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Chapter 82 doi: 10.1680/moge.57098.1225

CONTENTS
Piling problems 82.1 Introduction 1225
Viv Troughton Arup, London, UK 82.2 Bored piles 1226
John Hislam Applied Geotechnical Engineering, Berkhamsted, UK 82.3 Driven piles 1230
82.4 Identifying and resolving
The successful installation of piles requires a good understanding of the potential problems problems 1233
that can arise, which are highly dependent on the type of piling and the ground conditions in 82.5 References 1235
which the pile is installed. These can affect the geotechnical behaviour of the piled foundation
and its structural integrity, as well as its impact on the environment.
For bored piles, the different methods of boring, the type of drilling tool and the way
the ground is supported will have different effects on the ground. The structural integrity
is also affected by the way in which the concrete is placed, the detailing and installation of
reinforcement, and the final trimming of pile heads.
Driven piles are either low or high displacement piles. Installation techniques vary from
drop hammers and vibratory techniques to hydraulic press-in methods. The technique chosen
and the amount of ground displacement can affect both the behaviour of the pile and its
structural integrity. Installation aids such as jetting and pre-boring require careful control, and
environmental effects such as noise and vibration also require particular consideration.
Guidance is provided on how problems are commonly identified, how they are assessed, and
the ways in which they can be resolved.

82.1 Introduction
There are several key references that provide a comprehensive
background to the potential problems that can arise in piling. The
more common problems for driven and bored piles are described
by Fleming et al. (2009) in their handbook Piling Engineering.
Specific sections are also included covering driven cast in situ
piles, continuous flight auger (CFA) piles, and cast in situ screw
piles. Thorburn and Thorburn (1977) CIRIA report PG2 pro-
vides a review of piling problems associated with the construc-
tion of cast in situ concrete piles. Healy and Weltman (1980)
CIRIA report PG8 provides a survey of the problems associated
with the installation of displacement piles and although some
of the techniques have changed, much of the guidance is still
valid. Tomlinson (1994) describes the potential problems asso-
ciated with piles in specific situations. These include piling for
machinery foundations and underpinning, piling in mining sub-
sidence areas, in frozen ground, for foundations for bridges on
land and over water, foundations in cast and energy piles.
Specifications and codes are also an important source of
information and many of the requirements contained in these
documents have been incorporated as a result of problems that
have been identified in piling projects. The ICE Specification
for Piling and Embedded Retaining Walls (SPERW) (ICE, 2007)
covers most of the common types of piling and includes guid-
ance as well as specification clauses. The sections cover bear-
ing piles and piles incorporated in retaining walls as contigu-
ous piled walls, secant and sheet pile walls and king post walls.
The Federation of Piling Specialists (FPS, 1999) have also pro-
vided a commentary on the ICE Specification (SPERW) but this
relates to the 1996 edition which has been superseded by the
2007 edition (ICE, 2007). Nevertheless, the FPS commentary
includes some useful guidance, some of which has been incor-
porated in the ICE (2007) specification guidance. Execution of
bored piles is covered in BS EN 1536:2000 (BSI, 2000a) and
execution of displacement piles in BS EN 12699:2001 (BSI,
2001). The different types of bored and driven piles and their
methods of installation are also described in Chapter 81 Types
of bearing piles.
Noise and vibration control in piling is comprehensively
covered in BS5228 (2009). Part 1 (BSI, 2009a) covers noise,
including methods of noise control, guidance on methods for
predicting and measuring noise, and assessing its impact. Part 2
(BSI, 2009b) covers vibration and means of vibration control,
as well as guidance on methods of measuring and assessing
vibration. Measured levels of vibration for piling are included
in an appendix.
The durability of steel piling is covered in EC3 Part 5 (BSI,
2007a) and in the Piling Handbook (ArcelorMittal, 2008),
which also contains useful practical guidance on pile driving.
It details corrosion performance of steel piles and describes
protective measures that can be adopted to increase their effec-
tive life. The durability of bored piles is detailed in both EC2
Part 1 (BSI, 2004) and EN206 (BSI, 2000b), which describe
the exposure classes affecting durability and the requirements
for concrete cover to reinforcement.
Many of the common problems in piling can be avoided by
selecting the right piling system for the site conditions, and then
ensuring that the installation is properly controlled and exe-
cuted. A comprehensive site investigation is an essential com-
ponent in selecting the appropriate method and the Association
of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists (AGS, 2006)
guidelines are a very useful starting point and aide-mémoire.

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 Construction processes

With a good understanding of the ground conditions and the the casing, sometimes as the auger is rotating within the cas-
risks that can arise with different pile systems, the designer can ing. Mudding-in had the inherent problem of creating a weak
select an appropriate method and control measures that will zone around the casing which, if adequate concrete head were
ensure successful construction of the piles. This is all part of not utilised during subsequent casing extraction during con-
the pile design process which is described in Chapter 54 Single creting, could lead to a reduction in the concrete cross-section
piles. The following sections cover the common problems that (known as necking) as the ground slumped into the bore.
can arise with the installation of bored and driven piles. This phenomenon of necking can also occur when withdraw-
ing temporary casings if there is insufficient head of concrete
82.2 Bored piles to resist the external groundwater pressure. This is illustrated
82.2.1 Ground conditions in Figure 82.1. To avoid this, the ICE SPERW (ICE, 2007)
has specified minimum casting levels for concrete which are
It is important to ensure that the equipment to be utilised for included in Table 82.1. This type of problem is most acute with
boring is adequate for the ground conditions. This may seem long casings. The fall in concrete within the casing must be
obvious but the greatest unknown is still the ground. There may carefully observed as the casing is extracted in order to top-up
be unproven obstructions, both natural and man-made, that
could prevent a ‘less heavy’ item of plant from completing the
boring. Delays may occur if break-out tools have to be mobi-
lised to site. Sometimes, the specialist contractor may know
if natural obstructions are likely in a given area. There is also
the possibility that, due to some unforeseen ground condition,
the piles may have to be re-designed utilising a differing pile
diameter. Whilst this should not be anticipated by the special-
ist contractor, his plant should ideally be able to switch to the
alternative geometry.
By far the most common problem is the poor understand-
ing of the ground conditions, usually due to inadequate site
investigation. When this occurs, the client usually ends up pay-
ing for the cost and time lost caused by the ‘unknown’ condi-
tions. There is also the common problem of a varying depth
of founding stratum. This is more acute for CFA piling as the
boring is essentially blind. Probing using the piling auger is
Figure 82.1 Necking in bored piles when the casing is pulled
possible, but is only a crude identifier of such depths.
Boring tools should be checked to ensure that the design
diameter is to be achieved. The ICE SPERW (ICE, 2007) rec- Cut-off level below Casting tolerance
ommends a tolerance of up to 5%. Depth indicators and other commencing above cut-off
instrumentation should be regularly calibrated, particularly if surface, H(1) (m) level (m) Condition
drilling tools or auger strings are changed. Other issues that 0.15 to any depth 0.3 + H/10 Piles cast in dry bore
can be of concern are smear in clays and weak rocks, bores within permanent casing
left open too long before concreting and bases not adequately or cut-off level in stable
cleaned. This list is not exhaustive. ground below base of
casing
0.15–10.00 0.3 + H/12 + C/8 Piles cast in dry bore
82.2.2 Boring
using temporary casing
The correct use of temporary casings is essential for the suc- other than above
cess of good pile construction. Casings should always be 0.15–10.00 1.0 + H/12 + C/8 Piles or walls cast under
driven or screwed in advance of drilling tools through unstable where C = length water or support fluid(2)
soils so as to provide a safe working environment and avoid of temporary
over-excavation. A basic problem is found when, due to varia- casing below the
commencing surface
tions in the depth of unstable soils, the casing lengths used are
(1)
inadequate and attempts to push them further into the ground Beyond H = 10 m, the casting tolerance applying to H = 10 m shall apply.
(2)
In cases where a pile is cast so that the cut-off level is within a permanent
risk the safety of personnel working around the bore (a mini- lining tube, or for a wall, the appropriate tolerance is given by deleting the casing
mum of 1 m should be left above commencement level as a term C/8.
safety barrier). With the less frequent use of high speed rota- Table 82.1 Concrete casting level tolerance above cut-off levels for
tion, the practice of ‘mudding-in’ has become less common specified conditions
Data taken from ICE (2007)
and the prevalent method is to screw/crowd (i.e. push down)

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 Piling problems

the bore to prevent such pressure differential affecting the con- is too low this can lead to bore collapse; if the fluid is dense
crete placement. Vibrating casings is an effective method for due to suspended solids it can lead to clean-up problems. Bores
the larger diameter bores, but care must be exercised as above must be cleaned and the drilling fluid conditioned and re-cir-
and disturbance to previously concreted piles or other struc- culated after boring and cleaning to ensure that no ‘sludge’
tures prevented. remains at the base which could lead to concreting problems
The sequence of bored pile construction, whether for dis- and poor base loading of the pile. Sampling of the drilling fluid
crete bearing piles or wall piles, and whether by conventional should be undertaken with special tools.
rotary bored piling or CFA methods, is of importance to pile One of the most common problems encountered in CFA pil-
integrity. The problems usually occur in weak or soft soils ing is the tendency to ‘flight’ material up the bore and cause
where the shear strength of the soils is inadequate to resist the over-excavation of the weaker soils. This is illustrated in
lateral pressures of the fluid concrete. If the concrete is poured Figure 82.4; guidance is given in ICE SPERW (ICE, 2007).
to a level significantly above groundwater level (and it is essen- Essentially, care has to be taken, particularly in silts and fine
tial for all bored piles to be concreted to at least nominally 1 m sands, to ensure an adequate rate of penetration of the auger
above groundwater level), the excess hydrostatic pressure can versus the number of revolutions. Excessive rotation of the
be significantly greater than that in the ground. auger without penetration should not be permitted.
During boring, the fluid concrete in an adjacent pile can be Auger displacement piles are a form of piling where the
disturbed and flow laterally if the piles are close together and auger displaces the ground without removing spoil. There are
the ground between them insufficiently strong to resist the lat- two types of displacement piles: the helical (screw) and the
eral pressures. During concreting, the pressurised column of soil displacement. For the screw displacement pile, the rate of
fluid concrete could exceed the in situ pressures in a recently
cast pile and cause ground movement towards the previously
concreted pile – thus possibly causing a reduction in pile cross-
sectional area. It is normal practice to leave at least three pile
diameters spacing between successive piles in any one work-
ing day. When using CFA methodology which uses positive
injection pressures to assist sound concrete placement, this
spacing may have to be increased.
When boring into aquifers under drilling fluid or water, it
is important to raise and lower drilling tools slowly to prevent
suction or pressurisation destabilising the bore as shown in
Figure 82.2. Drilling buckets should have a sufficient bypass
for the fluid to pass through or around the bucket, such as the
flat-sided bucket shown in Figure 82.3, in order to reduce the
suction or pressurisation effects. Care must be taken to check
the properties of the drilling fluid regularly. If the fluid density

Figure 82.3 Flat-sided digging bucket to allow fluid to bypass

Courtesy of Balfour Beatty Ground Engineering
Temporary Rapid
casing rise in
fluid
level
Drilling Spoil Spoil
fluid
Fluid
Loose soils
Scour Slow Loose
bypass drawn in
under lift
in bucket soil to partly
casing
Bucket High rotation filled auger
raised speed
Drilling or too
cleaning fast
bucket Hard
Pipes through bucket strata Low penetration Spoil continues to flight
or flat-sided to rate or refusal upwards without any
provide fluid bypass significant advance
of the auger
Figure 82.2 The effect of suction and scour on borehole stability
when using drilling buckets Figure 82.4 Flighting in CFA piles

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 Construction processes
penetration is controlled during insertion and removal of the
auger to ensure that the auger follows the same path of flights –
thus forming concrete ribs for the pile. Accurate monitoring
and control of the rotation and penetration rate of the auger is
essential to ensure integrity of the concrete ribs. For the soil
displacement pile type, the soil is displaced without forming
ribs. Substantial torque and crowd may be needed to ensure
the auger penetrates the bearing stratum to a sufficient depth to
achieve the required bearing capacity.
Other problems that may occur are discussed here. One prob-
lem is the meeting of natural or man-made obstructions. Even
with the best desk study/collation of services information, the
chances of hitting services are real. Smear to the bore walls,
which can reduce the shaft friction, can occur in clays and
weak mudstone due to over-rotation of the drilling tools. This
is illustrated in Figure 82.5 for a rotary bored pile shaft and in
Figure 82.6 for a CFA pile in mudstone which was deliberately
over-rotated. If bores are left open too long, clays can soften
and again result in lower shaft friction being mobilised. Pile
end bearing can also be affected by allowing loose material to
Smear in mudstone
bore being washed
off by water seepage
Figure 82.5 Smear in rotary bored shaft in weak mudstone
Smear zone
on CFA pile in
mudstone
Figure 82.6 Smear on shaft of CFA bored pile in Mercia Mudstone
Courtesy of Balfour Beatty Ground Engineering
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collect on the base. In a dry bore, a bladed auger or cleaning
bucket is used to remove the loose debris. In piles that are bored
under water or drilling fluid, suspended soil particles can settle
onto the pile base and a cleaning bucket, air lift or submersible
pump should be used to clean the base.
82.2.3 Concreting
Some of the problems associated with concrete placement have
been noted in section 82.2.2, but this is by no means an exhaus-
tive list. Since the most common method of concrete supply is
via ready-mix suppliers, basic checks of the concrete delivery
ticket, however mundane a process, can save problems with
incorrect batching and distribution. The next most important
check is of slump; as with all types of bored piling, high slump
mixes are essential. Concrete that is too stiff is unsuitable for the
self-compacting nature of the mixes employed and can cause
blockages in tremie tubes and CFA delivery pipes. Placement
pipes are desirable as they limit the segregation of concrete
poured into bores, especially those that have pre-placed rein-
forcement cages. ICE SPERW (ICE, 2007) recommends the use
of a rigid delivery pipe placed centrally in the bore to prevent the
concrete hitting the reinforcement and so avoid segregation.
When concrete is placed inside a temporary casing, suffi-
cient concrete needs to be provided to fill the extra volume
created by the removal of the temporary casing. It is essential,
especially for long casings, to monitor the internal concrete
level and allow for topping up as casings are extracted.
There is the thorny subject for conventional bored piling of
‘how wet can the bore be’ before normal concrete placement
has to be replaced by tremie placement. This is usually a prob-
lem encountered in otherwise dry cohesive ground, as the water
table level in granular soils will normally be known before
construction and the appropriate concrete placement method
selected. Clearly, water entering the bore, whether from some
way down the bore walls or from the base, influences the deci-
sion. On occasions where the amount of water entry is very
minimal, it is impractical to use a tremie to place the concrete.
In this situation it is quite adequate to either ‘dry’ the bore by
the placement of dry cement or leave the final metres of boring
until concrete is known to be ready on site for placement. If
there is any doubt, the answer is to change concreting method-
ology and possibly pile design, so as to avoid the problem.
Whilst unlikely, the joints of tremie pipe assemblies can
cause blockage if not adequately sealed due to the squeezing
of water out of the fluid concrete by the excess pressure head
in the pipe. Vigilance is important, particularly when removing
and breaking such assemblies, and renewal of the rubber seal
rings must be undertaken so as to prevent re-occurrence.
The removal of the tremie must be carefully controlled by
logging the tremie depth as each volume of concrete is placed.
Over-extraction of the tremie will cause a break in concrete
quality in the bore with a zone of trapped detritus. To avoid
over–extraction, ICE SPERW (2007) requires a minimum 3 m
embedment for the tremie pipe in the concrete.
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 Piling problems

In CFA piling, a problem can occur either above or below The level at which reinforcement is placed should be done
the groundwater table due to the bleeding of water and possi- with care so as to avoid subsequent problems with inadequate
bly fines from the fluid concrete after placement. The problem projection when follow-on trades take over the adoption of the
is more prevalent above the groundwater table in dry granular piles into the works.
soils and is caused by the squeezing of water/fines from the
concrete due to the significantly higher pressure in the con- 82.2.5 Ancillary works
crete versus the ground. Usually this problem can be foreseen After the completion of any one pile, the important thing is to
and changes to concrete mix design (such as over-sanding ensure it is protected until the concrete has attained strength.
and a higher dosage of plasticiser) are made. Problems also Plant must not be allowed to travel near such piles as the fluid
occur below the groundwater table for similar reasons but are or partially set concrete cannot offer adequate passive resis-
not always evident before the commencement of work. Such tance to the lateral pressures so induced (see Figure 82.7). This
problems are usually only detected when it becomes difficult is often the reason for inadequate concrete cover or misaligned
or impossible to place reinforcement cages into the suppos- reinforcement cages. The clear identification of piles should
edly fluid concrete. The concrete in the affected depth zone also be a basic item of housekeeping on any site.
will have lost its workability and present an obstruction to Other good housekeeping should include the removal of
the smooth passage of the reinforcement cage. The remedy in spoil and general area cleaning to create a safe working envi-
these situations is to extract the reinforcement cage, re-bore, ronment and prevent debris from entering the fluid concrete.
and re-concrete the bore so as to have workable concrete This should be undertaken using appropriate reach plant, so as
throughout the pile depth. to avoid surcharging the piles.
Another ‘golden rule’ is: ‘once the concrete is placed, leave Cutting down piles must be done with care. The use of later-
it alone’. That is to say, there is risk of contamination of the ally applied breakers, unless of a multi-circular configuration,
concrete in the bore if over-emphasis is made to clean up the must not be permitted. Ideally, proprietary multi-teeth break-
top of the pile. However, with care, clean up and reduction of ers should be utilised. The removal of the top concrete core is
concrete level is achievable, even to the extent of preparing/ assisted by the use of foam sleeves affixed to the reinforcement
casting pile caps integral with the piles. above cut-off level. FPS (2008) have produced a guidance note
82.2.4 Reinforcement covering this topic and there is also a CIRIA (Cox, 2009) paper
on the subject.
Congestion of reinforcement in heavy cages can lead to poor
concrete placement with associated problems of design integ-
rity of reinforcement bond. The problem is usually found when
lapping multiple cages. BS EN1536 (BSI, 2000a) requires a Heavy plant
minimum of 100 mm between main bars or 80 mm when using
aggregate of 20 mm or less. On occasion it may be necessary
to limit aggregate size to conform to these requirements, or
use double circles of main reinforcement or bent bars to crank
radially in the pile.
Poor handling and coupling of cages can be avoided by cage
welding, which is now becoming more prevalent, or by using
stiffeners, particularly for larger diameter cages. Pre-welded
cages are usually more accurately produced than hand-tied
cages and allow better matching of bars at laps. Correct lifting Pile Ground bearing capacity
moved failure – due to lack of passive
of cages should be observed to avoid collapse. Cages should be restraint in fluid pile concrete
laterally
stored so as to remain essentially clean and must not become
covered with mud or other debris.
Spacers to ensure adequate cover for the reinforcement to the
bore walls do not always get the attention they deserve. After
the expensive mobilisation of specialist equipment and man-
power, procurement of high quality materials, do not allow the
final product to be ruined for the sake of inadequate spacers –
either by quality or number. Often the inadequacy of spacers
only comes to light when the hardened pile is excavated or cut
down – to reveal either no spacers, or bent or twisted ones that
have allowed the cage to move eccentrically in the bore before
the concrete has set and hence denigrate the finished product. Figure 82.7 Damage to piles from nearby plant movement

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 Construction processes
82.2.6 Structural problems
Structural problems arise when reinforcement is placed at the
incorrect level, or the cage becomes displaced due to poor use
of spacers or mechanical displacement. The proving of concrete
strength can be fraught with practical difficulties such as poor
or dirty cube moulds, inadequate labelling, poor storage, curing
tanks not being temperature controlled and poor off-site testing.
Fortunately, the industry is moving to a self-certification sys-
tem that is the province of the concrete supplier. The ready-mix
industry has taken it upon itself to overcome the known short-
comings of this facet of construction and now collects samples
from sites and produces records of the set concrete properties.
Pile eccentricity can cause problems, particularly if the
designer has not taken account of the tolerance latitude that is
permissible.
82.3 Driven piles
82.3.1 Installation methods and ground conditions
BS EN 12699:2001 (BSI, 2001) covers the execution of con-
crete, steel, timber and cast iron displacement piles. Driven
piles include low displacement piles such as open-ended steel
tubes, steel sheets and steel H-sections, and high displacement
piles such as pre-cast concrete sections, closed-ended steel
tubes, timber piles and driven cast in situ concrete piles. Piles
are installed by using drop hammers, vibratory techniques or
by hydraulic press-in methods.
Hydraulically operated drop hammers are most commonly
used to drive pre-cast concrete sections, and vibratory meth-
ods and drop hammers are both commonly used for steel piles.
Hydraulic press-in methods are used to install steel sheets and
some tube sections in areas where noise and vibration are to
be avoided.
Adequate site investigation information is critical for mak-
ing an assessment of driveability. The presence of obstructions
and hard layers can affect driveability and additional mea-
sures such as jetting and pre-boring may be needed for the pile
installation.
82.3.2 Pile manufacture
The manufacture of pre-cast concrete piles is covered by BS
EN 12794:2007 (BSI, 2007b). The piles should be designed
to withstand handling and driving stresses which are often
considerably greater than the stresses they will experience in
service. Pre-cast concrete piles are cast in moulds; the con-
crete strength needs to be sufficient for their removal from the
moulds, handling and transportation, and then for final driving.
The piles are cast in lengths that will subsequently be jointed
on site. The ends of the sections therefore need to be cast
square to the pile to ensure they fit tightly together and avoid
eccentricity of loading (see Figure 82.8).
Steel and timber pile manufacture is unlikely to present any
particular issues. Straightness of the section is important to
avoid induced bending during driving.
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Figure 82.8 Ends of pre-cast piles, not cast square
82.3.3 Pile installation
Piles installed using drop hammer or vibratory techniques are
held in leaders or guide frames to guide the hammer or vibra-
tor, pitch the pile and hold the pile during the driving process.
For hydraulic press-in methods, the hydraulic jaws clamp onto
the pile to guide and feed the sections into the ground.
Over-driving, described by Healy and Weltman (1980), can
often occur when attempting to drive piles to an unreasonable
design depth. This can result in permanent damage to the pile
head which is visible, or to the pile toe where it is unseen. In
the case of toe damage, a pile may appear to be driving nor-
mally but the set may not build up as expected due to crushing
or distortion of the pile toe. Where it is important to reach a
particular depth, jetting or pre-boring should be considered.
Jetting and pre-boring need particular care to ensure that
they do not cause disturbance to the ground that would affect
adjacent structures such as utilities and buildings, or affect the
performance of the piles. For jetting, a high pressure water jet
is used to erode or loosen the soil at the pile tip. Water returns
and pressures should be monitored to ensure the water is not
finding an alternative flow path away from the pile tip. If the
returns are blocked, pressure can rapidly build in the ground
and cause heave. In pre-boring, an auger is used to loosen the
soil prior to pile installation. Spoil removal should be limited to
the minimum necessary to aid pile installation without affect-
ing the geotechnical performance of the pile. Pile behaviour is
best checked by dynamic or static test loading.
Damage during driving can occur, particularly at the pile
head where the stresses are highest. For pre-cast concrete this
will take the form of cracking and spalling of the concrete as
shown in Figure 82.9, and on steel sections the pile head may
bend or buckle. In order to prevent spalling, pre-cast concrete
pile suppliers normally provide a protective steel band at the
pile head and keep the concrete cover to a minimum whilst
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Figure 82.9 Damaged pre-cast concrete pile head
Courtesy of Balfour Beatty Ground Engineering
still complying with durability requirements for protecting the
reinforcement (Healy and Weltman, 1980 CIRIA report PG8).
Damage can also occur within the pile due to tensile stresses.
This can occur anywhere in the pile shaft when piles are driven
using excessive hammer energy in soft ground and the damage
is not noticed until harder driving occurs later towards the end
of the drive. The cracking induced earlier in the pile shaft then
leads to spalling and compressive failure at depth.
Pre-cast piles are usually reinforced to resist these driving
stresses and breakages are relatively uncommon. They tend to
happen when obstructions are encountered. Although piles are
relatively slender, buckling is unlikely because of the restraint
provided by the ground. Even soft ground will usually provide
adequate support to prevent buckling during driving.
Where steel pile heads are damaged during installation, they
can be cut back and extension pieces welded on. Requirements
for structural welds can be difficult to achieve under site condi-
tions and usually require verification testing which can delay
the works. Procedures and testing requirements for both off-site
and site welding are detailed in ICE SPERW (2007) and general
guidance for arc welding is covered in BS EN 1011 Part 1 (BSI,
1998). Repairs to a concrete section can be made but delays are
likely to be considerable due to the time required for the new
section to cure.
Particular care is needed where driven piles are to be
founded in a dense layer of variable thickness that is underlain
by weaker material. Piles may punch through the dense layer
in some locations before reaching the required set. In these
circumstances, detailed site investigation information regard-
ing the variability of strength and thickness of the founding
stratum is critical. This information may need to be backed
up by driveability trials, selecting areas close to boreholes
where the founding stratum thickness and strength are the
most critical.
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Piling problems
During driving, steel tube piles can plug. This is where the
soil inside the tube moves down instead of up as the pile contin-
ues to be driven. The mechanics of whether plugging is likely to
occur have been investigated by White et al. (2002). They have
shown how this affects the pile capacity and describe measures
for reducing the effects by fitting a pile shoe. Piles can also
be made to deliberately plug by welding an internal plate to
prevent upward travel of soil inside the pile. Plugging in H-pile
sections is very rare according to Biddle (1997) and should not
be assumed unless it is demonstrated during driving.
Particular care is needed with founding driven piles onto bur-
ied inclined rock surfaces and rock head which contains boul-
ders. These conditions can potentially deflect the pile off-line,
inducing bending and damage to the pile and can lead to uncer-
tainty in establishing a reliable set. Steep-sided rock faces, such
as the edges of backfilled quarries, present a particular risk.
82.3.4 Final set
Driven piles are normally driven to a final set which is usually
defined as the measured penetration for 10 blows. False sets can
occur where there are obstructions or boulders in the ground, or
where thin rock bands may overlie weaker layers. Trial drives
at various locations around the site are a way of verifying con-
sistent founding conditions and compatibility with the expected
ground conditions and design. Pre-boring can be used where
the pile driving is likely to be impeded by obstructions.
In very stiff clays and chalk the pile resistance can increase
with time; this is known as set-up. A delay in the driving can
then lead to extra energy being required to get the pile moving
again. The increase in pore water pressure developed during
driving reduces the ground resistance to driving. As this excess
pressure dissipates, the resistance increases. This is beneficial
to the long-term capacity but it is important not to test the pile
too soon after installation – otherwise the pile capacity will be
underestimated. If the problem is assessed as potentially sig-
nificant, piezometers can be used to monitor the dissipation of
the excess pore water pressures.
In dense silts and some weathered rocks, false sets can occur.
This has been suggested to be the result of negative pore water
pressures being induced by the pile driving. The dissipation of
the negative pore water pressure can lead to a relaxation of the
pile set. It is therefore necessary to carry out re-drive checks
in these circumstances to check for any relaxation or reduction
in pile resistance. The problem of relaxation can also occur in
some mudstones where it has been suggested that the clay in
the joints squeezes out or consolidates when load is applied
after driving.
82.3.5 Downdrag
In soft clays and silts, the driving of displacement piles can
cause excess pore pressures to develop which will dissipate
over time. As the excess water dissipates, the soil will consoli-
date leading to an additional downdrag load developing in the
pile. Pre-boring and sometimes slip coatings can be used to
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 Construction processes
reduce these effects. Generally, slip coatings have not proved
very effective and their integrity after driving is uncertain.
The additional downdrag load will usually be assessed and
included as an additional load in the pile design. Downdrag
loads can also occur in loose granular soils where the driving
causes compaction of the soils.
82.3.6 Ground displacement
The process of driving a pile into the ground causes displace-
ment of the ground which can lead to heave and lateral soil
displacement in incompressible soils, or compaction and set-
tlement in loose granular soils. The effects are greatest for high
displacement piles in incompressible ground. In a confined
situation such as a cofferdam, the cumulative effect of driv-
ing several piles can lead to increased ground displacement
and lateral pressures. These can affect the cofferdam structure
or make further driving of piles increasingly difficult as the
ground tightens up. Use of low displacement piles, pre-boring
and careful sequencing of the pile installation can all help to
mitigate these effects. For large structures such as oil tanks, it
is normal practice to drive piles from the centre working out-
wards. When working near to retaining walls, piles should be
installed by working progressively away from the wall.
Preformed piles, such as pre-cast concrete and steel sec-
tions, can all be re-driven if there is a suspicion that they have
been uplifted by driving adjacent piles. This is not the case for
cast in situ driven piles, where an assessment would need to be
made of any potential effect on performance.
82.3.7 Pile trimming
Poorly controlled pile trimming is probably the most common
cause of damage to pre-cast concrete piles. Breaking down of
piles, FPS (2008) provides guidance on various methods and
states that heavy impact breakers should not be used on small
diameter and lightly reinforced piles, or piles in soft ground.
Cox (2009) also describes the different methods of pile trim-
ming and the failure of the pile reinforcement that can occur
with some systems. In particular, he notes the specific benefit
of using debonding foam to avoid pile damage.
Trimming of steel piles should be carried out using a disc
cutter or steel saw and not with burning equipment which will
reduce the strength of the steel.
82.3.8 Jointing piles
Pre-cast concrete piles are usually supplied in sections which
are connected by joints. There are two types of joints in general
use. The first is a full strength mechanical joint which provides
a compression, tension and moment connection. The second
non-mechanical joint provides a compression connection only.
Failure of joints is rare, but mechanical joints should be used
where a lot of obstructions are known to be present.
For steel-cased piles, the problems of jointing casing lengths
are associated with the practical aspects of site welding, including
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preparation and inspection. Again, the recommendations pro-
vided in SPERW (ICE, 2007) are highly relevant. Occasionally,
threaded joints from second-hand or non-prime drill casing are
employed as a means of avoiding the delays associated with
welding. The casing sections are joined by driving the end of the
casing with the male thread into the female internally-threaded
collar. This provides an interference fit that is only suitable for
compressive loads (and not tensile loads). For bottom-driven thin
wall steel-cased piles, the casing sections are usually provided
with simple interference fit spigot- and socket-type connections
that can be jointed by tack welding. Alternatively, riveted con-
nections can be used as a temporary expedient for the casing
where the connection is only required to resist tension forces
during driving. Thin-walled steel casings are also employed for
Odex drilled-in piles, and in these cases tack welding is also sat-
isfactory for jointing as the casings, left in permanently, are not
considered structurally in the pile design process.
82.3.9 Noise and vibration
Noise is a potential problem for driven piling operations, par-
ticularly systems that are top-driven. Noise levels are generally
less for bottom-driven methods where the hammer is contained
within a driving tube or where vibratory methods are used.
Consideration needs to be given to the proximity to noise- and
vibration-sensitive areas. Measures can be taken to reduce the
noise with acoustic shrouds and by restricting working hours.
Alternatively, hydraulic push-in systems can be considered
which have very low noise levels. Field measurements using
this system have been compared to the existing recommended
limits by White et al. (2002).
BS 5228 (2009) is the code of practice for noise and vibra-
tion control on construction sites and Part 1 (BSI, 2009a) covers
noise. It provides guidance concerning methods of predicting
and measuring noise, and assessing the impact on those exposed
to it. Noise control from piling sites is specifically addressed
in Section 8.5 and types of piling are discussed in Appendix
H of the code. For top-driven systems, noise reduction can be
achieved by introducing a non-metallic dolly (such as timber)
between the hammer and the driving helmet. Acoustic shrouds
have also been used to enclose the driving equipment. Data will
normally be available from piling contractors for their particular
system.
The driving of piles into the ground creates stress waves
and vibrations that can affect the environment. The effects of
vibration can be reduced by modifying the impact or frequency
of the pile driving equipment. Vibratory piling methods also
induce vibration in the ground. On some occasions, isolation
trenches can prove useful in protecting neighbouring structures
as they act as an inherent barrier to such ground-borne vibra-
tions. However, ‘freak’ passages of vibration, possibly through
susceptible strata, can also occur. As an alternative for steel
piling, hydraulic push-in piling methods can be adopted which
result in very low levels of ground vibration. White et al. (2002)
have provided prediction curves showing that this system has
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 Piling problems

low vibration levels that enable it to be used much closer to
residential buildings than impact or vibratory methods.
The level of vibration depends on the source and the distance
from it. Even very low levels of vibration can be sensed by
humans but much larger levels are necessary to cause damage
to structures. BS 5228 (2009) is the code of practice for noise
and vibration control on construction sites and Part 2 (BSI,
2009b) covers vibration. It provides guidance on methods of
measuring vibration and assessing its impact on the environ-
ment. Annex C provides current measured vibration levels for
piling and Annex D provides historic data.
The threshold of perception of vibration for humans occurs
at very low levels of peak particle velocity (PPV) in the range
0.15–0.3 mm/s. The threshold criteria for damage to buildings
occur at much higher levels and are presented in BS 7385–2
and are summarised in Annex B of BS 5228–2 (BSI, 2009b).
These depend on the type of structure, the peak particle veloc-
ity of the vibration and the frequency range. In general, for
reinforced or framed structures and industrial and heavy com-
mercial buildings, the threshold level for cosmetic damage
from transient vibration is 50 mm/s. For unreinforced or light
framed and for residential or light commercial buildings the
threshold is 50 mm/s for frequencies above 40 Hz, but reduces
to 20 mm/s at 15 Hz and down to 15 mm/s at 4 Hz. Minor dam-
age can occur at twice these values and major damage can
occur to building structures at four times these values.
82.3.10 Durability
For concrete piles, the durability depends on the concrete
quality and the concrete cover to the reinforcement. Healy and
Weltman (1980) note that fine cracks of up to 0.2 mm in width
may occur in high quality piles and these are not generally
regarded as being of concern because they close up under the
dead load from the structure. Larger cracks may occur as a
result of improper handling, pitching or driving. The serious-
ness of excessive cracking depends on the aggressiveness of
the ground into which the pile is being installed and the dura-
bility requirements. For concrete structures, these are covered
in Eurocode 2 Part 1 (BSI, 2004).
Corrosion of steel piles is most likely to occur either in dis-
turbed ground or in a marine environment. Corrosion rates for
steel piling in natural environments are given in Eurocode 3
Part 5 (BSI, 2007a) as shown in Table 82.2. Various methods
are available to combat corrosion and these are described by
Fleming et al. (2009). Guidance is also provided by ArcelorMittal
(2008) in their Piling Handbook.
82.4 Identifying and resolving problems
82.4.1 General guidance
The following sections describe the way in which piling prob-
lems are often identified, how they can be assessed, and the
ways in which they can be resolved. Quality management sys-
tems and the process of identifying piling non-conformance
are described in Chapter 93 Quality assurance. Problems
often arise from the results of pile tests and useful guidance
on pile testing and the interpretation and assessment of tests
is provided in the Handbook on Pile Testing (FPS, 2006) and
by Tomlinson (1994). Poulos (2005) also provides a range of
case studies of piling problems and comments on the particular
issues involved in investigating and analysing them.
82.4.2 Identification
There are a range of tests and records that can be used to iden-
tify potential problems. These include:
(i) Piling records – inconsistencies in ground conditions,
driving records, out-of-position piles, uplift and lateral
displacement, anomalies in concreting or reinforcement
records.
(ii) Integrity tests – acoustic anomalies in integrity traces
indicating the possibility of cracks, changes in section or
inclusions in the pile. Guidance on different types of integ-
rity tests and their interpretation is provided in Chapter
97 Pile integrity testing and by Turner (1997) in CIRIA
Report 144.
(iii) Load tests – failure to meet the specified load/settlement
behaviour, unexpected settlement behaviour indicat-
ing structural failure or low shaft resistance or a soft toe,

Required design working life (years)

Water Zone 5 25 50 75 100

Common fresh water (river, ship, canal, etc.) High attack (water line) 0.15 0.55 0.90 1.15 1.40
Very polluted fresh water (sewage, industrial effluent, etc.) High attack (water line) 0.30 1.30 2.30 3.30 4.30
Sea water in temperate climate High attack (low water and splash zones) 0.55 1.90 3.75 5.60 7.50
Sea water in temperate climate Permanent immersion or in the intertidal zone 0.25 0.90 1.75 2.60 3.50
Notes
1. The highest corrosion rate is usually found in the splash zone or at the low water level in tidal waters. However in most cases, the highest bending stresses occur in the
permanent immersion zone.
2. The values given for 5 and 25 years are based on measurement, the other values are extrapolated.
Table 82.2 Recommended values for the loss of thickness (mm) due to corrosion for piles and sheet piles in fresh water or in sea water
Data taken from BSI (2007a)

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 Construction processes
sometimes identified by using back analysis of load test
results using methods such as those of Chin (1970) and
Fleming (1992).
(iv) Materials tests – concrete cube tests not meeting the speci-
fied strength, failure of weld tests on steel connections.
(v) Inspection of trimmed piles – damaged pile head, weak
concrete, buckled steel section.
(vi) Observations from the resident engineer or inspector staff
detecting non-conformances with the specification that
lead to further investigations that highlight problems.
Piling problems do not always arise from a non-conformance
with the specification and may become apparent from observed
inconsistencies. Sometimes the difficulty is to realise when
there is a significant issue that needs further investigation. For
example, a successful preliminary test on a bored pile in dry
conditions in one part of a site may be found to be unrepresen-
tative of wet conditions that become apparent in other areas.
Another example is of driven piles which may all reach the
required set but some are founded at a much higher level.
Where this is unexpected and could affect the design, further
investigation or testing may be needed.
82.4.3 Diagnosis
Test results should be viewed critically to ensure they are accu-
rate and reliable, and they should be considered along with all
the other information from pile records and knowledge of the
site conditions. Further investigation may be necessary in the
form of further testing or physical investigations before deter-
mining what remedial action, if any, is required. In some cases
the test itself may be limited in what it can reveal.
For example, integrity testing in the form of sonic echo tests
or cross-hole sonic testing relies on the interpretation of acous-
tic waves to identify potential anomalies in piles. Whilst these
tests can indicate acoustic inconsistencies within the pile and
between piles, this should be verified by physical investigation
or load testing and a review of the pile records before deciding
whether the anomalies are structurally significant. Similarly
with load testing, unexpected pile load/settlement behaviour
may be the result of variations in ground conditions or an
inadequately performed test. Further evaluation and testing
may be required to confirm the cause of poor or unexpected
performance.
In some cases the anomalous test results may be the result of
follow-on works where piles have been damaged by trimming
or ground movements due to other works. It is therefore impor-
tant that the testing is timely and carried out during the pil-
ing works or immediately on completion rather than at a later
stage – otherwise the cause of the problem may be difficult to
attribute to a specific contractor. It is advisable that testing is
carried out as an ongoing process during the piling works so
that potential problems can be identified during the work and
remedial action taken whilst the works are in progress.
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82.4.4 Resolving problems
Where tests or records indicate a potential problem with the
piling, it is important to understand the impact of the prob-
lem for the structure. The issue may affect the durability or the
structural performance.
In some cases, the problem may be easily accommodated by
the structure without any remedial action, or with only minor
remedial works. For example, with out-of-position piles, the
pile reinforcement or the pile cap or ground beam arrangement
may be sufficient to accommodate the eccentricity without
any remedial action. Also, a pile load test that just exceeds the
specified settlement limit may not be structurally significant;
the structure may be able to accommodate slightly larger set-
tlements than were originally specified without detriment to
the overall structural performance. In these cases, whilst there
may be a non-compliance with the specification, it is important
not to overreact as it may be easily resolved by further assess-
ment and analysis. It is not in the client’s best interests to con-
duct a major investigation into apparent anomalies which may
have no real significance for the structure.
Some problems may indicate a more fundamental issue
with the piling which may affect the performance, safety and
long-term durability of the structure. This will require a clearly
defined strategy of investigation and assessment. The process
should determine:
■ the structural significance of the problem;
■ whether other piles may be affected;
■ any further testing that is considered necessary;
■ remedial works if required.
The procedures for dealing with non-conformance should be
defined in the contractor’s quality plan. The actual procedure
will depend on the contractual arrangements and whether the
contractor’s workmanship will be verified by an external party
or whether the contractor will self-certify his work. The differ-
ent quality management systems are described in Chapter 93
Quality assurance.
A significant area of misunderstanding can arise from the
process of exploring the anomaly. Tests to verify that a pile can
be safely incorporated into the works are conventionally paid
for by the client (as the pile is ultimately acceptable), while
tests that reveal defects that need remedying are paid for by the
contractor. Payment for consequential costs is often conten-
tious so it is in everyone’s interest that the time for resolution
is minimised.
The important underlying principle is that the lines
of communication and project responsibilities should be
clearly defined so that any non-conformance can be reported
and remedial action proposed, assessed and approved as
quickly as possible. Where this is likely to impact on cost,
program or safety, the client needs to be kept informed of
the solution.
ICE Manual of Geotechnical Engineering © 2012 Institution of Civil Engineers
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 Piling problems

Disclaimer Fleming et al. (2009). Piling Engineering (3rd Edition). Oxford,

The example non-conformances included in this chapter are UK: Taylor & Francis.
for illustrative purposes only and are not associated with, or FPS (1999). Essential Guide to the ICE Specification for Piling and
reflective of the authors or their employers. Embedded Retaining Walls. London: Thomas Telford.
FPS (2006). Handbook on Pile Testing. Federation of Piling
Specialists, March 2006.
82.5 References
FPS (2008). Breaking Down of Piles. Federation of Piling Specialists,
AGS (2006). Guidelines for Good Practice in Site Investigation.
May 2008.
Beckenham, Kent, UK: Association of Geotechnical and
Healy, P. R. and Weltman, A. J. (1980). Survey of Problems
Geoenvironmental Specialists.
Associated With the Installation of Displacement Piles. London:
ArcelorMittal (2008). Piling Handbook (8th Edition). 2008
CIRIA, Report PG8 1980.
Revision.
ICE (2007). Specification for Piling and Embedded Retaining
Biddle, A. R. (1997). Steel Bearing Pile Guide Publication No
Walls. Institution of Civil Engineers. London: Thomas Telford.
P156. Ascot: The Steel Construction Institute.
Poulos, H. G. (2005). Pile behavior – consequences of geological
British Standards Institution (1993). Evaluation and Measurement
and construction imperfections. Journal of Geotechnical and
for Vibration in Buildings – Part 2: Guide to Damage Levels
Environmental Engineering, ASCE, May 2005, 538–563.
from Groundborne Vibration. London: BSI, BS 7385-2:1993.
Thorburn, S. and Thorburn, J.Q. (1977). Review of Piling Problems
British Standards Institution (1998). Welding – Recommendations
Associated with the Construction of Cast-in-Place Concrete
for Welding of Metallic Materials – Part 1: General Guidance
Piles. DOE and CIRIA piling development group report PG2,
for Arc Welding. London: BSI, BS EN 1011–1:1998.
CIRIA 1977.
British Standards Institution (2000a). Execution of Special
Tomlinson, M. J. (1994). Pile Design and Construction Practice
Geotechnical Work – Bored Piling. London: BSI, BS
(4th Edition). London: E&FN Spon.
EN1536:2000.
Turner, M. J. (1997). Integrity Testing in Piling Practice. London:
British Standards Institution (2000b). Specification, Performance,
CIRIA, Report 144.
Production and Conformity. Part 1. London: BSI, BS EN206–1:
White, D., Finlay, T., Bolton, M. and Bearss, G. (2002). Press-
2000.
in piling ground vibration and noise during pile installation.
British Standards Institution (2001). Execution of Special
In Proceedings of International Deep Foundation Congress
Geotechnical Work – Displacement Piles. London: BSI, BS EN
Orlando USA, ASCE Special Publication, 166, 363–371.
12699:2001.
British Standards Institution (2004). Eurocode 2. Part 1-1. Design 82.5.1 Useful websites
of Concrete Structures Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules for
Buildings. London: BSI, BS EN1992–1-1:2004. Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists
British Standards Institution (2007a). Eurocode 3. Part 5. Design of (AGS); www.ags.org.uk
Steel Structures. Piling. London: BSI, BS EN1993–5:2007.
British Standards Institution (2007b). Precast Concrete Products –
Foundation Piles. London: BSI, BS EN 12794:2007.
British Standards Institution (2009a). Code of Practice for Noise
It is recommended this chapter is read in conjunction with
and Vibration Control on Construction and Open Sites – Part 1:
Noise. London: BSI, BS 5228–1:2009. ■ Chapter 96 Technical supervision of site works
British Standards Institution (2009b). Code of Practice for Noise
■ Chapter 97 Pile integrity testing
and Vibration Control on Construction and Open Sites – Part 2:
Vibration. London: BSI, BS 5228–2:2009. ■ Chapter 98 Pile capacity testing
Chin, F. K. (1970). Estimation of the ultimate load of piles from ■ Chapter 101 Close-out reports
tests not carried to failure. In Proceedings of the Second
Southeast Asian Conference on Soil Engineering. Singapore, ■ Section 5 Design of foundations
pp. 83–91. All chapters in this book rely on the guidance in Sections 1
Cox, D. (2009). Breaking Down Piles and the Significance of Context and 2 Fundamental principles. A sound knowledge of
Debonding. London: CIRIA. ground investigation is required for all geotechnical works, as set
Fleming, W. G. K. (1992). A new method for single pile settlement out in Section 4 Site investigation.
prediction and analysis. Géotechnique, 42(3), 411–425.

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