12222017 Machining - Wikipodia
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Machining
‘Machining is any of various processes in which a piece of raw material is
cut into a desired final shape and size by a controlled material-removal
process. The processes that have this common theme, controlled material
removal, are today collectively known as subtractive manufacturing,"
in distinction from processes of controlled material addition, which are
known as additive manufacturing. Exactly what the “controlled” part of the
definition implies can vary, but it almost always implies the use of machine
tools (in addition to just power tools and hand tools).
Machining is a part of the manufacture of many metal products, but it can
also be used on materials such as wood, plastic, ceramic, and composites.21
A person who specializes in machining is called a machinist, A room,
building, or company where machining is done is called a machine shop.
Much of modern-day machining is carried out by computer numerical
control (CNC), in which computers are used to control the movement and
operation of the mills, lathes, and other cutting machines.
Contents
History and terminology
Machining operations
Overview of machining technology
Machining operations,
Cutting tool
Cutting conditions
Stages in metal cutting
Relationship of subtractive and additive techniques
See also
Ret
nces
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
History and terminology
New Guinea in 1943. Mobile
machine shop truck of the US Army
with machinists working on
automotive parts
‘The precise meaning of the term machining has evolved over the past one and a half centuries as technology has
advanced. In the 18th century, the word machinist simply meant a person who built or repaired machines. This
person's work was done mostly by hand, using processes such as the carving of wood and the hand-forging and hand-
filing of metal. At the time, millwrights and builders of new kinds of engines (meaning, more or less, machines of any
Kind), such as James Watt or John Wilkinson, would fit the definition. The noun machine tool and the verb to
machine (machined, machining) did not yet exist.
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11812222017 Machining - Wikipodia
Around the middle of the 19th century, the latter words were coined as the concepts that they described evolved into
widespread existence. Therefore, during the Machine Age, machining referred to (what we today might call) the
boring, drilling, milling, broaching, sawing, shaping, planing,
lathes,
milling machines, drill presses, or others, are used with a sharp cutting tool to remove material to achieve a desired
“traditional” machining processes, such as turn
reaming, and tapping! In these "traditional" or “conventional” machining processes, machine tools, such
geometry [4]
Since the advent of new technologies in the post-World War II era, such as electrical discharge machining,
electrochemical machining, electron beam machining, photochemical machining, and ultrasonic machining, the
retronym “conventional machining” can be used to differentiate those classic technologies from the newer ones, In
current usage, the term "machining" without qualification usually implies the traditional machining processes.
In the decades of the 2000s and 2010s, as additive manufacturing (AM) evolved beyond its earlier laboratory and
rapid prototyping contexts and began to become common throughout all phases of manufacturing, the term
subtractive manufacturing became common retronymously in logical contrast with AM, covering essentially any
removal processes also previously covered by the term machining. The two terms are effectively synonymous,
although the long-established usage of the term machining continues. This is comparable to the idea that the verb
sense of contact evolved because of the proliferation of ways to contact someone (telephone, email, IM, SMS, and so
on) but did not entirely replace the earlier terms such as call, talk to, or write to,
Machining operations
‘The three prineipal machining processes are classified as turning, drilling
and milling, Other operations falling into miscellaneous categories include
shaping, planing, boring, broaching and sawing.!5)
= Turing operations are operations that rotate the workpiece as the
primary method of moving metal against the cutting tool. Lathes are
the principal machine tool used in turing.
= Milling operations are operations in which the cutting tool rotates to
bring cutting edges to bear against the workpiece. Milling machines
are the principal machine tool used in milling.
= Drilling operations are operations in which holes are produced or
refined by bringing a rotating cutter with cutting edges at the lower
extremity into contact with the workpiece. Drilling operations are done
primarily in drill presses but sometimes on lathes or mills
‘= Miscellaneous operations are operations that strictly speaking may not
be machining operations in that they may not be swarf producing
operations but these operations are performed at a typical machine
tool. Burnishing is an example of a miscellaneous operation, Making a shipboard manhole cover
Bumishing produces no swarf but can be performed at a lathe, mill, or in the machine shop of the aircraft
drill press. cartier USS John C. Stennis.
An unfinished workpiece requiring machining will need to have some
‘material cut away to create a finished product. A finished product would be
a workpiece that meets the specifications set out for that workpiece by engineering drawings or blueprints. For
‘example, a workpiece may be required to have a specific outside diameter. & lathe is a machine tool that can be used to
create that diameter by rotating a metal workpiece, so that a cutting tool ean cut metal away, creating a smooth, round
surface matching the required diameter and surface finish. A drill can be used to remove metal in the shape of a
cylindrical hole, Other tools that may be used for various types of metal removal are milling machines, saws, and
grinding machines. Many of these same techniques are used in woodworking,
More recent, advanced machining techniques include precision CNC machining, electrical discharge machining
(EDM), electro-chemical erosion, laser cutting, or water jet cutting to shape metal workpieces.
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As a commercial venture, machining is generally performed in a machine shop, which consists of one or more
workrooms containing major machine tools. Although a machine shop can be a stand-alone operation, many
businesses maintain internal machine shops which support specialized needs of the business.
‘Machining requires attention to many details for a workpiece to meet the specifications set out in the engineering
drawings or blueprints. Beside the obvious problems related to correct dimensions, there is the problem of achieving.
the correct finish or surface smoothness on the workpiece. The inferior finish found on the machined surface of a
workpiece may be caused by incorrect clamping, a dull tool, or inappropriate presentation of a tool. Frequently, this,
poor surface finish, known as chatter, is evident by an undulating or irregular finish, and the appearance of waves on
the machined surfaces of the workpiece.
Overview of machining
technology
‘Machining is any process in which a cutting tool is, \
used to remove small chips of material from the oe
workpiece (the workpiece is often called the "work").
To perform the operation, relative motion is required
between the tool and the work. This relative motion
is achieved in most machining operation by means of
a primary motion, called "cutting speed" and a
secondary motion called "feed”.I The shape of the tool and its penetration into the work surface, combined with these
motions, produce the desired shape of the resulting work surface
Basic machining process.
Machi
‘There are many kinds of machining operations, each of which is capable of generating a certain part geometry and
surface texture.
\g operations
In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material from a rotating workpiece to generate a
cylindrical shape. The primary motion is provided by rotating the workpiece, and the feed motion is achieved by
moving the cutting tool slowly in a direction parallel tothe axis of rotation of the workpiece.
Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is accomplished by a rotating tool that typically has two or four helical cutting
edges. The tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of rotation into the workpiece to form the round hole.
In boring, a tool with a single bent pointed tip is advanced into a roughly made hole in a spinning workpiece to slightly
enlarge the hole and improve its accuracy. It is a fine finishing operation used in the final stages of product
‘manufacture.
Reaming is one of the sizing operations that removes a small amount of metal from a hole already drilled,
In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is moved slowly relative to the material to generate a plane or
straight surface. The direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to the tool's axis of rotation. The speed motion is,
provided by the rotating milling cutter. The two basic forms of milling are:
= Peripheral milling
= Face milling
Other conventional machining operations include shaping, planing, broaching and sawing. Also, grinding and similar
abrasive operations are often included within the category of machining,
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Cut
‘A.cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges and is made of a
g tool
‘material that is harder than the work material. ‘The cutting edge
serves to separate chip from the parent work material. Connected to
the cutting edge are the two surfaces of the tool:
= The rake face; and
= The flank.
‘The rake face which directs the flow of newly formed chip, is
oriented at a certain angle is called the rake angle "a". It is measured
‘A “numerical controlled machining cell
relative to the plane perpendicular to the work surface. The rake machinist” monitors a B-1B aircraft part
angle can be positive or negative. The flank of the tool provides a being manufactured.
clearance between the tool and the newly formed work surface, thus
protecting the surface from abrasion, which would degrade the
finish. This angle between the work surface and the flank surface is called the relief angle. There are two basie types of
cutting tools:
* Single point tool; and
+ Multiple-cutting-edge tool
A single point tool has one cutting edge and is used for turning, boring and planing, During machining, the point of
the tool penetrates below the original work surface of the workpart. The point is sometimes rounded to a certain
radius, called the nose radius.
‘Multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than one cutting edge and usually achieve their motion relative to the workpart
by rotating. Drilling and milling uses rotating multiple-cutting-edge tools. Although the shapes of these tools are
different from a single-point tool, many elements of tool geometry are similar.
Cutting conditions
Relative motion is required between the tool and work to perform a machining operation, The primary motion is
accomplished at a certain cutting speed. In addition, the tool must be moved laterally across the work. This is a much
slower motion, called the feed. The remaining dimension of the cut is the penetration of the cutting tool below the
original work surface, called the depth of cut. Collectively, speed, feed, and depth of cut are called the cutting
conditions.|8] They form the three dimensions of the machining process, and for certain operations, their product can
be used to obtain the material removal rate for the process:
fd
Rur
where
= Razr ~ the material removal rate in mm/s, (in'/),
= U— the cutting speed in mm/s, (in/min),
= f--the feed in mm, (in),
d—the depth of cut in mm, (in).
Note: All units must be converted to the corresponding decimal (or USCU) units.
Stages
metal cutting
‘Machining operations usually divide into two categories, distinguished by purpose and cutting conditions:
= Roughing cuts
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= Finishing cuts
Roughing cuts are used to remove large amount of material from the starting workpart as rapidly as possible, ic. with
large Material Removal Rate (MRR), in order to produce a shape close to the desired form, but leaving some material
on the piece for a subsequent finishing operation. Finishing cuts are used to complete the part and achieve the final
dimension, tolerances, and surface finish. In production machining jobs, one or more roughing cuts are usually
performed on the work, followed by one or two finishing cuts. Roughing operations are done at high feeds and depths
~ feeds of 0.4-1.25 mm/rev (0.015-0.050 in/rev) and depths of 2.5-20 mm (0.100-0.750 in) are typical, but actual
values depend on the workpiece materials. Finishing operations are carried out at low feeds and depths ~ feeds of
0,0125-0.04 mm/rev (0.0005-0.0015 in/rev) and depths of 0.75-2.0 mm (0.030-0.075 in) are typical. Cutting
speeds are lower in roughing than in finishing,
‘A cutting fluid is often applied to the machining operation to cool and lubricate the cutting tool. Determining whether
a cutting fluid should be used, and, if so, choosing the proper cutting fluid, is usually included within the scope of
cutting condition.
‘Today other forms of metal cutting are becoming increasingly popular. An example of this is water jet cutting. Water
jet cutting involves pressurized water in excess of
10 MPa (90 000 psi) and is able to cut metal and have a finished
product. This process is called cold cutting, which eliminates the damage caused by a heat affected zone, as opposed to
laser and plasma cutting.
Relationship of subtractive and additive techniques
With the recent proliferation of additive manufacturing technologies, conventional machining has been retronymously
classified, in thought and language, as a subtractive manufacturing method. In narrow contexts, additive and
subtractive methods may compete with each other. In the broad context of entire industries, their relationship is
complementary. Each method has its own advantages over the other. While additive manufacturing methods can
produce very intricate prototype designs impossible to repli
limited 9)
ite by machining, strength and material selection may be
See also
= Abrasive flow machining + Machinabilty
+ Abrasive jet machining + Machine tools
+ Biomachining + Machine shop
+ Cutting + Machining vibrations
+ Design for manufacturabilty for CNC machining + Tool management
= Chip formation
References
1. "MAS.863/4.140,-P7" (hitp:/fab.cba mit edu/classes/863.12/people/lala. mogassoldevilalprojects/p7. html).
fab.cba.mit.edu. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 2016-08-22.
2, Machining Page (http:/iwww.mfg.mtu. edulcyberman/machining.html)
3, Machining: An Introduction (http:/www.efunda. comiprocesses/machiningimachin_intro.cfm)
4, Additive Manufacturing Advances Another Step (http://www.americanmachinist.com/304/Issue/Article/False/6635
6ilssue)
Kalpakjian & Schmid (2008). Manufacturing Processes for Engineerl
Dame. p. 33 — via https:/www3.nd.edu/~manufactMPEM_pdf html
6, "Precision CNC Machining" (http://www bracalente,com/cne-machining), BMG. Retrieved 2016-08-22,
7. "Machining" (http://www.publc.iastate.edu/~mebbs/courses/ME322/Machining.htm)). www,public.iastate.edu.
etrieved 2016-08-22
19 Materials, Sth Ed. University of Notre
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8, "Speeds and Feeds" (hitp://staff.mica.edu/tmckibbinICNC/Speeds-and-Feeds. htm), staff:mica.edu. Retrieved
2016-08-22.
9. ADDITIVE/SUBTRACTIVE MANUFACTURING RESEARCH (http:/www.wtec. org/additive/reportiadditive-report p
af)
Bibliography
= Albert, Mark (2011-01-17), "Subtractive plus additive equals more than (- + += > J" (http:/Awww.mmsonline.com/c
olumns/subtractive-plus-additive-equals-more-than), Mark: My Word, Modern Machine Shop, Cincinnati, Ohio,
USA: Gardner Publications inc, 83 (9): 14.
Further reading
* Groover, Mikell P. (2007), "Theory of Metal Machining", Fundamentals of Modem Manufacturing (3rd ed.), John
Witey & Sons, Inc., pp. 491-504, ISBN 0-471-74485-9
= Oberg, Erik; Jones, Franklin D.; McCauley, Christopher J.; Heald, Ricardo M. (2004), Machinery’s Handbook (27th
ed.), Industrial Press, ISBN 978-0-8311-2700-8,
= "Machine Tool Practices”, 6th edition, by R.R..; Kibbe, J.E,; Neely, R.O.; Meyer & W.T.; White, ISBN 0-13-270232-
0, 2nd printing, copyright 1999, 1996, 1991, 1987, 1982 and 1979 by Prentice Hall
External links
= www.nmri.go,jp/eng, Elementary knowledge of metalworking (http:/iwww.nmri.go,jp/eng/khiratalmetalwork/index_
ehtmi)
= Videos about machining (https://av tib eulsearch?q=%22machining%228loc=ené&f=publisher%3Bhttp:/lav.tib.eulre
source/lWF_%2528G%25C3%25B6ttingen’%2529) published by Institut fir den Wissenschafflichen Film
Available inthe AV-Portal (https://av tib.eu/) of the German National Library of Science and Technology.
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