how ation
things were done Chapter
in the past to see Report
if they might be Class
applicable to Participatio
present-day n
problems and
xviii
 concerns.
3. To assist in
prediction
4. To test
hypotheses
concerning
relationship or
trends. Many
inexperienced
researcher tend
to think of
historical
research as
purely descriptive
in nature.
5. To understand
present
educational
practices and
policies more
fully.
xix
 How were students
educated in the
south during the
Civil War?
9 Action Explain the term Action research is Discussio the score
research action research conducted by one or n of grade
Explain the purpose more individuals or Presentat for the
of the research groups for the ion subject
Describe the four purpose of solving a Question determine
steps involved in problem or and d on the
action research obtaining answer bases of
Describe some of information in order summary scores
the advantages of to inform local achieved
action research practice by the
The four steps students:
involved in action In the
research (1) present
identifying the ation
research problem or In
question, (2) writing
the
xx
 obtaining the summa
necessary ry of
information to each
answer the topic,
question, (3) Class
analyzing and particip
interpreting the ation
information that has of
been gathered, and discussi
(4) developing a on
plan of action
Some of the
advantages of
action research:
1. It can be done by
almost any
professional, in
any type of
school, at any
grade level, to
investigate just
xxi
 about any kind
of problem.
2. Action research
can improve
educational
practice
3. When teacher or
other
professional
design and carry
out their own
action research
4. Action research
can help
teachers identify
problem and
issues
systematically
5. Action research
can build up a
small community
xxii
 of research-
oriented
individuals within
the school it self
10 Research and Describe the Educational Discussio The score
Development educational research & n or grade
(R&D) research and development is a Presentat for the
development research design ion subject
Explain the process aimed at Write a will
of educational developing summary determine
research and educational of each d on the
development products topic bases of
The process of Question scores
educational and achieved
Research and answer by
Development: students:
1. Classroom In the
problem related present
to instructional ation.
supporting Class
documents particip
xxiii
2. Theories, ation
principle, or
criteria of
instructional
3. The selected
instructional
documents or
assessment
instrument
4. The product is
reviewed closely
5. The product is
validated to
related expert
6. The instructional
product is tried
out
7. The final product
is published

xxiv
xxv
 CHAPTER I

VARIABLE

Objectives
Studying this chapter should enable you to:

1. Describe what is meant by the term variable

2. Explain types of variables
VARIABLE 3. Hypothesis
4. Advantages and disadvantages of stating
A. What is a Variable?research questions as hypotheses
A variable is a concepta noun that
stands for variation within a class of objects,
such as chair, gender, eye color,
achievement, motivation, or running speed.
Even spunk, style, and lust for life are
variables (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2009: 38).
According to Latief (2014: 10), variable is a
key term in research. Variable is defined as
characteristics that tend to differ from
individual to individual, though any two or
more individuals may have the same variable
trait or measure. Variable is a characteristic,
number, or quantity that increases or
decreases over time, or takes different values
in different situations. Suppose a researcher
is interested in studying the effects of
reinforcement on student achievement. The
researcher systematically divides a large
group of students, all of whom are ninth-
graders, into three smaller subgroups. She
then trains the teachers of these subgroups
to reinforce their students in different ways
(one gives verbal praise, the second gives
monetary rewards, the third gives extra
points) for various tasks the students
perform.
In this study, reinforcement would be
a variable (it contains three variations), while
the grade level of the students would be a
constant. Notice that it is easier to see what

1
some of these concepts stand for than others.
The concept of chair, for example, stands for
the many different objects that we sit on that
possess legs, a seat, and a back.
Furthermore, different observers
would probably agree as to how particular
chairs differ. It is not so easy, however, to
see what a concept like motivation stands
for, or to agree on what it means. The
researchers must be specific here they
must define motivation as clearly as possible.
They must do this so that it can be measured
or manipulated.

B. Types of Variable

Based on Latief (2014: 11), Variable

can be identified based on the characteristic
into continuous or secrete variables, or from
their roles in research into dependent,
independent, or confounding variables.

1. Continuous Variable
Continuous variables can be used in
correlation research, like the correlation
between student reading skill and their
writing skill. Continuous variables cannot be
use in casual design to measure, for

2
example, the effect of students reading skill
to their writing skill.
2. Discrete Variables

Variables are classified as discrete if

they are naturally categorical, like sex or
handedness which gives the choice of either
male of female, right handed or left handed
(Charles, C.M. 1995: 29). The male group
consist of members are all male, and the
female group consist of members which are
all female. A Variable cannot be discrete
and continuous at the same time. Discrete
variables can be used in casual designs to
measure the effect of, for example, sex to
students achievement.

3. Independent and Dependent Variables

An independent variable is exactly what it
sounds like. It is a variable that stands alone
and isn't changed by the other variables you
are trying to measure.
For example, someone's age might be
an independent variable. Other factors (such
as what they eat, how much they go to
school, how much television they watch)
aren't going to change a person's age.
In fact, when you are looking for some
kind of relationship between variables you

3
are trying to see if the independent variable
causes some kind of change in the other
variables, or dependent variables.
Independent and dependent variables
are used in casual designs which measure
the effect of independent variables to the
dependent variables, like the effect of sex
(independent variable) to students language
achievement at school (dependent variable).
4. Confounding Variables

Confounding refers to interfering

unexpectedly. Variables are considered
confounding if their presence unexpectedly
interfere research outcomes, and therefore
needs t be controlled.

5. Comprehension Questions
Answer the questions and explain
your answer or do what is required
1) Can male be used as a variable in
research?
2) Is sex measurable?
3) Give an example of measurable
variables?
4) What is the difference between
dependent and independent variables?

4
5) When does a variable become
confounding variable?

5
C. Hypothesis

A hypothesis is, simply put, a

prediction of the possible outcomes of a
study (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2009: 45). A
hypothesis is merely a proposition that is
presented or put forward by a scientist to
explain a natural phenomenon. A hypothesis
is a suggested solution for an unexplained
occurrence that does not fit into current
accepted scientific theory. The basic idea of a
hypothesis is that there is no pre-determined
outcome. For a hypothesis to be termed a
scientific hypothesis, it has to be something
that can be supported or refuted through
carefully crafted experimentation or
observation.
The research hypothesis is a paring
down of the problem into something testable
and falsifiable. In the aforementioned
example, a researcher might speculate that
the decline in the fish stocks is due to
prolonged over fishing. Scientists must
generate a realistic and testable hypothesis
around which they can build the experiment.

7
 This might be a question, a statement
or an If/Or statement. Some examples
could be:

Is over-fishing causing a decline in the

stocks of Cod in the North Atlantic?
Over-fishing affects the stocks of cod.
If over-fishing is causing a decline in the
numbers of Cod, reducing the amount of
trawlers will increase cod stocks.
These are all acceptable statements
and they all give the researcher a focus for
constructing a research experiment. Science
tends to formalize things and use the If
statement, measuring the effect that
manipulating one variable has upon another,
but the other forms are perfectly acceptable.
An ideal research hypothesis should contain
a prediction, which is why the more formal
ones are favored.
A hypothesis must be testable, but
must also be falsifiable for its acceptance as
true science. A scientist who becomes fixated
on proving a research hypothesis loses their
impartiality and credibility. Statistical tests
often uncover trends, but rarely give a clear-
cut answer, with other factors often affecting

8
the outcome and influencing the results.
Whilst gut instinct and logic tells us that fish
stocks are affected by over fishing, it is not
necessarily true and the researcher must
consider that outcome. Perhaps
environmental factors or pollution are causal
effects influencing fish stocks.

A hypothesis must be testable, taking into

account current knowledge and techniques,
and be realistic. If the researcher does not
have a multi-million dollar budget then there
is no point in generating complicated
hypotheses. A hypothesis must be verifiable
by statistical and analytical means, to allow a
verification or falsification. In fact, a
hypothesis is never proved, and it is better
practice to use the terms supported or
verified. This means that the research
showed that the evidence supported
botheration of trial and error will be saved
the hypothesis and further research is built
upon that.
A key function in this step in the
scientific method is deriving predictions from
the hypotheses about the results of future
experiments, and then performing those

9
experiments to see whether they support the
predictions.

D. Advantages and Disadvantages of

Hypotheses
1. Advantages of hypotheses:
1) It is with the help of hypothesis, that it
becomes easy to decide as to what type
of data is to be collected and what type of
data is simply to be ignored.
2) Hypothesis makes it clear as what is to be
accepted, proved or disproved and that
what is the main focus of study.
3) It helps the investigator in knowing the
direction in which he is to move. Without
hypothesis it will be just duping in the
dark and not moving in the right
direction.
4) A clear idea about hypothesis means
saving of time money and energy which
otherwise will be wasted,
5) It helps in concentrating only on relevant
factors and dropping irrelevant ones.
Many irrelevant factors which otherwise
get into the study can easily be ignored.

10
6) A properly formulate hypothesis is always
essential for drawing proper and reason-
able conclusions.
2. Disadvantages of hypotheses
However a drawback of research is
that as a researcher you have no control over
how the data was collected and what type of
controls for extraneous variables were put in
place.

11
 CHAPTER II

SAMPLING

Objectives
Studying this chapter should enable you to:
1. Describe the meaning of sampling
2. Distinguish between a sample and a
population
3. Explain what us meant by random sampling,
and describe briefly three ways of obtaining a
random sample
SAMPLING 4. Describe random sampling
5. Describe stratified random sampling
A. The DefinitionDescribe
6. clustered random sampling
of Sampling
7. Describe purposive sampling
Most people, we think, base their
conclusions about a group of people
(students, Republicans, football players,

13
actors, and so on) on the experiences they
have with a fairly small number, or sample,
of individual members.
Sometimes such conclusions are an
accurate representation of how the larger
group of people acts or what they believe,
but often they are not. It all depends on how
representative (i.e., how similar) the sample
is of the larger group.
One of the most important steps in the
research process is the selection of the
sample of individuals who. Will participate
(be observed or questioned). Sampling refers
to the process of selecting these individuals
(Fraenkel and Wallen, 2009: 90).
Sampling is the process of selecting
units (e.g., people, organizations) from a
population of interest so that by studying the
sample we may fairly generalize our results
back to the population from which they were
chosen. Let's begin by covering some of the
key terms in sampling like "population" and
"sampling frame." Then, because some types
of sampling rely upon quantitative models,
we'll talk about some of the statistical terms
used in sampling. Finally, we'll discuss the
major distinction between probability and

14
Nonprobability sampling methods and work
through the major types in each.

B. Populations and Samples

The study of statistics revolves around
the study of data sets. This lesson describes
two important types of data sets -
populations and samples.
1. Population vs. Sample
The main difference between a
population and sample has to do with how
observations are assigned to the data set.
1) A population includes all of the elements
from a set of data.
2) A sample consists of one or more
observations from the population.

Depending on the sampling method, a

sample can have fewer observations than the
population, the same number of
observations, or more observations.

More than one sample can be derived

from the same population. Other differences
have to do with nomenclature, notation, and
computations. For example;
A measurable characteristic of a
population, such as a mean or standard

15
 deviation, is called a parameter; but a
measurable characteristic of a sample is
called a statistic.
We will see in future lessons that the
mean of a population is denoted by the
symbol ; but the mean of a sample is
denoted by the symbol x.
We will also learn in future lessons that
the formula for the standard deviation of
a population is different from the formula
for the standard deviation of a sample.

C. Random Sampling
A sampling method in which all
members of a group (population or universe)
have an equal and independent chance of
being selected.
1. Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling is a random
sampling technique which is frequently
chosen by researchers for its simplicity and its
periodic quality.
In systematic random sampling, the
researcher first randomly picks the first item
or subject from the population. Then, the
researcher will select each n'th subject from
the list.The procedure involved in systematic
random sampling is very easy and can be

16
done manually. The results are
representative of the population unless
certain characteristics of the population are
repeated for every n'th individual, which is
highly unlikely.
The process of obtaining the
systematic sample is much like an arithmetic
progression.
1) Starting number: The researcher selects
an integer that must be less than the total
number of individuals in the population.
This integer will correspond to the first
subject.
2) Interval: The researcher picks another
integer which will serve as the constant
difference between any two consecutive
numbers in the progression.
3) The integer is typically selected so that the
researcher obtains the correct sample
size.
For example, the researcher has a
population total of 100 individuals and need
12 subjects. He first picks his starting
number, 5. Then the researcher picks his
interval, 8. The members of his sample will
be individuals 5, 13, 21, 29, 37, 45, 53, 61,
69, 77, 85, 93.

17
 Other researchers use a modified
systematic random sampling technique
wherein they first identify the needed sample
size. Then, they divide the total number of
the population with the sample size to obtain
the sampling fraction. The sampling fraction
is then used as the constant difference
between subjects.
2. Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified random sampling is a
method of sampling that involves the division
of a population into smaller groups known as
strata. In stratified random sampling, the
strata are formed based on members' shared
attributes or characteristics. A random
sample from each stratum is taken in a
number proportional to the stratum's size
when compared to the population. These
subsets of the strata are then pooled to form
a random sample.
Use Stratified Random Sampling
1) Stratified random sampling is used when
the researcher wants to highlight a
specific subgroup within the population.
This technique is useful in such researches
because it ensures the presence of the
key subgroup within the sample.

18
2) Researchers also employ stratified
random sampling when they want to
observe existing relationships between
two or more subgroups. With a simple
random sampling technique, the
researcher is not sure whether the
subgroups that he wants to observe are
represented equally or proportionately
within the sample.
3) With stratified sampling, the researcher
can representatively sample even the
smallest and most inaccessible subgroups
in the population. This allows the
researcher to sample the rare extremes of
the given population.
4) With this technique, you have a higher
statistical precision compared to random
sampling. This is because the variability
within the subgroups is lower compared
to the variations when dealing with the
entire population.
5) Because this technique has high statistical
precision, it also means that it requires a
small sample size which can save a lot of
time, money and effort of the researchers.

D. Cluster Random Sampling

19
 Cluster sampling is a sampling
technique used when "natural" but relatively
heterogeneous groupings are evident in a
statistical population. It is often used in
marketing research. In this technique, the
total population is divided into these groups
(or clusters) and a simple random sample of
the groups is selected. Then the required
information is collected from a simple
random sample of the elements within each
selected group. A subsample of elements
may be selected within each of these groups.
A common motivation for cluster sampling is
to reduce the total number of interviews and
costs given the desired accuracy. Assuming a
fixed sample size, the technique gives more
simple accurate results when most of the
variation in the population is within the
groups, not between them.
Cluster Elements
The population within a cluster should
ideally be as heterogeneous as possible, but
there should be homogeneity between
cluster means. Each cluster should be a
small-scale representation of the total
population. The clusters should be mutually
exclusive and collectively exhaustive.

20
 A random sampling technique is then
used on any relevant clusters to choose
which clusters to include in the study. In
single-stage cluster sampling, all the
elements from each of the selected clusters
are used. In two-stage cluster sampling, a
random sampling technique is applied to the
elements from each of the selected clusters.
The main difference between cluster
sampling and stratified sampling is that in
cluster sampling the cluster is treated as the
sampling unit so analysis is done on a
population of clusters (at least in the first
stage). In stratified sampling, the analysis is
done on elements within strata.
In stratified sampling, a random
sample is drawn from each of the strata,
whereas in cluster sampling only the selected
clusters are studied. The main objective of
cluster sampling is to reduce costs by
increasing sampling efficiency. This contrasts
with stratified sampling where the main
objective is to increase precision.

E. Purposive sample
A purposive sample is a non-
representative subset of some larger

21
population, and is constructed to serve a very
specific need or purpose. A researcher may
have a specific group in mind, such as high
level business executives. It may not be
possible to specify the population -- they
would not all be known, and access will be
difficult. The researcher will attempt to zero
in on sthe target group, interviewing
whoever is available.
Purposive sampling is different from
convenience sampling in that researchers do
not simply study whoever is available but
rather use their judgment to select a simple
that they believe, based on prior information,
will provide the data they need.

22
 CHAPTER III

EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH

Objectives
Studying this chapter should enable you to:

1. Describe Experimental Research in Language

Learning
2. Describe
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH research
the purpose of experimental
3. Describe types of experimental research

A. Definition of Experimental Research

23
 Experimental research measures the
effect of one manipulated and controlled
(independent) variable to another
(dependent) variable. Based on Fraenkel and
Wallen (2009:147), states that experimental
research is one of the most powerful
research methodologies that researchers can
use. Of the many types of research that
might be used, the experiment is the best
way to establish cause-and-effect
relationships among variables.Experimental
research design has a long and respected
history in social science research, and those
researchers working with this design have
developed a rich vocabulary. One example is
the term variable, since identifying and
manipulating variables is important in this
design. In other designs such manipulation is
not desired. Many research articles do not
explicitly identify the design they are using,
therefore, recognizing the terms associated
with specific designs becomes important to
understanding.

B. The Purpose of Experimental

Research

The aim of the experimental research

is to investigate the possible cause-and-
effect relationship by manipulating one
independent variable to influence the other

24
variable(s) in the experimental group, and by
controlling the other relevant variables, and
measuring the effects of the manipulation by
some statistical means. By manipulating the
independent variable, the researcher can
see if the treatment makes a difference on
the subjects. According to Latief (2014: 93),
implies that The purpose of experimental
research is to measure the effect of one
manipulate and controlled (independent)
variable to another (dependent) variable,
like the effect of different methods of
teaching to the students achievement, the
effect of an English training method to
participants English skill.

C. Types of Experimental Research

Some of the types of experimental
designs discussed here include true
experimental, quasi experimental, pre-
experimental or factorial designs (Latief
2012: 94). For purposes of providing
common background for the present
chapter,we have selected four major design
approaches to review. These particular
designs appeared to be the ones
instructional technology researchers would
be most likely to use for experimental studies
or find in the literature.

25
1) True Experimental Research
According to Nunan (2003: 41), states
that true experiment has pre- and post
treatment test, but lacks a control group. The
essential ingredient of a true experimental
design is that subjects are randomly assigned
to treatment groups. As discussed earlier,
random assignment is a powerful technique
for controlling the subject characteristics
threat to internal validity, a major
consideration in educational research
(Fraenkel., & Wallen, 2009: 266).
This true experimental research design
can be used with Pretest-Posttest Control
Group Design or Posttest-only Control
Group Design (Borg W.R. Gall. M.D.
1989:674). The Example Procedure for
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design or
Posttest-only
Control Group Design involves
the following steps:
Define the accessible population of the
research (e.g. all the registered first year
students of state Senior High School One
in Malang)
Randomly select a number of the
members of the population as the sample

26
 (e.g. 100 students out of all the first
Senior High School One in Malang)
Randomly select one half of the members
of the sample and assign them into group
A and group B (e.g. 50 students of group
A and 50 students of group B)
Give a pretest to assess the level of
knowledge or skills of group A and group
B. analyze the results of the pretest to
ensure that the average scores of the two
groups are not significantly different.
Randomly assign one of the groups into
the Experimental group and the other one
into Control Group.
Give the experimental treatment to the
Experimental group and the control
treatment to the Control group.
Give a posttest to assess the results of the
treatments of both groups.
Compute the difference between the
average score of the Experimental group
and the Control group.
2) Quasi Experimental Research
Based on Nunan (2003: 41), implies
that quasi-experiment has both pre- and post
treatment and experimental and control
groups, but no random assignment of

27
subject. Oftentimes in educational studies, it
is neither practical nor feasible to assign
subjects randomly to treatments. Such is
especially likely to occur in school-based
research, where classes are formed at the
start of the year. In educational settings, very
often it is not possible to select the sample
randomly out of all the population students.
The procedure in quasi-experimental
research involves fewer steps than true
experimental research as follows.
Define the accessible population of the
research (e.g. all the registered first year
students of State Senior High School One
in Malang)
Select two classes out of all the existing
classes which are of equivalent level (e.g.
Class 1-C and 1-F of State Senior High
School One in Malang)
Randomly select one of the classes into
experimental group and the other one
into the Control Group (e.g. Class 1-C as
the experimental group and Class 1-F as
the control group)
Give the experimental treatment to the
Experimental group and the control
treatment to Control Group.

28
 Assess the results of the treatments of
both groups.
Compute the difference between the
average score of the Experimental group
and the Control group.
3) Pre-Experimental Research
According to Latief (2014: 96),
sometimes an experimental research is
conducted without control group. Based on
Nunan (2003: 41), said that pre-
experimental may have pre- and post
treatment tests, but lacks a control group.
Experimental group is also known as the
treatment group, the group of participants
with whom the innovation or treatment is
applied. The experimental group is where
change of some sort will be compared with
the performance in the control group.
In this research, the group is given a
pre-test before experimental treatment. After
the treatment is finished, the posttest
administered to see the achievement. The
effectiveness of the instructional treatment is
measured by comparing the average score of
pre-test and the post-test. When it turns out
that the post test over score is significantly
higher than the average score of the pretest,

29
then it is concluded that the instructional
treatment is effective.
E. Factorial Designs
Factorial designs are used in the
educational experiments when the
researchers manipulating an experimental
variable across different sub groups in the
samples, like the effect on different age
groups of the samples, different intelligence
groups of the samples, different sex, etc.
Most real world outcomes are the result of a
number of factors acting in combination, so
factorial design is appropriate to conduct an
experiment involving analysis of the
interaction of a number of variables
relationships.
The procedure in factorial design
research involves several steps as follows.
Students are randomly selected as a
sample from the population.
Members of the sample are selected
randomly and assigned into two groups
One of the groups is randomly assigned
into an experimental group and the other
group into a control group.

30
 The experimental group gets an
experimental treatment and control group
get a control treatment.
The achievement of the students in the
two groups is measured.
The average scores of the two groups are
compared statistically.
If it turns out that the experimental
group achieve significantly higher than
control group, then the average scores of
male experimental group, female
experimental group, high intelligence
experimental group, and moderate
intelligence experimental groups are
compared with the groups of the same
characteristics in the control group.

31
 CHAPTER IV
CORRELATIONAL
RESEARCH

Objectives
Studying this chapter should enable you to:

1. Describe the meaning of correlational

research
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
2. Describe the purpose of correlation research
3. Basic Steps in Correlational Research
A. Definition of Correlational Research
Correlational research is used to
measure the relationship between two or
more variables. According to Latief (2014:

33
111), Correlational research is one of the
descriptive research designs used to measure
the correlationship between two or more
continuous variables, like students IQ scores
and their academic achievement, students
reading skills and their writing skills.
Correlational research is also
sometimes referred to as a form of
descriptive research because it describes an
existing relationship between variables
(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009: 328). Correlation
study has three important characteristics for
researchers who want to use it. Three of
these characteristics, are:
1. Research the right if the variable complex
correlations and researchers may not
perform manipulation and control
variables such as in research experiments.
2. Allows variables are measured in
intensive setting (environment) real.
3. Allows researchers to a degree of
significant associations.

B. Purpose of Correlational Research

Correlational research is carried out
for one of two basic purpose, either to help
explain important human behaviors or to

34
predict likely outcomes (Fraenkel & Wallen,
2009:329).
1. Explanatory Studies
A major purpose of correlational
research is to clarify our understanding of
important phenomena by identifying
relationships among variables. Particularly in
developmental psychology, where
experimental studies are especially difficult to
design, much has been learned by analyzing
relationships among several variables.
For example, correlations found
between variables such as complexity of
parent speech and rate of language
acquisition have taught researchers much
about how language is acquired. Similarly,
the discovery that among variables related to
reading skillauditory memory shows a
substantial correlation with reading ability
has expanded our understanding of the
complex phenomenon of reading. The
current belief that smoking causes lung
cancer, although based in part on
experimental studies of animals, rests heavily
on correlation evidence of the relationship
between frequency of smoking and incidence
of lung cancer.

35
2. Prediction Studies
A second purpose of correlational
research is prediction. If a relationship of
sufficient magnitude exists between two
variables, it becomes possible to predict a
score on one variable if a score on the other
variable is known. Researchers have found,
for example, that high school grades are
highly related to college grades. Hence, high
school grades can be used to predict college
grades. We would predict that a person with
a high GPA in high school would be likely to
have a high GPA in college. The variable
that is used to make the prediction is called
the predictor variable; the variable about
which the prediction is made is called the
criterion variable.
Prediction studies are also used
todetermine the predictive validity of
measuring instruments.
3. More Complex Correlational Techniques
a. Multiple Regression
Multiple regressions are a technique
that enables researchers to determine a
correlation between a criterion variable and
the best combination of two or more
predictor variables.

36
b. Coefficient Of Multiple Correlation
The coefficient of multiple correlations,
symbolized by R, indicates the strength of the
correlation between the combination of the
predictor variables and the criterion variable.
It can be thought of as a simple Pearson
correlation between the actual scores on the
criterion variable and the predicted scores on
that variable.
c. Discriminate Function Analysis
In most prediction studies, the criterion
variable is quantitative that is, it involves
scores that can fall anywhere along a
continuum from low to high. The technique
of multiple regression cannot be used when
the criterion variable is categorical; instead,
a technique known as discriminate function
analysis is used. The purpose of the analysis
and the form of the prediction equation,
however, are similar to those for multiple
regressions.
d. Factor Analysis
When a number of variables are
investigated in a single study, analysis and
interpretation of data can become rather
cumbersome. It is often desirable, therefore,
to reduce the number of variables by

37
grouping those that are moderately or highly
correlated with one another into factors.
Factor analysis is a technique that allows a
researcher to determine if many variables
can be described by a few factors. The
mathematical calculations involved are
beyond the scope of this book, but the
technique essentially involves a search for
clusters of variables, all of which are
correlated with each other. Each cluster
represents a factor.
e. Path Analysis
Path analysis is used to test the
likelihood of a causal connection among
three or more variables. Some of the other
techniques we have described can be used to
explore theories about causality, but path to
test the analysis is far more powerful than
the rest. Although a detailed explanation of
this technique is too technical for inclusion
here, the essential idea behind path analysis
is to formulate a theory about the possible
causes of a particular phenomenon (such as
student alienation)that is, to identify causal
variables that could explain why the
phenomenon occursand then to determine

38
whether correlations among all the variables
are consistent with the theory.
f. Structural Modeling
Structural modeling is a sophisticated
method for exploring and possibly confirming
causation among several variables. Its
complexity is beyond the scope of this text.
Suffice it to say that it combines multiple
regression, path analysis, and factor analysis.
C. Basic Steps in Correlational Research

Correlational research among

relational, predictive, and multivariate,
involves the calculation of correlations
between complex variables (variable criteria)
with other variables that are considered to
fide the relationship (predictor variables)
relationship, the design or steps taken to
study and predictions same although the
detail of each step for both are different,
especially in the collection and the analysis
of data. It measures proficiency level, most
fundamental, is: problem determination, the
determination of the subject, data collection,
and data analysis.

5. Determination of the Problem

39
 As in any investigation, the first step
that must be done is to state study issues
that will be the focus of his studies. In
correlation research, the problems selected
must have meaningful value in a pattern of
behavior that goes a complex phenomenon
understanding. In addition, the variables
included in the study should be based on
considerations, both theoretically and
reasoning, that the variable has a certain
relationship.

6. Determination of Subjects
The subjects were recruited for this
study must be measurable in the variables
that are the focus of research. The subject
should be relatively homogeneous in factors
outside the studied variables that may affect
the dependent variable. When the subjects
involved have a meaningful difference in
these factors, the correlation between the
variables studied become blurred. To reduce
such heterogeneity, researchers were able to
classify subjects into groups based on certain
factors and levels, and then test the
relationship between the study variables for
each group.
3. Data Collection

40
 Types of instruments can be used to
measure and collect data each variable, such
as questionnaires, tests, interview guidelines
and guidelines for observation, of course,
tailored to the needs. Data collected by these
instruments should be in the form of
numbers. In a relational research,
measurement variables can be done in a
relatively equal. Being investigated predictive
predictor variables should be measured over
a period of time before the criterion variables
occur. If not, then the prediction of these
criteria does not mean anything.
4. Data Analysis
Basically, the analysis in this research
is done by correlating the measurement
results of a variable to another variable
measurement results. In a relational study,
vicariate correlation technique, according to
the type of data used to calculate the degree
of correlation between variable that one with
the other. Being in a predictive study, the
technique used regression analysis to
determine the level of predictive capability
predictor variables to variable criteria.
Nevertheless, it can also be used
when the usual correlation analysis involves

41
only two variables. When involving more
than two variables, for example, to
determine whether two or more predictor
variables can be used to predict the criterion
variable was better than when used
individually, multiple regression analysis
techniques, multiple regressions or canonical
analysis can be used. The results are typically
reported as the value of the correlation
coefficient or regression coefficient as well as
the level of significance, in addition to the
proportion of variance contributed by the
independent variable on the dependent
variable.

CHAPTER V

SURVEY
RESEARCH

42
 SURVEY RESEARCH

A. Definition of Survey Research

Survey research design is typically
used to describe opinions, attitudes,
preferences, and perceptions of people of
interest to the researcher (Latief, 2014: 124).
Isaac & Michael (quoted by Glasow,
2005: 5) Survey research is used to answer
questions that have been raised, to solve
problems that have been posed or observed,
to assess needs and set goals, to determine
whether or not specific objectives have been
met, to establish base lines against which
future comparisons can be made, to analyze
trends across time, and generally, to describe

43
what exists, in what amount, and in what
context.

B. The Types of Survey Research

Based on Fraenkel and Wallen (2009:
391) There are two major types of surveysa
cross-sectional survey and a longitudinal
survey. They are as follows:
1. Cross-Sectional Surveys
A cross-sectional survey collects
information from a sample that has been
drawn from a predetermined population.
Furthermore, the information is collected at
just one point in time, although the time it
takes to collect all of the data may take
anywhere from a day to a few weeks or
more. Thus, a professor of mathematics
might collect data from a sample of all the
high school mathematics teachers in a
particular state about their interests in
earning a masters degree in mathematics
from his university, or another researcher
might take a survey of the kinds of personal
problems experienced by students at 10, 13,
and 16 years of age.
All these groups could be surveyed at
approximately the same point in time. When

44
an entire population is surveyed, it is called a
census. The prime example is the census
conducted by the U.S. Bureau of the Census
every 10 years, which attempts to collect
data about everyone in the United States.
2. Longitudinal Surveys
In a longitudinal survey, on the other
hand, information is collected at different
points in time in order to study changes over
time. Three longitudinal designs are
commonly employed in survey research:
trend studies, cohort studies, and panel
studies.
In a trend study, different samples
from a population whose members may
change are surveyed at different points in
time. For example, a researcher might be
interested in the attitudes of high school
principals toward the use of flexible
scheduling. He would select a sample each
year from a current listing of high school
principals throughout the state. Although the
population would change somewhat and the
same individuals would not be sampled each
year, if random selection were used to obtain
the samples, the responses obtained each

45
year could be considered representative of
the population of high school principals.

C. The Purposes of Survey Research

Survey research can be used for the
purpose of:
1. Assessment (exploratory)
2. Descriptive
3. Explanation (explanatory or confirmatory),
which is to explain casual relationships
and testing the hypothesis
4. Evaluation
5. Prediction or foresee certain events in the
future
5. Operational research
6. The development of social indicators
The weaknesses of survey research as
follows:
1) There may be a lower rate of return
respondents. This occurs if the
respondents have low education levels or
involve older people.
2) There is no certainty that the
questionnaire can be known by
respondents.

46
3) There is no certainty that the answers of
the respondents are referred to the
researchers.

D. The Steps of Survey Research

Based on Fraenkel and Wallen (2009:
392) there are some steps of survey
research.
1. Defining The Problem
The problem to be investigated by
means of a survey should be sufficiently
interesting and important to motivate
individuals to respond. Trivial questions
usually get what they deservetheyre
tossed into the nearest wastebasket. You
have probably done this yourself to a survey
questionnaire you considered unimportant or
found boring.
Researchers need to define clearly
their objectives in conducting a survey. Each
question should relate to one or more of the
surveys objectives. One strategy for defining
survey questions is to use a hierarchical
approach, beginning with the broadest, most

47
general questions and ending with the most
specific.
2. Identifying The Target Population
Almost anything can be described by
means of a survey. That which is studied in a
survey is called the unit of analysis. Although
typically people, units of analysis can also be
objects, clubs, companies, classrooms,
schools, government agencies, and others.
3. Choosing The Mode of Data Collection
There are four basic ways to collect
data in a survey: by administering the survey
instrument live to a group; by mail; by
telephone; or through face-to-face
interviews.
1) Direct Administration to a Group
This method is used whenever a
researcher has access to all (or most) of the
members of a particular group in one place.
The instrument is administered to all
members of the group at the same time and
usually in the same place. Examples would
include giving questionnaires to students to
complete in their classrooms or workers to
complete at their job settings.
2) Mail Surveys

48
 When the data in a survey are
collected by mail, the questionnaire is sent to
each individual in the sample, with a request
that it be completed and then returned by a
given date. The advantages of this approach
are that it is relatively inexpensive and it can
be accomplished by the researcher alone (or
with only a few assistants). It also allows the
researcher to have access to samples that
might be hard to reach in person or by
telephone (such as the elderly), and it
permits the respondents to take sufficient
time to give thoughtful answers to the
questions asked.
The disadvantages of mail surveys are
that there is less opportunity to encourage
the cooperation of the respondents (through
building rapport, for example) or to provide
assistance (through answering their
questions, clarifying instructions, and so on).
As a result, mail surveys have a tendency to
produce low response rates. Mail surveys
also do not lend themselves well to obtaining
information from certain types of samples
(such as individuals who are illiterate).
3) Telephone Surveys

49
 In a telephone survey the researcher
(or his or her assistants) asks questions of the
respondents over the telephone. The
advantages of telephone surveys are they are
cheaper than personal interviews, can be
conducted fairly quickly, and lend themselves
easily to standardized questioning
procedures. They also allow the researcher to
assist the respondent (by clarifying questions,
asking follow-up questions, encouraging
hesitant respondents, and so on), permit a
greater amount of follow-up (through several
callbacks), and provide better coverage in
certain areas where personal interviewers
often are reluctant to go.
The disadvantages of telephone
surveys are that access to some samples
(obviously, those without telephones and
those whose phone numbers are unlisted) is
not possible. Telephone interviews also
prevent visual observation of respondents
and are somewhat less effective in obtaining
information about sensitive issues or
personal questions.

4) Personal Interviews.

50
 In a personal interview, the researcher
(or trained assistant) conducts a face-to-face
interview with the respondent. As a result,
this method has many advantages. It is
probably the most effective survey method
for enlisting the cooperation of the
respondents. Rapport can be established,
questions can be clarified, unclear or
incomplete answers can be followed up, and
so on. Face-to-face interviewing also places
less of a burden on the reading and writing
skills of the respondents and, when
necessary, permits spending more time with
respondents.
The biggest disadvantage of face-to-
face interviews is that they are more costly
than direct, mail, or telephone surveys. They
also require a trained staff of interviewers,
with all that implies in terms of training costs
and time.
4. Selecting The Sample
The subjects to be surveyed should be
selected (randomly, if possible) from the
population of interest. Researchers must
ensure, however, that the subjects they
intend to question possess the desired
information and that they will be willing to

51
answer these questions. Individuals who
possess the necessary information but who
are uninterested in the topic of the survey (or
who do not see it as important) are unlikely
to respond.
5. Preparing The Instrument
The most common types of
instruments used in survey research are the
questionnaire and the interview schedule.
They are virtually identical, except that the
questionnaire is usually self-administered by
the respondent, while the interview schedule
is administered verbally by the researcher (or
trained assistant). In the case of a mailed or
self-administered questionnaire, the
appearance of the instrument is very
important to the overall success of the study.
It should be attractive and not too long, and
the questions should be as easy to answer as
possible.
6. Training Interviewers
Both telephone and face-to-face
interviewers need to be trained beforehand.
Many suggestions have been made in this
regard, and we have space to mention only a
few of them here.15 Telephone interviewers

52
need to be shown how to engage their
interviewees so that they do not hang up on
them before the interview has even begun.
They need to know how to explain
quickly the purpose of their call and why it is
important to obtain information from the
respondent. They need to learn how to ask
questions in a way that encourages
interviewees to respond honestly.
7. Using An Interview To Measure Ability
Although the interview has been used
primarily to obtain information on variables
other than cognitive ability, an important
exception can be found in the field of
developmental and cognitive psychology.
Interviews have been used extensively in this
field to study both the content and processes
of cognition.
The best-known example of such use is to be
found in the work of Jean Piaget and his
colleagues. They used a semi structured
sequence of contingency questions to

CHAPTER VI
determine a childs cognitive level of
development.

QUALITATIVE
53

RESEARCH
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

A. The Meaning of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a process of
inquiry aimed at understanding human
behavior by building complex, holistic
pictures of the social and cultural settings in
which such behavior occurs. It does so by

54
analyzing words rather than numbers, and
by reporting the detailed views of the people
who have been studied. Such inquiry
conducted in settings where people naturally
interact, as opposed to specially designed
laboratories or clinical experimental settings.

This type of research differs from the

methodologies discussed in earlier chapters
in that there is a greater emphasis on holistic
descriptionthat is, on describing in detail
all of what goes on in a particular activity or
situation rather than on comparing the
effects of a particular treatment (as in
experimental research), say, or on describing
the attitudes or behaviors of people (as in
survey research).

B. General Characteristics of Qualitative

Research
Many different types of qualitative
methodologies exist, but there are certain
general features that characterize most
qualitative research studies. Not all
qualitative studies will necessarily display all
of these characteristics with equal strength.
Nevertheless, taken together, they give a
good overall picture of what is involved in
this type of research. Bogdan and Biklen

55
(quoted by Fraenkel and Wallen, 2009: 422)
describe five such features.
1. The natural setting is the direct source of
data, and the researcher is the key
instrument in qualitative research.
Qualitative researchers go directly to the
particular setting of interest to observe and
collect their data. They spend a considerable
amount of time actually being in a school,
sitting in on faculty meetings, attending
parent-teacher association meetings,
observing teachers in their classrooms and in
other locales, and in general directly
observing and interviewing individuals as
they go about their daily routines. Sometimes
they come equipped only with a pad and a
pencil to take notes, but often they use
sophisticated audio- and videotaping
equipment.
Even when such equipment is used,
however, the data are collected right at the
scene and supplemented by the researchers
observations and insights about what
occurred. As Bogdan and Biklen point out,
qualitative researchers go to the particular
setting of interest because they are
concerned with contextthey feel that

56
activities can best be understood in the
actual settings in which they occur. They also
feel that human behavior is vastly influenced
by particular settings, and, hence, whenever
possible they visit such settings.
2. Qualitative data are collected in the form
of words or pictures rather than numbers.
The kinds of data collected in qualitative
research include interview transcripts, field
notes, photographs, audio recordings,
videotapes, diaries, personal comments,
memos, official records, textbook passages,
and anything else that can convey the actual
words or actions of people. In their search
for understanding, qualitative researchers do
not usually attempt to reduce their data to
numerical symbols, but rather seek to portray
what they have observed and recorded in all
of its richness.
3. Qualitative researchers are concerned
with process as well as product.

Qualitative researchers are especially

interested in how things occur. Hence, they
are likely to observe how people interact with
each other; how certain kinds of questions
are answered; the meanings that people give

57
to certain words and actions; how peoples
attitudes are translated into actions; how
students seem to be affected by a teachers
manner, gestures, or comments; and the like.

4. Qualitative researchers tend to analyze

their data inductively.
Qualitative researchers do not,
usually, formulate a hypothesis beforehand
and then seek to test it out. Rather, they tend
to play it as it goes. They spend a
considerable amount of time collecting their
data (again, primarily through observing and
interviewing) before they decide what are the
important questions to consider. As Bogdan
and Biklen suggest, qualitative researchers
are not putting together a puzzle whose
picture they already know. They are
constructing a picture that takes shape as
they collect and examine the parts.
5. How people make sense out of their lives
is a major concern to qualitative
researchers.
A special interest of qualitative
researchers lies in the perspectives of the
subjects of a study. Qualitative researchers
want to know what the participants in a study

58
are thinking and why they think what they
do. Assumptions, motives, reasons, goals,
and valuesall are of interest and likely to
be the focus of the researchers questions. It
also is common for a researcher to show a
completed videotape or the contents of his or
her notes to a participant to check on the
accuracy of the researchers interpretations.

C. The Major Characteristics of

Qualitative Research
1. Naturalistic Studying real-world
inquiry situations as they
unfold naturally;
nonmanipulative,
unobtrusive, and
noncontrolling;
openness

59
 to whatever
emergeslack of
predetermined
constraints on
outcomes.

2. Inductive Immersion in the

analysis details and specifics
of the data to discover
important categories,
dimensions, and
interrelationships;
begin by exploring
genuinely open
questions rather than
testing theoretically
derived (deductive)
hypotheses.

The whole
phenomenon under
study is understood as
3. Holistic a complex system that
perspecti is more than the sum
ve of its parts; focus is
on complex
interdependencies not
meaningfully reduced
to a few discrete
variables and linear,
cause-effect

60
4. Qualitative relationships.
data Detailed, thick
description; inquiry in
depth; direct
quotations capturing
peoples personal
perspectives and
experiences.
The researcher has
direct contact with
and gets close to the
people, situ4ation,
and phenomenon
5. Personal under study;
contact and
Insight

61
 researchers personal
experiences and
insights are an
important part of the
inquiry and critical to
understanding the
phenomenon.

Attention to process;
assumes change is
6. Dynamic constant and ongoing
systems whether the focus is
on an individual or an
entire culture.

Assumes each case is

special and unique;
the first level of
7. Unique case inquiry is being true
orientation to, respecting, and
capturing the details
of the individual cases
being studied; cross-
case analysis follows
from and depends on
the quality of
individual case
studies.

Places findings in a
social, historical, and

62
 temporal context;
dubious of the
possibility or
meaningfulness of
generalizations across
8. Context time and space.
sensitivity

63
9. Empathic Complete objectivity is
neutralit impossible; pure
y subjectivity undermines
credibility; the
researchers passion is
understanding the world
in all its complexitynot
proving something, not
advocating, not
advancing personal
agendas, but
understanding; the
researcher includes
personal experience and
empathic insight as part
of the relevant data,
while taking a neutral
nonjudgmental stance
toward whatever
content may emerge.

Open to adapting
inquiry as
understanding deepens
10. Design and/or situations
flexibility change; avoids getting
locked into rigid designs
that eliminate
responsiveness; pursues
new paths of discovery
as they emerge.

64
Table 1 (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2009: 424)

D. Steps in Qualitative Research

Every qualitative study has a distinct
starting and ending point, however. It begins
when the researcher identifies the
phenomenon he or she wishes to study, and
it ends when the researcher draws his or her
final conclusions. Although the steps
involved in qualitative research are not as
distinct as they are in quantitative studies
(they arent even necessarily sequential),
several steps can be identified. Let us
describe them briefly.
1. Identification of the phenomenon to be
studied.

Before any study can begin, the

researcher must identify the particular
phenomenon he or she is interested in
investigating.

2. Identification of the participants in the

study.

65
 The participants in the study constitute
the sample of individuals who will be
observed (interviewed, etc.) in other
words, the subjects of the study. In almost all
qualitative research, the sample is a
purposive sample. Random sampling
ordinarily is not feasible, since the
researcher wants to ensure that he or she
obtains a sample that is uniquely suited to
the intent of the study.

3. Generation of Hypotheses.

Unlike in most quantitative studies,

hypotheses are not posed at the beginning
of the study by the researcher. Instead, they
emerge from the data as the study
progresses. Some are almost immediately
discarded; others are modified or replaced.
New ones are formulated. A typical
qualitative study may begin with few, if any,
hypotheses being posed by the researcher at
the start, but with several being formulated,
reconsidered, dropped, and modified as the
study proceeds.

4. Data Collection
There is no treatment in a
qualitative study, nor is there any
manipulation of subjects. The participants
in a qualitative study are not divided into

66
groups, with one group being exposed to a
treatment of some sort and the effects of this
treatment then measured in some way.
Data are not collected at the end of
the study. Rather, the collection of data in a
qualitative research study is ongoing. The
researcher is continually observing people,
events, and occurrences, often
supplementing his or her observations with
in-depth interviews of selected participants
and the examination of various documents
and records relevant to the phenomenon of
interest.

5. Data analysis.

Analyzing the data in a qualitative

study essentially involves analyzing and
synthesizing the information the researcher
obtains from various sources (e.g.,
observations, interviews, documents) into a
coherent description of what he or she has
observed or otherwise discovered. Data
analysis in qualitative research, however,
relies heavily on description; even when
certain statistics are calculated, they tend to
be used in a descriptive rather than an
inferential sense.

6. Interpretations and conclusions.

67
 In qualitative research,
interpretations are made continuously
throughout the course of a study. Whereas
quantitative researchers usually leave the
drawing of conclusions to the very end of
their research, qualitative researchers tend
to formulate their interpretations as they go
along. As a result, one finds the researchers
conclusions in a qualitative study more or
less integrated with other steps in the
research process.

68
 CHAPTER VII

ETHNOGRAPHIC
RESEARCH

Objectives
Studying this chapter should enable you to:
1. Explain what is meant by the term of
ethnographic research
2. Describe the characteristic of ethnographic
research
3. Describe someRESEARCH
ETHNOGRAPHIC guidelines of ethnographic
research and interview
4. Describe sampling in qualitative research
A. Definition of
5. Ethnographic
Describe types Research
of purposive sampling
Ethnography research is a form of
research focusing on the sociology of
meaning through close field observation of

69
sociocultural phenomena. Ethnography is the
descriptive study of a particular human
society or the process of making such a
study. Based almost entirely on fieldwork,
ethnography requires the immersion of the
ethnographer in the culture and everyday life
of the people who are the subject of the
study (Britannica.com).
Ethnography is a qualitative research method
and product and may be distinguished from
three other methods of investigating and
writing: quantitative research, public policy
research, and journalism. Quantitative
research usually involves a larger number of
cases in less depth, measuring frequency or
using statistics, for example public policy
research generally provides information that
may be used by policy makers to decide how
specific behaviors might be understood in
terms of social outcome and journalism
attempts to provide objective outsider news
information in a timely manner for a
designated target audience
The goal of ethnography is to provide
a description of the world as perceived by
those within that world, to understand what
activities mean to the people who do them

70
and to provide an interpretative description
of this world.

B. The Characteristic of Ethnographic

Research
Ethnography typically involves the
study of a small group of subjects in their
own environment and attempts to gain a
detailed understanding of the circumstances
of the few subjects being studied.
Informants are interviewed multiple times,
using information from previous informants
to elicit clarification and deeper responses
upon re-interview. This process is intended to
reveal common cultural understandings
related to the phenomena under study.
These subjective but collective
understandings on a subject (ex.,
stratification) are often interpreted to be
more significant than objective data (ex.,
income differentials).
Ethnographic fieldwork usually
involves conducting observation, interviewing
informants, note-taking, making maps,
collecting life histories, analyzing folklore,
charting kinship, keeping a diary, audio and
videotaping, collection of relevant materials

71
and documents, keeping a field journal, and
taking photographs.
Preparing for the Interview,
Successfully interviewing informants depends
on a cluster of skills. These include: asking
questions, listening instead of talking, taking
a passive rather than an assertive role,
expressing verbal interest in the other
person, and showing interest by appropriate
eye contact and other nonverbal means.
When preparing your interview, think
about the kinds of ethnographic questions
you will use. There should be a mix of
descriptive and structural questions.
Descriptive questions are broad and general,
allowing people to describe their
experiences, their daily activities, and objects
and people in their lives. Structural questions
are more specific and explore responses
conversation. Turn taking helps keep the
encounter balanced.
a. Repeat the informants answer to make
sure that you understood well; do not try
to make your own interpretation or
paraphrase what has been said.

C. Sampling in Qualitative Research

72
 Sampling, as it relates to research,
refers to the selection of individuals, units,
and/or settings to be studied. Whereas
quantitative studies strive for random
sampling, qualitative studies often use
purposeful or criterion-based sampling, that
is, a sample that has the characteristics
relevant to the research questions.

D. Types of Purposive Sampling

Maximum variation sampling selects a wide
range of variation on dimensions of interest.
The purpose is to discover/uncover central
themes, core elements, and/or shared
dimensions that cut across a diverse sample
while at the same time offering the
opportunity to document unique or diverse
variations.
Homogeneous sampling brings together
people of similar backgrounds and
experiences. It reduces variation,
simplifies analysis, and facilitates group
interviewing. This strategy is used most
often when conducting focus groups.
Typical case sampling focuses on what is
typical, normal, and/or average. This
strategy may be adopted when one needs

73
 to present a qualitative profile of one or
more typical cases. When using this
strategy you must have a broad
consensus about what is average.
Critical case sampling looks at cases that
will produce critical information. In order
to use this method, you must know what
constitutes a critical case. This method
permits logical generalization and
maximum application of information to
other cases because if it's true of this one
case, it's likely to be true of all other case.
Snowball or Chain Sampling, Identifies
cases of interest from people who know
people who know what cases are
information-rich, that is, who would be a
good interview participant. Thus, this is
an approach used for locating
information-rich cases. You would begin
by asking relevant people something like:
Who knows a lot about?
Extreme or Deviant Case Sampling, Looks
at highly unusual manifestations of the
phenomenon of interest, such as
outstanding success/notable failures, top
of the class/dropouts, exotic events,
crises. This strategy tries to select

74
 particular cases that would glean the
most information, given the research
question.
Theory-Based or Operational Construct or
Theoretical Sampling identifies
manifestations of a theoretical construct
of interest so as to elaborate and
examine the construct. This strategy is
similar to criterion sampling, except it is
more conceptually focused. This strategy
is used in grounded theory studies. You
would sample people/incidents, etc.,
based on whether or not they
manifest/represent an important
theoretical or operational construct.
Opportunistic or Emergent Sampling,
Follows new leads during fieldwork, takes
advantage of the unexpected, and is
flexible. This strategy takes advantage of
whatever unfolds as it is unfolding, and
may be used after fieldwork has begun
and as a researcher becomes open to
sampling a group or person they may not
have initially planned to interview.
Confirming and Disconfirming Sampling,
Seeks cases that are both expected and
the exception to what is expected. In

75
this way, this strategy deepens initial
analysis, seeks exceptions, and tests
variation. In this strategy you find both
confirming cases (those that add depth,
richness, credibility) as well as
disconfirming cases (example that do not
fit and are the source of rival
interpretations). This strategy is typically
adopted after initial fieldwork has
established what a confirming case would
be.

76
 CHAPTER VIII

HISTORICAL
RESEARCH

Objectives
Studying this chapter should enable you to:

1. Describe the meaning of historical research

2. Describe the purpose of historical research
3. Explain kinds of questions are pursued
through historical research
77
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH

A. Definition of Historical Research

The study of history is often regarded
and studied as a detached endeavor, a quest
for facts through an objective disposition.
Historical writing tends to encapsulate a
grand narrative, one that explains the events
of the past without agents or producers of
knowledge; both technicist and positivistic
language usually frame such historical
writing.
Historiography exposes the frames
and parameters of historical writing in order
to further ones understanding of the
circumstances of the past. Historiography
offers a method of intervention in the
comprehension of and living in socio-cultural
political events. It is the careful study of
historical writing and the ways in which
historians interpret the past through various
theoretical lenses and methodologies.
Historical research can contribute to
evidence-informed policy development;
however, it is underused by Canadian
governments. The historical method involves
the use of existing data sources to examine

79
trends over time. This method is often used
in collaboration with other methods and can
be quantitative or qualitative. Historical
research requires careful scrutiny of sources
and a comprehensive understanding of
context. It is most often descriptive and
qualitative, therefore subject to measures of
trustworthiness and rigor. Careful historical
research can identify important historical
factors that are relevant to current public
policy issues; for example, Helps (2005)
linked historical research to the
contemporary issue of homelessness in
Victoria, British Columbia.
B. The Purpose of Historical Research
1) To make people aware of what has
happened in the past so they may learn
from past failures and successes
2) To learn how things were done in the past
to see if they might be applicable to
present day problems and concerns
3) To assist in prediction
4) To test hypotheses concerning
relationship or trends. Many
inexperienced researchers tend to think of
historical research as purely descriptive in
nature.

80
5) To understand present educational
practices and policies more fully.

C. The Kinds of Questions Are Pursued

Through Historical Research
Based on Fraenkel and Wallen (2009:
535) although historical research focuses on
the past, the types of questions that lend
themselves to historical research are quite
varied. Here are some examples:
How were students educated in the South
during the Civil War?
How many bills dealing with education
were passed during the presidency of
Lyndon B. Johnson, and
What was the major intent of those bills?
What was instruction like in a typical
fourth-grade classroom 100 years ago?
How have working conditions for teachers
changed since 1900?
What were the major discipline problems
in schools in 1940 as compared to today?
What educational issues has the general
public perceived to be most important
during the last 20 years?
How have the ideas of John Dewey
influenced present day educational
practices?

81
 How have feminists contributed to
education?
How minorities (or the physically
impaired) were treated in our public
schools during the twentieth century?
How were the policies and practices of
school administrators in the early years of
the twentieth century different from those
today?
What has been the role of the federal
government in education?

82
 CHAPTER IX

ACTION
RESEARCH

Objectives
Studying this chapter should enable you to:

1. The definition of action research

2. The purpose of action research
ACTION3.RESEARCH
The steps involved in action research

A. Definition of Action Research

 According to Fraenkel & Wallen
(2009: 589), action research is conducted by
one or more individuals or groups for the
purpose of solving a problem or obtaining
information in order to inform local practice.
Those involved in action research
generally want to solve some kind of day-to-
day immediate problem, such as how to
decrease absenteeism or incidents of
vandalism among the student body, motivate
apathetic students, and figure out ways to
use technology to improve the teaching of
mathematics, or increase funding.
Classroom Action Research is an
effective media in improving the quality of
English teachers performance in instruction
as well as students achievement in learning
English in classroom. In classroom Action
Research, English teachers assess the
effectiveness of their own teaching activities
and plan the improvement based on the
result of the assessment (Latief, 2014:144).

B. The Purpose of Action Research

According to Latief (2014: 156),
Classroom Action Research is a research
especially designed for teachers so that

84
classroom teachers can conduct research in
their own classroom for the purpose of
improving the quality of their classroom
performance. So, the research is done by the
teacher-researcher.
As a teacher, he/she has to solve the
classroom problem and as a researcher,
he/she has to contribute to development of
the knowledge in their subjects by producing
an innovative instructional strategy that
improves the effectiveness of the classroom
performance.

C. Steps in Action Research

According to Fraenkel & Wallen
(2009: 592), there four steps in action
research:
1. Identifying the research problem or
question
The first stage in action research is
clarifying the problem of concern. An
individual or group needs to carefully
examine the situation and identify the
problem. Action research is most appropriate
when teachers or others involved in
education wish to make something better,
improve their practice, deal with a

85
troublesome issue, or correct something that
is not working. An important thing to
remember is that for an action research
project to be successful, it must be
manageable. Thus, large-scale, complex
issues are probably best left to professional
researchers.
Action research projects are (usually)
quite narrow in scope. However, if a group
of teachers, students, administrators, and
soon have decided to work together on some
type of long term project, the research can
be more extensive. Thus, a problem like
What might be a better way to teach
fractions? is more suitable than Is inquiry
teaching more appropriate than more
traditional teaching? While quite important,
the latter is too broad for easy resolution
with a single classroom or teacher.
2. Obtaining the necessary information to
answer the question
Once a problem has been identified,
the next step is to decide what sorts of data
are needed and how to collect them. Any of
the methodologies we have described earlier
in this book can be used (although usually in

86
a somewhat simplified and less sophisticated
form) in action research.

Experiments, surveys, causal

comparative studies, observations,
interviews, analysis of documents,
ethnographiesall are possible
methodologies to consider. In addition to
observing, a second major category of data
collection involves interviewing students or
other individuals from whom information is
desired. Data collected through observations
often can suggest questions to follow up on
through interviews or the administration of
questionnaires. In fact, administering
questionnaires and interviewing the
participants in a study can be a valid and
productive way to assess the accuracy of
observations. As is true of other aspects of
action research, interviews tend to be less
formal and often a bit more unstructured
than in more formal research studies.
A third category of data collection
involves the examination and analysis of
documents. This method is perhaps the least
time-consuming of the three and the easiest
to commence. Attendance records, minutes
of faculty meetings, counselor records,
school newspaper accounts, student
journals, lesson plans, administrative logs,
suspension lists, detention records, seating

87
charts, photographs of class and school
activities, student portfoliosall are grist for
the action researchers mill.

3. Analyzing and interpreting the

information that has been gathered

This step focuses on analyzing and

interpreting the data gathered in step two.
After being collected and summarized, the
data need to be analyzed so that the
participants can decide what the data reveal.
However, analysis of action research data is
usually much less complex and detailed than
other forms of research. What is important at
this stage is that the data be examined in
relation to resolving the research question or
problem for which the research was
conducted. With regard to participatory
action research, Stringer suggests a number
of questions that can provide a guiding
procedure for analyzing the gathered data.
When analyzing and interpreting data
gathered in participatory action research, it
is important that the participants try to reflect
the perceptions of all the stakeholders
involved in the study. Hence, they should
work collaboratively to create descriptions of
what the data reveal. Furthermore, the
participants must make every effort to keep
all of the stakeholders informed of what is

88
going on during the data gathering stage
and to provide opportunities for everyone
involved to read accounts of what is
happening as they are prepared (not simply
after the study is completed). This permits all
of the stakeholders to give their input
continuously as the study progresses.

4. Developing and plan of action.

Fulfilling the intent of an action
research study requires creating a plan to
implement changes based on the findings.
While it is desirable that a formal document
be prepared, it is not essential; what is
essential is that the study, at the very least,
indicates clear directions for further work on
the original problem or concern.
D. The Advantages of Action
Research

According to Fraenkel & Wallen

(2009: 596), there five advantages of action
research:
1. It can be done by almost any
professional, in any type of school, at any
grade level, to investigate just about any
kind of problem. It can be carried out by
an individual teacher in his or her
classroom. It can be done by a group of
teachers and/or parents, by a school

89
 principal or counselor, or by a school
administrator at the district level.
2. Action research can improve educational
practice. It helps teachers, counselors,
and administrators become more
competent professionals. Not only can it
help them to become more competent
and effective in what they do, but it can
also help them be better able to
understand and apply the research
findings of others. By doing action
research themselves, teachers and other
education professionals not only can
improve their skills, they can also improve
their ability to read, interpret, and critique
more formal research when appropriate.
3. When teachers or other professionals
design and carry out their own action
research, they can develop more effective
ways to practice their craft. This can lead
them to read formal research reports
about similar practices with greater
understanding as to how the results of
such studies might apply to their own
situations. More importantly, such
research can serve as a rich source of
ideas about how to modify and perhaps

90
 enrich ones own strategies and
techniques.
4. Action research can help teachers identify
problems and issues systematically.
Learning how to do action research
requires that individuals define a problem
precisely (often operationally), identify
and try out alternative ways to deal with
the problem, evaluate these ways, and
then share what they have learned with
their peers. In effect, action research
shows practitioners that it is possible to
break out of the rut of institutionalized,
taken-for-granted routines and to
develop hope that seemingly intractable
problems in the workplace can be solved.
5. Action research can build up a small
community of research-oriented
individuals within the school itself. Action
research, when systematically
undertaken, can involve several
individuals working together to solve a
problem or issue of mutual concern. This
can help reduce the feeling of isolation
that many teachers, counselors, and
administrators experience as they go
about their daily tasks within the school.

91
92
 CHAPTER X

THE
EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT
(R&D)

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDObjectives

DEVELOPMENT
Studying this chapter should enable you to:
1. Describe the educational research and
A. Definition of Educational Research development
2. Explain the process of
and Development
Educational educational
Research and
Development is a research designed aimed at

93
developing educational products, like
curriculum, syllabus, textbooks, instructional
media, modules, assessment instruments, etc.
this research design is often referred to R&D.
the problem might occur because for some
example, the existing textbooks is out of date;
it is not appropriate anymore to the recently
growing theory of language learning, it does
not accommodate the latest curriculum, or
the students learning achievement is not as
high as expected.
Some people interpret R&D as
consisting of two related activities, research
first to assess the classroom problems, and
then followed by the activities of developing
the educational products. This interpretation
is not completely correct. R&D is a name of
one research design involving the classroom
problems, studying recent theories of
educational product development.

B. The Purpose of Educational Research

and Development
The scientific research and
development of educational systems has
increased in importance over the past
several decades. In education as in other
fields, political and administrative entities
are increasingly in need of scientific findings
as a basis for decision making; they also

94
define research desiderata and commission
specific research projects and studies.
Educational research and
development examines the reality of
educational activity. It also formulates
supports and evaluates the progressive
development of educational systems. The
purposes of education; the processes of
teaching, learning and personal
development of children, youth and adults;
the work of educators; the resources and
organizational arrangements to support
educational work; the policies and strategies
to achieve educational objectives; and the
social, cultural, political and economic
outcomes of education.

Educational research can also be

described in a functional sense, with
attention focused on the following five
functions: the analytical and explanatory
function; the synthetic and theory building
function; the evaluative function; the
prospective function; and the consultative
function.

C. The Process of Research and

Development
1. Classroom problems related to
instructional supporting documents (like

95
 the syllabus, the textbook, the media) as
well as assessment instruments are
identified to be solved.
2. Theories, principles, or criteria of effective
instructional supporting documents and
assessment instruments are reviewed
from related references, from teachers
conferences, from discussion with
colleagues.
3. The selected instructional documents or
assessment instruments, considered to be
the cause of the problems developed
based on related principles, theories, or
criteria that have been studied.
4. The product is reviewed closely by the
researcher to make sure that all the
appropriate principles have been applied
in the development of the product.
5. The product is validated to related experts
and revised accordingly to get quality
assurance.
6. The instructional product is tried out in a
small scale and revised based on the
results of the try out.

The final product is published. The

product must be a set of educational

96
products that are ready to support classroom
instructions.

97
 REFERENCES

Fraenkel, Jack R., & Wallen, Norman E.

(2009). How To Design And Evaluate
Research In Education. New York:
McGraw-Hill.

Glasow , Priscilla A. (2005). Fundamentals of

Survey Research Methodology.
Washington: MITRE Department.

Latief, Muhammad Adnan. (2014). Research

Methods On Language Learning: An
Introduction. Malang: UM Press.

Nunan, David. (2003). Research Methods in

Language Learning. The USA:
Cambridge University Press.

99
 About The Authors

Name : Ameliana
NPM : 2113048
Quote : Try not to becomes a
man of success but rather try to
become a man of value

Name : Desva Ariasanti

NPM : 2113039
Quote : Dont wait for the
perfect moment. Take the
moment, and make it perfect

Name : Meli Astriyani

NPM : 2113030
Quote : Sadness in your heart is
an inhibitor of success. Avoid the
prolonged grief, take heart, and
take your chance as soon as
possible

Name : Ratna Sari

NPM : 2113040
Quote : If people are trying to
bring down it only means that
you are above them

125
Name : Selvi Agustina
NPM : 2113053
Quote : Do better! Make life
grow up like tip of fingernail,
although always cut but always
grow up

Name : Tiara Rahmasari

NPM : 2113045
Quote: Dont cry because its
over, smile because it happens

Name : Nurmaisa
NPM : 2115028P
Quote : You never know if you
never child, you cant believe if
you never stop your hoping. Run
and get your success

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