Here Comes the Judge

by Mark Laycock
The start of a new school year presents an ideal opportunity to reevaluate one’s pedagogi-
cal approach. Honest self-assessment may reveal areas needing improvement, whether it be
correcting intonation deficiencies or addressing advanced ensemble techniques. Moreover,
all teachers may benefit from fresh approaches to core musical concerns. This article offers an
array of pedagogical possibilities relating to a variety of musical issues—intonation, articula-
tion, rhythm, tempo and expression—attended to in the orchestra rehearsal.

Intonation
When addressing pitch concerns in the ensemble, avoid focusing on the issue in purely
auditory terms: kinesthetic and visual learners may not be fully engaged. The most effective
teaching in this area will combine two or more learning styles (e.g., kinesthetic and audi-
tory), providing multiple paths to the same solution. Also, when encountering an intonation

28 | American String Teacher | August 2012

problem in rehearsal, first determine the
cause: individual, section or ensemble.
There are distinct strategies for address-
ing all three.
The single most important factor
affecting intonation quality of individual
players is the accuracy of open string
tuning. While grade level and degree
of experience will determine the extent
to which students are able to tune their
own instruments, it is imperative that
the teacher create an environment that
is most conducive to precise tuning;
students must understand that it the
most important segment of the entire
rehearsal. Any extraneous noise, particu-
larly talking and unnecessary playing,
must not be permitted. Students should
play at a volume level just loud enough
to produce vibrations of a constant
frequency on each string. A slow, slightly
heavy stroke in the upper half of the
bow is preferable to strident, rapid bow
changes. Once in tune, a student’s pri-
mary focus is to aid his or her peers in
tuning by maintaining absolute silence.
Correct posture and position
are essential if students are to play in
tune. On all string instruments, the
left elbow, wrist and thumb are crucial
in creating a hand frame conducive to
meticulous finger placement. Reinforce-
ment and correction of position should
be incorporated into each rehearsal,
particularly as students are developing
playing habits. Convey these reminders
through a variety of delivery methods:
manual assistance, modeling and verbal
recognition of exemplary—or noticeably
improved—students.
It is generally easier for a student to
evaluate the intonation of others. In the
early stages of developing pitch sensi-
tivity, the teacher can create exercises
for intonation training by sounding a
pitch together with a drone played by a
student. (For these initial drills, it is best
if the teacher produces one of the tones;
this will allow for maximum control of
pitch discrepancy.) Begin with perfect
intervals: unisons, octaves, fifths and
fourths. With eyes closed, the students
raise their hands when the two tones
are perfectly in tune. Later, have each
student make a “tuner needle” with the
forearm; a vertical position indicates
when the pitches are in tune. At a more
advanced stage, the students can position
the palms of both hands to represent
both pitches: hands facing one another,
palms down, with one arm indicating
the static pitch while the other toggles
above and below to designate sharp or
flat. Once the student is able to identify
the ringing sonority associated with just
intonation, a logical next step might be
solo scales with open string drones.
To make discussions of intona-
tion more meaningful for tactile and
visual learners, speak in terms of finger
patterns. Can the students raise their
hands and form their fingers into ac-
curate patterns for each string in any
given key? (Marching bands often stage
“drill down” competitions to determine
the student who responds with greatest
speed and accuracy to verbal commands.
A variant of this activity might be a fun
way to check for understanding of finger
patterns.) While the low strings have a
different approach technically, this may
be the easiest method to demonstrate
understanding of half- and whole-step
patterns. Create warm-up activities in
which upper string students slide each
finger a semitone; low strings may
do the same (for finger dexterity) or
could incorporate half-position shifts.
A call-and-response format, in which
students echo the teacher’s example, can
also be effective. The goal is to develop
muscle memory of specific hand shapes.
Illustrating finger patterns on the board
will also build connections between the
aural, tactile and visual aspects.
To develop focused pitch as a sec-
tion, instruments that share the same
part should be afforded opportunities to
rehearse in isolation. In school situa-
tions where they are practical, section-
als can be invaluable in unifying pitch
(and other musical elements), develop-
ing student leadership, and promoting
camaraderie within the group. In the
absence of a qualified student leader, or
in schools where logistics prevent satellite
rehearsals of smaller groups, the direc-
tor may run these practices by creating
a rotating schedule of sectionals outside
of the school day. Other strategies at the
section level include regular seating rota-
tion, both during rehearsals of a single
program as well as between concerts.
This allows the director to monitor—and
more readily assist—less experienced
students and to give each player the
opportunity to collaborate with more of
his or her section colleagues. (When an-
nounced in advance, these rotations can
also inspire greater purpose in individual
practice among students faced with the
prospect of a more prominent position
within the section.)
Perhaps the most important tool
in improving section intonation is the
pencil. Students must have quick access
to a pencil at all times in rehearsal.
Notations in individual parts may be
instigated by a comment from the
director, instruction from the section
principal, or at the student’s own initia-
tive. If an error in pitch (or any other
musical element) elicits a correction
from someone in authority, everyone in
the section—regardless of who commit-
ted the mistake—should make a note in
his or her part; this will help avert future
mistakes. Establish a standardized set of
common notations: H or L for high or
low fingerings, an arrow to indicate a
pitch adjustment (i.e., an upward arrow
to encourage a sharpened third finger),
finger numbers for chromatic pas-
sages, and reminder sharps and flats for
recurring accidentals or less familiar key
signatures.
The pitch of the ensemble as a
whole—the vertical sonorities—may be
strengthened through a variety of means.
For example, intonation deficiencies fre-
quently result from weaknesses in other
musical areas, most notably tone quality,
blend and balance. Do all players invest
the necessary bow speed and weight
to produce a characteristic tone? Are
the variables of bow speed, weight and
placement consistent throughout each
section and, instrumental differences
notwithstanding, the entire orchestra?
Does the balance of each chord reflect
a pyramid design in which the bass
voice—generally the chord root—is
most prominent? In particular, string
bass students, often long-suffering vic-
tims of unimaginative or desultory parts,
need to understand their vital impor-
tance in the arena of ensemble balance.
This is also the perfect opportunity to
reinforce the value of a true bow path
perpendicular to the string, correct end
pin adjustment and proper instrument
www.astaweb.com | 29
 angle (F-holes facing the audience).
While not all intonation problems
will correct themselves through repeti-
tion, there are times when improved
pitch is a side benefit of rehearsing
another element (e.g., phrasing or
articulation) in a particular passage.
Insisting that students devote focused,
careful attention to a specific number
of measures—and providing the guid-
ance necessary for improvement—often
heightens the quality of all elements of
that passage: tone, pitch, rhythm and
expression. Another tactic to reinvigo-
rate student listening as a pathway to
more focused intonation is to change
the arrangement of sections within the
ensemble. If the bass contingent is of
sufficient strength, consider rehearsing
with the players lining the back of the
orchestra. Splitting the first and second
violins can foster greater independence
for both sections. Positioning the violas
next to the first violins may help clarify
the melodic and rhythmic context for
this inner voice. For a unique experience,
rehearse one day in a truly mixed forma-
tion: no two players of the same part,
except for stand partners, sitting directly
adjacent one another. Though it may test
the independence of some students, this
formation has the potential to accentuate
intonation and blend like no other. Even
if the move is only temporary, shifting
the position of players within the orches-
tra can potentially engender a new and
lasting aural perspective for all members
of the ensemble.
Articulation
To achieve uniformity in note attack and
length, insist on identical bow place-
ment, weight and speed. When a melody
is passed from one section to another, be
sure all players share the same concept
of style; a fugue is the ultimate test of
this skill. In addition to careful listening,
the musicians must watch and evaluate
one another visually. Principals and the
concertmaster must agree, then each
successive stand provides the correct ex-
ample for the remainder of each section.
Everyone should bear the responsibility
of leadership. Even last stand players,
with their unique view of the entire sec-
tion, can be called upon to assess whether
their colleagues are achieving uniform
30 | American String Teacher | August 2012
bow technique. An effective rehearsal
practice, employed in mid-phrase, is to
institute a signal for the students to freeze
suddenly while in playing position; a
quick visual scan of each section, as well
as of the orchestra as a whole, will reveal
the degree of success in matching the
bow stroke.
Individual note markings—accent,
tenuto, staccato—are ambiguous at best,
and must be executed in accordance with
the expressive and dramatic context of
any given passage. An accent in a slow,
lyrical movement should generally be
rounder and more diffuse than the same
articulation in a spirited allegro. Use
a surge of bow speed, but not weight,
combined, if possible, with a swell of vi-
brato. The degree of separation in slurred
staccato should match the prevailing
style: more connected amongst slurs and
detaché; more disjunct when juxtaposed
with shorter note values. Students must
be trained to approach each articula-
tion symbol with both sensitivity and
flexibility. If a notated slurred staccato
might best be executed as a portato, have
the students play the passage both ways;
they should be taught to recognize—and
prevent—stylistic incongruity. If more
evidence is required, play a recording of
a professional orchestra interpreting the
articulation with expressive care.
Be certain phrase and note releases
are approached with the same thought-
fulness and flexibility as beginnings. Or,
to post a philosophical question: In what
manner does the ensemble enter silence?
As with articulation, releases must be
executed in accord with the prevailing
dramatic context. If a sustained note is
strong and forceful, the release should
reflect that power: abrupt and intense.
An attention-grabbing fermata at the
beginning of a piece or a sudden, brash
fermata that interrupts the action are two
common examples. More ethereal tones
require a nuanced conclusion: decrease
the bow speed, release with vibrato, and
lift the bow from the string to encourage
a natural decay. Frequently, notes that
precede rests should be played full value
yet slightly tapered. Music of the Classi-
cal era, in particular, typically necessitates
extra care to produce unstressed endings.
Rhythm
Two areas of rhythmic execution often
require particular attention. The first is
the alignment of contrasting rhythms.
Passages in which slower and faster
note values are superimposed challenge
the rhythmic acuity of even the finest
ensembles. Direct student listening to
the fastest notes: Sustained pitches must
conform to the sounding subdivision.
Rehearsing without a conductor removes
a key visual component, focusing listen-
ing to an even greater extent. Ensemble
balance may need adjustment to facilitate
audibility of the propulsive voice.
The second category of concern is
the accuracy of dotted rhythms. The play-
ers must feel the subdivision within these
figures, maintaining a crisp, accurate 3:1
ratio rather than the too-often-heard 2:1
proportion of triplet rhythm. If necessary,
create opportunities in rehearsal for mak-
ing this subdivision audible (e.g., have
inside players bow the rhythmic division
while their stand partners play the passage
as written). Often, it is helpful to have the
students conceptualize the shorter note
as belonging to the upcoming beat rather
than the preceding one. Incorporating
challenging rhythms in a rote warm-up
routine should also promote student
comprehension.
Tempo
Consistent pulse is a challenge for
ensembles at all skill levels. One of the
most daunting contexts is a passage in
which notes alternate with rests. Encour-
age students to think of rests as moments
of preparation; they must be felt and
performed with as much intention as
the notes. Breathing in tempo for each
entrance also helps bridge the interval
between silence and sound. Maintain
steady subdivision during rests while
continuing active listening within the
orchestra. The unit of subdivision should
be at least half of the prevailing beat (e.g.,
eighth-note pulse felt in common time,
quarter-note pulse in alla breve). During
rehearsal, rests may be verbally counted,
tapped out, or otherwise physically con-
veyed. Rehearsing without a conductor
is also an effective means of evaluating
ensemble pulse.
An ensemble’s temporal deficiency
will be exacerbated in a passage contain-
ing pizzicato. In addition to regular work
with an amplified metronome, having stu-
dents vocalize the subdivision (e.g., “one-e-
and-a” or “one-ti-te-ta”) may help prevent
rushing. Rehearsing pizzicato passages
divisi—half pizzicato, half arco—allows
the plucking students to experience the
notation in sustained note values.  Adding
vibrato to pizzicato also helps lengthen
and connect these notes. Finally, incorpo-
rating some tasteful choreography, such as
ascribing a broad circle in the right hand
between pitches, may provide a kinesthetic
means of lengthening the time between
note values.
Avoid the tendency to rush slow, lyri-
cal passages, especially when comprised of
faster note values. Encourage broad, heavy
bow strokes. When conducting these pas-
sages, emphasize horizontal motion in the
gesture and the use of larger muscle groups
(i.e., the shoulder) to portray weight. Have
your students conduct with you; they
should be employing similar muscles in
their bow arms. Sparingly used, a good
visual metaphor—such as dinosaur steps,
walking through mud, moving underwa-
ter—can provide students with the proper
stylistic motivation.
Many young players have difficulty
maintaining steady rhythmic pulse when
faced with changing note lengths. Slower
note values that follow a passage of faster
notes are typically rushed. Similarly, a
slight, unwanted accelerando often
distinguishes passages in which slower
notes give way to more rapid rhythms.
One of the most pervasive rhythmic
motives—a quarter note followed by
two eight-notes—can present a challenge
for younger players: the eighths almost
invariably push ahead.  Again, maintaining
consistent, ensemble-wide subdivision is
crucial. This may be vocalized. Divide sec-
tions by stand, having half play rhythms as
notated while the others subdivide longer
note values into smaller units. Deliberate
articulation of faster note values can also
be a deterrent to rushing: adding weight
to shorter notes often creates just the right
degree of restraint.
When tempo fluctuations are ap-
propriate, be certain to plan and execute
these gestures with care. Over the course
of multiple weeks of rehearsal, it is easy to
allow ritardandos and accelerandos to lose
their organic, spontaneous nature. Step
back and analyze objectively what the en-
semble is doing at these critical junctures.
Does the accelerando emerge naturally and
logically, providing a cohesive bridge from
one passage to the next? As with crescen-
dos, accelerandos are often realized too
quickly, compromising the natural way in
which the character of the music is trans-
formed. Does the final ritardando reflect
an appropriate culmination of the energy
and momentum of the piece? Ensure that
the degree of slowing at the end is in direct
proportion to the weight and scale of the
piece or movement: Large, grand culmina-
tions for substantive works, more subtle,
modest relaxations for simpler pieces. The
addition of tasteful rubato may be fitting
in some musical styles, especially lyrical
slow movements. In these cases, strive to
alter the tempo subtly so that the phrase
breathes naturally (as when performed by
singers or wind instruments): Too much
rubato can compromise the momentum
and flow of the music.
Expression
Strive to maintain appropriate ensemble
balance at all times. Analyze the score to
determine the role of each voice at any
given point. Depending upon the time pe-
riod and style, these functions may include
melody, countermelody, harmony and bass
line. Adjust printed dynamics accordingly:
While the melodic voice does need to
project with greater volume, the accompa-
nying voices also share the responsibility
for playing softer. Some composers offer
customized dynamics for each part, while
others assign a single dynamic to the entire
ensemble; be sure the players are aware of
which procedure is in place. Also, expres-
sive indications (e.g., espressivo, en dehors)
often delineate the leading voice for a
given passage. Students should be able to
identify which part is playing the melody
at all times.
The orchestra must maintain char-
acteristic tone quality at all levels of its
dynamic range. Be sure the loudest pas-
sages still have a ringing, resonant sound;
bow weight must be counterbalanced with
sufficient speed and played at the optimal
contact point between fingerboard and
bridge. Dividing chords and double stops
also helps avoid a strident tone. Similarly,
the orchestra’s softest playing should be
characterized by warmth and vitality. For
younger orchestras, where vibrato may not
be an option, it is imperative that the bow
keep moving. If necessary, shift the contact
point to the fingerboard, but maintain
intensity and line through sufficient bow
speed. Advanced students need to be
reminded that vibrato can help preserve
melodic flow in soft passages and is invalu-
able for adding resonance to pizzicato.
As with tempo fluctuations, dynamic
shifts must be carefully paced. Be certain
that crescendo and diminuendo gestures
are not performed too quickly. The expres-
sive impact of an extended crescendo is
lost when maximum volume is achieved
prior to the notated culmination. Similar-
ly, when diminishing the volume, decrease
the sound gradually over the full extent of
the notated diminuendo. Often, the effec-
tiveness of these changes in volume will be
heightened if delayed slightly. If necessary,
determine with your students intermedi-
ary goals for extended dynamic shifts, then
have them notate in their parts approxi-
mate dynamic goals in specific measures.
However, continue to emphasize the need
for a steady shift in volume as opposed to
terraced changes in dynamics.
A fermata has the potential to
contribute much to the expression of a
passage. Customize your approach to each
fermata: Examine the musical context to
determine its dramatic function. Is it a
sudden interruption? A climactic anacru-
sis? A heart-stopping prolongation? This
will also affect the manner in which the
ensemble departs from the fermata, wheth-
er without pause, with a single preparatory
beat, or incorporating a longer break. In
any case, the length of the fermata must
be greater than the note value on which it
falls. Fermatas placed at the end of a work
need to be of a sufficient length propor-
tionate to the piece as a whole: a longer
fermata allows for the satisfying release
of tension and momentum accumulated
through the course of a composition.
Accompanying voices must also play
expressively. It is much easier to lend shape
and nuance to a melodic line than to an
accompanimental part; the latter requires
mature musicianship and creativity. Insist
upon uniform articulation and note
lengths in these subordinate parts. Encour-
age the players to emulate the contour
and intensity of the primary line. Have
your students notate dynamic shadings in
www.astaweb.com | 31
 passages where the accompanimental line
does not lend itself to obvious expressive
interpretation. With advanced students,
insist on vibrato when appropriate, add-
ing warmth and color while maintain-
ing ensemble balance. Younger players
must maintain bow speed and weight for
greater sonority. Even the most repeti-
tive passages, such as walking bass lines
and upper string off-beats, may spring
to life by means of slight variation in
note length and weight, coupled with
dynamic shading at the phrasal level.
excitement and momentum when was an adjudicator for the 2011 ASTA
building to a culmination or dramatic National Orchestra Festival and was a
catharsis; the codas of most Romantic clinician for the event in 2012. Laycock has
presented clinic sessions for several state
symphonic finales typically encourage
education conferences as well as the ASTA
this kind of breathless scurrying to the National Conference, the Northwest Division
finish. In both cases, the framework of MENC Conference, and the Midwest Clinic.
the tempo is undisturbed: the rhythm
simply “leans” one way or the other.
Perhaps the most important lesson
we can impart in the classroom is that
lifelong learning can bring immeasur-
able joy and fulfillment. Consequently,
our efforts to fortify and revitalize our

A
When performing arrangements, pedagogy benefit not only ourselves but
evaluate all markings: articulation, also our students. These suggestions
bowing, dynamics, etc. Remember that are intended as a mere starting point, a
stylistic approaches to older composi- means to inspire the self-reflection, and
tions—especially Baroque and Classical professional renewal at the heart of all
re you in need of
music—have changed over time. Current good teaching. affordable insurance? ASTA
scholarship generally favors a lighter,
more transparent approach to this rep- Mark Laycock is an is in partnership with TFJ to
ertoire. Consequently, you may need to associate professor offer liability, group term life,
amend some of the editorial suggestions. of music at Wichita
Whenever possible, compare the arrange- State University, health, and even personal
where he holds the
ment with the original work. Sharing auto insurance. If you’d like to
Ann Walenta Faculty
with your students a recent, reputable of Distinction
recording of the original may inspire a endowed professor- take advantage of this great
valuable discussion regarding fidelity ship. He serves as
to the written notation versus editorial
opportunity for reliable and
director of orchestras
emendations. and coordinator of strings. Laycock is a comprehensive coverage,
Lead your students toward a nu- member of the board of directors of the
anced approach to dynamics and tempo. Midwest Clinic. His work as guest conductor, please go to www.ftj.com/ASTA
clinician, and adjudicator spans 20 states,
In terms of volume, remind them that
including the leadership of All State, to find out more.
any given dynamic level represents a
regional, and district honor orchestras. He
range of loudness, not a specific point. A
piano passage, for example, may contain
a variety of intensities influenced by
such musical factors as phrase shape,
texture and articulation. Playing within
the notated dynamic level—rather than
at the dynamic level—will create a
degree of flexibility and shading needed
for subtle expressive coloring. Simi-
larly, a specific tempo permits a small
but perceptible range of possibilities
relative to the pulse; these nuances can
have a dramatic effect on the audience’s
perception of time. (Colleagues who
teach jazz are often highly attuned to
these subtleties.) The ensemble can play
slightly behind the beat, lending a sense
of breadth or expansiveness to a passage;
a Frank Sinatra ballad such as “In the
Wee Small Hours of the Morning” or
the Count Basie tune “Li’l Darlin’” are
prime examples. Conversely, placing
notes slightly before the beat adds

32 | American String Teacher | August 2012

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